1.
Plan (drawing)
–
Plans are a set of drawings or two-dimensional diagrams used to describe a place or object, or to communicate building or fabrication instructions. Usually plans are drawn or printed on paper, but they can take the form of a digital file and these plans are used in a range of fields from architecture, urban planning, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, industrial engineering to systems engineering. Plans are often for purposes such as architecture, engineering. Their purpose in these disciplines is to accurately and unambiguously capture all the features of a site, building. Plans can also be for presentation or orientation purposes, and as such are less detailed versions of the former. The end goal of plans is either to portray an existing place or object, the term plan may casually be used to refer to a single view, sheet, or drawing in a set of plans. More specifically a plan view is an orthographic projection looking down on the object, the process of producing plans, and the skill of producing them, is often referred to as technical drawing. A working drawing is a type of drawing, which is part of the documentation needed to build an engineering product or architecture. Typically in architecture these could include civil drawings, architectural drawings, structural drawings, mechanical drawings, electrical drawings, in engineering, these drawings show all necessary data to manufacture a given object, such as dimensions and angles. Plans are often prepared in a set, the set includes all the information required for the purpose of the set, and may exclude views or projections which are unnecessary. A set of plans can be on standard office-sized paper or on large sheets and it can be stapled, folded or rolled as required. A set of plans can take the form of a digital file in a proprietary format such as DWG or an exchange file format such as DXF or PDF. Plans are often referred to as blueprints or bluelines, Plans are usually scale drawings, meaning that the plans are drawn at a specific ratio relative to the actual size of the place or object. Various scales may be used for different drawings in a set, for example, a floor plan may be drawn at 1,48 whereas a detailed view may be drawn at 1,24. Site plans are drawn at 1 =20 or 1 =30. Each projection is achieved by assuming a point from which to see the place or object. Site, Site plans, including a key plan, appear before other plans, a project could require a landscape plan, although this can be integrated with the site plan if the drawing remains clear. Specific plans, Floor plans, starting with the lowest floor, further, for example, reflected Ceiling Plans s showing ceiling layouts appear after the floor plans
Plan (drawing)
–
Three view plan of
Latécoère 28 for presentation purpose.
2.
Convention (norm)
–
A convention is a set of agreed, stipulated, or generally accepted standards, norms, social norms, or criteria, often taking the form of a custom. Certain types of rules or customs may become law and regulatory legislation may be introduced to formalize or enforce the convention, in a social context, a convention may retain the character of an unwritten law of custom. A convention is a selection from two or more alternatives, where the rule or alternative is agreed upon among participants. Often the word refers to unwritten customs shared throughout a community, for instance, it is conventional in many societies that strangers being introduced shake hands. The standardization of time is a convention based on the solar cycle or calendar. The extent to which justice is conventional is historically an important debate among philosophers, the nature of conventions has raised long-lasting philosophical discussion. Quine, Davidson, and David Lewis published influential writings on the subject, lewiss account of convention received an extended critique in Margaret Gilberts On Social Facts, where an alternative account is offered. Another view of convention comes from Ruth Millikans Language, A Biological Model, according to David Kalupahana, The Buddha described conventions — whether linguistic, social, political, moral, ethical, or even religious — as arising dependent on specific conditions. According to his paradigm, when conventions are considered absolute realities, they contribute to dogmatism and this does not mean that conventions should be absolutely ignored as unreal and therefore useless. Instead, according to Buddhist thought, a person adopts a middle way without holding conventions to be ultimate or ignoring them when they are fruitful. In sociology a social rule refers to any social convention commonly adhered to in a society and these rules are not written in law or otherwise formalized. In social constructionism there is a focus on social rules. It is argued that these rules are socially constructed, that these rules act upon every member of a society, sociologists representing symbolic interactionism argue that social rules are created through the interaction between the members of a society. The focus on active interaction highlights the fluid, shifting character of social rules and these are specific to the social context, a context that varies through time and place. That means a social rule changes over time within the same society, what was acceptable in the past may no longer be the case. Similarly, rules differ across space, what is acceptable in one society may not be so in another, Social rules reflect what is acceptable or normal behaviour in any situation. Michel Foucaults concept of discourse is closely related to rules as it offers a possible explanation how these rules are shaped. It is the rules that tell people what is normal behaviour for any specific category
Convention (norm)
–
Herringbone stonework which usually indicates 11th century construction
3.
Blueprint
–
A blueprint is a reproduction of a technical drawing, documenting an architecture or an engineering design, using a contact print process on light-sensitive sheets. Introduced in the 19th century, the process allowed rapid and accurate reproduction of documents used in construction, the blue-print process was characterized by light-colored lines on a blue background, a negative of the original. The process was unable to color or shades of grey. Various base materials have been used for blueprints, paper was a common choice, for more durable prints linen was sometimes used, but with time, the linen prints would shrink slightly. To combat this problem, printing on imitation vellum and, later, polyester film was implemented, the process has been largely displaced by the diazo whiteprint process and by large-format xerographic photocopiers, so reproduced drawings are usually called prints or just drawings. The term blueprint is also used formally to refer to any floor plan. In 1861, Alphonse Louis Poitevin, a French chemist, found that ferro-gallate in gum is light sensitive, light turns this to an insoluble permanent blue. A coating of this chemical on a paper or other base may be used to reproduce an image from a translucent document, the ferro-gallate is coated onto a paper from aqueous solution and dried. In darkness, it is stable for up to three days and it is clamped under glass and a light transmitting document in a daylight exposure frame which is similar to a picture frame. The frame is put out into daylight requiring a minute or two under a sun or about ten times this under an overcast sky. Where ultra-violet light is transmitted the coating converts to a blue or black dye. The image can be seen forming, when a strong image is seen the frame is brought indoors and the unconverted coating, under the original image, is washed away. The result is a copy of the image with the clear background area rendered dark blue. The contact printing process has the advantage that no optical system is required. A further advantage is that the document will have the same scale as the original. Since the paper is soaked in liquid during processing, a change of scale can occur. Engineering drawings often are marked to remind users not to rely on the scale of reproductions, other blueprint processes based on photosensitive ferric compounds have been used. The best known is probably a process using ammonium ferric citrate, in this procedure, a distinctly blue compound is formed and the process is also known as cyanotype
Blueprint
–
Modern blueprint of the French galleon
La Belle
Blueprint
–
Architectural drawing, 1902
Blueprint
–
Architectural drawing, Canada, 1936
Blueprint
–
Whiteprint plan copy.
4.
Engineering drawing
–
An engineering drawing, a type of technical drawing, is used to fully and clearly define requirements for engineered items. More than merely the drawing of pictures, it is also a language—a graphical language that communicates ideas, most especially, it communicates all needed information from the engineer, who designed a part, to the workers, who will make it. Engineering drawing and artistic drawing are both types of drawing, and either may be called simply drawing when the context is implicit, Engineering drawing shares some traits with artistic drawing in that both create pictures. But whereas the purpose of drawing is to convey emotion or artistic sensitivity in some way. Engineering drawing uses a set of conventions to convey information very precisely. Engineering drawing is a type of technique which is used to fully and clearly defined requirements for engineered items, Engineering drawing is one of the best ways to communicate one idea easily to other person. Persons employed in the trade of producing engineering drawings were called draftsmen in the past, although these terms are still in use, the non-gender-specific terms draftsperson and drafter are now more common. The various fields share many common conventions of drawing, while also having some field-specific conventions, each of these trades has some details that only specialists will have memorized. An engineering drawing is a document, because it communicates all the needed information about what is wanted to the people who will expend resources turning the idea into a reality. It is thus a part of a contract, the purchase order, thus, if the resulting product is wrong, the worker or manufacturer are protected from liability as long as they have faithfully executed the instructions conveyed by the drawing. If those instructions were wrong, it is the fault of the engineer and this is the biggest reason why the conventions of engineering drawing have evolved over the decades toward a very precise, unambiguous state. Engineering drawings specify requirements of a component or assembly which can be complicated, standards provide rules for their specification and interpretation. In 2011, a new revision of ISO8015 was published containing the Invocation Principle and this states that, Once a portion of the ISO geometric product specification system is invoked in a mechanical engineering product documentation, the entire ISO GPS system is invoked. It also goes on to state that marking a drawing Tolerancing ISO8015 is optional, the implication of this is that any drawing using ISO symbols can only be interpreted to ISO GPS rules. The only way not to invoke the ISO GPS system is to invoke a national or other standard, now in 2015 there is a new standardisation called BS8888, this is now used for all standard and technical drawings. Since there are two widely standardized definitions of size, there is only one real alternative to ISO GPS, i. e. ASME Y14.5. Standardization also aids internationalization, because people from different countries who speak different languages can read the same engineering drawing, to that end, drawings should be as free of notes and abbreviations as possible so that the meaning is conveyed graphically. The manufacturing of a technical drawing however is as difficult as the production of the design it describes
Engineering drawing
–
Technical drawings
5.
