1.
Pointillism
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Pointillism /ˈpɔɪntᵻlɪzəm/ is a technique of painting in which small, distinct dots of color are applied in patterns to form an image. Georges Seurat and Paul Signac developed the technique in 1886, branching from Impressionism, the term Pointillism was coined by art critics in the late 1880s to ridicule the works of these artists, and is now used without its earlier mocking connotation. The movement Seurat began with this technique is known as Neo-Impressionism, the Divisionists, too, used a similar technique of patterns to form images, though with larger cube-like brushstrokes. The technique relies on the ability of the eye and mind of the viewer to blend the color spots into a range of tones. It is related to Divisionism, a technical variant of the method. Divisionism is concerned with theory, whereas pointillism is more focused on the specific style of brushwork used to apply the paint. It is a technique with few serious practitioners today, and is seen in the works of Seurat, Signac. However, see also Andy Warhols early works, and Pop Art, the practice of Pointillism is in sharp contrast to the traditional methods of blending pigments on a palette. Pointillism is analogous to the four-color CMYK printing process used by some printers and large presses that place dots of Cyan, Magenta, Yellow. Televisions and computer monitors use a technique to represent image colors using Red, Green. If red, blue, and green light are mixed, the result is something close to white light, painting is inherently subtractive, but Pointillist colors often seem brighter than typical mixed subtractive colors. This may be partly because subtractive mixing of the pigments is avoided, the painting technique used for Pointillist color mixing is at the expense of the traditional brushwork used to delineate texture. The majority of Pointillism is done in oil paint, anything may be used in its place, but oils are preferred for their thickness and tendency not to run or bleed. Pointillism also refers to a style of 20th-century music composition, different musical notes are made in seclusion, rather than in a linear sequence, giving a sound texture similar to the painting version of Pointillism. This type of music is known as punctualism or klangfarbenmelodie
2.
Charles Blanc
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Charles Blanc was a French art critic. He was the brother of the French socialist politician and historian Louis Blanc. After the February Revolution of 1848, he was director of the Department for the Visual Arts at the Ministry of the Interior and he published the Histoire des peintres de toutes les écoles, which was translated into English and German. In his book, Chromophobia, David Batchelor argues that Charles Blanc thought of color in art as something not to be relied upon. With regard to painting, Blanc says that while color is essential, its place is delegated behind the formal characteristics of composition, chiaroscuro and drawing
3.
Neo-impressionism
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Neo-Impressionism is a term coined by French art critic Félix Fénéon in 1886 to describe an art movement founded by Georges Seurat. Around this time, the peak of France’s modern era emerged, followers of Neo-Impressionism, in particular, were drawn to modern urban scenes as well as landscapes and seashores. Science-based interpretation of lines and colors influenced Neo-Impressionists characterization of their own contemporary art, the Pointillist and Divisionist techniques are often mentioned in this context, because it was the dominant technique in the beginning of the Neo-impressionist movement. Some argue that Neo-Impressionism became the first true movement in painting. The Neo-Impressionists were able to create a movement very quickly in the 19th century, partially due to its connection to anarchism. The movement and the style were an attempt to drive harmonious vision from modern science, anarchist theory, during the emergence of Neo-Impressionism, Seurat and his followers strove to refine the impulsive and intuitive artistic mannerisms of Impressionism. Neo-impressionists used disciplined networks of dots and blocks of color in their desire to instill a sense of organization, in further defining the movement, Seurat incorporated the recent explanation of optic and color perceptions. The development of theory by Michel Eugène Chevreul and others by the late 19th century played a pivotal role in shaping the Neo-Impressionist style. Ogden Rood’s book, Modern Chromatics, with Applications to Art and Industry, acknowledged the different behaviors exhibited by colored light, while the mixture of the former created a white or gray color, that of the latter produced a dark, murky color. As painters, Neo-Impressionists had to deal with colored pigments, so to avoid the dullness, mixing of colors was not necessary. There are a number of alternatives to the term Neo-Impressionism and each has its own nuance and it emphasized the studies of color and light which were central to his artistic style. This term is used today. Divisionism, which is commonly used, is used to describe a mode of Neo-Impressionist painting. It refers to the method of applying individual strokes of complementary, unlike other designations of this era, the term Neo-Impressionism was not given as a criticism. Instead, it embraces Seurats and his followers ideals in their approach to art, note, Pointillism merely describes a later technique based on divisionism in which dots of color instead of blocks of color are applied. Neo-Impressionism was first presented to the public in 1886 at the Salon des Indépendants, the Indépendants remained their main exhibition space for decades with Signac acting as president of the association. But with the success of Neo-Impressionism, its fame spread quickly, in 1886, Seurat and Signac were invited to exhibit in the 8th and final Impressionist exhibition, later with Les XX and La Libre Esthétique in Brussels. In 1892, a group of Neo-Impressionist painters united to show their works in Paris, in the Salons of the Hôtel Brébant,32, the following year they exhibited at 20, rue Laffitte
4.
Pigments
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A pigment is a material that changes the color of reflected or transmitted light as the result of wavelength-selective absorption. This physical process differs from fluorescence, phosphorescence, and other forms of luminescence, many materials selectively absorb certain wavelengths of light. Materials that humans have chosen and developed for use as pigments usually have properties that make them ideal for coloring other materials. A pigment must have a high tinting strength relative to the materials it colors and it must be stable in solid form at ambient temperatures. For industrial applications, as well as in the arts, permanence, pigments that are not permanent are called fugitive. Fugitive pigments fade over time, or with exposure to light, pigments are used for coloring paint, ink, plastic, fabric, cosmetics, food, and other materials. Most pigments used in manufacturing and the arts are dry colorants. This powder is added to a binder, a neutral or colorless material that suspends the pigment. A distinction is made between a pigment, which is insoluble in its vehicle, and a dye, which either is itself a liquid or is soluble in its vehicle. A colorant can act as either a pigment or a dye depending on the vehicle involved, in some cases, a pigment can be manufactured from a dye by precipitating a soluble dye with a metallic salt. The resulting pigment is called a lake pigment, the term biological pigment is used for all colored substances independent of their solubility. In 2006, around 7.4 million tons of inorganic, organic, asia has the highest rate on a quantity basis followed by Europe and North America. By 2020, revenues will have risen to approx, the global demand on pigments was roughly US$20.5 billion in 2009, around 1. 5-2% up from the previous year. It is predicted to increase in a growth rate in the coming years. The worldwide sales are said to increase up to US$24.5 billion in 2015, pigments appear the colors they are because they selectively reflect and absorb certain wavelengths of visible light. White light is an equal mixture of the entire spectrum of visible light with a wavelength in a range from about 375 or 400 nanometers to about 760 or 780 nm. When this light encounters a pigment, parts of the spectrum are absorbed by the molecules or ions of the pigment, in organic pigments such as diazo or phthalocyanine compounds the light is absorbed by the conjugated systems of double bonds in the molecule. Some of the inorganic pigments such as vermilion or cadmium yellow absorb light by transferring an electron from the ion to the positive ion
5.
Luminosity
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In astronomy, luminosity is the total amount of energy emitted by a star, galaxy, or other astronomical object per unit time. It is related to the brightness, which is the luminosity of an object in a spectral region. In SI units luminosity is measured in joules per second or watts, values for luminosity are often given in the terms of the luminosity of the Sun, which has a total power output of 7026384600000000000♠3. 846×1026 W. The symbol for solar luminosity is L⊙. Luminosity can also be given in terms of magnitude, the absolute bolometric magnitude of an object is a logarithmic measure of its total energy emission. In astronomy, luminosity is the amount of energy a body radiates per unit of time. It is most frequently measured in two forms, visual and bolometric, although luminosities at other wavelengths are increasingly being used as instruments become available to measure them, a bolometer is the instrument used to measure radiant energy over a wide band by absorption and measurement of heating. When not qualified, the term luminosity means bolometric luminosity, which is measured either in the SI units, watts, a star also radiates neutrinos, which carry off some energy, contributing to the stars total luminosity. In practice bolometric magnitudes are measured by taking measurements at certain wavelengths, a stars luminosity can be determined from two stellar characteristics, size and effective temperature. The former is represented in terms of solar radii, R⊙, while the latter is represented in kelvins. To determine a stars radius, two metrics are needed, the stars angular diameter and its distance from Earth, often calculated using parallax. However, for most stars the angular diameter or parallax, or both, are far below our ability to measure with any certainty, an alternate way to measure stellar luminosity is to measure the stars apparent brightness and distance. Because luminosity is proportional to temperature to the power, the large variation in stellar temperatures produces an even vaster variation in stellar luminosity. Because the luminosity depends on a power of the stellar mass. The most luminous stars are young stars, no more than a few million years for the most extreme. In the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, the x-axis represents temperature or spectral type while the y-axis represents luminosity or magnitude. The vast majority of stars are found along the sequence with blue Class 0 stars found at the top left of the chart while red Class M stars fall to the bottom right. Certain stars like Deneb and Betelgeuse are found above and to the right of the main sequence, blue and white supergiants are high luminosity stars somewhat cooler than the most luminous main sequence stars. A star like Deneb, for example, has a luminosity around 200,000 L⊙, a type of A2
6.
Georges Seurat
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Georges-Pierre Seurat was a French post-Impressionist painter and draftsman. He is noted for his use of drawing media and for devising the painting techniques known as chromoluminarism and pointillism. His large-scale work, A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, altered the direction of art by initiating Neo-impressionism. Seurat was born 2 December 1859 in Paris, at 60 rue de Bondy, the Seurat family moved to 136 boulevard de Magenta in 1862 or 1863. His father, Antoine Chrysostome Seurat, originally from Champagne, was a legal official who had become wealthy from speculating in property. Georges had a brother, Émile Augustin, and a sister, Marie-Berthe and his father lived in Le Raincy and visited his wife and children once a week at boulevard de Magenta. Georges Seurat first studied art at the École Municipale de Sculpture et Dessin, near his familys home in the boulevard Magenta, Seurats studies resulted in a well-considered and fertile theory of contrasts, a theory to which all his work was thereafter subjected. His formal artistic education came to an end in November 1879, after a year at the Brest Military Academy, he returned to Paris where he shared a studio with his friend Aman-Jean, while also renting a small apartment at 16 rue de Chabrol. For the next two years, he worked at mastering the art of monochrome drawing and his first exhibited work, shown at the Salon, of 1883, was a Conté crayon drawing of Aman-Jean. He also studied the works of Eugène Delacroix carefully, making notes on his use of color and he spent 1883 working on his first major painting—a large canvas titled Bathers at Asnières, a monumental work showing young men relaxing by the Seine in a working-class suburb of Paris. Seurat also departed from the Impressionist ideal by preparing for the work with a number of drawings, Bathers at Asnières was rejected by the Paris Salon, and instead he showed it at the Groupe des Artistes Indépendants in May 1884. Seurats new ideas on pointillism were to have a strong influence on Signac. In the summer of 1884, Seurat began work on A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, the painting shows members of each of the social classes participating in various park activities. The tiny juxtaposed dots of multi-colored paint allow the eye to blend colors optically. It took Seurat two years to complete this 10-foot-wide painting, much of which he spent in the park sketching in preparation for the work and it is now in the permanent collection of the Art Institute of Chicago. The painting was the inspiration for James Lapine and Stephen Sondheims musical, Seurat concealed his relationship with Madeleine Knobloch, an artists model whom he portrayed in his painting Jeune femme se poudrant. In 1889 she moved in with Seurat in his studio on the 7th floor of 128bis Boulevard de Clichy, when Madeleine became pregnant, the couple moved to a studio at 39 passage de lÉlysée-des-Beaux-Arts. There she gave birth to their son, who was named Pierre-Georges,16 February 1890, Seurat died in Paris in his parents home on 29 March 1891 at the age of 31
7.
