1.
Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of Ukraine
–
The Communist Party of Ukraine, known as the Communist Party of Ukraine until 1952, was the Ukrainian branch of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Communist Party of Ukraine was created in July 1918 in Moscow, after the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk the Bolshevik faction Social-Democracy of Ukraine was forced to dissolve as all Bolsheviks were forced out of Ukraine. On October 13,1952 the party officially was renamed as the Communist Party of Ukraine, on August 26,1991 the Communist Party was outlawed in Ukraine. Different sectors reconstituted themselves in different parties, the remaining members either changed political direction or created their own left-wing parties such as the Vitrenko bloc, Social-Democratic party, and others. Beside full members there also were candidate to the committee, the initial composition included Yan Hamarnik, Dmitriy Lebed, Mikhail Mayorov, Mykola Skrypnyk, Petro Slynko, Yakov Yakovlev. On September 9,1918 Mayorov and Slynko replaced Kertvelishvili and Farbman as full members, during World War II on October 2,1942 there was created the Illegal Central Committee of the Party consisting of 17 members. The committee was dissolved on June 29,1943, among the members of the committee were such personalities as Sydir Kovpak, Leonid Korniets, Oleksiy Fedorov, and others. The party had its own Politburo created on March 6,1919, on September 25,1952 the committee was renamed into the Bureau of the Central Committee of CPU, and in October the same year as the Bureau of the CC CPU. On October 10,1952 it became the Presidium of the CC CPU, on June 26,1966 again the bureau was finally left with its original name as the Politburo of the CC CPU. At first it consisted of five members and later one was added. The first Politburo included Andriy Bubnov, Emanuel Kviring, Volodymyr Mescheriakov, Heorhiy Pyatakov, Christian Rakovsky, from March 23 until April 15,1920 there was elected a Provisional Bureau which the next day was ratified by the Russian Communist Party. Along with Politburo the party like its Russian counterpart had its own Orgburo that was created the day as Politburo. The party was headed by its secretary, the position was highly influential and often was considered to be more important than the head of state. The following list is composed of the secretary of the Central Committee of the party who were the leaders of the Party, the position also was changing names between being called the First Secretary or the General Secretary, depending on a political atmosphere in the Soviet Union. The position was not officially of the head of state, but certainly was very influential, Mykola Oleksiiovych Skrypnyk There were 28 Congresses with the last one consisting out of two stages. There also were three consolidated conferences of the party from 1926 to 1932, at the second stage of the last Congress there were 273 members in the Central Committee. This took place in Moscow and decided to call for preparations for an uprising against the occupying Central Powers forces. There were only 15 members in the Central Committee and six candidates, promoted to members, Mikhail Mayorov and Pyotr Slinko This also took place in Moscow
Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of Ukraine
–
1922 - 1934
Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of Ukraine
–
1934 - 1938
Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of Ukraine
–
1938 - 1941
2.
Feliks Kon
–
Feliks Yakovlevich Kon was a Polish communist activist. Born in Warsaw, Kons mother was Georgian Jewish and was brought up in Russia and he was trained as a historian and a journalist, but was involved in politics. He had limited knowledge of Polish affairs at first, but intuitively felt the revolutionary element among Polish workers that he could mobilize and he was a member of the anti-Piłsudski faction of the Polish Socialist Party. Kon gravitated towards the anti-independence, pro-communism point of view, in January 1897 an administrative decision was at last taken to banish him. He was exiled to Irkutsk and began working on the progressive newspaper Vostochnoye Obozrenie and he was put on the Provisional Polish Revolutionary Committee during the Polish-Soviet War. During this period he was editor-in-chief of the Goniec Czerwony newspaper, the first issue appeared on August 7. Its purpose was to agitate and it printed all the appeals issued by the Communist puppet government, twelve issues appeared, the last on August 20 as the Polish army approached the city. After the war, he decided to remain in the Soviet Union, however, letters written by Vladimir Lenin referred to Kon, whom he couldnt stand, as simply an old fool. Kon also served as an editor at several newspapers including Krasnaya Zvezda, in 1941, he became the director of the Polish-directed propaganda section at Radio Moscow. The first broadcasts in Polish were on June 22,1941, however, he died a natural death shortly afterwards at age 77, at Moscows Khimki water station during the evacuation of the city before the advancing German army and the Battle of Moscow. All the other members of the Polish Socialist Party-Left were later liquidated by the NKVD, during his exile for revolutionary activity turned to ethnographic research although he had no preparation for it. He also recorded literature possessions in Siberia, during the late 1920s and 1930s, he was the head of the museum department in the Peoples Commissariat for Education. As an old Bolshevik he managed to secure many pictures for the Kyrgyz Gallery, in 1936, he published his memoirs entitled Za Pietdziesiat Let. A Russian sea vessel named in his honor, the Feliks Kon, sank in 1996 in the Sea of Okhotsk, releasing 1000 tons of fuel oil
Feliks Kon
–
Polrewkom 1920 (in center left to right:
Feliks Dzierzynski,
Julian Marchlewski, Feliks Kon)
3.