Business process
–
A business process or business method is a collection of related, structured activities or tasks that produce a specific service or product for a particular customer or customers. There are three types of processes, Management processes, the processes that govern the operation of a system. Typical management processes include corporate governance and strategic management, operational processes, processes that constitute the core business and create the primary value stream. For example, taking orders from customers, and opening an account in a bank branch, supporting processes, which support the core processes. Examples include Health & Safety, accounting, recruitment, call center, a business process begins with a mission objective and ends with achievement of the business objective. Process-oriented organizations break down the barriers of structural departments and try to avoid functional silos, a complex business process may be decomposed into several sub-processes, which have their own attributes, but also contribute to achieving the goal of the super-process. The analysis of business processes typically includes the mapping of processes and sub-processes down to activity/task level, Business processes are designed to add value for the customer and should not include unnecessary activities. The outcome of a well designed business process is increased effectiveness, Business Processes can be modeled through a large number of methods and techniques. For instance, the Business Process Modeling Notation is a Business Process Modeling technique that can be used for drawing business processes in a workflow. An important early description of processes was that of economist Adam Smith in his famous example of a pin factory. ”Smith also first recognized how the output could be increased through the use of labor division. It is worth noting that Smith did not advocate labor division at any price, the appropriate level of task division was defined through experimental design of the production process. American engineer, Frederick Winslow Taylor greatly influenced and improved the quality of industrial processes in the twentieth century. His Principles of Scientific Management focused on standardization of processes, systematic training and clearly defining the roles of management and employees. In the latter part of the century, management guru Peter Drucker focused much of his work on simplification and decentralization of processes. Davenport defines a process as, ”a structured, measured set of activities designed to produce an output for a particular customer or market. It implies an emphasis on how work is done within an organization. A process is thus a specific ordering of work activities across time and space, with a beginning and an end, and clearly defined inputs and outputs, taking a process approach implies adopting the customer’s point of view. Processes are the structure by which an organization does what is necessary to value for its customers. ”This definition contains certain characteristics a process must possess
Business process
–
Business administration
6.
Circuit diagram
–
A circuit diagram is a graphical representation of an electrical circuit. A pictorial circuit diagram uses simple images of components, while a schematic diagram shows the components, the presentation of the interconnections between circuit components in the schematic diagram does not necessarily correspond to the physical arrangements in the finished device. Unlike a block diagram or layout diagram, a diagram shows the actual electrical connections. A drawing meant to depict the physical arrangement of the wires, circuit diagrams are used for the design, construction, and maintenance of electrical and electronic equipment. In computer science, circuit diagrams are useful when visualizing expressions using Boolean algebra, circuit diagrams are pictures with symbols that have differed from country to country and have changed over time, but are now to a large extent internationally standardized. Simple components often had symbols intended to represent some feature of the construction of the device. These wirewound resistors are now used only in applications, smaller resistors being cast from carbon composition or fabricated as an insulating tube or chip coated with a metal film. The internationally standardized symbol for a resistor is therefore now simplified to an oblong, sometimes with the value in ohms written inside, a less common symbol is simply a series of peaks on one side of the line representing the conductor, rather than back-and-forth as shown here. The linkages between leads were once simple crossings of lines, with the arrival of computerized drafting, the connection of two intersecting wires was shown by a crossing of wires with a dot or blob to indicate a connection. At the same time, the crossover was simplified to be the same crossing, however, there was a danger of confusing the wires that were connected and not connected in this manner, if the dot was drawn too small or accidentally omitted. For crossing wires that are insulated from one another, a small symbol is commonly used to show one wire jumping over the other wire. A common, hybrid style of drawing combines the T-junction crossovers with dot connections, in this manner, a dot that is too small to see or that has accidentally disappeared can still be clearly differentiated from a jump. On a circuit diagram, the symbols for components are labelled with a descriptor or reference designator matching that on the list of parts. For example, C1 is the first capacitor, L1 is the first inductor, Q1 is the first transistor, often the value or type designation of the component is given on the diagram beside the part, but detailed specifications would go on the parts list. Detailed rules for reference designations are provided in the International standard IEC61346, for example, a schematic for a radio receiver might start with the antenna input at the left of the page and end with the loudspeaker at the right. Positive power supply connections for each stage would be shown towards the top of the page, with grounds, negative supplies, schematic drawings intended for maintenance may have the principal signal paths highlighted to assist in understanding the signal flow through the circuit. More complex devices have multi-page schematics and must rely on cross-reference symbols to show the flow of signals between the different sheets of the drawing, detailed rules for the preparation of circuit diagrams, and other document types used in electrotechnology, are provided in the international standard IEC 61082-1. Once the schematic has been made, it is converted into a layout that can be fabricated onto a circuit board
Circuit diagram
–
A rat's nest
Circuit diagram
–
Comparison of pictorial and schematic styles of circuit diagrams
7.
Pattern (sewing)
–
In sewing and fashion design, a pattern is the template from which the parts of a garment are traced onto fabric before being cut out and assembled. Patterns are usually made of paper, and are made of sturdier materials like paperboard or cardboard if they need to be more robust to withstand repeated use. The process of making or cutting patterns is sometimes condensed to the one-word Patternmaking, a sloper pattern or block pattern is a custom-fitted, basic pattern from which patterns for many different styles can be developed. The process of changing the size of a pattern is called grading. Several companies specialize in selling pre-graded patterns directly to consumers who will sew the patterns at home, commercial clothing manufacturers make their own patterns in-house as part of their design and production process, usually employing at least one specialized patternmaker. In bespoke clothing, slopers and patterns must be developed for each client, while for commercial production, a patternmaker typically employs one of two methods to create a pattern. The flat-pattern method is where the pattern is drafted on a flat surface from measurements, using rulers. A pattern maker would use various tools such as a notcher, drill. Usually, flat patterning begins with the creation of a sloper or block pattern, for women, this will usually be a jewel-neck bodice and narrow skirt, and for men an upper sloper and a pants sloper. The final sloper pattern is made of cardboard or paperboard. The flat pattern drafting method is the most commonly used method in menswear, menswear rarely involves draping, there are many pattern making system available, but M. Muller & Sohn is widely used for its accuracy and fit for different body figure. After a paper/fabric pattern is completed, very often pattern-makers digitize their patterns for archiving, the previous standard for digitizing was the digitizing tablet. Nowadays, automatic option such as scanner and cameras systems are available, although a sewer may choose to use a standard size that has been pre-graded on a purchased pattern, they may decide to tailor a pattern to better fit the garment wearer. There are several ways this can be done, creating a sewers muslin, similar to a garment template, is one method of fitting. Muslin material is inexpensive and is easy to work with making quick adjustments by pinning the fabric around the wearer or a dress form. The sewer cuts muslin pieces using the method that they will use for the actual garment. The muslin pieces are then fit together and darts and other adjustments are made and this provides the sewer with measurements to use as a guideline for marking the pattern pieces and cutting the fabric for the finished garment. Pattern grading is the process of shrinking or enlarging a finished pattern to accommodate it to people of different sizes, grading rules determine how patterns increase or decrease to create different sizes
Pattern (sewing)
–
Cutting patterns in a sewing class.
Pattern (sewing)
–
Fitting a
muslin on a
dress form. This dress form is adjustable to match the sewer's measurements, and the muslin has been fit around the form accordingly, by taking it in two inches at the back, a smaller fit than the original pattern.
Pattern (sewing)
–
Marker making by computer.
Pattern (sewing)
–
Home tissue paper sewing pattern
8.