Ogden Rood
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Ogden Nicholas Rood was an American physicist best known for his work in color theory. At age 18, Rood became a student at Yale University, but after his sophomore year he transferred to Princeton University, where he received his baccalaureate degree in 1852. For the next two years he was successively a graduate student at Yale University, an assistant at the University of Virginia, and an assistant to Benjamin Silliman. In 1854–1858, he lived in Germany, dividing his time between oil painting and academic studies in Berlin and Munich, working in the laboratory of Justus von Liebig, in 1858, shortly before returning to the U. S. A. he married Mathilde Prunner of Munich. In 1858 he joined the faculty of the short-lived Troy University, in 1865 Rood was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences. In 1869 he became a vice-president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, as an amateur artist, Rood was a member of the American Watercolor Society. In 1874 he gave two lectures to the National Academy of Design in New York on Modern Optics in Painting, along with Maxwell and Michel Eugène Chevreul, Roods work was an influence on the Impressionist artists and their successors. Roods theory of contrasting colors was particularly influential on Georges-Pierre Seurat, the founder of Neo-Impressionism, Rood suggested that small dots or lines of different colors, when viewed from a distance, would blend into a new color. He believed that the colors of his color wheel, when applied in pairs by the artist. William Innes Homer considered Seurat was influenced by passages in Ogden Roods Students Text-book of Color, Or, Modern Chromatics, with Applications to Art and Industry. In his 1912 Color Standards and Color Nomenclature, Robert Ridgway named four colors for Rood, Rood’s Blue, Rood’s Brown, Rood’s Lavender, Art in Theory, An Anthology of Changing Ideas. Students Text-book of Color, Or, Modern Chromatics, with Applications to Art, New York, D. Appleton and Company. Works by or about Ogden Rood at Internet Archive Ogden Rood — Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences Ogden Rood Modern chromatics - digital facsimile from the Linda Hall Library
8.
Oil painting
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Oil painting is the process of painting with pigments with a medium of drying oil as the binder. Commonly used drying oils include linseed oil, poppy seed oil, walnut oil, the choice of oil imparts a range of properties to the oil paint, such as the amount of yellowing or drying time. Certain differences, depending on the oil, are visible in the sheen of the paints. An artist might use different oils in the same painting depending on specific pigments and effects desired. The paints themselves also develop a particular consistency depending on the medium, the oil may be boiled with a resin, such as pine resin or frankincense, to create a varnish prized for its body and gloss. Its practice may have migrated westward during the Middle Ages, Oil paint eventually became the principal medium used for creating artworks as its advantages became widely known. In recent years, water miscible oil paint has come to prominence and, to some extent, water-soluble paints contain an emulsifier that allows them to be thinned with water rather than paint thinner, and allows very fast drying times when compared with traditional oils. Traditional oil painting techniques often begin with the artist sketching the subject onto the canvas with charcoal or thinned paint, Oil paint is usually mixed with linseed oil, artist grade mineral spirits, or other solvents to make the paint thinner, faster or slower-drying. A basic rule of oil paint application is fat over lean and this means that each additional layer of paint should contain more oil than the layer below to allow proper drying. If each additional layer contains less oil, the painting will crack. This rule does not ensure permanence, it is the quality and type of oil leads to a strong. There are many media that can be used with the oil, including cold wax, resins. These aspects of the paint are closely related to the capacity of oil paint. Traditionally, paint was transferred to the surface using paintbrushes. Oil paint remains wet longer than other types of artists materials, enabling the artist to change the color. At times, the painter might even remove a layer of paint. This can be done with a rag and some turpentine for a time while the paint is wet, Oil paint dries by oxidation, not evaporation, and is usually dry to the touch within a span of two weeks. It is generally dry enough to be varnished in six months to a year, art conservators do not consider an oil painting completely dry until it is 60 to 80 years old
9.
Art Institute of Chicago
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The Art Institute of Chicago, founded in 1879 and located in Chicagos Grant Park, is one of the oldest and largest art museums in the United States. Recognized for its efforts and popularity among visitors, the museum hosts approximately 1.5 million guests annually. The growth of the collection has warranted several additions to the museums original 1893 building, the Art Institute is connected to the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, a leading art school, making it one of the few remaining unified arts institutions in the United States. In 1866, a group of 35 artists founded the Chicago Academy of Design in a studio on Dearborn Street, the organization was modeled after European art academies, such as the Royal Academy, with Academicians and Associate Academicians. The Academys charter was granted in March 1867, classes started in 1868, meeting every day at a cost of $10 per month. The Academys success enabled it to build a new home for the school, a stone building on 66 West Adams Street. When the Great Chicago Fire destroyed the building in 1871 the Academy was thrown into debt, attempts to continue despite the loss by using rented facilities failed. By 1878 the Academy was $10,000 in debt, members tried to rescue the ailing institution by making deals with local businessmen, before some finally abandoned it in 1879 to found a new organization, named the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. When the Chicago Academy of Design went bankrupt the same year, in 1882, the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts changed its name to the current Art Institute of Chicago and elected as its first president the banker and philanthropist Charles L. Also in 1882, the purchased a lot on the southwest corner of Michigan Avenue. By January 1885 the trustees recognized the need to provide space for the organizations growing collection. The city agreed, and the building was completed in time for the year of the fair. Construction costs were met by selling the Michigan/Van Buren property, on October 31,1893 the Institute moved into the new building. For the opening reception on December 8,1893, Theodore Thomas, from the 1900s to the 1960s the school offered with the Logan Family the Logan Medal of the Arts, an award which became one of the most distinguished awards presented to artists in the US. Between 1959 and 1970 the Institute was a key site in the battle to gain art and documentary photography a place in galleries, under curator Hugh Edwards and his assistants. As Director of the museum starting in the early 1980s, James N. Wood conducted an expansion of its collection. He retired from the museum in 2004, in 2006, the Art Institute began construction of The Modern Wing, an addition situated on the southwest corner of Columbus and Monroe. The project, designed by Pritzker Prize winning architect Renzo Piano, was completed, the 264, 000-square-foot building makes the Art Institute the second-largest art museum in the United States
10.
Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
11.
Paul Signac
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Paul Victor Jules Signac was a French Neo-Impressionist painter who, working with Georges Seurat, helped develop the Pointillist style. Paul Signac was born in Paris on 11 November 1863 and he followed a course of training in architecture before deciding at the age of 18 to pursue a career as a painter after attending an exhibit of Monets work. He sailed around the coasts of Europe, painting the landscapes he encountered and he also painted a series of watercolors of French harbor cities in later years. In 1884 he met Claude Monet and Georges Seurat, many of Signacs paintings are of the French coast. He loved to paint the water and he left the capital each summer, to stay in the south of France in the village of Collioure or at St. Tropez, where he bought a house and invited his friends. Paul Signac, Albert Dubois-Pillet, Odilon Redon and Georges Seurat were among the founders of the Société des Artistes Indépendants, the association began in Paris 29 July 1884 with the organization of massive exhibitions, with the device No jury nor awards. The purpose of Société des Artistes Indépendants—based on the principle of abolishing admission jury—is to allow the artists to present their works to public judgement with complete freedom, for the following three decades their annual exhibitions set the trends in art of the early 20th century. At the 1905 Salon des Indépendants, Henri Matisse exhibited the proto-Fauve painting Luxe, Signac purchased the work after the 1905 Salon des Indépendants. In 1908 Signac was elected president of the 24th Salon des Indépendants, in 1886 Signac met Vincent van Gogh in Paris. In 1887 the two regularly went to Asnières-sur-Seine together, where they painted such subjects as river landscapes. Initially, Van Gogh chiefly admired Signac’s loose painting technique, in March 1889, Signac visited Van Gogh at Arles. The next year he made a trip to Italy, seeing Genoa, Florence. In 1888, Signac discovered anarchist ideas by reading Elisee Reclus, Kropotkin and Jean Grave, with his friends Angrand Cross, Maximilien Luce and Camille Pissarro he contributed to Jean Grave’s paper Les Temps Nouveaux. His financial support was considerable, he sent regular cheques and made a gift of his works for five lotteries between 1895 and 1912, from his various ports of call, Signac brought back vibrant, colorful watercolors, sketched rapidly from nature. From these sketches, he painted large canvases that are carefully worked out in small, mosaic-like squares of color, quite different from the tiny. Signac himself experimented with various media, as well as oil paintings and watercolors he made etchings, lithographs, and many pen-and-ink sketches composed of small, laborious dots. The Neo-Impressionists influenced the next generation, Signac inspired Henri Matisse and André Derain in particular, as president of the Société des Artistes Indépendants from 1908 until his death, Signac encouraged younger artists by exhibiting the controversial works of the Fauves and the Cubists. Signac served as a juror with Florence Meyer Blumenthal in awarding the Prix Blumenthal, in September 1913, Signac rented a house at Antibes, where he settled with Jeanne Selmersheim-Desgrange, who gave birth to their daughter Ginette on 2 October 1913
12.
The Museum of Modern Art
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The Museum of Modern Art is an art museum located in Midtown Manhattan in New York City, on 53rd Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues. MoMA has been important in developing and collecting modernist art, and is identified as one of the largest and most influential museums of modern art in the world. The MoMA Library includes approximately 300,000 books and exhibition catalogs, over 1,000 periodical titles, the archives holds primary source material related to the history of modern and contemporary art. The idea for The Museum of Modern Art was developed in 1929 primarily by Abby Aldrich Rockefeller and they became known variously as the Ladies, the daring ladies and the adamantine ladies. They rented modest quarters for the new museum in the Heckscher Building at 730 Fifth Avenue in Manhattan, and it opened to the public on November 7,1929, nine days after the Wall Street Crash. Abby had invited A. Conger Goodyear, the president of the board of trustees of the Albright Art Gallery in Buffalo, New York. At the time, it was Americas premier museum devoted exclusively to art. One of Abbys early recruits for the staff was the noted Japanese-American photographer Soichi Sunami. Goodyear enlisted Paul J. Sachs and Frank Crowninshield to join him as founding trustees, Sachs, the associate director and curator of prints and drawings at the Fogg Museum at Harvard University, was referred to in those days as a collector of curators. Goodyear asked him to recommend a director and Sachs suggested Alfred H. Barr, under Barrs guidance, the museums holdings quickly expanded from an initial gift of eight prints and one drawing. Its first successful exhibition was in November 1929, displaying paintings by Van Gogh, Gauguin, Cézanne. Abbys husband was opposed to the museum and refused to release funds for the venture. Nevertheless, he donated the land for the current site of the museum, plus other gifts over time. During that time it initiated many more exhibitions of noted artists, the museum also gained international prominence with the hugely successful and now famous Picasso retrospective of 1939–40, held in conjunction with the Art Institute of Chicago. In its range of presented works, it represented a significant reinterpretation of Picasso for future art scholars, Boy Leading a Horse was briefly contested over ownership with the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. In 1941, MoMA hosted the exhibition, Indian Art of the United States. His brother, David Rockefeller, also joined the board of trustees in 1948. David subsequently employed the noted architect Philip Johnson to redesign the garden and name it in honor of his mother
13.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
14.
