1.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
2.
Delhi
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Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory of Delhi or NCT, is a city and a union territory of India. It is bordered by Haryana on three sides and by Uttar Pradesh to the east, the NCT covers an area of 1,484 square kilometres. According to 2011 census, Delhis city population was about 11 million, Delhis urban area is now considered to extend beyond the NCT boundary to include an estimated population of over 26 million people making it the worlds second largest urban area. As of 2016 recent estimates of the economy of its urban area have ranked Delhi either the top or second most productive metro area of India. Delhi is the second wealthiest city after Mumbai in India, with a wealth of $450 billion. Delhi has been inhabited since the 6th century BC. Through most of its history, Delhi has served as a capital of various kingdoms and it has been captured, ransacked and rebuilt several times, particularly during the medieval period, and modern Delhi is a cluster of a number of cities spread across the metropolitan region. New Delhi is jointly administered by the government of India and the local government of Delhi. Delhi is also the centre of the National Capital Region, which is a unique interstate regional planning area created by the National Capital Region Planning Board Act of 1985, Delhi ranks among the cities with the worst air pollution in the world. There are a number of myths and legends associated with the origin of the name Delhi, one of them is derived from Dhillu or Dilu, a king who built a city at this location in 50 BC and named it after himself. The coins in circulation in the region under the Tomaras were called dehliwal, according to the Bhavishya Purana, King Prithiviraja of Indraprastha built a new fort in the modern-day Purana Qila area for the convenience of all four castes in his kingdom. He ordered the construction of a gateway to the fort and later named the fort dehali, another theory suggests that the citys original name was Dhillika. The people of Delhi are referred to as Delhiites or Dilliwalas, the city is referenced in various idioms of the Northern Indo-Aryan languages. Dilli dilwalon ka shehr or Dilli Dilwalon ki meaning Delhi belongs to the large-hearted/daring, aas-paas barse, Dilli pani tarse, literally meaning it pours all around, while Delhi lies parched. An allusion to the sometimes semi-arid climate of Delhi, it refers to situations of deprivation when one is surrounded by plenty. The area around Delhi was probably inhabited before the second millennium BC, the city is believed to be the site of Indraprastha, the legendary capital of the Pandavas in the Indian epic Mahabharata. According to Mahabharata, this land was initially a huge mass of forests called Khandavaprastha which was burnt down to build the city of Indraprastha, the earliest architectural relics date back to the Maurya period, in 1966, an inscription of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka was discovered near Srinivaspuri. Remains of eight cities have been discovered in Delhi
3.
Bus
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A bus is a road vehicle designed to carry many passengers. Buses can have a capacity as high as 300 passengers, many types of buses, such as city transit buses and inter-city coaches, charge a fare. Other types, such as elementary or secondary school buses or shuttle buses within a post-secondary education campus do not charge a fare, in many jurisdictions, bus drivers require a special licence above and beyond a regular drivers licence. Horse-drawn buses were used from the 1820s, followed by steam buses in the 1830s, the first internal combustion engine buses, or motor buses, were used in 1895. Recently, interest has been growing in hybrid electric buses, fuel cell buses, as of the 2010s, bus manufacturing is increasingly globalised, with the same designs appearing around the world. Bus is a form of the Latin word omnibus. The first horse-drawn omnibus service was started by a businessman named Stanislas Baudry in the French city of Nantes in 1823, Nantes citizens soon gave the nickname omnibus to the vehicle. The omnibus in Nantes was a success and Baudry moved to Paris, a similar service was introduced in London in 1829. The first mechanically propelled omnibus appeared on the streets of London on 22 April 1833, in parallel to the development of the bus was the invention of the electric trolleybus, typically fed through trolley poles by overhead wires. The Siemens brothers, William in England and Ernst Werner in Germany, sir William first proposed the idea in an article to the Journal of the Society of Arts in 1881 as an. arrangement by which an ordinary omnibus. The first such vehicle, the Electromote, was made by his brother Dr. Ernst Werner von Siemens and presented to the public in 1882 in Halensee, Germany. Although this experimental vehicle fulfilled all the criteria of a typical trolleybus. Max Schiemann opened a trolleybus in 1901 near Dresden, in Germany. Although this system operated only until 1904, Schiemann had developed what is now the standard trolleybus current collection system, in the early days, a few other methods of current collection were used. Leeds and Bradford became the first cities to put trolleybuses into service in Great Britain on 20 June 1911, in Siegerland, Germany, two passenger bus lines ran briefly, but unprofitably, in 1895 using a six-passenger motor carriage developed from the 1893 Benz Viktoria. Another commercial bus line using the same model Benz omnibuses ran for a time in 1898 in the rural area around Llandudno. Daimler also produced one of the earliest motor-bus models in 1898, the vehicle had a maximum speed of 18 kph and accommodated up to 20 passengers, in an enclosed area below and on an open-air platform above. With the success and popularity of bus, Daimler expanded production, selling more buses to companies in London and, in 1899, to Stockholm
4.