Pottery
–
Pottery is the craft of making ceramic material into pots or potterywares using mud. Major types of potterywares include earthenware, stoneware and porcelain, the place where such wares are made by a potter is also called a pottery. Early Neolithic pottery have found in places such as Jomon Japan. A clay body can be decorated before or after firing, however, prior to shaping processes. Kneading helps to ensure an even moisture content throughout the body, air trapped within the clay body needs to be removed. This is called de-airing and can be accomplished either by a called a vacuum pug or manually by wedging. Wedging can also produce an even moisture content. Once a clay body has been kneaded and de-aired or wedged, after shaping, it is dried and then fired. Clay ware takes on varying physical characteristics during the making of pottery, at sufficient moisture content, bodies at this stage are in their most plastic form. Leather-hard refers to a body that has been dried partially. At this stage the clay object has approximately 15% moisture content, clay bodies at this stage are very firm and only slightly pliable. Trimming and handle attachment often occurs at the leather-hard state, bone-dry refers to clay bodies when they reach a moisture content at or near 0%. It is now ready to be bisque fired, bisque refers to the clay after the object is shaped to the desired form and fired in the kiln for the first time, known as bisque fired or biscuit fired. This firing changes the body in several ways. Mineral components of the body will undergo chemical changes that will change the colour of the clay. Glaze fired is the stage of some pottery making. A glaze may be applied to the form and the object can be decorated in several ways. After this the object is glazed fired, which causes the material to melt
Pottery
–
A potter at work in
Bangalore,
India
Pottery
–
Unfired "green ware" pottery on a traditional drying rack at
Conner Prairie living history museum
Pottery
–
Pottery workshop reconstruction in the Museum of traditional crafts and applied arts,
Troyan,
Bulgaria
Pottery
–
A potter at work in Jaura,
Madhya Pradesh,
India.
9.
Engineering
–
The term Engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium, meaning cleverness and ingeniare, meaning to contrive, devise. Engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as the wedge, lever, wheel, each of these inventions is essentially consistent with the modern definition of engineering. The term engineering is derived from the engineer, which itself dates back to 1390 when an engineer originally referred to a constructor of military engines. In this context, now obsolete, a referred to a military machine. Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, the word engine itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium, meaning innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention. The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep, as one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC. Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains, the Antikythera mechanism, the first known mechanical computer, and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engineering. In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was developed, the first steam engine was built in 1698 by Thomas Savery. The development of this gave rise to the Industrial Revolution in the coming decades. With the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering. The inventions of Thomas Newcomen and the Scottish engineer James Watt gave rise to mechanical engineering. The development of specialized machines and machine tools during the revolution led to the rapid growth of mechanical engineering both in its birthplace Britain and abroad. John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is regarded as the father of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbours and he was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist. Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse where he pioneered the use of hydraulic lime and his lighthouse remained in use until 1877 and was dismantled and partially rebuilt at Plymouth Hoe where it is known as Smeatons Tower. The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of engineer for the first time with a count of 2,000, there were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U. S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U. S. mechanical engineering graduates, in 1890 there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical. There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics established at Cambridge until 1875, the theoretical work of James Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics
Engineering
–
The
steam engine, a major driver in the
Industrial Revolution, underscores the importance of engineering in modern history. This
beam engine is on display in the
Technical University of Madrid.
Engineering
–
Relief map of the
Citadel of Lille, designed in 1668 by
Vauban, the foremost military engineer of his age.
Engineering
–
The Ancient Romans built
aqueducts to bring a steady supply of clean fresh water to cities and towns in the empire.
Engineering
–
The
International Space Station represents a modern engineering challenge from many disciplines.
10.
Management
–
Management is the administration of an organization, whether it be a business, a not-for-profit organization, or government body. The term management may also refer to the people who manage an organization, management is also an academic discipline, a social science whose objective is to study social organization and organizational leadership. Individuals who aim at becoming management researchers or professors may complete the Doctor of Business Administration or the PhD in business administration or management, in larger organizations, there are generally three levels of managers, which are typically organized in a hierarchical, pyramid structure. Senior managers provide direction to the managers who report to them. Middle managers, examples of which would include branch managers, regional managers and section managers, middle managers communicate the strategic goals of senior management to the front-line managers. Lower managers, such as supervisors and front-line team leaders, oversee the work of regular employees, in smaller organizations, the roles of managers have much wider scopes. A manager can perform several roles or even all of the commonly observed in a large organization. There are many smaller organizations than larger ones. Views on the definition and scope of management include, According to Henri Fayol, to manage is to forecast and to plan, to organise, to command, to co-ordinate, fredmund Malik defines it as the transformation of resources into utility. Management included as one of the factors of production - along with machines, materials, peter Drucker saw the basic task of management as twofold, marketing and innovation. Nevertheless, innovation is also linked to marketing, peter Drucker identifies marketing as a key essence for business success, but management and marketing are generally understood as two different branches of business administration knowledge. Management involves identifying the mission, objective, procedures, rules and this implies effective communication, an enterprise environment implies human motivation and implies some sort of successful progress or system outcome. As such, management is not the manipulation of a mechanism, not the herding of animals, management does not need to be seen from enterprise point of view alone, because management is an essential function to improve ones life and relationships. Management is therefore everywhere and it has a range of application. Based on this, management must have humans, communication, plans, measurements, motivational psychological tools, goals, and economic measures may or may not be necessary components for there to be management. At first, one views management functionally, such as measuring quantity, adjusting plans and this applies even in situations where planning does not take place. Critics, however, find this definition useful but far too narrow, one habit of thought regards management as equivalent to business administration and thus excludes management in places outside commerce, as for example in charities and in the public sector. More broadly, every organization must manage its work, people, processes, technology, nonetheless, many people refer to university departments that teach management as business schools
Management
–
Business administration
11.
Software development
–
Software development is the process of computer programming, documenting, testing, and bug fixing involved in creating and maintaining applications and frameworks resulting in a software product. Therefore, software development may include research, new development, prototyping, modification, reuse, re-engineering, maintenance, system software underlies applications and the programming process itself, and is often developed separately. There are many approaches to project management, known as software development life cycle models, methodologies, processes. The waterfall model is a version, contrasted with the more recent innovation of agile software development. A software development process is a framework that is used to structure, plan, a wide variety of such frameworks has evolved over the years, each with its own recognized strengths and weaknesses. One system development methodology is not necessarily suitable for use by all projects, each of the available methodologies is best suited to specific kinds of projects, based on various technical, organizational, project and team considerations. Different approaches to development may carry out these stages in different orders. The level of detail of the produced at each stage of software development may also vary. These stages may also be carried out in turn, or they may be repeated over various cycles or iterations, the more extreme approach usually involves less time spent on planning and documentation, and more time spent on coding and development of automated tests. More “extreme” approaches also promote continuous testing throughout the development lifecycle, there are significant advantages and disadvantages to the various methodologies, and the best approach to solving a problem using software will often depend on the type of problem. If the problem is understood and a solution can be effectively planned out ahead of time. If, on the hand, the problem is unique. The sources of ideas for software products are plenteous, in a marketing evaluation phase, the cost and time assumptions become evaluated. A decision is reached early in the first phase as to whether, based on the detailed information generated by the marketing and development staff. Students of marketing learn marketing and are exposed to finance or engineering. Most of us become specialists in just one area, to complicate matters, few of us meet interdisciplinary people in the workforce, so there are few roles to mimic. Yet, software product planning is critical to the development success and these processes may also cause the role of business development to overlap with software development. Planning is an objective of each and every activity, where we want to discover things that belong to the project, an important task in creating a software program is extracting the requirements or requirements analysis
Software development
–
The
TEAF Matrix of Views and Perspectives.
12.