Emanuel Kviring
–
Emanuel Kwiring was a Soviet politician. Born into a German family in Friesenthal, in the Samara Governorate of the Russian Empire, he became a socialist activist, after World War I and the Bolshevik Revolution, he was a leader of the Communist Party of Ukraine. He was an opponent of the Ukrainization policy, so he had to leave Kharkiv for Moscow, then he worked as an economist in the State Planning Committee. In 1937, he was arrested and executed by NKVD, in 1956, Kwiring was posthumously rehabilitated by a decision of the USSR Supreme Court
Emanuel Kviring
–
Emanuel Kviring Емануїл Йонович Квірінг
4.
Volhynian Governorate
–
After the Peace of Riga, part of the governorate became the new Wołyń Voivodeship in the Second Polish Republic, while the other part stayed as a part of the Ukrainian SSR until 1925. Until 1796 the guberniya was administrated as a namestnichestvo and it was initially centered in Iziaslav and was called the Izyaslav namesnichestvo. It was created out of the Kiev Voivodeship and the east part of the Wolyn Voivodeship. On 24 October 1795 the Third Partition of Poland happened, on 12 December 1796 the Volhynian Governorate was created and included the rest of the Wolyn Voivodeship and Kowel Voivodeship. In 1796 the administration moved to Novograd-Volynsky, but because no buildings were found suited for administrative purposes the seat was moved again to Zhytomyr, in 1802 Zhytomyr was finally bought out of the properties of Prince Ilyinsky and in 1804 it became officially the seat of the Volyn Governorate. In the 1880s the general-governorate was extended and included also other governorates, in 1897 the population of the gubernia was 2,989,482 and in 1905 –3,920,400. The majority of the population of the governorate spoke in old Ukrainian language with slight variety of dialects, during the Ukrainian–Soviet War Zhytomir served as the provisional capital of Ukraine in 1918. After the Polish-Soviet war in 1920 and according to the Peace of Riga most of the territory part of the Second Polish Republic. The eastern portion existed to 1925 and later split into three okruhas Shepetivka Okruha, Zhytomyr Okruha, and Korosten Okruha, revkom 1919 Mikhail Kruchinskiy Volyn Executive Committee 1920 Oleksandr Shumsky 1920 Vasiliy Averin –1921 Danylevych 1921–1922 Ivan Nikolayenko Cheka 1919 Vasyl Viliavko 1919 M. In bold are languages spoken by more people than the state language, by the Imperial census of 1897. In bold are religions with more members than the Eastern Orthodox
Volhynian Governorate
5.
Russian Empire
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The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
Russian Empire
–
Peter the Great officially renamed the Tsardom of Russia the Russian Empire in 1721, and himself its first emperor. He instituted the
sweeping reforms and oversaw the transformation of Russia into a major European power.
Russian Empire
–
Flag
Russian Empire
–
Empress
Catherine the Great, who reigned from 1762 to 1796, continued the empire's expansion and modernization. Considering herself an
enlightened absolutist, she played a key role in the
Russian Enlightenment.
Russian Empire
–
Catherine II Sestroretsk Rouble (1771) is made of solid copper measuring 77 millimetres (3 3 ⁄ 100 in) (diameter), 26 millimetres (1 1 ⁄ 50 in) (thickness), and weighs 1.022 kg (2.25 lb). It is the largest copper coin ever issued.