Vincent van Gogh
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Vincent Willem van Gogh was a Dutch Post-Impressionist painter who is among the most famous and influential figures in the history of Western art. In just over a decade he created about 2,100 artworks, including around 860 oil paintings and his suicide at 37 followed years of mental illness and poverty. Born into a family, Van Gogh drew as a child and was serious, quiet. As a young man he worked as an art dealer, often travelling and he turned to religion, and spent time as a Protestant missionary in southern Belgium. He drifted in ill health and solitude before taking up painting in 1881 and his younger brother Theo supported him financially, and the two kept up a long correspondence by letter. His early works, mostly still lifes and depictions of peasant labourers, in 1886 he moved to Paris, where he met members of the avant-garde, including Émile Bernard and Paul Gauguin, who were reacting against the Impressionist sensibility. As his work developed he created a new approach to still lifes and his paintings grew brighter in colour as he developed a style that became fully realised during his stay in Arles in the south of France in 1888. During this period he broadened his subject matter to include trees, cypresses, wheat fields. Van Gogh suffered from episodes and delusions and though he worried about his mental stability, he often neglected his physical health, did not eat properly. His friendship with Gauguin ended after a confrontation with a razor and he spent time in psychiatric hospitals, including a period at Saint-Rémy. After he discharged himself and moved to the Auberge Ravoux in Auvers-sur-Oise near Paris and his depression continued and on 27 July 1890, Van Gogh shot himself in the chest with a revolver. He died from his injuries two days later, Van Gogh was unsuccessful during his lifetime, and was considered a madman and a failure. He became famous after his suicide, and exists in the imagination as the quintessential misunderstood genius. His reputation began to grow in the early 20th century as elements of his style came to be incorporated by the Fauves. The most comprehensive source on Van Gogh is the correspondence between him and his younger brother, Theo. Their lifelong friendship, and most of what is known of Vincents thoughts, Theo van Gogh was an art dealer and provided his brother with financial and emotional support, and access to influential people on the contemporary art scene. Theo kept all of Vincents letters to him, Vincent kept few of the letters he received, after both had died, Theos widow Johanna arranged for the publication of some of their letters. A few appeared in 1906 and 1913, the majority were published in 1914, Vincents letters are eloquent and expressive and have been described as having a diary-like intimacy, and read in parts like autobiography
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Van Gogh Museum
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The Van Gogh Museum is an art museum dedicated to the works of Vincent van Gogh and his contemporaries in Amsterdam in the Netherlands. It is located at the Museum Square in the borough Amsterdam South, close to the Stedelijk Museum, the Rijksmuseum, the museum opened on 2 June 1973. It is located in buildings designed by Gerrit Rietveld and Kisho Kurokawa, the museums collection is the largest collection of Van Goghs paintings and drawings in the world. In 2015, the museum had 1.9 million visitors, and was the 2nd most visited museum in the Netherlands, upon Vincent van Goghs death in 1890, his work not sold fell into the possession of his brother Theo. Theo died six months after Vincent, leaving the work in the possession of his widow, selling many of Vincents paintings with the ambition of spreading knowledge of his artwork, Johanna maintained a private collection of his works. Design for a Van Gogh Museum was commissioned by the Dutch government in 1963 to Dutch architect, Rietveld died a year later, and the building was not completed until 1973, when the museum opened its doors. In 1998 and 1999, the building was renovated by the Dutch architect Martien van Goor, starting in late 2012, the museum was closed for renovations for six months. During this period,75 works from the collection were shown in the Hermitage Amsterdam, on 9 September 2013, the museum unveiled a long-lost Van Gogh painting that spent years in a Norwegian attic believed to be by another painter. It is the first full-size canvas by him discovered since 1928, sunset at Montmajour depicts trees, bushes and sky, painted with Van Goghs familiar thick brush strokes. It can be dated to the day it was painted because he described it in a letter to his brother, Theo. In 1991, twenty paintings were stolen from the museum, among them Van Goghs early painting The Potato Eaters, although the thieves escaped from the building,35 minutes later all stolen paintings were recovered from an abandoned car. Three paintings – Wheatfield with Crows, Still Life with Bible, four men, including two museum guards, were convicted for the theft and given six or seven-year sentences. It is considered to be the largest art theft in the Netherlands since the Second World War, in 2002, two paintings were stolen from the museum, Congregation Leaving the Reformed Church in Nuenen and View of the Sea at Scheveningen. Two Dutchmen were convicted for the theft to four-and-a-half-year sentences, the museum offered a reward of €100,000 for information leading to the recovery of the paintings. The FBI Art Crime Team listed the robbery on their Top Ten Art Crimes list, in September 2016, both paintings were discovered by the Guardia di Finanza in Naples, Italy. The two artworks were found in a good state, according to the Van Gogh Museum. The museum is situated at the Museumplein in Amsterdam-Zuid, on the Paulus Potterstraat 7, the museum consists of two buildings, the Rietveld building, designed by Gerrit Rietveld, and the Kurokawa wing, designed by Kisho Kurokawa. The museum offices are housed on Stadhouderskade 55 in Amsterdam-Zuid, the Rietveld building is the main structure of the museum and exhibits the permanent collection
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Amsterdam
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Amsterdam is the capital and most populous municipality of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Its status as the capital is mandated by the Constitution of the Netherlands, although it is not the seat of the government, which is The Hague. Amsterdam has a population of 851,373 within the city proper,1,351,587 in the urban area, the city is located in the province of North Holland in the west of the country. The metropolitan area comprises much of the part of the Randstad, one of the larger conurbations in Europe. Amsterdams name derives from Amstelredamme, indicative of the citys origin around a dam in the river Amstel, during that time, the city was the leading centre for finance and diamonds. In the 19th and 20th centuries the city expanded, and many new neighborhoods and suburbs were planned, the 17th-century canals of Amsterdam and the 19–20th century Defence Line of Amsterdam are on the UNESCO World Heritage List. As the commercial capital of the Netherlands and one of the top financial centres in Europe, Amsterdam is considered a world city by the Globalization. The city is also the capital of the Netherlands. Many large Dutch institutions have their headquarters there, and seven of the worlds 500 largest companies, including Philips and ING, are based in the city. In 2012, Amsterdam was ranked the second best city to live in by the Economist Intelligence Unit and 12th globally on quality of living for environment, the city was ranked 3rd in innovation by Australian innovation agency 2thinknow in their Innovation Cities Index 2009. The Amsterdam seaport to this day remains the second in the country, famous Amsterdam residents include the diarist Anne Frank, artists Rembrandt van Rijn and Vincent van Gogh, and philosopher Baruch Spinoza. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange, the oldest stock exchange in the world, is located in the city center. After the floods of 1170 and 1173, locals near the river Amstel built a bridge over the river, the earliest recorded use of that name is in a document dated October 27,1275, which exempted inhabitants of the village from paying bridge tolls to Count Floris V. This allowed the inhabitants of the village of Aemstelredamme to travel freely through the County of Holland, paying no tolls at bridges, locks, the certificate describes the inhabitants as homines manentes apud Amestelledamme. By 1327, the name had developed into Aemsterdam, Amsterdam is much younger than Dutch cities such as Nijmegen, Rotterdam, and Utrecht. In October 2008, historical geographer Chris de Bont suggested that the land around Amsterdam was being reclaimed as early as the late 10th century. This does not necessarily mean there was already a settlement then, since reclamation of land may not have been for farming—it may have been for peat. Amsterdam was granted city rights in either 1300 or 1306, from the 14th century on, Amsterdam flourished, largely from trade with the Hanseatic League
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La danse, Bacchante
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La danse is an oil painting created circa 1906 by the French artist and theorist Jean Metzinger. Bacchante is a pre-Cubist or Proto-Cubist work executed in a highly personal Divisionist style during the height of the Fauve period. Bacchante was painted in Paris at a time when Metzinger and Robert Delaunay painted portraits of one another, exhibiting together at the Salon dAutomne and the Berthe Weill gallery. Bacchante was exhibited in Paris during the spring of 1907 at the Salon des Indépendants, along with Coucher de soleil and four other works by Metzinger. The painting was purchased by the art historian and collector Wilhelm Uhde, and as late as 1985 Bacchante was listed in Jean Metzinger In Retrospect as belonging to the collection of the Kröller-Müller Museum. La danse is an oil painting on canvas with dimensions 73 x 54 cm, the work represents a nude woman in a composition that contains a wide variety of exotic geometrized elements. Metzingers bold use of color characteristic of his work between 1904 and 1907 is highly noticeable in Bacchante and his brushstrokes are practically all the same size but their directions and colors vary giving rhythm to the overall work. The depth of field is flattened, the blending in with background components. The subject matter is classical—reminiscent of Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres —yet its treatment is everything and this early work in the Divisionist style represents a Bacchante. In Greek mythology, maenads were the followers of Dionysus. Their name literally translates as raving ones, often the maenads were portrayed as inspired by Dionysus into a state of ecstatic frenzy, through a combination of dancing and drunken intoxication. In this state they would lose all self-control, begin shouting excitedly, many artists chose this subject over the centuries, probably due to these dramatic characteristics. Her body is depicted nude, seen from the front, with yellow and white highlights and turquoise reflections and she is the primary subject of the work and is framed in an exotic setting that accentuates the arching curve of her back. She has a deep voluptuousness, as in the works of Ingres, the scene is seemingly calm and luxurious simultaneously. Metzingers early quest for a total image explains the lack of depth, the profuse light. Metzinger added a conspicuously tropical setting presumably under the influence of Paul Gauguins Mahana no atua, in 1903 Jean Metzinger arrived in Paris where he would reside until 1912. At Weills gallery he met Max Jacob, who introduced him to Pablo Picasso Juan Gris, and Guillaume Krotowsky, in the spring of 1906 Georges Braque exhibited his works for the first time at the Salon des Indépendants. At the exhibition of 1907 six paintings by Braque were exhibited, five were purchased by Wilhelm Uhde
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Jean Metzinger
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Jean Dominique Antony Metzinger was a major 20th-century French painter, theorist, writer, critic and poet, who along with Albert Gleizes wrote a theoretical work on Cubism. His earliest works, from 1900 to 1904, were influenced by the Neo-impressionism of Georges Seurat, between 1904 and 1907 Metzinger worked in the Divisionist and Fauvist styles with a strong Cézannian component, leading to some of the first proto-Cubist works. From 1908 Metzinger experimented with the faceting of form, a style that would become known as Cubism. His early involvement in Cubism saw him both as an influential artist and an important theorist of the movement. The idea of moving around an object in order to see it from different view-points is treated, for the first time, in Metzingers Note sur la Peinture, before the emergence of Cubism, painters worked from the limiting factor of a single view-point. Jean Metzinger and Albert Gleizes wrote the first major treatise on Cubism in 1912, Metzinger was a founding member of the Section dOr group of artists. During the First World War Metzinger furthered his role as a leading Cubist with his co-founding of the phase of the movement. He recognized the importance of mathematics in art, through a radical geometrization of form as an underlying basis for his wartime compositions. As post-war reconstruction began, a series of exhibitions at Léonce Rosenbergs Galerie de LEffort Moderne were to highlight order, the collective phenomenon of Cubism—now in its advanced revisionist form—became part of a widely discussed development in French culture, with Metzinger at its helm. In terms of the separation of culture and life, this period emerges as the most important in the history of Modernism, for Metzinger, the classical vision had been an incomplete representation of real things, based on an incomplete set of laws, postulates and theorems. He believed the world was dynamic and changing in time, that it appeared different depending on the point of view of the observer, each of these viewpoints were equally valid according to underlying symmetries inherent in nature. Jean Metzinger came from a prominent military family and his great-grandfather, Nicolas Metzinger, Captain in the 1st Horse Artillery Regiment, and Chevalier of the Legion of Honour, had served under Napoleon Bonaparte. A street in the Sixième arrondissement of Nantes was named after Jeans grandfather, Jeans younger brother Maurice would become a musician, excelling as a cellist. By 1900 Jean was a student at Académie Cours Cambronne in Nantes, working under Hippolyte Touront, Metzinger, however, was interested in the current trends in painting. Metzinger sent three paintings to the Salon des Indépendants in 1903, and subsequently moved to Paris with the proceeds from their sale, from the age of 20, Metzinger supported himself as a professional painter. He would show four times at Weills gallery,17 January-1 February 1913, March 1913, June 1914. It is at Berthe Weills that he would meet Max Jacob for the first time, Berthe Weill was also the first Parisian art dealer to sell works of Picasso. Along with Picasso and Metzinger, she helped discover Matisse, Derain, Amedeo Modigliani, in 1904 Metzinger exhibited six paintings in the Divisionist style at the Salon des Indépendants and the Salon d’Automne
19.