Gurgaon
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Gurugram, is a city in the Indian state of Haryana and is located near the National Capital Region of India. It is 32 kilometres southwest of New Delhi and 268 kilometres southwest of Chandigarh, as of 2011, Gurugram had a population of 876,824. Witnessing rapid urbanisation, Gurugram has become a financial and industrial hub with the third highest per capita income in India. The citys economic growth story started when the leading Indian automobile manufacturer Maruti Suzuki India Limited established a plant in Gurugram in the 1970s. Today, Gurugram has local offices for more than 250 Fortune 500 companies, the land came to be known as Gurugram which over time became changed to Gurgaon. The village still exists within the modern day city, on 12 April 2016, Chief Minister of Haryana Manohar Lal Khattar announced a proposal to officially rename the city Gurugram, subject to the approval of the Haryana cabinet and the Union Government. He argued that the new name would help to preserve the heritage of the city by emphasising its history. On 27 September 2016, Manohar Lal Khattar officially announced that the Union Government had approved the name change, Gurugram was historically inhabited by the Hindu people and in early times, it formed a part of an extensive kingdom ruled over by Rajputs of Yaduvansi or Yadav clan. The Yadav were defeated by Muhammad of Ghor in 1196, under the rule of Feroz Shah Tughlaq, several were converted to Islam. This was followed by the invasion of Timur and the land was ruled by Khanzadas and it was then annexed by Babur. During Akbars reign, Gurugram fell within the regions of Delhi. As the Mughal Empire started to decline, the place was torn between contending powers, by 1803 most of it came under the British rule through the treaty of Surji Arjungaon with Sindhia. The town was first occupied by the cavalry unit posted to watch the army of Begum Samru of Sirdhana and it became a part of the district, which was divided into units called parganas. These units were given to petty chiefs for the service rendered by them. Eventually these units came under control of the British, with the last major administrative change in 1836. After the Revolt of 1857, it was transferred from the North-Western Provinces to Punjab Province, in 1947, Gurgaon became a part of independent India and fell under the Indian state of Punjab. In 1966, the city came under the administration of Haryana with the creation of the new state, Gurugram is located in Gurugram district in the Indian state of Haryana and is situated in the south eastern part of the state, and northern part of the country. The city is located on the border with Delhi with New Delhi to its north east, the city has a total area of 738.8 square kilometres The average land elevation is 217 metres above sea level
5.
Indira Gandhi International Airport
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Indira Gandhi International Airport serves as the primary civilian aviation hub for the National Capital Region of Delhi, India. The airport, spread over an area of 5,106 acres, is situated in Palam,15 km south-west of the New Delhi railway station and 16 km from New Delhi city centre. Named after Indira Gandhi, a former Prime Minister of India and it is busiest airport in the country in terms of cargo traffic in the recent year overtaking Mumbai during late 2015. With the commencement of operations at Terminal 3 in 2010, it became Indias and South Asias largest aviation hub, the planned expansion program will increase the airports capacity to handle 100 million passengers by 2030. The airport handled over 48 million passengers in the fiscal year 2015–16, in calendar year 2016, the airport was the 21st busiest airport in the world by passenger traffic and 10th busiest airport in Asia handling over 55 million passengers. The airport was operated by the Indian Air Force before its management was transferred to the Airports Authority of India, in May 2006, the management of the airport was passed over to Delhi International Airport Limited, a consortium led by the GMR Group. In September 2008, the airport inaugurated a 4,430 m runway, the Terminal 3 building, which commenced operations in 2010, has a capacity to handle 34 million passengers annually. Terminal 3 is the worlds 8th largest passenger terminal, the airport uses an advanced system called Airport Collaborative Decision Making to help keep takeoffs and landings timely and predictable. In 2010, IGIA was conferred the fourth best airport award in the world in the 15–25 million category, the airport was rated as the Best airport in the world in the 25–40 million passengers category in 2015, by Airports Council International. Delhi Airport was awarded The Best Airport in Central Asia and Best Airport Staff in Central Asia at the Skytrax World Airport Awards 2015, IGI also stood first in the new rankings for 2015 Airport Service Quality Awards. Safdarjung Airport was built in 1930 and was the airport for Delhi until 1962. Due to increasing passenger traffic at Safdarjung, civilian operations were moved to Palam Airport in 1962, Palam Airport had been built during World War II as RAF Station Palam and after the British left, it served as an Air Force Station for the Indian Air Force. Palam Airport had a capacity of around 1,300 passengers per hour. Owing to an increase in air traffic in the 1970s, a terminal with nearly four times the area of the old Palam terminal was constructed. With the inauguration of a new terminal, on 2 May 1986. On 2 May 2006, the management of Delhi and Mumbai airports were handed over to the private consortia, Delhi International Airport Limited is a consortium of the GMR Group, Fraport and Malaysia Airports, and the Airports Authority of India retains a 26% stake. Nine years later, in May 2015, Malaysia Airports chose it exit from DIAL venture, following this GMR Groups stake at DIAL increased to 64%. Earlier GMR indicated that it was interested in buying out the 10% stake of Fraport, the old domestic airport is known as Terminal 1 and handles domestic flights for all budget airlines
6.