6.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
Soviet Union
–
Vladimir Lenin addressing a crowd with Trotsky, 1920
Soviet Union
–
Flag
Soviet Union
–
Stalin and
Nikolai Yezhov, head of the
NKVD. After Yezhov was executed, he was
edited out of the image.
Soviet Union
7.
Alma mater
–
Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
Alma mater
–
The Alma Mater statue by
Mario Korbel, at the entrance of the
University of Havana in
Cuba.
Alma mater
–
John Legate's Alma Mater for Cambridge in 1600
Alma mater
–
Alma Mater (1929, Lorado Taft),
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign
8.
University of Paris
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The University of Paris, metonymically known as the Sorbonne, was a university in Paris, France. Emerging around 1150 as an associated with the cathedral school of Notre Dame de Paris. Vast numbers of popes, royalties, scientists and intellectuals were educated at the University of Paris, following the turbulence of the French Revolution, education was suspended in 1793 whereafter its faculties were partly reorganised by Napoleon as the University of France. In 1896, it was renamed again to the University of Paris, in 1970, following the May 1968 events, the university was divided into 13 autonomous universities. Others, like Panthéon-Sorbonne University, chose to be multidisciplinary, in 1150, the future University of Paris was a student-teacher corporation operating as an annex of the Notre-Dame cathedral school. The university had four faculties, Arts, Medicine, Law, the Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also the largest, as students had to graduate there in order to be admitted to one of the higher faculties. The students were divided into four nationes according to language or regional origin, France, Normandy, Picardy, the last came to be known as the Alemannian nation. Recruitment to each nation was wider than the names might imply, the faculty and nation system of the University of Paris became the model for all later medieval universities. Under the governance of the Church, students wore robes and shaved the tops of their heads in tonsure, students followed the rules and laws of the Church and were not subject to the kings laws or courts. This presented problems for the city of Paris, as students ran wild, students were often very young, entering the school at age 13 or 14 and staying for 6 to 12 years. Three schools were especially famous in Paris, the palatine or palace school, the school of Notre-Dame, the decline of royalty brought about the decline of the first. The other two were ancient but did not have much visibility in the early centuries, the glory of the palatine school doubtless eclipsed theirs, until it completely gave way to them. These two centres were much frequented and many of their masters were esteemed for their learning, the first renowned professor at the school of Ste-Geneviève was Hubold, who lived in the tenth century. Not content with the courses at Liège, he continued his studies at Paris, entered or allied himself with the chapter of Ste-Geneviève, and attracted many pupils via his teaching. Distinguished professors from the school of Notre-Dame in the century include Lambert, disciple of Fulbert of Chartres, Drogo of Paris, Manegold of Germany. Three other men who added prestige to the schools of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève were William of Champeaux, Abélard, humanistic instruction comprised grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic and moral theology, whose source was the Scriptures and it was completed by the study of Canon law. The School of Saint-Victor arose to rival those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève and it was founded by William of Champeaux when he withdrew to the Abbey of Saint-Victor
University of Paris
University of Paris
–
University of Paris
University of Paris
University of Paris
–
The Sorbonne covered by snow.
9.