Graphic design
–
Graphic design is the process of visual communication and problem-solving using one or more of typography, photography and illustration. The field is considered a subset of visual communication and communication design, Graphic designers create and combine symbols, images and text to form visual representations of ideas and messages. They use typography, visual arts and page layout techniques to create visual compositions, common uses of graphic design include corporate design, editorial design, wayfinding or environmental design, advertising, web design, communication design, product packaging and signage. The term graphic design was coined by William Addison Dwiggins in 1922, however, graphic design-like activities span human existence, from the caves of Lascaux, to Romes Trajans Column to the illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages, to the neon lights of Ginza, Tokyo. In Babylon, artisans pressed cuneiform inscriptions into clay bricks or tablets which were used for construction, the bricks gave information such as the name of the reigning monarch, the builder, or some other dignitary. This was the first known road sign announcing the name of the governor of a state or mayor of the city, the Egyptians developed communication by hieroglyphics that used picture symbols dating as far back as 136 B. C. found on the Rosetta Stone. During the Dark Ages, from 500 AD to 1450 AD, monks created elaborate and they share many elements, theories, principles, practices, languages and sometimes the same benefactor or client. In advertising, the objective is the sale of goods. In graphic design, the essence is to order to information, form to ideas, expression. Graphic design in the United States began with Benjamin Franklin who used his newspaper The Pennsylvania Gazette, to master the art of publicity to promote his own books and his invention is still sold today and is known as the Franklin stove. American advertising initially imitated British newspapers and magazines, advertisements were printed in scrambled type and uneven lines that made it difficult to read. Franklin better organized this by adding 14-point type for the first line of the advertisement, although later shortened and centered it, Franklin added illustrations, something that London printers had not attempted. Franklin was the first to utilize logos, which were early symbols that announced such services as opticians by displaying golden spectacles, Franklin taught advertisers that the use of detail was important in marketing their products. Some advertisements ran for 10-20 lines, including color, names, varieties, during the Tang Dynasty wood blocks were cut to print on textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts. A Buddhist scripture printed in 868 is the earliest known printed book, beginning in the 11th century, longer scrolls and books were produced using movable type printing, making books widely available during the Song dynasty. During the 17th-18th century movable type was used for handbills or trade cards which were printed from wood or copper engravings and these documents announced a business and its location. English painter William Hogarth used his skill in engraving was one of the first to design for business trade, in Mainz Germany, in 1448, Johann Gutenberg introduced movable type using a new metal alloy for use in a printing press and opened a new era of commerce. Previously, most advertising was word of mouth, in France and England, for example, criers announced products for sale just as ancient Romans had done
Graphic design
–
A Boeing 747 aircraft with
livery designating it as
Air Force One. The cyan forms, the
US flag,
presidential seal and the
Caslon lettering were all designed at different times, by different designers, for different purposes, and combined by designer
Raymond Loewy in this one single aircraft exterior design.
Graphic design
–
Graphic symbols are often
functionalist and anonymous, as these
pictographs from the US
National Park Service illustrate.
Graphic design
–
Color
Graphic design
–
The
pencil is one of the most basic graphic design tools.
13.
Aesthetic
–
Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that explores the nature of art, beauty, and taste, with the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgements of sentiment. More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as critical reflection on art, in modern English, the term aesthetic can also refer to a set of principles underlying the works of a particular art movement or theory, one speaks, for example, of the Cubist aesthetic. The word aesthetic is derived from the Greek αἰσθητικός, which in turn was derived from αἰσθάνομαι, for some, aesthetics is considered a synonym for the philosophy of art since Hegel, while others insist that there is a significant distinction between these closely related fields. In practice, aesthetic judgement refers to the sensory contemplation or appreciation of an object, philosophical aesthetics has not only to speak about art and to produce judgments about art works, but has also to give a definition of what art is. Art is an entity for philosophy, because art deals with the senses. Hence, there are two different conceptions of art in aesthetics, art as knowledge or art as action, any aesthetic doctrines that guided the production and interpretation of prehistoric art are mostly unknown. Western aesthetics usually refers to Greek philosophers as the earliest source of aesthetic considerations. Plato believed in beauty as a form in which beautiful objects partake and he felt that beautiful objects incorporated proportion, harmony, and unity among their parts. Similarly, in the Metaphysics, Aristotle found that the elements of beauty were order, symmetry. From the late 17th to the early 20th century Western aesthetics underwent a revolution into what is often called modernism. German and British thinkers emphasized beauty as the key component of art and of the aesthetic experience, and saw art as necessarily aiming at absolute beauty. For Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten aesthetics is the science of the experiences, a younger sister of logic. For Immanuel Kant the aesthetic experience of beauty is a judgment of a subjective but similar human truth, however, beauty cannot be reduced to any more basic set of features. For Friedrich Schiller aesthetic appreciation of beauty is the most perfect reconciliation of the sensual and rational parts of human nature, for Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, the philosophy of art is the organon of philosophy concerning the relation between man and nature. So aesthetics began now to be the name for the philosophy of art, Friedrich von Schlegel, August Wilhelm Schlegel, Friedrich Schleiermacher and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel also gave lectures on aesthetics as philosophy of art after 1800. For Hegel, all culture is a matter of absolute spirit coming to be manifest to itself, stage by stage, Art is the first stage in which the absolute spirit is manifest immediately to sense-perception, and is thus an objective rather than subjective revelation of beauty. It is thus for Schopenhauer one way to fight the suffering, the British were largely divided into intuitionist and analytic camps
Aesthetic
–
Bronze sculpture, thought to be either
Poseidon or
Zeus,
National Archaeological Museum of Athens
Aesthetic
–
Plato –
Kant –
Nietzsche
Aesthetic
–
Cubist painting by
Georges Braque, Violin and Candlestick (1910)
Aesthetic
–
William Hogarth, self-portrait, 1745
14.
Functionalism (architecture)
–
In architecture, functionalism is the principle that architects should design a building based on the purpose of that building. This statement is less self-evident than it first appears, and is a matter of confusion and controversy within the profession, Functionalism had the strongest influence in Germany, Czechoslovakia, the USSR and the Netherlands. The place of functionalism in building can be traced back to the Vitruvian triad, Functionalist views were typical of some gothic revival architects. The implication is that if the functional aspects are satisfied, architectural beauty would naturally and necessarily follow, sullivans credo is often viewed as being ironic in light of his extensive use of intricate ornament, since a common belief among functionalist architects is that ornament serves no function. The credo also does not address whose function he means, nevertheless, form follows function expresses a significant and enduring idea. Sullivans protégé Frank Lloyd Wright is also cited as an exemplar of functional design, in the mid-1930s, functionalism began to be discussed as an aesthetic approach rather than a matter of design integrity. The idea of functionalism was conflated with lack of ornamentation, which is a different matter, for 70 years the preeminent and influential American architect Philip Johnson held that the profession has no functional responsibility whatsoever, and this is one of the many views today. Johnson said, Where form comes from I don’t know, the position of postmodern architect Peter Eisenman is based on a user-hostile theoretical basis and even more extreme, I dont do function. Popular notions of modern architecture are influenced by the work of the Franco-Swiss architect Le Corbusier. Both were functionalists at least to the extent that their buildings were radical simplifications of previous styles, Functionalism was a dominant architectonic style in former Czechoslovakia in the period of 1928-1970. It was a result of fascination first by industrial development and later by an effort to create a new man and its program was formulated by the Club of architects in Prague in 1924. In 1930s and then in 1960s and 1970s the position of functionalism was dominant, the term Danish Functionalism is sometimes used to describe the Danish branch of functionalistic architecture which had its heyday in the 1960s. A fine example of the Danish Functionalist style is Aarhus University designed by the architect C. F. Møller, Danish architects such as Kaare Klint and Arne Jacobsen extended their approach to the furniture now known as Danish modern. Zlín is a city in Czech republic which was in 1930s completely reconstructed on principles of functionalism, in that time the city was a headquarters of Bata Shoes company and Tomáš Baťa initiated a complex reconstruction of the city which was inspired by functionalism and the Garden city movement. Zlíns distinctive architecture was guided by principles that were observed during its whole inter-war development. Its central theme was the derivation of all elements from the factory buildings. The central position of the production in the life of all Zlín inhabitants was to be highlighted. Hence the same building materials were used for the construction of all public edifices, the common structural element of Zlín architecture is a square bay of 20x20 feet
Functionalism (architecture)
–
The tower of the
Helsinki Olympic Stadium (Y. Lindegren & T. Jäntti, built in 1934-38)
Functionalism (architecture)
–
Obchodný a obytný dom Luxor (Residential and Commercial House Luxor),1937, in
Bratislava (Slovakia)
Functionalism (architecture)
–
Auditorium, Aarhus University.
