1.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
2.
Milan
–
Milan is a city in Italy, capital of the Lombardy region, and the most populous metropolitan area and the second most populous comune in Italy. The population of the city proper is 1,351,000, Milan has a population of about 8,500,000 people. It is the industrial and financial centre of Italy and one of global significance. In terms of GDP, it has the largest economy among European non-capital cities, Milan is considered part of the Blue Banana and lies at the heart of one of the Four Motors for Europe. Milan is an Alpha leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts Italys Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks, the city is a major world fashion and design capital, well known for several international events and fairs, including Milan Fashion Week and the Milan Furniture Fair. The city hosts numerous cultural institutions, academies and universities, with 11% of the national total enrolled students, Milans museums, theatres and landmarks attract over 9 million visitors annually. Milan – after Naples – is the second Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, the city hosted the Universal Exposition in 1906 and 2015. Milan is home to two of Europes major football teams, A. C. Milan and F. C. Internazionale, the etymology of Milan is uncertain. One theory holds that the Latin name Mediolanum comes from the Latin words medio, however, some scholars believe lanum comes from the Celtic root lan, meaning an enclosure or demarcated territory in which Celtic communities used to build shrines. Hence, Mediolanum could signify the central town or sanctuary of a Celtic tribe, indeed, the name Mediolanum is borne by about sixty Gallo-Roman sites in France, e. g. Saintes and Évreux. Alciato credits Ambrose for his account, around 400 BC, the Celtic Insubres settled Milan and the surrounding region. In 222 BC, the Romans conquered the settlement, renaming it Mediolanum, Milan was eventually declared the capital of the Western Roman Empire by Emperor Diocletian in 286 AD. Diocletian chose to stay in the Eastern Roman Empire and his colleague Maximianus ruled the Western one, immediately Maximian built several monuments, such as a large circus 470 m ×85 m, the Thermae Herculeae, a large complex of imperial palaces and several other buildings. With the Edict of Milan of 313, Emperor Constantine I guaranteed freedom of religion for Christians, after the city was besieged by the Visigoths in 402, the imperial residence was moved to Ravenna. In 452, the Huns overran the city, in 539, the Ostrogoths conquered and destroyed Milan during the Gothic War against Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. In the summer of 569, a Teutonic tribe, the Lombards, conquered Milan, some Roman structures remained in use in Milan under Lombard rule. Milan surrendered to the Franks in 774 when Charlemagne took the title of King of the Lombards, the Iron Crown of Lombardy dates from this period
Milan
–
Milan Cathedral,
La Scala opera house and
Porta Nuova business district
Milan
Milan
Milan
3.
Novel
–
A novel is any relatively long piece of written narrative fiction, normally in prose, and typically published as a book. The genre has also described as possessing, a continuous. This view sees the novels origins in Classical Greece and Rome, medieval, early modern romance, the latter, an Italian word used to describe short stories, supplied the present generic English term in the 18th century. The romance is a closely related long prose narrative, Romance, as defined here, should not be confused with the genre fiction love romance or romance novel. Other European languages do not distinguish between romance and novel, a novel is le roman, der Roman, il romanzo, a novel is a long, fictional narrative which describes intimate human experiences. Most European languages use the word romance for extended narratives, fictionality is most commonly cited as distinguishing novels from historiography. However this can be a problematic criterion, historians would also invent and compose speeches for didactic purposes. Novels can, on the hand, depict the social, political and personal realities of a place and period with clarity. Even in the 19th century, fictional narratives in verse, such as Lord Byrons Don Juan, Alexander Pushkins Yevgeniy Onegin, vikram Seths The Golden Gate, composed of 590 Onegin stanzas, is a more recent example of the verse novel. Both in 12th-century Japan and 15th-century Europe, prose fiction created intimate reading situations, on the other hand, verse epics, including the Odyssey and Aeneid, had been recited to a select audiences, though this was a more intimate experience than the performance of plays in theaters. A new world of Individualistic fashion, personal views, intimate feelings, secret anxieties, conduct and gallantry spread with novels, the novel is today the longest genre of narrative prose fiction, followed by the novella, short story, and flash fiction. However, in the 17th century critics saw the romance as of epic length, the length of a novel can still be important because most literary awards use length as a criterion in the ranking system. Urbanization and the spread of printed books in Song Dynasty China led to the evolution of oral storytelling into consciously fictional novels by the Ming dynasty, parallel European developments did not occur for centuries, and awaited the time when the availability of paper allowed for similar opportunities. By contrast, Ibn Tufails Hayy ibn Yaqdhan and Ibn al-Nafis Theologus Autodidactus are works of didactic philosophy, in this sense, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan would be considered an early example of a philosophical novel, while Theologus Autodidactus would be considered an early theological novel. Epic poetry exhibits some similarities with the novel, and the Western tradition of the novel back into the field of verse epics. Then at the beginning of the 18th century, French prose translations brought Homers works to a wider public, longus is the author of the famous Greek novel, Daphnis and Chloe. Romance or chivalric romance is a type of narrative in prose or verse popular in the circles of High Medieval. In later romances, particularly those of French origin, there is a tendency to emphasize themes of courtly love
Novel
–
Madame de Pompadour spending her afternoon with a book, 1756.
Novel
Novel
–
Paper as the essential carrier:
Murasaki Shikibu writing her
The Tale of Genji in the early 11th century, 17th-century depiction
Novel
–
Chaucer reciting
Troilus and Criseyde: early-15th-century manuscript of the work at
Corpus Christi College, Cambridge
4.
The Tartar Steppe
–
The Tartar Steppe is a novel by Italian author Dino Buzzati, published in 1940. The novel tells the story of an officer, Giovanni Drogo, and his life spent guarding the Bastiani Fortress. The English translation was done by Stuart C, the plot of the novel is Drogos lifelong wait for a great war in which his life and the existence of the fort can prove its usefulness. The human need for giving meaning and the soldiers desire for glory are themes in the novel. Drogo is posted to the remote outpost overlooking a desolate Tartar desert, when the attack by the Tartars finally arrives, Drogo gets ill and the new chieftain of the fortress dismisses him. Drogo, on his way home, dies lonely in an inn. In 1976 the novel was adapted into a film by Italian director Valerio Zurlini and starring Jacques Perrin as Drogo with Max von Sydow as Ortiz. The film omits certain parts of the novel, especially relating to the lives of Drogos friends in his home town. The novel was an influence on South African-born writer J. M. Coetzees 1980 novel Waiting for the Barbarians. The novel is described as the book of the author of The Black Swan by Nassim Nicholas Taleb. Taleb uses the protagonist of The Tartar Steppe to describe our human nature to anchor, quebec author Gilles Archambault, in Une démarche de chat, Notes sur une façon de vivre, says that this novel was a major influence on him. This book was influential in developing and promoting the style known as magic realism. Le Mondes 100 Books of the Century
The Tartar Steppe
–
Cover of the first American edition, 1952
5.
Novelist
–
A novelist is an author or writer of novels, though often novelists also write in other genres of both fiction and non-fiction. Some novelists are professional novelists, thus make a living writing novels and other fiction, Novelists come from a variety of backgrounds and social classes, and frequently this shapes the content of their works. Similarly, some novelists have creative identities derived from their focus on different genres of fiction, such as crime, while many novelists compose fiction to satisfy personal desires, novelists and commentators often ascribe a particular social responsibility or role to novel writers. Many authors use such moral imperatives to justify different approaches to writing, including activism or different approaches to representing reality truthfully. Novelist is a derivative from the term novel describing the writer of novels. However, the OED attributes the primary meaning of a writer of novels as first appearing in the 1633 book East-India Colation by C. The difference between professional and amateur novelists often is the ability to publish. Many people take up writing as a hobby, but the difficulties of completing large scale fictional works of quality prevent the completion of novels. Once authors have completed a novel, they often try to get it published. The publishing industry requires novels to have accessible profitable markets, thus many novelists will self-publish to circumvent the editorial control of publishers, self-publishing has long been an option for writers, with vanity presses printing bound books for a fee paid by the writer. The rise of the Internet and electronic books has made self publishing far less expensive, Novelists apply a number of different methods to writing their novels, relying on a variety of approaches to inspire creativity. Some communities actively encourage amateurs to practice writing novels to develop these unique practices, for example, the internet-based group, National Novel Writing Month, encourages people to write 50, 000-word novels in the month of November, to give novelists practice completing such works. In the 2010 event, over 200,000 people took part – writing a total of over 2.8 billion words, Novelists dont usually publish their first novels until later in life. However, many novelists begin writing at a young age, for example, Iain Banks began writing at eleven, and at sixteen completed his first novel, The Hungarian Lift-Jet, about international arms dealers, in pencil in a larger-than-foolscap log book. However, he was thirty before he published his first novel, the success of this novel enabled Banks to become a full-time novelist. Occasionally, novelists publish as early as their teens, for example, Patrick OBrian published his first novel, Caesar, The Life Story of a Panda-Leopard, at the age of 15, which brought him considerable critical attention. Occasionally, these works will achieve popular success as well, for example, though Christopher Paolinis Eragon, was not a great critical success, but its popularity among readers placed it on the New York Times Childrens Books Best Seller list for 121 weeks. First-time novelists of any age often find themselves unable to get published, because of a number of reasons reflecting the inexperience of the author
Novelist
–
William Faulkner's
Underwood Universal Portable typewriter in his office at
Rowan Oak, which is now maintained by the
University of Mississippi in
Oxford as a museum
Novelist
–
Novelist
James Patterson, one of the most monetarily successful contemporary novelists, who made $70 million in 2010
Novelist
–
The
Scott Monument on Edinburgh's
Princes Street.