Interchange (road)
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It differs from a standard intersection, at which roads cross at grade. Note, The descriptions of road junctions are for countries where vehicles drive on the side of the road. For countries where driving is on the left the layout of the junctions is the same, a freeway junction or highway interchange or motorway junction is a type of road junction, linking one controlled-access highway to another, to other roads, or to a rest area/motorway service area. On the UK motorway network, most junctions with roads are numbered sequentially. In the U. S. interchanges are numbered according to cardinal interchange number. A highway ramp or slip road is a section of road which allows vehicles to enter or exit a controlled-access highway. A directional ramp always tends toward the direction of travel. This means that a ramp that makes a left turn exits from the side of the roadway. Left directional ramps are relatively uncommon as the lane is usually reserved for high-speed through traffic. Ramps for a turn are almost always right directional ramps. Where traffic drives on the left, these cases are reversed, a non-directional ramp goes in a direction opposite to the desired direction of travel. A semi-directional ramp exits a road in a direction opposite from the direction of travel. A U-turn ramp leaves the road in one driving direction, turns over or under it, weaving is an undesirable situation in which traffic veering right and traffic veering left must cross paths within a limited distance, to merge with traffic on the through lane. Some on-ramps have a meter, which is a dedicated ramp-only traffic light that throttles the flow of entering vehicles. A complete interchange has ramps to provide access from any direction of any road in the junction to any direction of any other road in the junction. A complete interchange between a freeway and another road requires at least four ramps, complete interchanges between two freeways generally have at least eight ramps, as having fewer would considerably reduce capacity and increase weaving. Depending on the type and the connectivity offered other numbers of ramps may be used. For highways with high-occupancy vehicle lanes, ramps can be used to service these carriageways directly, an incomplete interchange has at least one or more missing ramps that prevent access to at least one direction of another road in the junction from any other road in the junction
7.
Traffic flow
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Nonetheless, even with the advent of significant computer processing power, to date there has been no satisfactory general theory that can be consistently applied to real flow conditions. Current traffic models use a mixture of empirical and theoretical techniques, Traffic behaves in a complex and nonlinear way, depending on the interactions of a large number of vehicles. Some mathematical models of traffic flow use a vertical queue assumption, in a free-flowing network, traffic flow theory refers to the traffic stream variables of speed, flow, and concentration. These relationships are mainly concerned with uninterrupted traffic flow, primarily found on freeways or expressways, Flow conditions are considered free when less than 12 vehicles per mile are on a road. Stable is sometimes described as 12–30 vehicles per mile per lane, as the density reaches the maximum flow rate and exceeds the optimum density, traffic flow becomes unstable, and even a minor incident can result in persistent stop-and-go driving conditions. A breakdown condition occurs when traffic becomes unstable and exceeds 67 vehicles per mile, jam density refers to extreme traffic density when traffic flow stops completely, usually in the range of 185–250 vehicles per mile per lane. However, calculations about congested networks are complex and rely more on empirical studies. Because these are urban or suburban in nature, other factors also influence the optimum conditions. There are common spatiotemporal features of traffic congestion that are qualitatively the same for different highways in different countries. Some of these features of traffic congestion define synchronized flow. Traffic flow is generally constrained along a one-dimensional pathway, a time-space diagram shows graphically the flow of vehicles along a pathway over time. Time is displayed along the axis, and distance is shown along the vertical axis. Traffic flow in a diagram is represented by the individual trajectory lines of individual vehicles. Vehicles following each other along a given travel lane will have parallel trajectories, time-space diagrams are useful tools for displaying and analyzing the traffic flow characteristics of a given roadway segment over time. There are three variables to visualize a traffic stream, speed, density, and flow. Speed is the distance covered per unit time, one cannot track the speed of every vehicle, so, in practice, average speed is measured by sampling vehicles in a given area over a period of time. Two definitions of average speed are identified, time mean speed, time mean speed is measured at a reference point on the roadway over a period of time. In practice, it is measured by the use of loop detectors, loop detectors, when spread over a reference area, can identify each vehicle and can track its speed
8.