Functionalism (architecture)
–
Zlín in Czech republic.
15.
Research
–
It is used to establish or confirm facts, reaffirm the results of previous work, solve new or existing problems, support theorems, or develop new theories. A research project may also be an expansion on past work in the field, to test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole. The primary purposes of research are documentation, discovery, interpretation, or the research and development of methods. Approaches to research depend on epistemologies, which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences, there are several forms of research, scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, marketing, practitioner research, life, technological, etc. The earliest recorded use of the term was in 1577, Research has been defined in a number of different ways. Another definition of research is given by John W. Creswell and it consists of three steps, pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the question. Original research is research that is not exclusively based on a summary and this material is of a primary source character. The purpose of the research is to produce new knowledge. Original research can take a number of forms, depending on the discipline it pertains to, in analytical work, there are typically some new mathematical results produced, or a new way of approaching an existing problem. The degree of originality of the research is among major criteria for articles to be published in academic journals, graduate students are commonly required to perform original research as part of a dissertation. Scientific research is a way of gathering data and harnessing curiosity. This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature, scientific research is funded by public authorities, by charitable organizations and by private groups, including many companies. Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications according to their academic, Research in the humanities involves different methods such as for example hermeneutics and semiotics. Humanities scholars usually do not search for the correct answer to a question. Context is always important, and context can be social, historical, political, cultural, an example of research in the humanities is historical research, which is embodied in historical method. Historians use primary sources and other evidence to systematically investigate a topic, other studies aim to merely examine the occurrence of behaviours in societies and communities, without particularly looking for reasons or motivations to explain these. These studies may be qualitative or quantitative, and can use a variety of approaches, Artistic research, also seen as practice-based research, can take form when creative works are considered both the research and the object of research itself. It is the body of thought which offers an alternative to purely scientific methods in research in its search for knowledge
Research
–
Basrelief sculpture "Research holding the torch of knowledge" (1896) by
Olin Levi Warner. Library of Congress, Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C.
Research
–
Aristotle, 384 BC – 322 BC, - one of the early figures in the development of the
scientific method.
Research
–
Primary scientific research being carried out at the
Microscopy Laboratory of the
Idaho National Laboratory.
Research
–
Scientific research equipment at
MIT.
16.
Thought
–
Thought refers to ideas or arrangements of ideas that are the result of the process of thinking. Though thinking is an activity considered essential to humanity, there is no consensus as to how we define or understand it. Thinking allows humans to sense of, interpret, represent or model the world they experience. It is therefore helpful to an organism with needs, objectives, the word thought comes from Old English þoht, or geþoht, from stem of þencan to conceive of in the mind, consider. Definitions of thought may also be derived directly or indirectly from theories of thought, the notion of the fundamental role of non-cognitive understanding in rendering possible thematic consciousness informed the discussion surrounding Artificial Intelligence during the 1970s and 1980s. Phenomenology, however, is not the approach to thinking in modern Western philosophy. The mind-body problem concerns the explanation of the relationship exists between minds, or mental processes, and bodily states or processes. The main aim of working in this area is to determine the nature of the mind and mental states/processes. Someones desire for a slice of pizza, for example, will tend to cause that person to move his or her body in a specific manner and in a specific direction to obtain what he or she wants. The question, then, is how it can be possible for conscious experiences to arise out of a lump of gray matter endowed with nothing but electrochemical properties. A related problem is to explain how propositional attitudes can cause that individuals neurons to fire. These comprise some of the puzzles that have confronted epistemologists and philosophers of mind from at least the time of René Descartes, the above reflects a classical, functional description of how we work as cognitive, thinking systems. Therefore, functional analysis of the mind alone will always leave us with the problem which cannot be solved. A neuron is a cell in the nervous system that processes. Neurons are the components of the brain, the vertebrate spinal cord, the invertebrate ventral nerve cord. Motor neurons receive signals from the brain and spinal cord and cause muscle contractions, interneurons connect neurons to other neurons within the brain and spinal cord. Neurons respond to stimuli, and communicate the presence of stimuli to the nervous system. Neurons do not go through mitosis, and usually cannot be replaced after being destroyed, psychologists have concentrated on thinking as an intellectual exertion aimed at finding an answer to a question or the solution of a practical problem
Thought
–
Girl with a Book by
José Ferraz de Almeida Júnior
Thought
–
Huike Thinking, a portrait of the
Chán patriarch Dazu Huike attributed to the 10th-century painter Shi Ke
Thought
–
The Thinker by
Rodin (1840–1917), in the garden of the
Musée Rodin
Thought
–
Man thinking on a train journey.
17.
Physical model
–
Physical model is a smaller or larger physical copy of an object. The object being modelled may be small or large, the geometry of the model and the object it represents are often similar in the sense that one is a rescaling of the other, in such cases the scale is an important characteristic. However, in cases the similarity is only approximate or even intentionally distorted. Sometimes the distortion is systematic with e. g. a fixed scale horizontally, physical models allow visualization, from examining the model, of information about the thing the model represents. A model can be an object such as an architectural model of a building. Uses of a model include visualization of internal relationships within the structure or external relationships of the structure to the environment. Other uses of models in this sense are as toys, instrumented physical models are the most effective way of investigating fluid flows such as around hydraulic structures. These models are scaled in terms of geometry and important forces, for example using Froude number or Reynolds number scaling. A physical model of something large is usually smaller, and of something very small is larger, a physical model of something that can move, like a vehicle or machine, may be completely static, or have parts that can be moved manually, or be powered. A physical model may show inner parts that are not visible. The purpose of a model on a smaller scale may be to have a better overview, for testing purposes. A physical model of an animal shows the physical composition without it walking or flying away, and without danger. A soft model of an animal is popular among children and some adults as cuddly toy. some models can be used in different ways as of like prototypes for cars. A model of a person may e. g. be a doll, a statue, and in fiction a robotic humanoid, e. g. the mechas in the movie A. I. A model is a 3D alternative for a 2D representation such as a drawing or photograph, or in the case of a globe, scale model Mathematical model Model organism Model nation Metamodeling Model airplane Model car Model railway Model rocket Model house
Physical model
–
Model of a burning house at
Bekonscot, Beaconsfield, UK.
Physical model
–
A scale model of the
Singapore City Centre.
Physical model
–
Model of a war scene — Australian War Memorial, Canberra.
Physical model
–
Part of the one-ninth scale model of
Bourton-on-the-Water at Bourton-on-the-Water,
Gloucestershire,
England
18.
Clothing
–
Clothing is fiber and textile material worn on the body. The wearing of clothing is mostly restricted to human beings and is a feature of all human societies. The amount and type of clothing worn depends on type, social. Some clothing types can be gender-specific, physically, clothing serves many purposes, it can serve as protection from the elements, and can enhance safety during hazardous activities such as hiking and cooking. It protects the wearer from rough surfaces, rash-causing plants, insect bites, splinters, thorns, Clothes can insulate against cold or hot conditions. Further, they can provide a barrier, keeping infectious. Clothing also provides protection from ultraviolet radiation, there is no easy way to determine when clothing was first developed, but some information has been inferred by studying lice. The body louse specifically lives in clothing, and diverge from head lice about 170 millennia ago, another theory is that modern humans are the only survivors of several species of primates who may have worn clothes and that clothing may have been used as long ago as 650 millennia. Other louse-based estimates put the introduction of clothing at around 42, the most obvious function of clothing is to improve the comfort of the wearer, by protecting the wearer from the elements. In hot climates, clothing provides protection from sunburn or wind damage, shelter usually reduces the functional need for clothing. For example, coats, hats, gloves, and other layers are normally removed when entering a warm home. Similarly, clothing has seasonal and regional aspects, so that thinner materials, Clothing performs a range of social and cultural functions, such as individual, occupational and gender differentiation, and social status. In many societies, norms about clothing reflect standards of modesty, religion, gender, Clothing may also function as a form of adornment and an expression of personal taste or style. Clothing can and has in history been made from a wide variety of materials. Materials have ranged from leather and furs, to materials, to elaborate and exotic natural. Not all body coverings are regarded as clothing, Clothing protects against many things that might injure the uncovered human body. Clothes protect people from the elements, including rain, snow, wind, however, clothing that is too sheer, thin, small, tight, etc. offers less protection. Clothes also reduce risk during activities such as work or sport, some clothing protects from specific environmental hazards, such as insects, noxious chemicals, weather, weapons, and contact with abrasive substances
Clothing
–
Clothing in history, showing (from top) Egyptians, Ancient Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Franks, and 13th through 15th century Europeans.