Robert Delaunay
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Robert Delaunay was a French artist who, with his wife Sonia Delaunay and others, cofounded the Orphism art movement, noted for its use of strong colours and geometric shapes. His later works were abstract, reminiscent of Paul Klee. His key influence related to use of colour and a clear love of experimentation with both depth and tone. Robert Delaunay was born in Paris, the son of George Delaunay, while he was a child, Delaunays parents divorced, and he was raised by his mothers sister Marie and her husband Charles Damour, in La Ronchère near Bourges. When he failed his exam and said he wanted to become a painter. At age 19, he left Ronsin to focus entirely on painting and contributed six works to the Salon des Indépendants in 1904. He traveled to Brittany, where he was influenced by the group of Pont-Aven, and, in 1906, he contributed works he painted in Brittany to the 22nd Salon des Indépendants, where he met Henri Rousseau. Delaunay formed a friendship at this time with Jean Metzinger. The two of them were singled out by the art critic Louis Vauxcelles in 1907 as Divisionists who used large, mosaic-like cubes to construct small, Robert Herbert writes, Metzingers Neo-Impressionist period was somewhat longer than that of his close friend Delaunay. The height of his Neo-Impressionist work was in 1906 and 1907, piet Mondrian developed a similar mosaic-like Divisionist technique circa 1909. The Futurists later would incorporate the style, under the influence of Gino Severinis Parisian works, into their dynamic paintings, Delaunay is most closely identified with Orphism. From 1912 to 1914, he painted nonfigurative paintings based on the characteristics of brilliant colors that were so dynamic they would function as the form. Apollinaire was strongly influenced by Delaunay’s theories of color and often quoted from them to explain Orphism, Delaunay’s fixations with color as the expressive and structural means were sustained with his study of color. He believes painting is a visual art that depends on intellectual elements. The contrasts and harmonies of color produce in the eye simultaneous movements, vision becomes the subject of painting. His early paintings are deeply rooted in Neoimpressionism, night Scene for example has vigorous activity with the use of lively brushstrokes in bright colors against a dark background. It doesn’t define solid object but the areas that surround them, spectral colors of Neoimpressionism were later abandoned, the Eiffel Tower series, were fragmentation of solid objects and their merging with space was learned. Influences in this series were Cézanne, Analytical Cubism, and Futurism, in the Eiffel Tower the interpenetration of tangible objects and surrounding space is accompanies by intense movement of geometric plans that are more dynamic than static equilibrium of Cubist forms
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Impressionism
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Impressionism originated with a group of Paris-based artists whose independent exhibitions brought them to prominence during the 1870s and 1880s. The Impressionists faced harsh opposition from the art community in France. The development of Impressionism in the arts was soon followed by analogous styles in other media that became known as impressionist music. Radicals in their time, early Impressionists violated the rules of academic painting and they constructed their pictures from freely brushed colours that took precedence over lines and contours, following the example of painters such as Eugène Delacroix and J. M. W. Turner. They also painted scenes of modern life, and often painted outdoors. Previously, still lifes and portraits as well as landscapes were painted in a studio. The Impressionists found that they could capture the momentary and transient effects of sunlight by painting en plein air, the Impressionists, however, developed new techniques specific to the style. The public, at first hostile, gradually came to believe that the Impressionists had captured a fresh and original vision, even if the art critics and art establishment disapproved of the new style. In the middle of the 19th century—a time of change, as Emperor Napoleon III rebuilt Paris, the Académie was the preserver of traditional French painting standards of content and style. Historical subjects, religious themes, and portraits were valued, landscape, the Académie preferred carefully finished images that looked realistic when examined closely. Paintings in this style were made up of brush strokes carefully blended to hide the artists hand in the work. Colour was restrained and often toned down further by the application of a golden varnish, the Académie had an annual, juried art show, the Salon de Paris, and artists whose work was displayed in the show won prizes, garnered commissions, and enhanced their prestige. The standards of the juries represented the values of the Académie, represented by the works of artists as Jean-Léon Gérôme. In the early 1860s, four young painters—Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley and they discovered that they shared an interest in painting landscape and contemporary life rather than historical or mythological scenes. A favourite meeting place for the artists was the Café Guerbois on Avenue de Clichy in Paris, where the discussions were led by Édouard Manet. They were soon joined by Camille Pissarro, Paul Cézanne, during the 1860s, the Salon jury routinely rejected about half of the works submitted by Monet and his friends in favour of works by artists faithful to the approved style. In 1863, the Salon jury rejected Manets The Luncheon on the Grass primarily because it depicted a woman with two clothed men at a picnic. While the Salon jury routinely accepted nudes in historical and allegorical paintings, the jurys severely worded rejection of Manets painting appalled his admirers, and the unusually large number of rejected works that year perturbed many French artists
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Hermann von Helmholtz
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Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz was a German physician and physicist who made significant contributions in several scientific fields. The largest German association of institutions, the Helmholtz Association, is named after him. In physics, he is known for his theories on the conservation of energy, work in electrodynamics, chemical thermodynamics, Helmholtzs work is influenced by the philosophy of Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Immanuel Kant. He tried to trace their theories in empirical matters like physiology, as a young man, Helmholtz was interested in natural science, but his father wanted him to study medicine at the Charité because there was financial support for medical students. Trained primarily in physiology, Helmholtz wrote on other topics, ranging from theoretical physics, to the age of the Earth. Helmholtzs first academic position was as a teacher of Anatomy at the Academy of Arts in Berlin in 1848 and he then moved to take a post of associate professor of physiology at the Prussian University of Königsberg, where he was appointed in 1849. In 1855 he accepted a professorship of anatomy and physiology at the University of Bonn. He was not particularly happy in Bonn, however, and three later he transferred to the University of Heidelberg, in Baden, where he served as professor of physiology. In 1871 he accepted his final university position, as professor of physics at the University of Berlin and his first important scientific achievement, an 1847 treatise on the conservation of energy, was written in the context of his medical studies and philosophical background. He discovered the principle of conservation of energy while studying muscle metabolism and he tried to demonstrate that no energy is lost in muscle movement, motivated by the implication that there were no vital forces necessary to move a muscle. This was a rejection of the tradition of Naturphilosophie which was at that time a dominant philosophical paradigm in German physiology. He published his theories in his book Über die Erhaltung der Kraft, in the 1850s and 60s, building on the publications of William Thomson, Helmholtz and William Rankine popularized the idea of the heat death of the universe. In fluid dynamics, Helmholtz made several contributions, including Helmholtzs theorems for vortex dynamics in inviscid fluids, Helmholtz was a pioneer in the scientific study of human vision and audition. He coined the term psychophysics, to capture the distinction between the measurement of physical stimuli and their effect on human perception. The physical sound needs to be increased exponentially in order for equal steps to seem linear, Helmholtz paved the way in experimental studies on the relationship between the physical energy and its appreciation, with the goal in mind to develop psychophysical laws. The sensory physiology of Helmholtz was the basis of the work of Wilhelm Wundt, a student of Helmholtz and he, more explicitly than Helmholtz, described his research as a form of empirical philosophy and as a study of the mind as something separate. Helmholtz had, in his early repudiation of Naturphilosophie, stressed the importance of materialism, in 1851, Helmholtz revolutionized the field of ophthalmology with the invention of the ophthalmoscope, an instrument used to examine the inside of the human eye. Helmholtzs interests at that time were focused on the physiology of the senses
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Barbizon
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Barbizon is a commune in the Seine-et-Marne department in north-central France. It is located near the Fontainebleau Forest, the Barbizon school of painters is named after the village, Théodore Rousseau and Jean-François Millet, leaders of the school, made their homes and died in the village
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La Grande Jatte
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The Ile de la Jatte or Île de la Grande Jatte is an island in France, in the river Seine, at the very gates of Paris, in the communes of Neuilly-sur-Seine and Levallois, Hauts-de-Seine. It is 7 km distant from the towers of Notre Dame and 3 km from the Etoile and it has about 4,000 inhabitants and is nearly 2 km long and nearly 200 m wide at its widest point. Its name translates as Island of the Bowl or Island of the Big Bowl, in 1818 Louis-Philippe acquired the château of Neuilly in order to house his family of ten children. He bought the land and created a park which encloses the island and he also put a temple on the northern point. Between 1850 and 1870 Napoléon III and Baron Haussmann further modified the island, at the end of the 19th century the island became known for its painters, especially the impressionists. In addition to Georges Seurat, artist such as Claude Monet, Vincent van Gogh, Alfred Sisley, Charles Angrand, in June 2009, a walk around the island detailing the works of the impressionists was established
24.