Delhi Metro
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The Delhi Metro is a metro system serving Delhi and its satellite cities of Faridabad, Gurgaon, Noida and Ghaziabad in National Capital Region in India. Delhi Metro is the worlds 12th largest metro system in terms of length and number of stations. A member of Nova Group of Metros, the network consists of five colour-coded regular lines, the system has a mix of underground, at-grade, and elevated stations using both broad-gauge and standard-gauge. The metro has a daily ridership of 2.661 million passengers. Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Limited, a company with equal equity participation from Government of India and Government of Delhi, built. DMRC operates around 2000 trips daily between 05,30 till 00,00 running with a headway varying between 1–2 minutes and 4–10 minutes, the trains are usually of six and eight-coach. The power output is supplied by 25-kilovolt, 50-hertz alternating current through overhead catenary, planning for the metro started in 1984, when the Delhi Development Authority and the Urban Arts Commission came up with a proposal for developing a multi-modal transport system for the city. Delhi Metro Rail Corporation was incorporated in May 1995, construction started in 1998, the development of network was divided into phases, Phase I containing 3 lines was completed by 2006, and Phase II in 2011. Phase III is scheduled for completion by 2017, rapid MetroRail Gurgaon which opened in 2013, whilst linked to Delhi Metro by the Yellow Line is a separate metro system, although tokens from the Delhi Metro can be used in its network. The concept of a rapid transit for New Delhi first emerged from a traffic. Over the next years, many official committees by a variety of government departments were commissioned to examine issues related to technology, route alignment. Consequently, traffic congestion and pollution soared, as a number of commuters took to private vehicles with the existing bus system unable to bear the load. Dr. E. Sreedharan handed over the charge as MD, physical construction work on the Delhi Metro started on 1 October 1998. DMRC was given powers to hire people, decide on tenders. The DMRC then consulted the Hong Kong MTRC on rapid transit operation and construction techniques, the first phase of the project was completed in 2006, on budget and almost three years ahead of schedule, an achievement described by Business Week as nothing short of a miracle. On 19 October 2008, a launcher and a part of the overhead Blue Line extension under construction in Laxmi Nagar, East Delhi collapsed. On 12 July 2009, a section of bridge collapsed while it was being erected at Zamrudpur, near East of Kailash, six people died and 15 were injured. The following day, on 13 July 2009, a crane that was removing the debris collapsed, on 22 July 2009, worker at Ashok Park Metro station was killed when a steel beam fell on him
9.
Intermodal passenger transport
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Intermodal passenger transport, also called mixed-mode commuting, involves using two or more modes of transportation in a journey. Mixed-mode commuting is often used to combine the strengths of various transportation options, a major goal of modern intermodal passenger transport is to reduce dependence on the automobile as the major mode of ground transportation and increase use of public transport. To assist the traveller various intermodal journey planners such as Rome2rio and Google Transit have been devised to help travellers to plan and schedule their journey. Mixed-mode commuting often centers on one type of transit, such as regional rail. Trains offer quick transit from a suburb into an urban area, most transportation modes have always been used intermodally, for example, people have used road or urban railway to an airport or inter-regional railway station. Passenger transport has always been intermodal, people switched from carriages to ferries at the edge of a river too deep to ford. In the 19th century, people who lived inland switched from train to ship for overseas voyages, Hoboken Terminal in Hoboken, New Jersey was built to let commuters to New York City from New Jersey switch to ferries to cross the Hudson River in order to get to Manhattan. A massive ferry slip, now in ruins, was incorporated into the terminal building, later, when a subway was built through tunnels under the Hudson, now called the PATH, a station stop was added to Hoboken Terminal. More recently, the New Jersey Transits Hudson-Bergen Light Rail system has included a stop there, ferry service has recently been revived, but passengers must exit the terminal and walk across the pier to the more modest ferry slip. With the opening of the Woodside and Birkenhead Dock Street Tramway in 1873, public transportation systems such as train or metro systems have the most efficient means and highest capacity to transport people around cities. Therefore, mixed-mode commuting in the environment is largely dedicated to first getting people onto the train network. Although automobiles are used as a single-mode form of transit. They can provide a commute to train stations, airports, and piers. Used in this context, cars offer commuters the relative comfort of single-mode travel, taxicabs and Rental cars also play a major role in providing door-to-door service between airports or train stations and other points of travel throughout urban, suburban, and rural communities. Transport planners often try to encourage commuters to make much of their journey by public transport. Similar to Park-and-Ride is what is often termed Kiss-and-Ride, rather than drive to the train or bus station and park the commuter is driven to the station by a friend or relative The Kiss refers to the peck on the cheek as the commuter exits the car. Kiss-and-Ride is usually conducted when the station is close to home, so that the driver doing dropping the commuter off has a short journey to. Many large cities link their railway network to their bus network and this enables commuters to get to places that are not serviced directly by rail as they are often considered to be too far for walking
10.