6.
Poet
–
POET LLC is a U. S. biofuel company that specializes in the creation of bioethanol. The privately held corporation, which was originally called Broin Companies, is headquartered in Sioux Falls, in 2007, the Renewable Fuels Association named POET the largest U. S. ethanol producer, creating 1.1 billion US gallons of fuel per year. Currently, POET produces 1.7 billion gallons of ethanol per year, POET operates 27 ethanol plants spread across Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Missouri, Ohio, Minnesota, and South Dakota. In 2007, the received a US$80 million grant from the U. S. Department of Energy for the creation of a cellulosic ethanol production facility in Emmetsburg. A grand opening was held for the facility on September 3rd,2014 and it is expected to produce 25 million gallons of ethanol per year from corncobs, leaves and husks provided by farmers in and around the area. POET has also collaborated with companies, including Deere & Co. and Vermeer Company. Among its products in the process are distillers grains branded Dakota Gold, Inviz, the company traces its history to the family farm in Wanamingo, Minnesota where the Broins began producing ethanol in 1983. In 1986 it became commercial launching its flagship plant in Scotland, in 2007, it was renamed POET. Then company president Jeff Broin said the new name is not an acronym, bush in Wentworth, South Dakota in April 2002 and by Barack Obama in Macon, Missouri in April 2010. POET has constructed an $8 million pilot plant to produce cellulosic ethanol made from corn cobs, a commercial scale project, based on the pilot plant, was undertaken as a joint venture with Royal DSM under the name POET-DSM Advanced Biofuels, LLC. A federal loan guarantee was obtained in July,2011 for a plant to be built in Emmetsburg. This loan guarantee was later declined when the joint venture with Royal DSM was announced. Originally scheduled to open in 2013, the facility opened a year late in September,2014
Poet
7.
Journalist
–
A journalist is a person who collects, writes, or distributes news or other current information. A journalists work is called journalism, a journalist can work with general issues or specialize in certain issues. However, most journalists tend to specialize, and by cooperating with other journalists, for example, a sports journalist covers news within the world of sports, but this journalist may be a part of a newspaper that covers many different topics. A reporter is a type of journalist who researches, writes, and reports on information in order to present in sources, conduct interviews, engage in research, and make reports. The information-gathering part of a job is sometimes called reporting. Reporters may split their time working in a newsroom and going out to witness events or interviewing people. Reporters may be assigned a beat or area of coverage. Depending on the context, the term journalist may include various types of editors, editorial writers, columnists, Journalism has developed a variety of ethics and standards. While objectivity and a lack of bias are of concern and importance, more liberal types of journalism, such as advocacy journalism and activism. This has become prevalent with the advent of social media and blogs, as well as other platforms that are used to manipulate or sway social and political opinions. These platforms often project extreme bias, as sources are not always held accountable or considered necessary in order to produce a written, nor did they often directly experience most social problems, or have direct access to expert insights. These limitations were made worse by a media that tended to over-simplify issues and to reinforce stereotypes, partisan viewpoints. As a consequence, Lippmann believed that the public needed journalists like himself who could serve as analysts, guiding “citizens to a deeper understanding of what was really important. ”Journalists sometimes expose themselves to danger. Organizations such as the Committee to Protect Journalists and Reporters Without Borders publish reports on press freedom, as of November 2011, the Committee to Protect Journalists reports that 887 journalists have been killed worldwide since 1992 by murder, crossfire or combat, or on dangerous assignment. The ten deadliest countries for journalists since 1992 have been Iraq, Philippines, Russia, Colombia, Mexico, Algeria, Pakistan, India, Somalia, Brazil and Sri Lanka. The Committee to Protect Journalists also reports that as of December 1st 2010,145 journalists were jailed worldwide for journalistic activities. The ten countries with the largest number of currently-imprisoned journalists are Turkey, China, Iran, Eritrea, Burma, Uzbekistan, Vietnam, Cuba, Ethiopia, apart from the physical harm, journalists are harmed psychologically. This applies especially to war reporters, but their offices at home often do not know how to deal appropriately with the reporters they expose to danger
Journalist
–
A
television reporter holding a
microphone in front of a
cameraman.
Journalist
–
Photojournalists at the
2013 World Championships in Athletics.
Journalist
–
A reporter interviewing Boris Johnson, Mayor of London.
Journalist
–
Journalism
8.
Corriere della Sera
–
The Corriere della Sera is an Italian daily newspaper published in Milan with an average daily circulation of 410,242 copies in December 2015. First published on 5 March 1876, Corriere della Sera is one of Italys oldest newspapers and it reached a circulation of over 1 million under editor and co-owner Luigi Albertini, 1900-1925. He was an opponent of Socialism, of clericalism. Albertinis opposition to the Fascist regime forced the other co-owners to oust him 1925, today its main competitors are Romes la Repubblica and Turins La Stampa. Corriere della Sera was first published on Sunday 5 March 1876 by Eugenio Torelli Viollier, in 1899 the paper began to offer a weekly illustrated supplement, Domenica del Corriere. In the 1910s and 1920s, under the direction of Luigi Albertini, Corriere della Sera became the most widely read newspaper in Italy and it was Corriere della Sera which introduced comics in Italy in 1908 through a supplement for children, namely Corriere dei piccoli. As the name indicates, it was originally an evening paper, during the fascist regime in Italy Corriere della Sera funded the Mussolini Prize which was awarded to the writers Ada Negri and Emilio Cecchi among the others. Mario Borsa, a militant anti-fascist, was appointed the editor-in-chief of Corriere della Sera in May 1945 and he was fired because of his political leanings in August 1946 and was replaced by Guglielmo Emanuel, a right-wing journalist. Emanuel served in the post until 1952, in the 1950s Corriere della Sera was the organ of the conservative establishment in Italy and was strongly anti-communist and pro-NATO. The paper was functional in shaping the views of the Italian upper, the owners of the Corriere della Sera, the Crespi family, sold a share to RCS Media in the 1960s and was listed in the Italian stock exchange. Its main shareholders were Mediobanca, the Fiat group and some of the biggest industrial and financial groups in Italy, in 1974 the RCS Media moved on to control the majority of the paper. Alberto Cavallari was the editor-in-chief of the paper during the early 1980s, in September 1987 the paper launched a weekly magazine supplement, Sette, which is the first in its category in Italy. From 1987 to 1992 the editor-in-chief of Corriere della Sera was Ugo Stille, the 1988 circulation of Corriere della Sera was 715,000 copies, making it the second most read newspaper in Italy. The paper started its Saturday supplement, IO Donna, in 1996, in 1997 Corriere della Sera was the best-selling Italian newspaper with a circulation of 687,000 copies. Corriere della Sera had a circulation of 715,000 copies in 2001, in 2002 it fell to 681,000 copies. In 2003, its then editor Ferruccio de Bortoli resigned from the post, the journalists and opposition politicians claimed the resignation was due to the papers criticism of Silvio Berlusconi. In 2004, Corriere della Sera launched an online English section focusing on Italian current affairs, the same year it was the best-selling newspaper in Italy with a circulation of 677,542 copies. Its circulation in December 2007 was 662,253 copies and it is one of the most visited Italian-language news websites, attracting over 1.6 million readers every day
Corriere della Sera
–
Front page on 15 July 2009
Corriere della Sera
–
The headquarters in
Milan.