Clothing
–
A
baby wearing many items of
winter clothing:
headband,
cap, fur-lined
coat,
shawl and
sweater
Clothing
–
Former 3rd Duke of Fife wearing a traditional
Scottish kilt. (1984)
Clothing
–
Former
US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice and
Turkish President Abdullah Gül both wearing Western-style
business suits.
19.
Graphical user interface
–
GUIs were introduced in reaction to the perceived steep learning curve of command-line interfaces, which require commands to be typed on a computer keyboard. The actions in a GUI are usually performed through direct manipulation of the graphical elements, beyond computers, GUIs are used in many handheld mobile devices such as MP3 players, portable media players, gaming devices, smartphones and smaller household, office and industrial controls. Designing the visual composition and temporal behavior of a GUI is an important part of application programming in the area of human–computer interaction. Its goal is to enhance the efficiency and ease of use for the logical design of a stored program. Methods of user-centered design are used to ensure that the language introduced in the design is well-tailored to the tasks. The visible graphical interface features of an application are sometimes referred to as chrome or GUI, typically, users interact with information by manipulating visual widgets that allow for interactions appropriate to the kind of data they hold. The widgets of an interface are selected to support the actions necessary to achieve the goals of users. A model–view–controller allows a structure in which the interface is independent from and indirectly linked to application functions. This allows users to select or design a different skin at will, good user interface design relates to users more, and to system architecture less. Large widgets, such as windows, usually provide a frame or container for the main presentation content such as a web page, smaller ones usually act as a user-input tool. A GUI may be designed for the requirements of a market as application-specific graphical user interfaces. By the 1990s, cell phones and handheld game systems also employed application specific touchscreen GUIs, newer automobiles use GUIs in their navigation systems and multimedia centers, or navigation multimedia center combinations. Sample graphical desktop environments A GUI uses a combination of technologies and devices to provide a platform that users can interact with, a series of elements conforming a visual language have evolved to represent information stored in computers. This makes it easier for people with few computer skills to work with, the most common combination of such elements in GUIs is the windows, icons, menus, pointer paradigm, especially in personal computers. The WIMP style of interaction uses a virtual device to represent the position of a pointing device, most often a mouse. Available commands are compiled together in menus, and actions are performed making gestures with the pointing device, a window manager facilitates the interactions between windows, applications, and the windowing system. The windowing system handles hardware devices such as pointing devices, graphics hardware, window managers and other software combine to simulate the desktop environment with varying degrees of realism. Smaller mobile devices such as personal assistants and smartphones typically use the WIMP elements with different unifying metaphors, due to constraints in space
Graphical user interface
–
Sugar
Graphical user interface
–
A Unix-based
X Window System desktop
Graphical user interface
–
The
Xerox Alto was the first device to use a graphical user interface.
Graphical user interface
–
The Xerox Star 8010 workstation introduced the first commercial GUI.
20.
Skyscraper
–
A skyscraper is a tall, continuously habitable building having multiple floors. When the term was used in the 1880s it described a building of 10 to 20 floors. Mostly designed for office, commercial and residential uses, a skyscraper can also be called a high-rise, for buildings above a height of 300 m, the term supertall can be used, while skyscrapers reaching beyond 600 m are classified as megatall. One common feature of skyscrapers is having a steel framework that supports curtain walls and these curtain walls either bear on the framework below or are suspended from the framework above, rather than resting on load-bearing walls of conventional construction. Some early skyscrapers have a frame that enables the construction of load-bearing walls taller than of those made of reinforced concrete. Modern skyscrapers walls are not load-bearing, and most skyscrapers are characterized by surface areas of windows made possible by steel frames. However, skyscrapers can have curtain walls that mimic conventional walls with a surface area of windows. Modern skyscrapers often have a structure, and are designed to act like a hollow cylinder to resist wind, seismic. To appear more slender, allow less wind exposure, and transmit more daylight to the ground, many skyscrapers have a design with setbacks, a relatively big building may be considered a skyscraper if it protrudes well above its built environment and changes the overall skyline. The maximum height of structures has progressed historically with building methods and technologies, the Burj Khalifa is currently the tallest building in the world. High-rise buildings are considered shorter than skyscrapers, the first steel-frame skyscraper was the Home Insurance Building in Chicago, Illinois in 1885. Even the scholars making the argument find it to be purely academic and this definition was based on the steel skeleton—as opposed to constructions of load-bearing masonry, which passed their practical limit in 1891 with Chicagos Monadnock Building. What is the characteristic of the tall office building. The force and power of altitude must be in it, the glory and it must be every inch a proud and soaring thing, rising in sheer exaltation that from bottom to top it is a unit without a single dissenting line. Some structural engineers define a highrise as any vertical construction for which wind is a significant load factor than earthquake or weight. Note that this criterion fits not only high-rises but some other tall structures, the word skyscraper often carries a connotation of pride and achievement. A loose convention of some in the United States and Europe draws the limit of a skyscraper at 150 m or 490 ft. The tallest building in ancient times was the 146 m Great Pyramid of Giza in ancient Egypt and it was not surpassed in height for thousands of years, the 14th century AD Lincoln Cathedral being conjectured by many to have exceeded it
Skyscraper
–
The
Burj Khalifa, in
Dubai (
United Arab Emirates), has been the
tallest skyscraper in the world since 2009, with a height of 829.8 m.
Skyscraper
–
The 16th-century city of
Shibam consisted entirely of over 500 high-rise tower houses.
Skyscraper
–
The
Two Towers of Bologna in the 12th century reached 97.2 m (319 ft) in height.
Skyscraper
–
Oriel Chambers, Liverpool. The world's first glass curtain walled building. The stone
mullions are decorative.
21.
Corporate identity
–
A corporate identity or corporate image is the manner which a corporation, firm or business presents themselves to the public, such as customers and investors as well as employees. It is a task of the corporate communications department to maintain and build this identity to accord with. It is typically visually manifested by way of branding and the use of trademarks, but also includes things like product design, advertising, public relations and the like. In general, this amounts to a title, logo. These guidelines govern how the identity is applied and would include approved colour palettes, typefaces, page layouts, Corporate identity is the set of multi-sensory elements that marketers employ to communicate a visual statement about the brand to consumers. Corporate Identity is either weak or strong, to understand this concept, consonance, in the context of marketing, is a unified message offered to consumers from all fronts of the organisation. In the context of corporate identity, consonance is the alignment of all touch points, for example, Apple has strong brand consonance because at every point at which the consumer interacts with the brand, a consistent message is conveyed. This is seen in Apple TV advertisements, the Apple Store design, the presentation of customer facing Apple employees. Strong brand consonance is imperative to achieving strong corporate identity, strong consonance, and in turn, strong corporate identity can be achieved through the implementation and integration of integrated marketing communications. IMC is a collective of concepts and communications processes that seek to establish clarity, to appreciate this idea with heavier mental weight it is important to regard the different levels of IMC integration. These sources include personal sales, advertising, sales promotion, direct marketing, public relations, packaging, the stake holders concerned at this stage are consumers, local communities, media and interest groups. At the second stage of IMC integration Duncan and Moriarty establish that level one integration departments still have decision making power but are now guided by marketing level message sources and it should also be noted that it is at this stage of integration that consumers interact with the organisation. The stake holders at this level of IMC integration are employees, investors, financial community, government, at the final stages of IMC integration, IMC decisions are made not only by corporate level departments but also by departments classed in stages one and two. It is the inclusion of all organisational departments by which a horizontal, by unifying all fronts of the marketing firm, communications are synchronised to achieve consistency, consonance and ultimately strong corporate identity. It includes shared perceptions of reality, ways-to-do-things, etc. in todays highly competitive market, brands need to have a clear differentiation or reason for being. What they represent needs to stand apart from others in order to be noticed, make an impression, brands need to connect to what people care about out in the world. To build demand, they need to understand and fulfil the needs, to assure credibility with their audiences, brands must be coherent in what they say and do. All the messages, all the communications, all the brand experiences
Corporate identity
–
Corporate Brand Attributes example — Brand Signature: Brand Mark (
trademark), Brand
Logotype,
Brandline (or Brand Slogan) and Supergraphic.