Subtractive color
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The color that a surface displays depends on which parts of the visible spectrum are not absorbed and therefore remain visible. Subtractive color systems start with light, presumably white light, colored inks, paints, or filters between the watchers and the light source or reflective surface subtract wavelengths from the light, giving it color. If the incident light is other than white, our visual mechanisms are able to compensate well, conversely, additive color systems start with darkness. Light sources of various wavelengths are added in proportions to produce a range of colors. Usually, three colors are combined to stimulate humans’ trichromatic color vision, sensed by the three types of cone cells in the eye, giving an apparently full range. RYB is the standard set of subtractive primary colors used for mixing pigments. It is used in art and art education, particularly in painting and it predated modern scientific color theory. Red, yellow, and blue are the colors of the standard color wheel. The secondary colors, violet, orange, and green make up another triad, formed by mixing equal amounts of red and blue, red and yellow, in color printing, the usual primary colors are cyan, magenta and yellow. Cyan is the complement of red, meaning that the cyan serves as a filter that absorbs red, the amount of cyan applied to a white sheet of paper controls how much of the red in white light will be reflected back from the paper. Ideally, the cyan is completely transparent to green and blue light and has no effect on those parts of the spectrum, magenta is the complement of green, and yellow the complement of blue. Combinations of different amounts of the three can produce a range of colors with good saturation. In inkjet color printing and typical mass production photomechanical printing processes, additive color Color mixing Color motion picture film Color space Color theory Primary color Berns, Roy S. Billmeyer and Saltzmans Principles of Color Technology, 3rd edition. Stroebel, Leslie, John Compton, Ira Current, and Richard Zakia, basic Photographic Materials and Processes, 2nd edition. CS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Wyszecki, Günther & W. S. Stiles, colour Science, Concept and Methods, Quantitative Data and Formulae. Stanford University CS178 interactive Flash demo comparing additive and subtractive color mixing
25.
Primary colors
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A set of primary colors is a small, arbitrary set of pigmented physical media, lights or purely abstract elements of a mathematical colorspace model. Distinct colors from a larger gamut can be specified in terms of a mixture of colors which facilitates technological applications such as painting, electronic displays. Any small set of pigments or lights are imperfect physical primary colors in that they cannot be mixed to yield all possible colors that can be perceived by the color vision system. In an additive set of colors, as in coincident projected lights or in electronic visual displays, in a subtractive set of colors, as in mixing of pigments or dyes for printing, the colors magenta, yellow and cyan are normally used. See RGB color model, and CMYK color model for more on these sets of primary colors. Primary colors are not a property of light but are related to the color vision system in animals. The human eye normally contains three types of color photoreceptors that are associated with specialized cone cells. Each photoreceptor responds to different ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum. Humans and other species with three types of color photoreceptor are known as trichromats. Color appearance models like CIECAM02 describe color more generally in six dimensions, most placental mammals other than primates have only two types of color photoreceptor and are therefore dichromats while birds and marsupials are tetrachromats with four color photoreceptor types. There is no peer reviewed scholarly work that has confirmed the existence of a functional human tetrachromat though they are suspected to exist. Demonstrating improved spectral discrimination in any animal can be difficult since complex sets of neurons affect color perception in ways that are difficult to interrogate. Before the nature of colorimetry and visual physiology were well understood a number of color models assigned primary colors to different hues. Young originally proposed red, green and violet, and Maxwell changed violet to blue, Helmholtz proposed a slightly red, a vegetation-green, slightly yellowish. In modern understanding, human cells do not correspond precisely to a specific set of primary colors. There are hundreds of available pigments for visual artists to use. A common approach is to use just a palette of pigments that can be physically mixed to any color that the artist desires in the final work. Contemporary classical realists have often advocated that a palette of white, red, yellow
26.
Additive color
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Additive color is color created by mixing a number of different light colors, with shades of red, green, and blue being the most common primary colors used in additive color system. Computer monitors and televisions are the most common examples of additive color, the colored sub-pixels do not overlap on the screen, but when viewed from a normal distance they overlap and blend on the eyes retina, producing the same result as external superimposition. Another example of color can be found in the overlapping projected colored lights often used in theatrical lighting for plays, concerts, circus shows. The full gamut of color available in any additive color system is defined by all the combinations of all the possible luminosities of each primary color in that system. In chromaticity space, the gamut is a convex polygon with corners at the primaries. For three primaries, it is a triangle, for example, in subtractive color systems, green is a combination of yellow and cyan, in additive color, red plus green makes yellow. Additive color is a result of the way the eye detects color, there is a vast difference between a pure spectral yellow light, with a wavelength of approximately 580 nm, and a mixture of red and green light. However, both stimulate our eyes in a manner, so we do not detect that difference. Systems of additive color are motivated by the Young–Helmholtz theory of color vision. For his experimental work on the subject, James Clerk Maxwell is sometimes credited as being the father of additive color. He had the photographer Thomas Sutton photograph a tartan ribbon on black-and-white film three times, first with a red, then green, then blue color filter over the lens. When brought into alignment, the three formed a full color image, thus demonstrating the principles of additive color. The following chart demonstrates an example of the mixing and perception of additive primaries, to fully understand the process, it should be demonstrated how dull colors are obtained using cyan, magenta, and yellow instead of red, green, and blue. Color mixing Color space Color theory Color motion picture film Kinemacolor Prizma Color RGB color model Subtractive color Technicolor William Friese-Greene RGB, http, //www. edinphoto. org. uk/1_P/1_photographers_maxwell. htm - Photos and stories from the James Clerk Maxwell Foundation. Stanford University CS178 interactive Flash demo comparing additive and subtractive color mixing
27.
Simultaneous contrast
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Simultaneous contrast identified by Michel Eugène Chevreul refers to the manner in which the colors of two different objects affect each other. The effect is noticeable when shared between objects of complementary color. This is a different concept from contrast, which by itself refers to one objects difference in color, successive contrast occurs when the perception of currently viewed stimuli is modulated by previously viewed stimuli. One type of contrast that involves both time and space is metacontrast and paracontrast, when one half of a circle is lit for 10 milliseconds, it is at its maximum intensity. If the other half is displayed at the time, there is a mutual inhibition, the left side is darkened by the right half. At the same time, there is a slight darkening of the side due to the first stimulus. In the early century, Wilhelm Wundt identified contrast as a fundamental principle of perception. Contrast effects can not only visual qualities like color and brightness. One experiment found that thinking of the name Hitler led to rating a person as more friendly. Whether a piece of music is perceived as good or bad can depend on whether the music heard before it was unpleasant or pleasant
28.
Camille Pissarro
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Camille Pissarro was a Danish-French Impressionist and Neo-Impressionist painter born on the island of St Thomas. His importance resides in his contributions to both Impressionism and Post-Impressionism, Pissarro studied from great forerunners, including Gustave Courbet and Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot. He later studied and worked alongside Georges Seurat and Paul Signac when he took on the Neo-Impressionist style at the age of 54, in 1873 he helped establish a collective society of fifteen aspiring artists, becoming the pivotal figure in holding the group together and encouraging the other members. Cézanne said he was a father for me, a man to consult and a little like the good Lord, and he was also one of Gauguins masters. Renoir referred to his work as revolutionary, through his portrayals of the common man. Pissarro is the only artist to have shown his work at all eight Paris Impressionist exhibitions and he acted as a father figure not only to the Impressionists but to all four of the major Post-Impressionists, including Georges Seurat, Paul Cézanne, Vincent van Gogh and Paul Gauguin. Jacob Abraham Camille Pissarro was born on 10 July 1830 on the island of St. Thomas to Frederick and his father was of Portuguese Jewish descent and held French nationality. His mother was from a French-Jewish family from the island of St. Thomas and his father was a merchant who came to the island from France to deal with the hardware store of a deceased uncle and married his widow. The marriage caused a stir within St. Thomas small Jewish community because she was married to Fredericks uncle. In subsequent years his four children were forced to attend the primary school. Upon his death, his will specified that his estate be split equally between the synagogue and St. Thomas Protestant church, when Camille was twelve his father sent him to boarding school in France. He studied at the Savary Academy in Passy near Paris, while a young student, he developed an early appreciation of the French art masters. Monsieur Savary himself gave him a grounding in drawing and painting and suggested he draw from nature when he returned to St. Thomas. However, his father preferred he work in his business, giving him a job working as a cargo clerk and he took every opportunity during those next five years at the job to practise drawing during breaks and after work. When he turned twenty-one, Danish artist Fritz Melbye, then living on St. Thomas, inspired Pissarro to take on painting as a profession, becoming his teacher. Pissarro then chose to leave his family and job and live in Venezuela and he drew everything he could, including landscapes, village scenes, and numerous sketches, enough to fill up multiple sketchbooks. In 1855 he moved back to Paris where he working as assistant to Anton Melbye. In Paris he worked as assistant to Danish painter Anton Melbye and he also studied paintings by other artists whose style impressed him, Courbet, Charles-François Daubigny, Jean-François Millet, and Corot
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Lucien Pissarro
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Lucien Pissarro was a landscape painter, printmaker, wood engraver and designer and printer of fine books. His landscape paintings employ techniques of Impressionism and Neo-Impressionism, but he exhibited with Les XX. Apart from his landscapes he painted a few still lifes and family portraits, until 1890 he worked in France, but thereafter was based in Britain. Pissarro was born on 20 February 1863 in Paris and he was the oldest of seven children of the Impressionist painter Camille Pissarro and his wife Julie. He studied with his father, and was influenced by Georges Seurat, in 1886 he exhibited at the last of the Impressionist exhibitions. From 1886 to 1894 he exhibited with the Salon des Independents and he first visited Britain in 1870-1 during the Franco-Prussian War. He returned in 1883-4, and in 1890 settled permanently in London, on 10 August 1892 he married Esther Levi Bensusan in Richmond. On 8 October 1893 she gave birth to their child, a daughter, Orovida Camille Pissarro. He met Charles Ricketts and Charles Shannon, and contributed woodcuts to their Dial, in 1894 he founded the Eragny Press and with his wife printed illustrated books until 1914. In 1897 he moved to 62 Bath Road in Chiswick, in 1903 he designed the typeface Brook Type. Pissarro associated with Walter Sickert in Fitzroy Street, and in 1906 became a member of the New English Art Club, from 1913 to 1919 he painted landscapes of Dorset, Westmorland, Devon, Essex, Surrey and Sussex. In 1916 Pissarro became a British citizen, while in Britain he was one of the founders of the Camden Town Group of artists. The group ceased three years later, from 1922 to 1937 he painted regularly in the south of France, interspersed with painting expeditions to Derbyshire, south Wales and Essex. From 1934 to 1944 he exhibited at the Royal Academy in London and he died on 10 July 1944, in Hewood, Dorset. Arts Council, Lucien Pissarro 1863-1944 a centenary exhibition Bensusan-Butt, J. Recollections of Lucien Pissarro in his seventies Bidwell, J. MacGregor, Camille Pissarro, Lettres à son fils Lucien, ed. J. Rewald Pissarro, C. Correspondance de Camille Pissarro, ed. J. Bailly-Herzberg ISBN 2-13-036694-5 - ISBN 2-905684-05-4 - ISBN 2-905684-09-7 - ISBN 2-905684-17-8 - ISBN 2-905684-35-6 Pissarro, L. The letters of Lucien to Camille Pissarro 1883-1903, ed. A. Thorold ISBN 0-521-39034-6 Reed, N. Pissarro in West London ISBN190116702 X Reed, N. Pissarro in Essex ISBN0951525840 Thorold, A. A Catalogue of the oil paintings of Lucien Pissarro Urbanelli, L, the wood engravings of Lucien Pissarro
30.