Dhaulagiri
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The Dhaulagiri massif in Nepal extends 120 km from the Kaligandaki River west to the Bheri. This massif is bounded on the north and southwest by tributaries of the Bheri River, Dhaulagiri I is the seventh highest mountain in the world at 8,167 metres above sea level. It was first climbed on May 13,1960 by a Swiss/Austrian/Nepali expedition, the mountains name is धौलागिरी in Nepali. This comes from Sanskrit where धवल means dazzling, white, beautiful, Dhaulagiri I is also the highest point of the Gandaki river basin. Annapurna I is 34 km. east of Dhaulagiri I, the Kali Gandaki River flows between the two in the Kaligandaki Gorge, said to be the worlds deepest. The town of Pokhara is south of the Annapurnas, an important regional center, in 1808 A. D. survey computations showed it to be the highest mountain yet surveyed. This lasted until 1838 when Kangchenjunga took its place, followed by Mount Everest in 1858, Dhaulagiri Is sudden rise from lower terrain is almost unequaled. It rises 7,000 m from the Kali Gandaki River 30 km to the southeast, the south and west faces rise precipitously over 4,000 m. The south face of Gurja Himal in the massif is also notably immense. Most ascents have followed the northeast ridge route of the first ascent, as of 2007 there had been 358 successful ascents and 58 fatalities. Between 1950 and 2006,2. 88% of 2,016 expedition members and staff going above base camp on Dhaulagiri I died. On all 8,000 metre peaks in Nepal the death rate was 1. 63%,1950 – Dhaulagiri I reconnoitered by a French expedition led by Maurice Herzog. They do not see a feasible route and switch to Annapurna, 1953–1958 – Five expeditions attempt the north face, or Pear Buttress, route. 1959 – Austrian expedition led by Fritz Moravec makes the first attempt on the northeast ridge. 1960 – Swiss-Austrian expedition led by Max Eiselin, successful ascent by Kurt Diemberger, P. Diener, E. Forrer, A. Schelbert, Nyima Dorje Sherpa, Nawang Dorje Sherpa on May 13. First Himalayan climb supported by an aircraft, which eventually crashed in Hidden Valley north of the mountain during takeoff and was abandoned. 1969 – American team led by Boyd Everett attempt southeast ridge, seven team members,1970 – second ascent, via the northeast ridge by a Japanese expedition led by Tokufu Ohta and Shoji Imanari. Tetsuji Kawada and Lhakpa Tenzing Sherpa reach the summit,1973 – American team led by James Morrissey makes third ascent via the northeast ridge
11.