Corriere della Sera
9.
San Pellegrino di Belluno
–
Belluno listen, is a town and province in the Veneto region of northern Italy. Located about 100 kilometres north of Venice, Belluno is the capital of the province of Belluno, with its roughly 36,000 inhabitants, it is the largest populated area of Valbelluna. It is one of the 15 municipalities of the Dolomiti Bellunesi National Park, together with other Alpine towns, Belluno engages in the Alpine Town of the Year Association for the implementation of the Alpine Convention to achieve sustainable development in the Alpine Arc. Belluno was named Alpine Town of the Year in 1999, the ancient city of Belluno rises above a cliff spur near the confluence of the Torrente Ardo and the Piave River. To the north is the imposing Schiara range of the Dolomites, with the famous Gusela del Vescovà, to the south, the foothills of the Alps separate Belluno from the Venetian plain. Further to the south is the Nevegal, in the Castionese area, the average annual temperature in Belluno is 9 °C, and the average annual precipitation is 137 cm. The name of the city is derived from Celtic belo-dunum which means splendid hill, the name was inspired by the favorable position within the valley. It is conjectured that the population of the area that became Belluno was largely Venetic with a strong Celtic minority, however, as the Romans expanded northward into the Alps, the Celtic either emigrated or were absorbed. The people of the area swore friendship to Rome in the 225 BC conflict with the Gauls, founded perhaps around 220-200 BC the initial influence of Rome was military and commercial. Strategically located, the town protected cities to the south, Belluno also became a supplier of iron and copper. Already within the Roman sphere of influence, the town was juridically and polictically incorporated into the Roman Republic by the second century BC. Sometime between the death of Julius Caesar and the ascent of Augustus, Bellunum became a Roman municipium, the town was ruled by quattorviri juri dicendo, by quattorviri aedilicia potestate, and by a Council of Elders. Under Augustus, it part of Regio X Venetia et Histria. Among its citizens were Caius Flavius Hostilius and his wife Domitia, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, it was ruled by the Lombards and the Carolingians, the famous Belluno Treasure in the British Museum dates from this period. From the late 9th century it was ruled by a count-bishop and it received a castle, later it was a possession of the Ghibelline family of the Ezzelino. After having longly contended the nearby territory with Treviso, in the end Belluno gave itself to the Republic of Venice, the city was thenceforth an important hub for the transport of lumber from the Cadore through the Piave river. After the fall of the Republic, Belluno was an Austrian possession, the cathedral was much damaged by the earthquake of 1873, which destroyed a considerable portion of the town, though the campanile stood firm. The Duomo, with the 18th-century bell tower designed by Filippo Juvarra and it includes five paintings by Andrea Schiavone, three by Sebastiano Ricci
San Pellegrino di Belluno
–
Panorama of Belluno
San Pellegrino di Belluno
–
Palazzo dei Rettori by night.
San Pellegrino di Belluno
–
Façade of the church of San Rocco.
10.
Belluno
–
Belluno listen, is a town and province in the Veneto region of northern Italy. Located about 100 kilometres north of Venice, Belluno is the capital of the province of Belluno, with its roughly 36,000 inhabitants, it is the largest populated area of Valbelluna. It is one of the 15 municipalities of the Dolomiti Bellunesi National Park, together with other Alpine towns, Belluno engages in the Alpine Town of the Year Association for the implementation of the Alpine Convention to achieve sustainable development in the Alpine Arc. Belluno was named Alpine Town of the Year in 1999, the ancient city of Belluno rises above a cliff spur near the confluence of the Torrente Ardo and the Piave River. To the north is the imposing Schiara range of the Dolomites, with the famous Gusela del Vescovà, to the south, the foothills of the Alps separate Belluno from the Venetian plain. Further to the south is the Nevegal, in the Castionese area, the average annual temperature in Belluno is 9 °C, and the average annual precipitation is 137 cm. The name of the city is derived from Celtic belo-dunum which means splendid hill, the name was inspired by the favorable position within the valley. It is conjectured that the population of the area that became Belluno was largely Venetic with a strong Celtic minority, however, as the Romans expanded northward into the Alps, the Celtic either emigrated or were absorbed. The people of the area swore friendship to Rome in the 225 BC conflict with the Gauls, founded perhaps around 220-200 BC the initial influence of Rome was military and commercial. Strategically located, the town protected cities to the south, Belluno also became a supplier of iron and copper. Already within the Roman sphere of influence, the town was juridically and polictically incorporated into the Roman Republic by the second century BC. Sometime between the death of Julius Caesar and the ascent of Augustus, Bellunum became a Roman municipium, the town was ruled by quattorviri juri dicendo, by quattorviri aedilicia potestate, and by a Council of Elders. Under Augustus, it part of Regio X Venetia et Histria. Among its citizens were Caius Flavius Hostilius and his wife Domitia, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, it was ruled by the Lombards and the Carolingians, the famous Belluno Treasure in the British Museum dates from this period. From the late 9th century it was ruled by a count-bishop and it received a castle, later it was a possession of the Ghibelline family of the Ezzelino. After having longly contended the nearby territory with Treviso, in the end Belluno gave itself to the Republic of Venice, the city was thenceforth an important hub for the transport of lumber from the Cadore through the Piave river. After the fall of the Republic, Belluno was an Austrian possession, the cathedral was much damaged by the earthquake of 1873, which destroyed a considerable portion of the town, though the campanile stood firm. The Duomo, with the 18th-century bell tower designed by Filippo Juvarra and it includes five paintings by Andrea Schiavone, three by Sebastiano Ricci
Belluno
–
Panorama of Belluno
Belluno
–
Palazzo dei Rettori by night.
Belluno
–
Façade of the church of San Rocco.
11.
Venice
–
Venice is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region. It is situated across a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and these are located in the shallow Venetian Lagoon, an enclosed bay that lies between the mouths of the Po and the Piave Rivers. Parts of Venice are renowned for the beauty of their settings, their architecture, the lagoon and a part of the city are listed as a World Heritage Site. In 2014,264,579 people resided in Comune di Venezia, together with Padua and Treviso, the city is included in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area, with a total population of 2.6 million. PATREVE is a metropolitan area without any degree of autonomy. The name is derived from the ancient Veneti people who inhabited the region by the 10th century BC, the city was historically the capital of the Republic of Venice. Venice has been known as the La Dominante, Serenissima, Queen of the Adriatic, City of Water, City of Masks, City of Bridges, The Floating City, and City of Canals. The City State of Venice is considered to have been the first real international financial center which gradually emerged from the 9th century to its peak in the 14th century and this made Venice a wealthy city throughout most of its history. It is also known for its several important artistic movements, especially the Renaissance period, Venice has played an important role in the history of symphonic and operatic music, and it is the birthplace of Antonio Vivaldi. Venice has been ranked the most beautiful city in the world as of 2016, the name Venetia, however, derives from the Roman name for the people known as the Veneti, and called by the Greeks Eneti. The meaning of the word is uncertain, although there are other Indo-European tribes with similar-sounding names, such as the Celtic Veneti, Baltic Veneti, and the Slavic Wends. Linguists suggest that the name is based on an Indo-European root *wen, so that *wenetoi would mean beloved, lovable, a connection with the Latin word venetus, meaning the color sea-blue, is also possible. The alternative obsolete form is Vinegia, some late Roman sources reveal the existence of fishermen on the islands in the original marshy lagoons. They were referred to as incolae lacunae, the traditional founding is identified with the dedication of the first church, that of San Giacomo on the islet of Rialto — said to have taken place at the stroke of noon on 25 March 421. Beginning as early as AD166 to 168, the Quadi and Marcomanni destroyed the center in the area. The Roman defences were again overthrown in the early 5th century by the Visigoths and, some 50 years later, New ports were built, including those at Malamocco and Torcello in the Venetian lagoon. The tribuni maiores, the earliest central standing governing committee of the islands in the Lagoon, the traditional first doge of Venice, Paolo Lucio Anafesto, was actually Exarch Paul, and his successor, Marcello Tegalliano, was Pauls magister militum. In 726 the soldiers and citizens of the Exarchate rose in a rebellion over the controversy at the urging of Pope Gregory II
Venice
–
A collage of Venice: at the top left is the
Piazza San Marco, followed by a view of the city, then the
Grand Canal, and (smaller) the interior of
La Fenice and, finally, the Island of San Giorgio Maggiore
Venice
–
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Venice
–
Photography of Venice at dusk
Venice
–
The Grand Canal seen from the bridge at
Ponte di Rialto
12.