Albert Dubois-Pillet
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Albert Dubois-Pillet was a French Neo-impressionist painter and a career army officer. He was instrumental in the founding of the Société des Artistes Indépendants, louis-Auguste-Albert Dubois was born on 28 October 1846 in Paris. Shortly thereafter, his family moved to Toulouse, where he was raised, in 1867, he graduated from lEcole Impériale Militaire in Saint-Cyr and began his career as a military officer. He remained in the army for the rest of his life, from 1870 to 1871, he served in the Franco-Prussian War, during which the Germans captured him and held him in Westphalia, Prussia as a prisoner of war. After his release, he resumed a post in the Versailles army, throughout the 1870s he was stationed at several different provincial posts. He received an appointment in 1879 or 1880 to la Légion de la Garde Républicaine in Paris, although self-taught, with no formal art education, he proved to be a talented artist. The official Paris Salon accepted one of his still lifes in 1877, however, after his arrival in Paris, he created paintings which were somewhat more experimental, and his submissions were rejected by The Salons from 1880 to 1883. In the book, artist Claude Lantier, distraught over his sons death, the Tuilleries Exhibition was a one-time event with a goal similar to that of 1863s Salon des Refusés which showed works that had been rejected by the Salon. Dubois-Pillet envisioned a permanent alternative to the official Salon and he met with some of the other exhibitors, and he, Georges Seurat, Paul Signac, and Odilon Redon became the founding fathers of the Société des Artistes Indépendants. Dubois-Pillet structured the organization and, within less than a week, wrote and published its statutes, the society was officially formed on 29 July 1884, and their first exhibition, which opened on 1 December 1884, included work by Dubois-Pillet. He used his connections to secure desirable venues and terms for their exhibitions, was the organizer of the group until 1888. Around 1885, probably influenced by his friendships with Seurat and others, he began experimenting with Divisionist techniques, by the next year, his works were fully Neo-impressionist. With Signac, he used pen and ink to create pointillist drawings, Dubois-Pillets studio-apartment served as the unofficial Neo-impressionist headquarters during the movements early years. Some of his pointillist work is composed with photographic precision, in 1886 he was ordered by the army to discontinue his participation in exhibiting his art, and to dissociate himself from Les Indépendants. Dubois-Pillet paid little attention to these orders and his only solo exhibition during his lifetime was in 1888, at the offices of French symbolist journal Revue Indépendante. Some of his pointillist drawings were published in La Vie moderne in 1887, Dubois-Pillet and Louis Hayet were the two Neo-impressionists who were most focused on the theoretical aspects and scientific basis of their art. How to apply his theory in practice wasnt entirely clear, the models identity is unknown, exhibition curators tended to, at best, identify subjects by the initial of their last name. The Musée dArt Moderne de Saint-Etienne refers to her as Madame P. in late 1889, Dubois-Pillet was transferred by the army to a post as commander of the gendarmerie in Le Puy-en-Velay, a south central French commune
31.
Charles Angrand
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Charles Angrand was a French artist who gained renown for his Neo-Impressionist paintings and drawings. He was an important member of the Parisian avant-garde art scene in the late 1880s, Charles Théophile Angrand was born in Criquetot-sur-Ouville, Normandy, France, to schoolmaster Charles P. Angrand and his wife Marie. He received artistic training in Rouen at Académie de Peinture et de Dessin and his first visit to Paris was in 1875, to see a retrospective of the work of Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot at École des Beaux-Arts. Corot was an influence on Angrands early work, after being denied entry into École des Beaux-Arts, he moved to Paris in 1882, where he began teaching mathematics at Collège Chaptal. His living quarters were near Café dAthènes, Café Guerbois, Le Chat Noir, Angrand joined the artistic world of the Parisian avant-garde, becoming friends with such luminaries as Georges Seurat, Vincent van Gogh, Paul Signac, Maximilien Luce, and Henri-Edmond Cross. His avant-garde artistic and literary contacts influenced him, and in 1884 he co-founded Société des Artistes Indépendants, along with Seurat, Signac, Odilon Redon, through his interactions with Seurat, Signac, and others in the mid-1880s, his style evolved towards Neo-Impressionism. From 1887 his paintings were Neo-Impressionist and his drawings incorporated Seurats tenebrist style, Angrand had the ability to distil poetry from the most banal suburban scene. In 1887 he met van Gogh, who proposed a painting exchange, Van Gogh was influenced by Angrands thick brushstrokes and Japanese-inspired compositional asymmetry. Also in 1887, LAccident, his first Divisionist painting, was exhibited at the Salon des Indépendants, Angrand joined Seurat in plein air painting on La Grande Jatte island. Angrands implementation of Pointillist techniques differed from that of some of its leading proponents and he painted with a more muted palette than Seurat and Signac, who used bright contrasting colours. His monochrome conté crayon drawings such as his self-portrait above, which demonstrate his delicate handling of light. It would be impossible to imagine a use of white. These are the most beautiful drawings, poems of light, of composition and execution. Angrand exhibited his work in Paris at Les Indépendants, Galerie Druet, Galérie Durand-Ruel, and Bernheim-Jeune and his work appeared in Brussels in an 1891 show with Les XX. In the early 1890s, he abandoned painting, instead creating conté drawings and pastels of subjects including rural scenes and depictions of mother and child, in 1896 he moved to Saint-Laurent-en-Caux, in Upper Normandy. He began painting again around 1906, emulating the styles and colours of Signac, Angrand developed his own unique methods of Divisionism, with larger brushstrokes. As this resulted in rougher optical blending than small dots, he compensated by using intense colours. Some of his landscapes from this period are almost nonrepresentational, before World War I, he lived for a year in Dieppe
32.
Maximilien Luce
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Maximilien Luce was a prolific French Neo-impressionist artist, known for his paintings, illustrations, engravings, and graphic art, and also for his anarchist activism. Starting as an engraver, he concentrated on painting, first as an Impressionist, then as a Pointillist. Maximilien-Jules-Constant Luce was born on 13 March 1858 in Paris and his parents, of modest means, were Charles-Désiré Luce, a railway clerk, and Louise-Joséphine Dunas. The family lived in the Montparnasse, a district of Paris. Luce attended school at lEcole communale, beginning in 1864, in 1872, the fourteen-year-old Luce became an apprentice with wood-engraver Henri-Théophile Hildebrand. During his three-year xylography apprenticeship, he took night classes in drawing from instructors Truffet. During this period, Luce started painting in oils and he moved with his family to the southern Paris suburb of Montrouge. His art education continued as he attended drawing classes taught by Diogène Maillard at the Gobelins tapestry factory, Luce began working in the studio of Eugène Froment in 1876, producing woodcut prints for various publications, including LIllustration and Londons The Graphic. He took additional art courses, at lAcadémie Suisse, and also in the studio of portrait painter Carolus-Duran, through Froments studio, Luce became friends with Léo Gausson and Émile-Gustave Cavallo-Péduzzi. These three artists spent time around Lagny-sur-Marne creating Impressionist landscapes, Luce spent four years in the military, starting in 1879, serving in Brittany at Guingamp. The next year, he received a promotion to corporal, and he became friends with Alexandre Millerand, in 1881 he requested the restoration of his lower rank of soldier, second class. Carolus-Duran used his influence to get a transfer for Luce to Paris barracks and his stint in the military came to a close in 1883. The prevalence of the new printing process rendered xylography nearly obsolete as a profession. When the opportunities for employment as an engraver became scarce, Luce shifted his focus to painting full-time in about 1883, Gausson and Cavallo-Péduzzi introduced Luce in about 1884 to the Divisionist technique developed by Georges Seurat. This influenced Luce to begin painting in the Pointillist style, in contrast to Seurats detached manner, Luces paintings were passionate portrayals of contemporary subjects, depicting the violent effects of light. He moved to Montmartre in 1887, Luce joined the Société des Artistes Indépendants and participated in their third spring exhibition, where Paul Signac purchased one of his pieces, La Toilette. Camille Pissarro and critic Félix Fénéon were also impressed by the seven Luce works displayed in the show, Fénéon characterized Luce as a coarse, honest man, with a rough and muscular talent. A New York Times critic declared this Pointillist period to be the pinnacle of Luces artistic career and he described the skillfully executed painting as a lyrical celebration of nature
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Henri-Edmond Cross
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Henri-Edmond Cross, born Henri-Edmond-Joseph Delacroix, was a French painter and printmaker. He is most acclaimed as a master of Neo-Impressionism and he played an important role in shaping the second phase of that movement and he was a significant influence on Henri Matisse and many other artists. His work was instrumental in the development of Fauvism, Henri-Edmond-Joseph Delacroix was born in Douai, a commune in the Nord départment in northern France, on 20 May 1856. His parents, with a history of ironmongery, were Alcide Delacroix, a French adventurer. In 1865 the family moved to a location near Lille, a northern French city close to the Belgian border, alcides cousin, Dr. Henri was Durans protégé for a year. His studies continued for a time in Paris in 1875 with François Bonvin before returning to Lille. He studied at the École des Beaux-Arts, and in 1878 he enrolled at the Écoles Académiques de Dessin et dArchitecture and his art education continued, under fellow Douai artist Émile Dupont-Zipcy, after moving to Paris in 1881. Crosss early works, portraits and still lifes, were in the colors of Realism. 1881 was also the year of his first exhibition at the Salon des Artistes Français and he painted many landscapes on an 1883 trip to the Alpes-Maritimes, accompanied by his family. Dr. Soins, who was also along on the trip, was the subject of a painting that Cross exhibited at Nices Exposition Universelle later in the year, during the Mediterranean trip, Cross met Paul Signac, who became a close friend and artistic influence. In 1884 Cross co-founded the Société des Artistes Indépendants, which consisted of artists displeased with the practices of the official Salon, there, he met and became friends with many artists involved in the Neo-Impressionist movement, including Georges Seurat, Albert Dubois-Pillet, and Charles Angrand. Despite his association with the Neo-Impressionists, Cross did not adopt their style for many years and his work continued to manifest influences such as Jules Bastien-Lepage and Édouard Manet, as well as the Impressionists. The change from his early, somber, Realist work was gradual and his color palette became lighter, working in the brighter colors of Impressionism. He also worked en plein air, in the latter part of the 1880s, he painted pure landscapes that showed the influence of Claude Monet and Camille Pissarro. In about 1886, again attempting to differentiate himself from another French artist – this time, Henri Cros – he again changed his name, in 1891 Cross began painting in the Neo-Impressionist style, and exhibited his first large piece using this technique in an Indépendants show. That painting was a divisionist portrait of Madame Hector France, née Irma Clare, robert Rosenblum wrote that the picture is softly charged with a granular, atmospheric glow. Cross had wintered in the south of France from 1883 onward, until, suffering from rheumatism and his works were still exhibited in Paris. Crosss affinity with the Neo-Impressionist movement extended beyond the style to include their political philosophies
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Hippolyte Petitjean
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Hippolyte Petitjean was a French Post-Impressionist painter who practiced the technique of pointillism. When he was 13, Petitjean began his art studies at the Ecole de dessin in Mâcon, the town gave him a grant to continue at the École des Beaux-Arts where he studied under Alexandre Cabanel and Pierre Puvis de Chavannes. He was later influenced by Georges Seurat whom he met in Paris in 1884, after Seurat encouraged him to join the Neo-Impressionists, he was also influenced by Paul Signac and Camille Pissarro. He adopted the pointillist technique until 1894 when he started to combine it with more feathery strokes, in 1910, he returned to Neo-Impressionism with a series of decorative watercolours of landscapes and people set off by widely spaced rounded spots of pure colour. Petitjean exhibited at the Salon des Indépendants in 1891 and thereafter at Le Brac de Bouteville together with the symbolists and impressionists and he also exhibited in Brussels in 1893 and 1898, Berlin in 1898, Weimar in 1903, and Wiesbaden in 1921. Jeune femme assise, oil on canvas,73 x 60.5 cm, Musée des Beaux-Arts, Le Pont Neuf, watercolour and gouache on paper,250 x 190 cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New-York. Barque sur un étang, watercolour on paper,30 x 48 cm, Musée Thyssen-Bornemisza, la Danse du printemps, oil on canvas,54 x 105 cm, Musée des Ursulines, Mâcon. Baigneuse, oil on canvas,55 x 38 cm, Musée dOrsay, artworks by Hippolyte Petitjean, The Athenaeum
35.