Water well
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A water well is an excavation or structure created in the ground by digging, driving, boring, or drilling to access groundwater in underground aquifers. The well water is drawn by a pump, or using containers, such as buckets, placing a lining in the well shaft helps create stability and linings of wood or wickerwork date back at least as far as the Iron Age. Wells have been sunk by hand digging as is the case in rural developing areas. These wells are inexpensive and low-tech as they use mostly manual labour, a more modern method called caissoning uses pre-cast reinforced concrete well rings that are lowered into the hole. Deeper wells can be excavated by hand drilling methods or machine drilling, using a bit in a borehole, drilled wells are usually cased with a factory-made pipe composed of steel or plastic. Drilled wells can access water at greater depths than dug wells. A collector well can be constructed adjacent to a lake or stream with water percolating through the intervening material. The site of a well can be selected by a hydrogeologist, Water may be pumped or hand drawn. Impurities from the surface can easily reach shallow sources and contamination of the supply by pathogens or chemical contaminants needs to be avoided, Well water typically contains more minerals in solution than surface water and may require treatment before being potable. Soil salination can occur as the water falls and the surrounding soil begins to dry out. Another environmental problem is the potential for methane to seep into the water, hand-dug wells are excavations with diameters large enough to accommodate one or more people with shovels digging down to below the water table. The excavation is braced horizontally to avoid landslide or erosion endangering the people digging, a more modern method called caissoning uses reinforced concrete or plain concrete pre-cast well rings that are lowered into the hole. A well-digging team digs under a ring and the well column slowly sinks into the aquifer. Hand-dug wells are inexpensive and low tech as they use mostly manual labour to access groundwater in rural locations in developing countries and they may be built with a high degree of community participation, or by local entrepreneurs who specialize in hand-dug wells. They have been excavated to 60 metres. They have low operational and maintenance costs, in part because water can be extracted by hand bailing, without a pump. The water is coming from an aquifer or groundwater, and can be easily deepened. The yield of existing hand dug wells may be improved by deepening or introducing vertical tunnels or perforated pipes, drawbacks to hand-dug wells are numerous
12.
Shah Alam II
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Ali Gauhar, historically known as Shah Alam II, was the sixteenth Mughal Emperor. He was the son of Alamgir II, Shah Alam II was considered the only and rightful emperor but he wasnt able to return to Delhi until 1772, under the protection of the Maratha general Mahadaji Shinde. He also fought against the British East India Company at the Battle of Buxar, Shah Alam II also authored his own Diwan of poems and was known by the pen-name Aftab. His poems were guided, compiled and collected by Mirza Fakhir Makin, Ali Gauhar was born to Shahzada Aziz-ud-Din, son of the deposed Mughal Emperor Jahandar Shah, on 25 June 1728. Alongside his father, he grew up in semi-captivity in the Salatin quarters of the Red Fort, upon his fathers accession, he became the Wali Ahd of the empire, and became his fathers principal agent, though almost all power lay in the Wazir Imad-ul-Mulks hand. His quarrels with that amir, and fear for his own life, Prince Ali Gauhar, afterwards Emperor Shah Alam II had been the heir apparent of his father Alamgir II. After a daring escape from Delhi, Prince Ali Gauhar appeared in the provinces in 1759, hoping to strengthen his position by gaining control over Bengal, Bihar. Very soon however, Najib-ud-Daula, forced the usurper Feroze Jung III to flee from the capitol after he gathered a large Mughal Army outside Delhi, Najib-ud-Daula and Muslim nobles and then planned to defeat Marathas by maintaining correspondence with the powerful Ahmad Shah Durrani. After Ahmad Shah Durrani decisively defeated the Marathas, he nominated Ali Gauhar as the emperor under the name Shah Alam II, but the conflict soon involved the intervention of the assertive East India Company. Their forces were reinforced by the forces of Shuja-ud-Daula, Najib-ud-Daula, the Mughals were also joined by Jean Law and 200 Frenchmen and waged a campaign against the British during the Seven Years War. Prince Ali Gauhar successfully advanced as far as Patna, which he besieged with a combined army of over 40,000 in order to capture or kill Ramnarian a sworn enemy of the Mughals. Mir Jafar was in terror at the demise of his cohort and sent his own son Miran to relieve Ramnarian. After negotiations assuring peace Shah Alam II was escorted by the British to meet Mir Qasim the new Nawab of Bengal, who was nominated after the sudden death of Miran. Mir Qasim soon had the Mughal Emperors investiture as Subedar of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha, Shah Alam II then retreated to Allahabad was protected by the Shuja-ud-Daula, Nawab of Awadh from 1761 until 1764. Meanwhile, Mir Qasims relations with the British East India company began to worsen, angered by these developments the East India Company sought his ouster. Court intrigues encouraged by the East India company forced Mir Qasim to leave Bengal, Bihar, Mir Qasim on his part encouraged Shuja-ud-Daula the Nawab of Awadh and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II to engage the British. The battle fought at Buxar, then within the territory of Bengal, soon after the Battle of Buxar, Shah Alam II, a sovereign who had just been defeated by the British, sought their protection by signing the Treaty of Allahabad in the year 1765. Shah Alam II was forced to grant the Diwani of Bengal to the British East India Company in return for a tribute of 2.6 million rupees to be paid by the company from the collected revenue
India