International law
–
International law is the set of rules generally regarded and accepted as binding in relations between states and between nations. It serves as a framework for the practice of stable and organized international relations, International law differs from state-based legal systems in that it is primarily applicable to countries rather than to private citizens. National law may become law when treaties delegate national jurisdiction to supranational tribunals such as the European Court of Human Rights or the International Criminal Court. Treaties such as the Geneva Conventions may require national law to conform to respective parts, much of international law is consent-based governance. This means that a member is not obliged to abide by this type of international law. This is an issue of state sovereignty, however, other aspects of international law are not consent-based but still are obligatory upon state and non-state actors such as customary international law and peremptory norms. The term international law can refer to three distinct legal disciplines, Public international law, which governs the relationship between states and international entities. It includes these legal fields, treaty law, law of sea, international law, the laws of war or international humanitarian law, international human rights law. Private international law, or conflict of laws, which addresses the questions of jurisdiction may hear a case. The two traditional branches of law are, jus gentium – law of nations jus inter gentes – agreements between nations. Several legal systems developed in Europe, including the systems of continental European states and English common law, based on decisions by judges. Some doubt the effectiveness of law, as they see the implementation of international law as a policy option among others to tackle global dilemmas. They say that international law must be evaluated with other, possibly more effective, International law is sourced from decision makers and researchers looking to verify the substantive legal rule governing a legal dispute or academic discourse. The sources of law applied by the community of nations to find the content of international law are listed under Article 38. Many scholars agree that the fact that the sources are arranged sequentially in the Article 38 of the ICJ Statute suggests a hierarchy of sources. The sources have influenced by a range of political and legal theories. During the 20th century, it was recognized by legal positivists that a state could limit its authority to act by consenting to an agreement according to the principle pacta sunt servanda. Public international law concerns the treaty relationships between the nations and persons which are considered the subjects of international law, evidence of consensus or state practice can sometimes be derived from intergovernmental resolutions or academic and expert legal opinions
International law
–
Created in 1945, the
United Nations is responsible for much of the current framework of international law.
International law
–
The
First Geneva Convention (1864) is one of the earliest formulations of international law.
International law
–
The
Italian thinker
Sir Alberico Gentili is acknowledged to be the founder of the science of international law.
13.
University of Milan
–
The University of Milan, known colloquially as UniMi or Statale, is a higher education institution in Milan, Italy. It is one of the most important and largest universities in Europe, with about 60,000 students, the University of Milan has 9 schools and offers 134 undergraduate and graduate courses,21 Doctoral Schools and 92 Specialization Schools. The Universitys research and teaching activities have developed over the years and have received important international recognitions, the University is the only Italian member of the League of European Research Universities, a group of twenty-one research-intensive European Universities. It consistently ranks one of the best universities of Italy, both overall and in subject areas. The University of Milan is the only Italian member of the League of European Research Universities, a group of twenty-one research-intensive European Universities, the university consistently ranks as Italys best university in a number of areas. It also ranked among the top three in economics and statistics, earth science, history, and antiquities, the university is ranked third in Italy by Center for World University Rankings and fourth in the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities. It is ranked first in Italy by the Academic Ranking of World Universities while the Times Higher Education World University Rankings ranks it 6th to 9th, by 1928, the University already had the fourth-highest number of enrolled students in Italy, after Naples, Rome and Padua. At the end of the Second World War, the old Ospedale dei Poveri building, known as la Cà Granda, was assigned to the University. The building, one of the first Italian examples of civil architecture - commissioned in the 15th century by the Sforza family, the dukes of Milan - was seriously damaged by the bombings of 1943. In 1958, after a series of reconstruction and renovation works, it became home to the University Rectors Office, the administrative offices. The University added to its range of courses and at the time increased its number of centres. Two new schools were established, Pharmacy and Social and Political Sciences, Città Studi was also the site of a new complex, intended entirely for the biology departments, which was the work of architect Vico Magistretti. There was also an increase in the number of agreements with the hospital facilities. In 1968, the University was occupying approximately 127,000 m2, in 1989 there were 22 degree courses and 75,000 enrolled students, which increased to 90,000 by 1993. In 1998, the University split in two and the second public institution was founded, The University of Milan-Bicocca. The University of Insubria was also established in Varese, bringing together courses that were offered at Varese and Como by the Universities of Milan. The 2001 law that transformed the system opened a new phase of change. There was also an increase in the Universitys commitment to providing student services and in investments for new education and research facilities, furthermore, there was also a strengthening of commitment to technology transfer and the practical application of scientific research results in the economic-production context
University of Milan
–
Via Festa del Perdono, the University of Milan
University of Milan
–
Seal of the University of Milan
University of Milan
–
Cloister of the main building
University of Milan
–
Physics Department, seen from across Via Celoria
14.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
15.
Africa
–
Africa is the worlds second-largest and second-most-populous continent. At about 30.3 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earths total surface area and 20.4 % of its land area. With 1.2 billion people as of 2016, it accounts for about 16% of the human population. The continent includes Madagascar and various archipelagos and it contains 54 fully recognized sovereign states, nine territories and two de facto independent states with limited or no recognition. Africas population is the youngest amongst all the continents, the age in 2012 was 19.7. Algeria is Africas largest country by area, and Nigeria by population, afarensis, Homo erectus, H. habilis and H. ergaster – with the earliest Homo sapiens found in Ethiopia being dated to circa 200,000 years ago. Africa straddles the equator and encompasses numerous climate areas, it is the continent to stretch from the northern temperate to southern temperate zones. Africa hosts a diversity of ethnicities, cultures and languages. In the late 19th century European countries colonized most of Africa, Africa also varies greatly with regard to environments, economics, historical ties and government systems. However, most present states in Africa originate from a process of decolonization in the 20th century, afri was a Latin name used to refer to the inhabitants of Africa, which in its widest sense referred to all lands south of the Mediterranean. This name seems to have referred to a native Libyan tribe. The name is connected with Hebrew or Phoenician ʿafar dust. The same word may be found in the name of the Banu Ifran from Algeria and Tripolitania, under Roman rule, Carthage became the capital of the province of Africa Proconsularis, which also included the coastal part of modern Libya. The Latin suffix -ica can sometimes be used to denote a land, the later Muslim kingdom of Ifriqiya, modern-day Tunisia, also preserved a form of the name. According to the Romans, Africa lay to the west of Egypt, while Asia was used to refer to Anatolia, as Europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of Africa expanded with their knowledge. 25,4, whose descendants, he claimed, had invaded Libya, isidore of Seville in Etymologiae XIV.5.2. Suggests Africa comes from the Latin aprica, meaning sunny, massey, in 1881, stated that Africa is derived from the Egyptian af-rui-ka, meaning to turn toward the opening of the Ka. The Ka is the double of every person and the opening of the Ka refers to a womb or birthplace
Africa
–
Map of Africa
Africa
–
Africa
Africa
–
Lucy, an
Australopithecus afarensis skeleton discovered on November 24, 1974, in the
Awash Valley of
Ethiopia 's
Afar Depression
Africa
–
Colossal statues of
Ramesses II at
Abu Simbel, Egypt, date from around 1400 BC.
16.