Henri Matisse
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Henri-Émile-Benoît Matisse was a French artist, known for both his use of colour and his fluid and original draughtsmanship. He was a draughtsman, printmaker, and sculptor, but is primarily as a painter. Although he was labelled a Fauve, by the 1920s he was increasingly hailed as an upholder of the classical tradition in French painting. His mastery of the language of colour and drawing, displayed in a body of work spanning over a half-century. Matisse was born in Le Cateau-Cambrésis, in the Nord department in northern France and he grew up in Bohain-en-Vermandois, Picardie, France. In 1887 he went to Paris to study law, working as an administrator in Le Cateau-Cambrésis after gaining his qualification. He first started to paint in 1889, after his mother brought him art supplies during a period of following an attack of appendicitis. He discovered a kind of paradise as he described it. In 1891 he returned to Paris to study art at the Académie Julian and became a student of William-Adolphe Bouguereau, initially he painted still lifes and landscapes in a traditional style, at which he achieved reasonable proficiency. Chardin was one of the painters Matisse most admired, as an art student he made copies of four of Chardins paintings in the Louvre, in 1896 and 1897, Matisse visited the Australian painter John Peter Russell on the island Belle Île off the coast of Brittany. Russell introduced him to Impressionism and to the work of van Gogh and he later said Russell was my teacher, and Russell explained colour theory to me. In 1896 Matisse exhibited five paintings in the salon of the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts, with the model Caroline Joblau, he had a daughter, Marguerite, born in 1894. In 1898 he married Amélie Noellie Parayre, the two raised Marguerite together and had two sons, Jean and Pierre, Marguerite and Amélie often served as models for Matisse. In 1898, on the advice of Camille Pissarro, he went to London to study the paintings of J. M. W. Turner and then went on a trip to Corsica. Upon his return to Paris in February 1899, he worked beside Albert Marquet and met André Derain, Jean Puy, Matisse immersed himself in the work of others and went into debt from buying work from painters he admired. The work he hung and displayed in his home included a plaster bust by Rodin, a painting by Gauguin, a drawing by van Gogh, in Cézannes sense of pictorial structure and colour, Matisse found his main inspiration. Many of Matisses paintings from 1898 to 1901 make use of a Divisionist technique he adopted after reading Paul Signacs essay and his paintings of 1902–03, a period of material hardship for the artist, are comparatively somber and reveal a preoccupation with form. Having made his first attempt at sculpture, a copy after Antoine-Louis Barye, in 1899, he devoted much of his energy to working in clay, fauvism as a style began around 1900 and continued beyond 1910
36.
Pablo Picasso
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Pablo Ruiz y Picasso, also known as Pablo Picasso, was a Spanish painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramicist, stage designer, poet and playwright who spent most of his adult life in France. Picasso demonstrated extraordinary artistic talent in his years, painting in a naturalistic manner through his childhood. During the first decade of the 20th century, his style changed as he experimented with different theories, techniques, Picassos work is often categorized into periods. Much of Picassos work of the late 1910s and early 1920s is in a neoclassical style and his later work often combines elements of his earlier styles. Ruiz y Picasso were included for his father and mother, respectively, born in the city of Málaga in the Andalusian region of Spain, he was the first child of Don José Ruiz y Blasco and María Picasso y López. His mother was of one quarter Italian descent, from the territory of Genoa, though baptized a Catholic, Picasso would later on become an atheist. Picassos family was of middle-class background and his father was a painter who specialized in naturalistic depictions of birds and other game. For most of his life Ruiz was a professor of art at the School of Crafts, Picasso showed a passion and a skill for drawing from an early age. According to his mother, his first words were piz, piz, a shortening of lápiz, from the age of seven, Picasso received formal artistic training from his father in figure drawing and oil painting. Ruiz was an academic artist and instructor, who believed that proper training required disciplined copying of the masters. His son became preoccupied with art to the detriment of his classwork, the family moved to A Coruña in 1891, where his father became a professor at the School of Fine Arts. On one occasion, the father found his son painting over his sketch of a pigeon. In 1895, Picasso was traumatized when his sister, Conchita. After her death, the moved to Barcelona, where Ruiz took a position at its School of Fine Arts. Picasso thrived in the city, regarding it in times of sadness or nostalgia as his true home, Ruiz persuaded the officials at the academy to allow his son to take an entrance exam for the advanced class. This process often took students a month, but Picasso completed it in a week, the student lacked discipline but made friendships that would affect him in later life. His father rented a room for him close to home so he could work alone, yet he checked up on him numerous times a day. Picassos father and uncle decided to send the young artist to Madrids Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, at age 16, Picasso set off for the first time on his own, but he disliked formal instruction and stopped attending classes soon after enrolment
37.
Louis Vauxcelles
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Louis Vauxcelles was an influential French art critic. He is credited with coining the terms Fauvism, and Cubism, Vauxcelles coined the phrase les fauves in a 1905 review of the Salon dAutomne exhibit to describe in a mocking, critical manner a circle of painters associated with Matisse. Henri Matisses Blue Nude appeared at the 1907 Indépendants, entitled Tableau no, Vauxcelles writes on the topic of Nu bleu, I admit to not understanding. An ugly nude woman is stretched out upon grass of an opaque blue under the palm trees and this is an artistic effect tending toward the abstract that escapes me completely. Vauxcelles described the group of Fauves, A movement I consider dangerous is taking shape among a clan of youngsters. A chapel has been established, two haughty priests officiating, MM Derain and Matisse, a few dozen innocent catechumens have received their baptism. Their dogma amounts to a wavering schematicism that proscribes modeling and volumes in the name of I-dont-know-what pictorial abstraction and this new religion hardly appeals to me. I dont believe in this Renaissance, M. Matisse, fauve-in-chief, M. Derain, fauve deputy, MM. Othon Friesz and Dufy, fauves in attendance, in 1906 Jean Metzinger formed a close friendship with Robert Delaunay, with whom he would share an exhibition at Berthe Weills gallery early in 1907. The two of them were singled out by Vauxcelles in 1907 as Divisionists who used large, mosaic-like cubes to construct small, Vauxcelles recounts how Matisse told him at the time, Braque has just sent in a painting made of little cubes. The critic Charles Morice relayed Matisses words and spoke of Braques little cubes, the motif of the viaduct at lEstaque had inspired Braque to produce three paintings marked by the simplification of form and deconstruction of perspective. On 25 May 1909, Vauxcelles qualifies the works of Braque exhibited at the Salon des Indépendants as «bizarreries cubiques». In neither case notes Daniel Robbins, did the use of the word cube lead to the identification of the artists with a new pictorial attitude. The term Cubism emerged for the first time at the inauguration of the 1911 Salon des Indépendants, Vauxcelles acknowledged the importance of Cézanne to the Cubists in his article titled From Cézanne to Cubism. For Vauxcelles the influence had a character, both architectural and intellectual. He stressed the statement made by Émile Bernard that Cézannes optics were not in the eye, in 1911 he coined the less well-known term Tubism in describing the style of Fernand Léger. Towards the end of his life, in 1932, Vauxcelles published an essay about Marek Szwarc. His art, which plunges its roots into the past of the ghettos, ISBN 0-7924-5848-6 Works by or about Louis Vauxcelles at Internet Archive
38.
Piet Mondrian
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Pieter Cornelis Piet Mondriaan, after 1906 Mondrian, was a Dutch painter. Mondrian was a contributor to the De Stijl art movement and group and he evolved a non-representational form which he termed neoplasticism. This consisted of ground, upon which he painted a grid of vertical and horizontal black lines. Mondrians arrival in Paris from the Netherlands in 1911 marked the beginning of a period of profound change and he encountered experiments in Cubism and with the intent of integrating himself within the Parisian avant-garde removed an a from the Dutch spelling of his name. Mondrian was born in Amersfoort in the Netherlands, the second of his parents children and he was descended from Christian Dirkzoon Monderyan who lived in The Hague as early as 1670. The family moved to Winterswijk in the east of the country when his father, Pieter Cornelius Mondriaan, was appointed Head Teacher at a primary school. Mondrian was introduced to art from a early age. His father was a drawing teacher, and, with his uncle, Fritz Mondriaan. After a strictly Protestant upbringing, in 1892, Mondrian entered the Academy for Fine Art in Amsterdam and he already was qualified as a teacher. He began his career as a teacher in primary education, most of his work from this period is naturalistic or Impressionistic, consisting largely of landscapes. These paintings are most definitely representational, and they illustrate the influence that various artistic movements had on Mondrian, including pointillism, on display in the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag are a number of paintings from this period, including such Post-Impressionist works as The Red Mill and Trees in Moonrise. Another painting, Evening, depicting a tree in a field at dusk, even augurs future developments by using a palette consisting almost entirely of red, yellow, although Avond is only limitedly abstract, it is the earliest Mondrian painting to emphasize primary colors. Mondrians earliest paintings showing a degree of abstraction are a series of canvases from 1905 to 1908 that depict dim scenes of trees and houses reflected in still water. Mondrians art was related to his spiritual and philosophical studies. In 1908, he interested in the theosophical movement launched by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky in the late 19th century. The work of Blavatsky and a spiritual movement, Rudolf Steiners Anthroposophy. In 1918, he wrote I got everything from the Secret Doctrine, in 1921, in a letter to Steiner, Mondrian argued that his neoplasticism was the art of the foreseeable future for all true Anthroposophists and Theosophists. He remained a committed Theosophist in subsequent years, although he believed that his own artistic current, neoplasticism, would eventually become part of a larger
39.
Jan Sluijters
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Johannes Carolus Bernardus Sluijters, or Sluyters was a Dutch painter. Sluijters was a pioneer of various post-impressionist movements in the Netherlands. He experimented with styles, including fauvism and cubism, finally settling on a colorful expressionism. His paintings feature nude studies, portraits, landscapes, and still lifes, a number of streets are named after him in the Netherlands, including one in the neighborhood of streets named after 19th and 20th century Dutch painters in Overtoomse Veld-Noord, Amsterdam. Sluyters at Artcyclopedia Works by Jan Sluijters at Project Gutenberg
40.