22.
Object (philosophy)
–
An object is a technical term in modern philosophy often used in contrast to the term subject. A subject is an observer and an object is a thing observed, metaphysical frameworks also differ in whether they consider objects exist independently of their properties and, if so, in what way. The pragmatist Charles S. Peirce defines the notion of an object as anything that we can think or talk about. In a general sense it is any entity, the pyramids, Alpha Centauri, the number seven, in a strict sense it refers to any definite being. Objecthood is the state of being an object, one approach to defining it is in terms of objects properties and relations. Descriptions of all bodies, minds, and persons must be in terms of their properties, the philosophical question of the nature of objecthood concerns how objects are related to their properties and relations. For example, it seems that the way to describe an apple is by describing its properties. Its properties may include its redness, its size and its composition, while its relations may include on the table, in the room, the notion of an object must address two problems, the change problems and the problems of substancess. Two leading theories about objecthood are substance theory, wherein substances are distinct from their properties, an attribute of an object is called a property if it can be experienced. Objects manifest themselves through their properties and these manifestations seem to change in a regular and unified way, suggesting that something underlies the properties. The change problem asks what that thing is. According to substance theory, the answer is a substance, that which stands under the change, because substances are only experienced through their properties a substance itself is never directly experienced. The problem of substance asks on what basis can one conclude the existence of a substance that cannot be seen or scientifically verified, according to bundle theory, the answer is, none, thus an object is merely its properties. Some philosophies include theories of bodies and minds. So the problem of substance arises in both the physical and the mental realms, by uncovering this paradox he then provides a solution that lies at the very root of Buddhist praxis. He proposes that all objects are dependent upon designation, and therefore any discussion regarding the nature of objects can only be made in light of context, the validity of objects can only be established within those conventions that assert them. In English the word object is derived from the Latin objectus with the meaning to throw, or put before or against, from ob- and jacere, as such it is a root for several important words used to derive meaning, such as objectify, objective, and objectivism. Bertrand Russell updated the terminology with one more term, the fact
Object (philosophy)
–
Plato –
Kant –
Nietzsche
23.
Organizational communication
–
Organizational communication is a subfield of the larger discipline of communication studies. Organizational communication, as a field, is the consideration, analysis and its main function is to inform, persuade and promote goodwill. The flow of communication could be formal or informal. Communication flowing through formal channels are downward, horizontal and upward whereas communication through informal channels are generally termed as grapevine, the field traces its lineage through business information, business communication, and early mass communication studies published in the 1930s through the 1950s. Until then, organizational communication as a discipline consisted of a few professors within speech departments who had a particular interest in speaking and writing in business settings, the current field is well established with its own theories and empirical concerns distinct from other fields. And also Business communication pertains to the provided for the customer satisfaction. Several seminal publications stand out as works broadening the scope and recognizing the importance of communication in the organizing process, nobel Laureate Herbert A. Simon wrote in 1947 about organization communications systems, saying communication is absolutely essential to organizations. W. Charles Redding played a prominent role in the establishment of communication as a discipline. In the 1950s, organizational communication focused largely on the role of communication in improving organizational life, in the 1980s, the field turned away from a business-oriented approach to communication and became concerned more with the constitutive role of communication in organizing. In the 1990s, critical theory influence on the field was felt as organizational communication scholars focused more on communications possibilities to oppress, some of the main assumptions underlying much of the early organizational communication research were, Humans act rationally. Irrational people rationalize how they rationalize their communication measures whether or not it is rational. Formal logic and empirically verifiable data ought to be the foundation upon which any theory should rest, distortion, represented as any differences between the original and the received messages, can and ought to be identified and reduced or eliminated. Organizations are mechanical things, in which the parts are interchangeable, what works in one organization will work in another similar organization. Individual differences can be minimized or even eliminated with careful management techniques, Organizations function as a container within which communication takes place. Any differences in form or function of communication between that occurring in an organization and in another setting can be identified and studied as factors affecting the communicative activity, Herbert A. Simon introduced the concept of bounded rationality which challenged assumptions about the perfect rationality of communication participants. In the early 1990s Peter Senge developed new theories on Organizational Communication and these theories were learning organization and systems thinking. These have been received and are now a mainstay in current beliefs toward organizational communications. Networks are another aspect of direction and flow of communication, bavelas has shown that communication patterns, or networks, influence groups in several important ways
Organizational communication
–
Topics and terminology
24.
Designer
–
A designer is a person who designs. More formally, a designer is an agent that specifies the properties of a design object. In practice, anyone who creates tangible or intangible objects, products, processes, laws, games, graphics, services, classically, the main area of design was only architecture, which were understood as the major arts. The design of clothing, furniture, and other artifacts were left mostly to tradition or artisans specializing in hand making them. The classical areas are now subdivided into smaller and more specialized domains of design according to the designed or perhaps its means of production. When designers speak of graphic design they speak of it in terms of simplifying complexity so users do not feel overwhelmed when faced with complex systems, more information can lead to a better, simpler solution to whatever problem the designer is trying to solve. Using research methodology to solve problems is one of the most important aspects of design, it enables the designer to properly assess the clients and audience needs. Part of a job is to get to know the audience they intend on canvassing. The methods of teaching or the program and theories followed vary according to schools, for more complex products, the team will also be composed of professionals from other areas like engineers, advertising specialists, and others as required. Different types of designers include, Architect Design Design engineer Design firm Design thinking Visual arts
Designer
–
Designer
cuckoo clock by Pascal Tarabay.
25.
Herb Simon
–
Simon received many top-level honors in life, including the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1978 and the Turing Award in 1975. He also received degrees from various universities, such as from Harvard University. As of 2016, Simon was the most cited person in Artificial Intelligence, with almost a thousand highly cited publications, he was one of the most influential social scientists of the twentieth century. Herbert Alexander Simon was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin on June 15,1916 and his father, Arthur Simon, was an electrical engineer who had come to the United States from Germany in 1903 after earning his engineering degree from the Technische Hochschule of Darmstadt. An inventor who was granted several patents, his father also was an independent patent attorney. His mother, Edna Marguerite Merkel, was an accomplished pianist whose ancestors had come from Prague and his European ancestors had been piano makers, goldsmiths, and vintners. Simons father was Jewish and his mother came from a family with Jewish, Lutheran, Simon was educated as a child in the public school system in Milwaukee where he developed an interest in science. He found schoolwork to be interesting and easy, through his uncle’s books on economics and psychology, Simon discovered the social sciences. Among his earliest influences, Simon has cited Richard Ely’s economics textbook, Norman Angell’s The Great Illusion, at that time, Simon argued from conviction, rather than cussedness in favor of Georges controversial single tax on land rents. In 1933, Simon entered the University of Chicago, and following those early influences, he studied the social sciences and he was interested in biology, but chose not to study it because of his color-blindness and awkwardness in the laboratory. He chose instead to focus on science and economics. His most important mentor at the University was Henry Schultz who was an econometrician, eventually his studies led him to the field of organizational decision-making, which would become the subject of his doctoral dissertation. After graduating with his degree, Simon obtained a research assistantship in municipal administration which turned into a directorship at the University of California. From 1942 to 1949, Simon was a professor of political science, there, he began participating in the seminars held by the staff of the Cowles Commission who at that time included Trygve Haavelmo, Jacob Marschak, and Tjalling Koopmans. He thus began a more in-depth study of economics in the area of institutionalism, Marschak brought Simon in to assist in the study he was currently undertaking with Sam Schurr of the “prospective economic effects of atomic energy”. From 1949 to 2001, Simon was a faculty at Carnegie Mellon, in 1949, Simon became a professor of administration and chairman of the Department of Industrial Management at Carnegie Tech. Simon later also taught psychology and computer science in the same university, Simon married Dorothea Pye in 1938. Their marriage lasted 63 years until his death from a cancerous tumor, in January 2001, Simon underwent surgery at UPMC Presbyterian to remove a cancerous tumor in his abdomen
Herb Simon
–
Herbert A. Simon
Herb Simon
–
Academics
26.