Theatre
–
The performers may communicate this experience to the audience through combinations of gesture, speech, song, music, and dance. Elements of art, such as painted scenery and stagecraft such as lighting are used to enhance the physicality, presence, the specific place of the performance is also named by the word theatre as derived from the Ancient Greek θέατρον, itself from θεάομαι. Modern theatre, broadly defined, includes performances of plays and musical theatre, there are connections between theatre and the art forms of ballet, opera and various other forms. The city-state of Athens is where western theatre originated, participation in the city-states many festivals—and mandatory attendance at the City Dionysia as an audience member in particular—was an important part of citizenship. The Greeks also developed the concepts of dramatic criticism and theatre architecture, Actors were either amateur or at best semi-professional. The theatre of ancient Greece consisted of three types of drama, tragedy, comedy, and the satyr play, the origins of theatre in ancient Greece, according to Aristotle, the first theoretician of theatre, are to be found in the festivals that honoured Dionysus. The performances were given in semi-circular auditoria cut into hillsides, capable of seating 10, the stage consisted of a dancing floor, dressing room and scene-building area. Since the words were the most important part, good acoustics, the actors wore masks appropriate to the characters they represented, and each might play several parts. Athenian tragedy—the oldest surviving form of tragedy—is a type of dance-drama that formed an important part of the culture of the city-state. Having emerged sometime during the 6th century BCE, it flowered during the 5th century BCE, no tragedies from the 6th century BCE and only 32 of the more than a thousand that were performed in during the 5th century BCE have survived. We have complete texts extant by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, the origins of tragedy remain obscure, though by the 5th century BCE it was institution alised in competitions held as part of festivities celebrating Dionysus. As contestants in the City Dionysias competition playwrights were required to present a tetralogy of plays, the performance of tragedies at the City Dionysia may have begun as early as 534 BCE, official records begin from 501 BCE, when the satyr play was introduced. More than 130 years later, the philosopher Aristotle analysed 5th-century Athenian tragedy in the oldest surviving work of dramatic theory—his Poetics, Athenian comedy is conventionally divided into three periods, Old Comedy, Middle Comedy, and New Comedy. Old Comedy survives today largely in the form of the surviving plays of Aristophanes. New Comedy is known primarily from the papyrus fragments of Menander. Aristotle defined comedy as a representation of people that involves some kind of blunder or ugliness that does not cause pain or disaster. In addition to the categories of comedy and tragedy at the City Dionysia, finding its origins in rural, agricultural rituals dedicated to Dionysus, the satyr play eventually found its way to Athens in its most well-known form. Satyrs themselves were tied to the god Dionysus as his loyal companions, often engaging in drunken revelry
Theatre
–
Sarah Bernhardt as
Hamlet, in 1899
Theatre
–
A master (right) and his slave (left) in a
Greek phlyax play, circa 350/340 BCE
Theatre
–
Mosaic depicting masked actors in a play: two women consult a "witch"
Theatre
–
Performer playing
Sugriva in the
Koodiyattam form of
Sanskrit theatre.
17.
Radio play
–
Radio drama is a dramatized, purely acoustic performance, broadcast on radio. Radio drama achieved widespread popularity within a decade of its development in the 1920s. By the 1940s, it was an international popular entertainment. With the advent of television in the 1950s, however, radio drama lost some of its popularity, however, recordings of OTR survive today in the audio archives of collectors and museums, as well as several online sites such as Internet Archive. As of 2011, radio drama has a presence on terrestrial radio in the United States. Much of American radio drama is restricted to rebroadcasts or podcasts of programs from previous decades, however, other nations still have thriving traditions of radio drama. In the United Kingdom, for example, the BBC produces and broadcasts hundreds of new plays each year on Radio 3, Radio 4. Like the USA, Australia ABC has abandoned broadcasting drama but New Zealand RNZ continues to promote, podcasting has also offered the means of creating new radio dramas, in addition to the distribution of vintage programs. Thanks to advances in recording and Internet distribution, radio drama was experiencing a revival in 2010. The terms audio drama or audio theatre are used synonymously with radio drama, however. Audio drama can also be found on CDs, cassette tapes, Radio drama traces its roots back to the 1880s, In 1881 French engineer Clement Ader had filed a patent for ‘improvements of Telephone Equipment in Theatres’. English-language radio drama seems to have started in the United States, a Rural Line on Education, a brief sketch specifically written for radio, aired on Pittsburghs KDKA in 1921, according to historian Bill Jaker. Newspaper accounts of the era report on a number of other experiments by Americas commercial radio stations. In February 1922, entire Broadway musical comedies with the original aired from WJZs Newark studios. Actors Grace George and Herbert Hayes performed a play from a San Francisco station in the summer of 1922. Aware of this series, the director of Cincinnatis WLW began regularly broadcasting one-acts in November, the success of these projects led to imitators at other stations. By the spring of 1923, original pieces written specially for radio were airing on stations in Cincinnati, Philadelphia. That same year, WLW and WGY sponsored scripting contests, inviting listeners to create original plays to be performed by those stations dramatic troupes
Radio play
–
Recording a radio play in the Netherlands (1949),
Spaarnestad Photo
18.
Libretto
–
A libretto is the text used in, or intended for, an extended musical work such as an opera, operetta, masque, oratorio, cantata or musical. The term libretto is also used to refer to the text of major liturgical works, such as the Mass, requiem and sacred cantata. Libretto, from Italian, is the diminutive of the word libro, sometimes other language equivalents are used for libretti in that language, livret for French works and Textbuch for German. A libretto is distinct from a synopsis or scenario of the plot, in that the libretto contains all the words and stage directions, while a synopsis summarizes the plot. The relationship of the librettist to the composer in the creation of a work has varied over the centuries, as have the sources. In the context of a modern English language musical theatre piece, Libretti for operas, oratorios and cantatas in the 17th and 18th centuries generally were written by someone other than the composer, often a well-known poet. Metastasio was one of the most highly regarded librettists in Europe and his libretti were set many times by many different composers. Another noted 18th-century librettist was Lorenzo Da Ponte, who wrote the libretti for three of Mozarts greatest operas, as well as for other composers. Eugène Scribe was one of the most prolific librettists of the 19th century, providing the words for works by Meyerbeer, Auber, Bellini, Donizetti, Rossini and Verdi. The French writers duo Henri Meilhac and Ludovic Halévy wrote a number of opera and operetta libretti for the likes of Jacques Offenbach, Jules Massenet. Arrigo Boito, who wrote libretti for, among others, Giuseppe Verdi and Amilcare Ponchielli, the libretto is not always written before the music. Some composers wrote their own libretti, Richard Wagner is perhaps most famous in this regard, with his transformations of Germanic legends and events into epic subjects for his operas and music dramas. Hector Berlioz, too, wrote the libretti for two of his works, La Damnation de Faust and Les Troyens. Alban Berg adapted Georg Büchners play Woyzeck for the libretto of Wozzeck, sometimes the libretto is written in close collaboration with the composer, this can involve adaptation, as was the case with Rimsky-Korsakov and his librettist Belsky, or an entirely original work. In the case of musicals, the music, the lyrics, thus, a musical such as Fiddler on the Roof has a composer, a lyricist and the writer of the book. In rare cases, the composer writes everything except the dance arrangements - music, lyrics and libretto, Other matters in the process of developing a libretto parallel those of spoken dramas for stage or screen. A famous case of the latter is Wagners 1861 revision of the original 1845 Dresden version of his opera Tannhäuser for Paris, since the late 19th century some opera composers have written music to prose or free verse libretti. The libretto of a musical, on the hand, is almost always written in prose
Libretto
–
Cover of a 1921 libretto for Giordano's
Andrea Chénier
Libretto
–
The composer of
Cavalleria rusticana,
Pietro Mascagni, flanked by his librettists,
Giovanni Targioni-Tozzetti and
Guido Menasci.
Libretto
–
Pages from an 1859 libretto for
Ernani, with the original Italian lyrics, English translation and musical notation for one of the arias.
Libretto
–
Henry Purcell (1659–1695) whose operas were written to English libretti.
19.