Leo Gestel
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Leo Gestel was a Dutch painter. His father Willem Gestel was also an artist, Leo Gestel experimented with cubism, expressionism, futurism and postimpressionism. Along with Piet Mondrian he was among the artists of Dutch modernism. Gestel was first instructed in art by his father, Willem Gestel, the director of an art school, and his uncle, Dimmen Gestel, due to financial problems Gestel created advertisements for illustrated books. While in Paris he came in contact with the avant-garde movement, in 1913 Herwarth Walden offered him the chance to exhibit work in the Erster Deutscher Herbstsalon in Berlin. Generally Gestel spent the summer in Bergen, where he joined the Bergen School, in 1929 the majority of his works were lost when a fire destroyed his studio, he then moved to Blaricum. Leo gestel in the RKD Media related to Leo Gestel at Wikimedia Commons Entry for Leo Gestel on the Union List of Artist Names More information on artfacts. net
41.
Gino Severini
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Gino Severini was an Italian painter and a leading member of the Futurist movement. For much of his life he divided his time between Paris and Rome and he was associated with neo-classicism and the return to order in the decade after the First World War. During his career he worked in a variety of media, including mosaic and he showed his work at major exhibitions, including the Rome Quadrennial, and won art prizes from major institutions. Severini was born into a family in Cortona, Italy. His father was a court official and his mother a dressmaker. He studied at the Scuola Tecnica in Cortona until the age of fifteen, for a while he worked with his father, then in 1899 he moved to Rome with his mother. It was there that he first showed a serious interest in art, with the help of a patron of Cortonese origins he attended art classes, enrolling in the free school for nude studies and a private academy. His formal art education ended after two years when his patron stopped his allowance, declaring, I absolutely do not understand your lack of order, in 1900 he met the painter Umberto Boccioni. The ideas of Divisionism had a influence on Severinis early work. Severini settled in Paris in November 1906, the move was momentous for him. He said later, The cities to which I feel most strongly bound are Cortona and Paris, I was born physically in the first and he lived in Montmartre and dedicated himself to painting. There he met most of the artists of the period, befriending Amedeo Modigliani and occupying a studio next to those of Raoul Dufy, Georges Braque. The sale of his work did not provide enough to live on and he was an important link between artists in France and Italy and came into contact with Cubism before his Futurist colleagues. Following a visit to Paris in 1911, the Italian Futurists adopted a sort of Cubism, in 1913, he had solo exhibitions at the Marlborough Gallery, London, and Der Sturm, Berlin. Severini later came to agree with Apollinaire, Severini was less attracted to the subject of the machine than his fellow Futurists and frequently chose the form of the dancer to express Futurist theories of dynamism in art. He was particularly adept at rendering lively urban scenes, for example in Dynamic Hieroglyph of the Bal Tabarin, during the First World War he produced some of the finest Futurist war art, notably his Italian Lancers at a Gallop and Armoured Train. In 1916 Severini departed from Futurism and painted works in a naturalistic style inspired by his interest in early Renaissance art. After the First World War, Severini gradually abandoned the Futurist style, by 1920 he was applying theories of classical balance based on the Golden Section to still lifes and figurative subjects from the traditional commedia dellarte
42.
Milan
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Milan is a city in Italy, capital of the Lombardy region, and the most populous metropolitan area and the second most populous comune in Italy. The population of the city proper is 1,351,000, Milan has a population of about 8,500,000 people. It is the industrial and financial centre of Italy and one of global significance. In terms of GDP, it has the largest economy among European non-capital cities, Milan is considered part of the Blue Banana and lies at the heart of one of the Four Motors for Europe. Milan is an Alpha leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts Italys Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks, the city is a major world fashion and design capital, well known for several international events and fairs, including Milan Fashion Week and the Milan Furniture Fair. The city hosts numerous cultural institutions, academies and universities, with 11% of the national total enrolled students, Milans museums, theatres and landmarks attract over 9 million visitors annually. Milan – after Naples – is the second Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, the city hosted the Universal Exposition in 1906 and 2015. Milan is home to two of Europes major football teams, A. C. Milan and F. C. Internazionale, the etymology of Milan is uncertain. One theory holds that the Latin name Mediolanum comes from the Latin words medio, however, some scholars believe lanum comes from the Celtic root lan, meaning an enclosure or demarcated territory in which Celtic communities used to build shrines. Hence, Mediolanum could signify the central town or sanctuary of a Celtic tribe, indeed, the name Mediolanum is borne by about sixty Gallo-Roman sites in France, e. g. Saintes and Évreux. Alciato credits Ambrose for his account, around 400 BC, the Celtic Insubres settled Milan and the surrounding region. In 222 BC, the Romans conquered the settlement, renaming it Mediolanum, Milan was eventually declared the capital of the Western Roman Empire by Emperor Diocletian in 286 AD. Diocletian chose to stay in the Eastern Roman Empire and his colleague Maximianus ruled the Western one, immediately Maximian built several monuments, such as a large circus 470 m ×85 m, the Thermae Herculeae, a large complex of imperial palaces and several other buildings. With the Edict of Milan of 313, Emperor Constantine I guaranteed freedom of religion for Christians, after the city was besieged by the Visigoths in 402, the imperial residence was moved to Ravenna. In 452, the Huns overran the city, in 539, the Ostrogoths conquered and destroyed Milan during the Gothic War against Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. In the summer of 569, a Teutonic tribe, the Lombards, conquered Milan, some Roman structures remained in use in Milan under Lombard rule. Milan surrendered to the Franks in 774 when Charlemagne took the title of King of the Lombards, the Iron Crown of Lombardy dates from this period
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Vittore Grubicy de Dragon
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Vittore Grubicy de Dragon was an Italian painter, art critic and art gallery owner who was largely responsible for introducing into Italian painting the optical theories of Divisionism. His writings and paintings influenced a generation of late 19th-century Italian painters, in addition, the Grubicy Gallery became one of the first art enterprises to be run on the concept of exhibiting living artists that were represented as clients of the gallery. Grubicy grew up in a family in Milan. Both of his parents were great art lovers, and from an age he was introduced to the art circles in Milan. He was so taken with new lifestyle that he convinced his brother Alberto to join him in buying an art gallery. His brother ran the financial aspects of the gallery while Vittore traveled throughout Europe looking for the newest art trends, between 1882 and 1885 Grubicy spent most of his time in the Netherlands, where he became friends with artists of the Hague School, especially Anton Mauve. Mauve strongly influenced Grubicy as an artist and in his approach to art. When he returned to Italy Grubicy encouraged the artists he represented to emulate the styles of Mauve and Mauves cousin-in-law, painter Emilio Longoni wrote, Vittore Grubicy has brought Divisionism from abroad. Hes having Segantini, Morbelli and me do it ourselves, grubicys passion for Divisionism was so strong that he convinced Segantini to rework an already finished painting, Ave Maria by the Lake, in a Divisionist technique. In 1886 Grubicy became the art critic for the newspaper La Riforma and he continued to act as an independent talent scout, and in 1891 he helped organize the first large exhibition of Italian Divisionist painting at Milans Brera Tiennale. Conservative art critics wrote scathing reviews of many of the works, one of the most important paintings shown at that exhibition was Gaetano Previatis Maternity. In writing about this work Grubicy introduced the concept of Symbolism in Italian painting when he hailed the piece as embodying a new aesthetic which he called mystico-ideist, Grubicy also influenced his fellow artists through his compositions of multiple paintings arranged as triptychs and polyptychs. In the early 1890s he began planning a polyptych of sixteen panels under the title of Winter in Miazzina, the work took shape as an interchangeable sequence of paintings that reflected his emotional experiences over the long winters at Miazzina on the shore of Lake Maggiore. Each canvas was subjected to continued revisions by Grubicy over many years, depending upon his mood, finally, in 1911, the polyptych assumed its final form in an arrangement of only eight paintings that he called Winter in the Mountains. In spite of all his work to create it, he did not exhibit it during his lifetime and it was first shown together at the Rome Biennale in 1921, the year after his death. After that the assemblage did not remain as a polyptych, and his health deteriorated after 1910, and during the last decade of his life he had to give up painting altogether. He remained an active promoter of new artists during this period, especially Carlo Carrà, Pietro Angelini, Grubicy died at his home in Milan in 1920. Radical Light, Italys Divisionist Painters, 1891–1910, Divisionism Neo-Impressionism, Arcadia & Anarchy
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Gaetano Previati
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Gaetano Previati was an Italian Symbolist painter in the Divisionist style. He relocated to Milan in 1876 and enrolled at the Brera Academy of Fine Arts, studying under Giuseppe Bertini, Giovanni Morelli and he became strongly attached to the Divisionist style, and even published a treatise on I principi scientifici del Divisionismo. He won the Canonica competition in 1879, in 1880 at Turin, he exhibited Gli ostaggi di Crema and Cesare Borgia at Crema. Having settled in Milan definitively in 1881, he came into contact with the Scapigliatura movement, in 1881 at Milan, he displayed the genre painting Preferenza as well as Christ Crucified, Abelard, and At the entrance of the Harem. In 1883, he exhibited Un angolo del solaio, May, at the 1883 Mostra of Rome he exhibited Angels and A November at Ferrara. 1886–87, at Milan and Turin, he exhibited the patriotic historical painting titled Tiremm innanz, lorenzo Benapiani wrote about Fire Away in his book titled Ars. The canvas depicts the execution of the patriot Antonio Sciesa who had been active in the rebellion in Milan against Austrian rule. At Venice, in 1887, he exhibited LHaschich and at the 1888 National Exhibition of Fine Arts of Bologna, Christ and the Magdalen, Oporto and Le fumatrici di haschisch. He took part in the 1st Brera Triennale in 1891 with a work clearly showing his adoption of Divisionism, of which he was also a theoretician, and Symbolist themes. He took part in the Venice Biennale by invitation from 1895 to 1914 and he was involved in the creation of the Dream Room at the 7th Biennale in 1907 and exhibited at the Salon des Peintres Divisionnistes Italiens organised in Paris by the art dealer Alberto Grubicy. It was Alberto and his brother Vittore who founded the Società per l’Arte di Gaetano Previati in 1911, purchasing a number of his paintings and showing them in exhibitions in Genoa. Grief-stricken over the death of members of his family, he died in 1920 at the town of Lavagna in Liguria, laura Casone, Gaetano Previati, online catalogue Artgate by Fondazione Cariplo,2010, CC BY-SA. Media related to Gaetano Previati at Wikimedia Commons
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Giuseppe Pellizza da Volpedo
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Giuseppe Pellizza da Volpedo was an Italian neo-impressionist painter. He was born and died in Volpedo, in the Piedmont region of northern Italy, Pellizza was a pupil of Pio Sanquirico. He used a divisionist technique in which a painting is created by juxtaposing small dots of paint according to color theory. His most famous work, Il Quarto Stato, has become a symbol for progressive and socialist causes in Italy. The painting is shown during the credits of Bernardo Bertoluccis film 1900 and is currently housed at the Museo del Novecento in Milan. An earlier version is held in the Pinacoteca di Brera, Pellizza hanged himself in 1907, after the deaths of his wife and son
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