Optimization (mathematics)
–
In mathematics, computer science and operations research, mathematical optimization, also spelled mathematical optimisation, is the selection of a best element from some set of available alternatives. The generalization of optimization theory and techniques to other formulations comprises an area of applied mathematics. Such a formulation is called a problem or a mathematical programming problem. Many real-world and theoretical problems may be modeled in this general framework, typically, A is some subset of the Euclidean space Rn, often specified by a set of constraints, equalities or inequalities that the members of A have to satisfy. The domain A of f is called the space or the choice set. The function f is called, variously, a function, a loss function or cost function, a utility function or fitness function, or, in certain fields. A feasible solution that minimizes the objective function is called an optimal solution, in mathematics, conventional optimization problems are usually stated in terms of minimization. Generally, unless both the function and the feasible region are convex in a minimization problem, there may be several local minima. While a local minimum is at least as good as any nearby points, a global minimum is at least as good as every feasible point. In a convex problem, if there is a minimum that is interior, it is also the global minimum. Optimization problems are often expressed with special notation, consider the following notation, min x ∈ R This denotes the minimum value of the objective function x 2 +1, when choosing x from the set of real numbers R. The minimum value in case is 1, occurring at x =0. Similarly, the notation max x ∈ R2 x asks for the value of the objective function 2x. In this case, there is no such maximum as the function is unbounded. This represents the value of the argument x in the interval, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. xxviii+489. (2008 Second ed. in French, Programmation mathématique, Théorie et algorithmes, Editions Tec & Doc, Paris,2008. Nemhauser, G. L. Rinnooy Kan, A. H. G. Todd, handbooks in Operations Research and Management Science. Amsterdam, North-Holland Publishing Co. pp. xiv+709, J. E. Dennis, Jr. and Robert B
Optimization (mathematics)
–
Graph of a
paraboloid given by f(x, y) = −(x ² + y ²) + 4. The global
maximum at (0, 0, 4) is indicated by a red dot.
27.
Waterfall model
–
Because a time when no formal software development methodologies existed, this hardware-oriented model was simply adapted for software development. This presentation was about the development of software for SAGE, in 1983 the paper was republished with a foreword by Benington pointing out that the process was not in fact performed in a strict top-down fashion, but depended on a prototype. The first formal description of the model is often cited as a 1970 article by Winston W. Royce. The earliest use of the waterfall may have been in a 1976 paper by Bell. Various modified waterfall models, however, can include slight or major variations on this process and these variations included returning to the previous cycle after flaws were found downstream, or returning all the way to the design phase if downstream phases deemed insufficient. Time spent early in the production cycle can reduce costs at later stages. For example, a found in the early stages is cheaper to fix than the same bug found later on in the process. The actual project organisation needs to be highly structured, most medium and large projects will include a detailed set of procedures and controls, which regulate every process on the project. A further argument for the model is that it places emphasis on documentation as well as source code. In less thoroughly designed and documented methodologies, knowledge is lost if team members leave before the project is completed, if a fully working design document is present, new team members or even entirely new teams should be able to familiarise themselves by reading the documents. It is perhaps for this reason that the model is used as a beginning example of a development model in many software engineering texts. It is argued that the model can be suited to projects where requirements and scope are fixed, the product itself is firm and stable. Clients may not know exactly what their requirements are before they see working software and so change their requirements, leading to redesign, redevelopment, and retesting, and increased costs. In response to the problems with the pure waterfall model, modified waterfall models were introduced, such as Sashimi, Waterfall with Subprojects. Rational Unified Process phases acknowledge the programmatic need for milestones, for keeping a project on track, RUP Phases are often referred to as waterfall-like
Waterfall model
–
The unmodified "waterfall model". Progress flows from the top to the bottom, like a cascading waterfall.
28.
Systems development life cycle
–
The systems development life-cycle concept applies to a range of hardware and software configurations, as a system can be composed of hardware only, software only, or a combination of both. Computer systems are complex and often link multiple traditional systems potentially supplied by different software vendors, SDLC can be described along a spectrum of agile to iterative to sequential. Agile methodologies, such as XP and Scrum, focus on processes which allow for rapid changes along the development cycle. Iterative methodologies, such as Rational Unified Process and dynamic systems development method, focus on limited project scope, sequential or big-design-up-front models, such as waterfall, focus on complete and correct planning to guide large projects and risks to successful and predictable results. Other models, such as development, tend to focus on a form of development that is guided by project scope. In project management a project can be defined both with a life cycle and an SDLC, during which slightly different activities occur. According to Taylor, the life cycle encompasses all the activities of the project. SDLC is used during the development of an IT project, it describes the different stages involved in the project from the drawing board, through the completion of the project. The product life cycle describes the process for building systems in a very deliberate, structured and methodical way. Information systems activities revolved around heavy data processing and number crunching routines, the system development life cycle framework provides a sequence of activities for system designers and developers to follow. It consists of a set of steps or phases in which phase of the SDLC uses the results of the previous one. The SDLC adheres to important phases that are essential for developers, such as planning, analysis, design, and implementation and it includes evaluation of present system, information gathering, feasibility study and request approval. A number of SDLC models have been created, waterfall, fountain, spiral, build and fix, rapid prototyping, incremental, synchronize and stabilize. The oldest of these, and the best known, is the waterfall model, conduct the preliminary analysis, in this step, you need to find out the organizations objectives and the nature and scope of the problem under study. Even if a problem only to a small segment of the organization itself. Then you need to see how the problem being studied fits in with them, propose alternative solutions, In digging into the organizations objectives and specific problems, you may have already covered some solutions. Alternate proposals may come from interviewing employees, clients, suppliers and you can also study what competitors are doing. With this data, you will have three choices, leave the system as is, improve it, or develop a new system, Systems analysis, requirements definition, Defines project goals into defined functions and operation of the intended application
Systems development life cycle
–
The tenth phase occurs when the system is disposed of and the task performed is either eliminated or transferred to other systems. The tasks and work products for each phase are described in subsequent chapters.
Systems development life cycle
–
Model of the systems development life cycle, highlighting the maintenance phase.
Systems development life cycle
–
SPIU phases related to management controls.
Systems development life cycle
–
Work breakdown structure.
29.
Document
–
A document is a written, drawn, presented, or memorialized representation of thought. The word originates from the Latin documentum, which denotes a teaching or lesson, in the past the word was usually used to denote a written proof useful as evidence of a truth or fact. In the computer age, document usually denotes a primarily textual computer file, including its structure and format, e. g. fonts, colors, contemporarily, document is not defined by its transmission medium, e. g. paper, given the existence of electronic documents. Documentation is distinct because it has more denotations than document, the concept of document has been defined as any concrete or symbolic indication, preserved or recorded, for reconstructing or for proving a phenomenon, whether physical or mental. The shift to digital technology would seem to make this even more important. Levys thoughtful analyses have shown that an emphasis on the technology of digital documents has impeded our understanding of digital documents as documents. A conventional document, such as a message or a technical report, exists physically in digital technology as a string of bits. As an object of study, it has made into a document. It has become physical evidence by those who study it, template, Citation is problematic and should be verified. The classic example provided by Suzanne Briet is an antelope, An antelope running wild on the plains of Africa should not be considered a document she rules. But if it were to be captured, taken to a zoo and made an object of study and it has become physical evidence being used by those who study it. Indeed, scholarly articles written about the antelope are secondary documents and this opinion has been interpreted as an early expression of actor–network theory. Documents are sometimes classified as secret, private, or public and they may also be described as drafts or proofs. When a document is copied, the source is denominated the original, standards are accepted for specific applications in various fields, e. g. Academia, manuscript, thesis, paper, and journal, government, law, and politics, application, brief, certificate, commission, constitutional document, form, gazette, identity document, license, summons, and white paper. Such standard documents can be drafted based on a template, the page layout of a document is the manner in which information is graphically arranged in the space of the document, e. g. on a page. If the appearance of the document is of concern, page layout is generally the responsibility of a graphic designer, typography concerns the design of letter and symbol forms and their physical arrangement in the document. Information design concerns the communication of information, especially in industrial documents
Document
–
Several common types of documents: a birth certificate, a legal document (a restraining order), and a bank statement.
Document
Document
Document
–
A birth certificate from 1859.