Lemony Snicket
–
Lemony Snicket is the pen name of American novelist Daniel Handler. Snicket is the author of childrens books, also serving as the narrator of A Series of Unfortunate Events. Because of this, the name Lemony Snicket may refer to either the character or the real person. In the organization, he met and fell in love with a peer named Beatrice and he was falsely accused of murder and arson after a series of unfortunate events. Eventually, the fallacies grew so much that The Daily Punctilio reported his death, Beatrice eventually moved on and married Bertrand Baudelaire, becoming the mother of Violet, Klaus, and Sunny Baudelaire, the protagonists of A Series of Unfortunate Events. Fourteen years thereafter, Beatrice and Bertrand were murdered in a house fire, Snicket feels indebted to his former fiancée and embarks on a quest to chronicle the lives of the Baudelaire children until they become old enough to face the troubles of the world on their own. Snicket is the subject of an autobiography entitled Lemony Snicket. A pamphlet called 13 Shocking Secrets Youll Wish You Never Knew About Lemony Snicket was released in promotion of The End. In the film, Lemony Snickets A Series of Unfortunate Events, Lemony Snicket is portrayed by Jude Law, in the video game based on the film his voice is provided by Tim Curry. In the Series of Unfortunate Events Netflix series, Snicket is portrayed by Patrick Warburton, the name Lemony Snicket originally came from research from Handlers first book The Basic Eight. Handler wanted to receive material from organizations that he found offensive or funny but did not want to use his real name, the names similarity to Jiminy Cricket was likely a Freudian slip. Handler described Jiminy Cricket as exactly the kind of overly moralistic, Lemony Snicket came from a family of three children. His brother Jacques and sister Kit were also V. F. D. members, both Jacques and Kit appear as supporting characters in the Series of Unfortunate Events books. He also knew Count Olaf in his life, as the two attended school together. In his youth, Lemony Snicket attended a V. F. D. -run boarding school with other characters from the series. He received later tuition at a V. F. D. headquarters in the Mortmain Mountains and he was an obituary spell-checker and theater critic. Lemony Snicket conducted a romance with the actress Beatrice Baudelaire. As Beatrice was the Baudelaires mother, she died in the fire destroyed the Baudelaire mansion
Lemony Snicket
–
Signature
20.
Introduction (essay)
–
In an essay, article, or book, an introduction is a beginning section which states the purpose and goals of the following writing. This is generally followed by the body and conclusion, the introduction typically describes the scope of the document and gives the brief explanation or summary of the document. It may also explain certain elements that are important to the essay if explanations are not part of the main text, the readers can have an idea about the following text before they actually start reading it. Ln technical writing, the introduction typically includes one or more standard subsections, abstract or summary, preface, acknowledgments, alternatively, the section labeled introduction itself may be a brief section found side-by-side with abstract, foreword, etc. In this case the set of sections that come before the body of the book are known as the front matter, when the book is divided into numbered chapters, by convention the introduction and any other front-matter sections are unnumbered and precede chapter 1. Keeping the concept of the introduction the same, different documents have different styles to introduce the written text, for example, the introduction of a Functional Specification consists of information that the whole document is yet to explain. If a Userguide is written, the introduction is about the product, in a report, the introduction gives a summary about the report contents. Dramatic structure Lead paragraph Foreword Preamble Preface Prologue Epigraph Leora Freedman, Jerry Plotnick
Introduction (essay)
–
First page, introduction to
In Flanders Fields
21.
Comic book
–
A comic book or comicbook, also called comic magazine or simply comic, is a publication that consists of comic art in the form of sequential juxtaposed panels that represent individual scenes. Panels are often accompanied by brief descriptive prose and written narrative, although comics has some origins in 18th century Japan and 1830s Europe, comic books were first popularized in the United States during the 1930s. Comic books are reliant on their organization and appearance, authors largely focus on the frame of the page, size, orientation, and panel positions. These characteristic aspects of books are necessary in conveying the content. The key elements of comic books include panels, balloons, text, balloons are usually convex spatial containers of information that are related to a character using a tail element. The tail has an origin, path, tip, and pointed direction, there are many technological formulas used to create comic books, including directions, axes, data, and metrics. Following these key formatting procedures is the writing, drawing, Comics as a print medium have existed in America since the printing of The Adventures of Mr. Obadiah Oldbuck in 1842 in hardcover, making it the first known American prototype comic book. The introduction of Jerry Siegel and Joe Shusters Superman in 1938 turned comic books into a major industry, the Golden Age originated the archetype of the superhero. Historians generally divide the timeline of the American comic book into eras, the Golden Age of Comic Books began with the introduction of Superman in 1938, spurring a period of high sales. The Silver Age of comic books is considered to date from the first successful revival of the then-dormant superhero form. The demarcation between the Silver Age and the era, the Bronze Age of Comic Books, is less well-defined. The Modern Age of Comic Books runs from the mid-1980s to the present day, in response to attention from the government and from the media, the U. S. comic book industry set up the Comics Magazine Association of America. The CMAA instilled the Comics Code Authority in 1954 and drafted the self-censorship Comics Code that year and it was not until the 1970s that comic books could be published without passing through the inspection of the CMAA. In the early 1970s, a surge of creativity emerged in what known as underground comix. Published and distributed independently of the comics industry, most of such comics reflected the youth counterculture. Underground comics were almost never sold at newsstands, but rather in such youth-oriented outlets as head shops and record stores, frank Stacks The Adventures of Jesus, published under the name Foolbert Sturgeon, has been credited as the first underground comic. The rise of comic book specialty stores in the late 1970s created/paralleled a dedicated market for independent or alternative comics in the U. S, some independent comics continued in the tradition of underground comics. A few represented experimental attempts to bring closer to the status of fine art
Comic book
–
Comic books on display at a museum
Comic book
–
René Goscinny (1926 – 1977), writer of the
Astérix comic book series.
Comic book
–
Hugo Pratt (1927 – 1995), author of the
Corto Maltese comic book series.
22.
Orpheus
–
Orpheus was a legendary musician, poet, and prophet in ancient Greek religion and myth. For the Greeks, Orpheus was a founder and prophet of the so-called Orphic mysteries and he was credited with the composition of the Orphic Hymns, a collection of which only two have survived. Shrines containing purported relics of Orpheus were regarded as oracles, some ancient Greek sources note Orpheus Thracian origins. The earliest literary reference to Orpheus is a fragment of the sixth-century BC lyric poet Ibycus. He is not mentioned in Homer or Hesiod, most ancient sources accept his historical existence, Aristotle is an exception. Pindar calls Orpheus the father of songs and identifies him as a son of the Thracian king Oeagrus, Greeks of the Classical age venerated Orpheus as the greatest of all poets and musicians, it was said that while Hermes had invented the lyre, Orpheus had perfected it. Poets such as Simonides of Ceos said that Orpheus music and singing could charm the birds, fish and wild beasts, coax the trees and rocks into dance, and divert the course of rivers. Orpheus was one of the handful of Greek heroes to visit the Underworld and return, his music, Orpheus was an augur and seer, he practiced magical arts and astrology, founded cults to Apollo and Dionysus and prescribed the mystery rites preserved in Orphic texts. Pindar and Apollonius of Rhodes place Orpheus as the harpist and companion of Jason, Orpheus had a brother named Linus, who went to Thebes and became a Theban. He is claimed by Aristophanes and Horace to have taught cannibals to subsist on fruit, Horace believed, however, that Orpheus had only introduced order and civilization to savages. Bertrand Russell noted, The Orphics were a sect, wine, to them, was only a symbol, as, later. The intoxication that they sought was that of enthusiasm, of union with the god and they believed themselves, in this way, to acquire mystic knowledge not obtainable by ordinary means. This mystical element entered into Greek philosophy with Pythagoras, who was a reformer of Orphism as Orpheus was a reformer of the religion of Dionysus, from Pythagoras Orphic elements entered into the philosophy of Plato, and from Plato into most later philosophy that was in any degree religious. Strabo presents Orpheus as a mortal, who lived and died in a close to Olympus. Some, of course, received him willingly, but others, since they suspected a plot and violence, combined against him and killed him. He made money as a musician and wizard – Strabo uses agurteúonta, agúrtēs most often meant charlatan and always had a negative connotation. Pausanias writes of an unnamed Egyptian who considered Orpheus a mágeuse, according to Apollodorus and a fragment of Pindar, Orpheus father was Oeagrus, a Thracian king, or, according to another version of the story, the god Apollo. His mother was the muse Calliope, or, a daughter of Pierus and his birthplace and place of residence was in Pimpleia, Olympus
Orpheus
–
Roman mosaic depicting Orpheus, wearing a
Phrygian cap and surrounded by the beasts charmed by the music of his
lyre
Orpheus
–
Orpheus (left, with lyre) among the Thracians, from an
Attic red-figure bell-krater (ca. 440 BC)
Orpheus
–
Orpheus with the lyre and surrounded by beasts (
Byzantine & Christian Museum, Athens)
Orpheus
–
Thracian Girl Carrying the Head of Orpheus on His Lyre by
Gustave Moreau (1865)
23.
Poem Strip
–
Poem Strip is a 1969 comic book by the Italian writer and illustrator Dino Buzzati. It retells the myth of Orpheus and Eurydice, set in Milan in the 1960s, the aesthetics are influenced by 1960s pop culture. An English translation by Marina Harss was published in 2009, richard Rayner of Los Angeles Times wrote in 2009, The images are surreal, sexy and frightening, and the text is both compelling and poetic. There are shades of Fellini, shades of Dickens, shades of the great Italian horror director Mario Bava, publishers Weekly wrote, The text might have lost some of its lyricism in the translation from the Italian, as it occasionally seems stiff. The artwork retains its bold, sensual power, however, Publicity page at the Italian publishers website Publicity page at the American publishers website
Poem Strip
–
First edition cover
24.
Tatars
–
The Tatars are a Turkic people living in Asia and Europe who were one of the five major tribal confederations in the Mongolian plateau in the 12th century CE. The name Tatar first appears in form on the Kul Tigin monument as
Tatars
–
Persian miniature of the
Szigetvár campaign showing Ottoman troops and
Tatars as vanguard.
Tatars
–
Contemporary distribution of
Kipchak languages: Kipchak–Bolgar Kipchak–Cuman Kipchak–Nogay and Kyrgyz–Kipchak
Tatars
–
Map of Tartaria (1705)
Tatars
–
Drawing of Mongols of the
Golden Horde outside
Vladimir presumably demanding submission, before sacking the city.
25.
Existentialist
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While the predominant value of existentialist thought is commonly acknowledged to be freedom, its primary virtue is authenticity. Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophies, in style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience. Søren Kierkegaard is generally considered to have been the first existentialist philosopher and he proposed that each individual—not society or religion—is solely responsible for giving meaning to life and living it passionately and sincerely, or authentically. Existentialism became popular in the years following World War II, and strongly influenced many disciplines besides philosophy, including theology, drama, art, literature, and psychology. The term is seen as a historical convenience as it was first applied to many philosophers in hindsight. In fact, while existentialism is generally considered to have originated with Kierkegaard, Sartre posits the idea that what all existentialists have in common is the fundamental doctrine that existence precedes essence, as scholar Frederick Copleston explains. Sartre himself, in a lecture delivered in 1945, described existentialism as the attempt to draw all the consequences from a position of consistent atheism and this assertion comes from two sources. The Norwegian philosopher Erik Lundestad refers to the Danish philosopher Fredrik Christian Sibbern, Sibbern is supposed to have had two conversations in 1841, the first with Welhaven and the second with Kierkegaard. This was then brought to Kierkegaard by Sibbern, the second claim comes from the Norwegian historian Rune Slagstad, who claims to prove that Kierkegaard himself said the term existential was borrowed from the poet. He strongly believes that it was Kierkegaard himself who said that Hegelians do not study philosophy existentially, on the other hand, the Norwegian historian Anne-Lise Seip is critical of Slagstad, and believes the statement in fact stems from the Norwegian literary historian Cathrinus Bang. The actual life of the individuals is what constitutes what could be called their true essence instead of there being an arbitrarily attributed essence others use to define them, thus, human beings, through their own consciousness, create their own values and determine a meaning to their life. However, an existentialist philosopher would say such a wish constitutes an inauthentic existence - what Sartre would call bad faith, instead, the phrase should be taken to say that people are defined only insofar as they act and that they are responsible for their actions. For example, someone who acts cruelly towards other people is, by that act, furthermore, by this action of cruelty, such persons are themselves responsible for their new identity. This is as opposed to their genes, or human nature, as Sartre writes in his work Existentialism is a Humanism. Man first of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in the world—and defines himself afterwards. Of course, the positive, therapeutic aspect of this is also implied, A person can choose to act in a different way. Here it is clear that since humans can choose to be either cruel or good, they are, in fact. Sartres definition of existentialism was based on Heideggers magnum opus Being and this way of living, Heidegger called average everydayness
Existentialist
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From left to right, top to bottom:
Kierkegaard,
Dostoyevsky,
Nietzsche,
Sartre
Existentialist
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French philosophers
Jean-Paul Sartre and
Simone de Beauvoir
Existentialist
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French-Algerian philosopher, novelist, and playwright
Albert Camus
26.
Albert Camus
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Albert Camus was a French philosopher, author, and journalist. His views contributed to the rise of the known as absurdism. He wrote in his essay The Rebel that his life was devoted to opposing the philosophy of nihilism while still delving deeply into individual freedom. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1957, Camus did not consider himself to be an existentialist despite usually being classified as a follower of it, even in his lifetime. In a 1945 interview, Camus rejected any ideological associations, No, Sartre and I are always surprised to see our names linked. Camus was born in French Algeria to a Pied-Noir family and studied at the University of Algiers, in 1949, Camus founded the Group for International Liaisons to denounce two ideologies found in both the USSR and the USA. Albert Camus was born on 7 November 1913 in Dréan in French Algeria and his mother was of Spanish descent and could only hear out of her left ear. His father, Lucien, an agricultural worker of Alsatian descent, was wounded in the Battle of the Marne in 1914 during World War I. Lucien died from his wounds in an army hospital on 11 October. Camus and his mother, a house cleaner, lived without many basic material possessions during his childhood in the Belcourt section of Algiers. In 1923, Camus was accepted into the Lycée Bugeaud and eventually was admitted to the University of Algiers, after he contracted tuberculosis in 1930, he had to end his football activities, he had been a goalkeeper for a prominent Algerian university team. In addition, he was able to study part-time. To earn money, he took odd jobs, as a tutor, car parts clerk. Camus joined the French Communist Party in early 1935, seeing it as a way to fight inequalities between Europeans and natives in Algeria. He did not suggest he was a Marxist or that he had read Das Kapital, in 1936, the independence-minded Algerian Communist Party was founded. Camus joined the activities of the Algerian Peoples Party, which got him into trouble with his Communist party comrades, Camus then became associated with the French anarchist movement. The anarchist André Prudhommeaux first introduced him at a meeting in 1948 of the Cercle des Étudiants Anarchistes as a sympathiser familiar with anarchist thought, Camus wrote for anarchist publications such as Le Libertaire, La révolution Prolétarienne, and Solidaridad Obrera, the organ of the anarcho-syndicalist CNT. Camus stood with the anarchists when they expressed support for the uprising of 1953 in East Germany and he again allied with the anarchists in 1956, first in support of the workers uprising in Poznań, Poland, and then later in the year with the Hungarian Revolution
Albert Camus
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Portrait from
New York World-Telegram and Sun Photograph Collection, 1957.
Albert Camus
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Albert Camus's gravestone
Albert Camus
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The monument to Camus built in the small town of
Villeblevin, France where he died in an automobile accident on 4 January 1960
27.
The Myth of Sisyphus
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The Myth of Sisyphus is a 1942 philosophical essay by Albert Camus. The English translation by Justin OBrien was first published in 1955, in the essay, Camus introduces his philosophy of the absurd, mans futile search for meaning, unity, and clarity in the face of an unintelligible world devoid of God and eternal truths or values. Does the realization of the absurd require suicide and he then outlines several approaches to the absurd life. The essay concludes, The struggle itself is enough to fill a mans heart, the work can be seen in relation to other absurdist works by Camus, the novel The Stranger, the plays The Misunderstanding and Caligula, and especially the essay The Rebel. The essay is dedicated to Pascal Pia and is organized in four chapters and he begins by describing the absurd condition, life is meaningless and nonsensical, but humans strive constantly for meaning and sense in it. Once stripped of its common romanticism, the world is a foreign, strange, yet humans need meaning, even though it appears there is no meaning to be found. Science professes a sensible explanation of the world, but ends in fantastic stories of microscopic galaxies of atoms that cannot be seen and this is the absurd condition and from the moment absurdity is recognized, it becomes a passion, the most harrowing of all. He then characterizes a number of philosophies that describe and attempt to deal with this feeling of the absurd, by Heidegger, Jaspers, Shestov, Kierkegaard, and Husserl. For Camus, who set out to take the absurd seriously and follow it to its final conclusions, taking the absurd seriously means acknowledging the contradiction between the desire of human reason and the unreasonable world. Suicide, then, also must be rejected, without man, the contradiction must be lived, reason and its limits must be acknowledged, without false hope. However, the absurd can never be accepted, it requires constant confrontation, to embrace the absurd implies embracing all that the unreasonable world has to offer. Without a meaning in life, there is no scale of values, what counts is not the best living but the most living. Thus, Camus arrives at three consequences from fully acknowledging the absurd, revolt, freedom, and passion, Camus then goes on to present examples of the absurd life. He begins with Don Juan, the serial seducer who lives the life to the fullest. There is no noble love but that which recognizes itself to be both short-lived and exceptional, the next example is the actor, who depicts ephemeral lives for ephemeral fame. He demonstrates to what degree appearing creates being, in those three hours he travels the whole course of the dead-end path that the man in the audience takes a lifetime to cover. Camuss third example of the man is the conqueror, the warrior who forgoes all promises of eternity to affect. He chooses action over contemplation, aware of the fact that nothing can last, here Camus explores the absurd creator or artist
The Myth of Sisyphus
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First English edition
The Myth of Sisyphus
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Sisyphus by
Titian, 1549
28.
Magical realism
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It is sometimes called fabulism, in reference to the conventions of fables, myths, and allegory. Magical realism, perhaps the most common term, often refers to fiction and literature in particular, the terms are broadly descriptive rather than critically rigorous. Matthew Strecher defines magic realism as what happens when a highly detailed, many writers are categorized as magical realists, which confuses the term and its wide definition. Magical realism is often associated with Latin American literature, particularly authors including Gabriel García Márquez, Jorge Luis Borges, Miguel Angel Asturias, in English literature, its chief exponents include Salman Rushdie and Alice Hoffman. Roh identified magic realisms accurate detail, smooth photographic clarity, and it reflects the uncanniness of people and our modern technological environment. In 1926 he founded the magic realist magazine 900. Novecento, Rohs magic realism also influenced writers in Hispanic America, where it was translated as realismo mágico in 1927. Venezuelan writer Arturo Uslar-Pietri, who had known Bontempelli, wrote influential magic realist short stories in the 1930s and 40s that focused on the mystery, Luis Leal attests that Pietri seemed to have been the first to adopt the term realismo mágico in Hispanic America in 1948. French-Russian Cuban writer Alejo Carpentier, who rejected Rohs magic realism as tiresome pretension, developed his related concept lo real maravilloso, or marvelous realism, in 1949. While Flores named Jorge Luis Borges as the first magical realist, Borges is often seen as a predecessor of magical realists, with only Flores considering him a true magical realist. The extent to which the characteristics below apply to a magic realist text varies. Every text is different and employs a smattering of the qualities listed here, however, they accurately portray what one might expect from a magic realist text. Magical realism portrays fantastical events in a realistic tone. It brings fables, folk tales, and myths into contemporary social relevance, fantasy traits given to characters, such as levitation, telepathy, and telekinesis, help to encompass modern political realities that can be phantasmagorical. The existence of elements in the real world provides the basis for magical realism. Writers do not invent new worlds but reveal the magical in this world, as was done by Gabriel García Márquez who wrote the work of the style. In the binary world of realism, the supernatural realm blends with the natural. Authorial reticence is the withholding of information and explanations about the disconcerting fictitious world. The narrator is indifferent, a characteristic enhanced by this absence of explanation of fantastic events, Magical events are presented as ordinary occurrences, therefore, the reader accepts the marvelous as normal and common
Magical realism
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Alejo Carpentier
Magical realism
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Plaque of Gabriel García Márquez, Paris
Magical realism
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Love Song 1914,
Museum of Modern Art
Magical realism
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Alexander Kanoldt, Still Life II 1922
29.
Social alienation
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The term alienation has been used over the ages with varied and sometimes contradictory meanings. In ancient history it could mean a sense of achieving a higher state of contemplation, ecstasy or union—becoming alienated from a limited existence in the world. Examples of this usage have been traced to neoplatonic philosophers such as Plotinus, there have also long been religious concepts of being separated or cut off from God and the faithful, alienated in a negative sense. The New Testament mentions the term apallotrioomai in Greek—being alienated from, ideas of estrangement from a Golden Age, or due to a Fall of man, or approximate equivalents in differing cultures or religions, have also been described as concepts of alienation. A double positive and negative sense of alienation is shown in the spiritual beliefs referred to as Gnosticism. Alienation has also had a particular legal-political meaning since at least Ancient Roman times, the term alienation itself comes from the Latin alienus which meant of another place or person, which in turn came from alius, meaning other or another. An alienus in ancient Roman times could refer to someone elses slave, another usage of the term in Ancient Greco-Roman times was by physicians referring to disturbed, difficult or abnormal states of mind, generally attributed to imbalanced physiology. In Latin alienatio mentis, this usage has been dated to Asclepiades, once translations of such works had resurfaced in the West in the 17th century, physicians again began using the term, which is typically attributed to Felix Platter. In medieval times, a relationship between alienation and social order has been described, mediated in part by mysticism and monasticism, the Crusades and Witch-hunts have been described as forms of mass alienation. In the 18th century, Hutcheson introduced a distinction between alienable and unalienable rights in the sense of the term. In the same century a law of Alienation of affection was introduced for men to seek compensation from other men accused of taking away their woman. In the history of literature, the German Romantics appear to be the first group of writers, around the start of the 19th century, Hegel popularized a Christian and Idealist philosophy of alienation. Around the same time, Pinel was popularizing a new understanding of mental alienation and he argued that people could be disturbed by emotional states and social conditions, without necessarily having lost their reason, as had generally been assumed. Hegel praised Pinel for his moral treatment approach, and developed related theories, nevertheless, as Foucault would later write. Marx was initially in the Young Hegelian camp and, like Feuerbach, rejected the spiritual basis, marxs theory of alienation is articulated most clearly in the Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts and The German Ideology. The young Marx wrote more often and directly of alienation than the mature Marx, marxs concepts of alienation have been classed into four types by Kostas Axelos, Economic and Social Alienation, Political Alienation, Human Alienation, and Ideological Alienation. In the concepts most prominent use, it refers to the economic and social aspect in which workers are disconnected from what they produce. Marx believed that alienation is a result of capitalism
Social alienation
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Sociology
30.
Bogeyman
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Bogeyman, pronounced /bʊɡimæn/ or /boʊɡimæn/, is a common allusion to a mythical creature in many cultures used by adults to frighten children into good behavior. Parents may tell their children if they misbehave, the bogeyman will get them. Bogeymen may target a specific instance, a bogeyman that punishes children who suck their thumbs—or general misbehaviour. In some cases, the bogeyman is a nickname for the Devil, the bogeyman is usually a masculine entity, but can be any gender, or simply be androgynous. The word bogey is believed to be derived from the Middle English bogge / bugge and is thought to be a cognate of the German bögge. A related word, bugbear, from bug, meaning goblin or scarecrow, and bear, was imagined as a demon in the form of a bear that eats small children, and was also used to mean a general object of dread. The word bugaboo, with a pair of meanings, may have arisen as an alteration of bugbear. In Southeast Asia, the term is supposed to refer to Bugis or Buganese pirates, ruthless seafarers of southern Sulawesi. These pirates often plagued early English and Dutch trading ships of the British East India Company and it is popularly believed that this resulted in the European sailors bringing their fear of the bugi men back to their home countries. Bogeyman-like beings are almost universal, common to the folklore of many countries, in many countries, a bogeyman variant is portrayed as a man with a sack on his back who carries naughty children away. Similar legends are very common in Eastern Europe, as well as in Haiti. El Coco is a common to many Spanish-speaking countries. In Spain, parents will sing lullabies or tell rhymes to children, warning them if they do not sleep, El Coco will come. The rhyme originated in the 17th century has evolved over the years, coconuts received that name because their brownish hairy surface reminded Portuguese explorers of coco, a ghost with a pumpkin head. Some lore has him as a kid who was the victim of violence, and now hes alive, but hes not, Medrano said, citing Xavier Garzas 2004 book Creepy Creatures and other Cucuys. In Brazilian folklore, a character called Cuca is depicted as a female humanoid alligator. Theres a famous lullaby sung by most parents to their children that says that the Cuca will come and get them if they do not sleep, just as in Spain. The Cuca is also a character of Monteiro Lobatos Sítio do Picapau Amarelo, in the countries of the eastern Mediterranean, children who misbehave are threatened with a creature known as babau
Bogeyman
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Goya 's Que viene el Coco ("Here Comes the Bogeyman / The Bogeyman is Coming") c. 1797
Bogeyman
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Plaque at Itum Bahal,
Kathmandu showing Gurumapa