Kremenets
–
Kremenets is a city of regional significance in the Ternopil Oblast of western Ukraine. It is the center of the Kremenets Raion, and lies 18 km north-east of the great Pochayiv Monastery. The city is situated in the region of Volhynia. According to some sources the Kremenets fortress was built in the 8th or 9th century, the first documented reference to the fortress is given in a Polish encyclopedic dictionary written in 1064. The first reference to Kremenets in Old Slavic literature dates from 1226 when the ruler, Mstislav the Bold. During the Mongol invasion of Rus in 1240-41, Kremenets was one of few cities that Batu Khan failed to capture, in 1382, after the death of Louis I of Hungary, Lithuanian duke Liubartas captured Kremenets from the Kingdom of Hungary. The city obtained Magdeburg rights in 1431, and in 1569, after the Union of Lublin, it part of Crown of Poland, known as Polish. In the fall of 1648 Cossack Colonel Maxym Kryvonis surrounded the Kremenets fortress, in October, after a six-week siege, the royal garrison surrendered. As a consequence of the fighting, the fortress was damaged and was never rebuilt. In 1795 Kremenets was annexed by the Russian Empire following the Third Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and it remained a part of Russia until World War I. During 1917-1920 Kremenets 7 times passed from hand to hand, the authorities Ukrainian state - Ukrainian Peoples Republic - it was subject to early 1918 to June 1919. In 1921, following Peace of Riga, the returned to Poland. In the interwar period, Kremenets was famous for its high school, Liceum Krzemienieckie. According to the 1931 Polish census, the town had a population of 19,877, in 1934, upon initiative of Ludwik Gronowski, teacher of the Kremenets High School, Volhynian School of Gliding Sokola Góra was opened 14 kilometers from Kremenets, in the village of Kulików. Among its students was the daughter of Jozef Piłsudski, Jadwiga Piłsudska, in September 1939, the Polish government was temporarily located in Kremenets, which during this time was subject to heavy aerial bombing until captured by invading Soviet forces on 17 September. By then the government had evacuated Kremenets and was on its way to neutral Romania, on July 28,1941, most of the teachers of the Krzemieniec High School were arrested by the Germans, who used a list provided to them by local Ukrainians. By the end of the month,30 teachers and members of Polish intelligentsia were murdered at the so-called Hill of Crosses, Shevchenko, Kremenetskiy Regional Museum Juliusz Slowacki, increasing the flow of tourists. In 1991 at the Teachers College Shevchenko created a modern Kremenets Lyceum, Jews are known to have settled in the Kremenets area as early as 1438, when the Grand Duke of Lithuania gave them a charter
Kremenets
–
Kremenets panorama from the Castle Hill
Kremenets
–
General view of Kremenets
Kremenets
–
Former Franciscan abbey and the castle on Bona Hill in Kremenets
10.
Bolshevik
–
The RSDLP was a revolutionary socialist political party formed in 1898 in Minsk in Belarus to unite the various revolutionary organisations of the Russian Empire into one party. In the Second Party Congress vote, the Bolsheviks won on the majority of important issues and they ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Bolsheviks or Reds came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917, with the Reds defeating the Whites, and others during the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922, the RSFSR became the chief constituent of the Soviet Union in December 1922. Their beliefs and practices were often referred to as Bolshevism, in the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, held in Brussels and London during August 1903, Lenin and Julius Martov disagreed over the membership rules. Lenin wanted members who recognise the Party Programme and support it by material means, Julius Martov suggested by regular personal assistance under the direction of one of the partys organisations. Lenin advocated limiting party membership to a core of active members. A main source of the factions could be attributed to Lenin’s steadfast opinion. It was obvious at early stages in Lenin’s revolutionary practices that he would not be willing to concede on any party policy that conflicted with his own predetermined ideas and it was the loyalty that he had to his own self-envisioned utopia that caused the party split. He was seen even by fellow party members as being so narrow minded that he believed there were only two types of people, Friend and enemy—those who followed him, and all the rest. Leon Trotsky, one of Lenins fellow revolutionaries, compared Lenin in 1904 to the French revolutionary Robespierre, Lenins view of politics as verbal and ideological warfare and his inability to accept criticism even if it came from his own dedicated followers was the reason behind this accusation. The root of the split was a book titled What is to be Done. that Lenin wrote while serving a sentence of exile, in Germany, the book was published in 1902, in Russia, strict censorship outlawed its publication and distribution. One of the points of Lenin’s writing was that a revolution can only be achieved by the strong leadership of one person over the masses. After the proposed revolution had overthrown the government, this individual leader must release power. Lenin also wrote that revolutionary leaders must dedicate their lives to the cause in order for it to be successful. Lenins view of a socialist intelligentsia showed that he was not a supporter of Marxist theory. For example, Lenin agreed with the Marxist idea of eliminating social classes, most party members considered unequal treatment of workers immoral, and were loyal to the idea of a completely classless society, so Lenin’s variations caused the party internal dissonance. Although the party split of Bolsheviks and Mensheviks would not become official until 1903, as discussed in What is to be Done. Lenin firmly believed that a political structure was needed to effectively initiate a formal revolution
Bolshevik
–
Bolshevik Party meeting. Sitting (from left):
Avel Enukidze,
Mikhail Kalinin,
Nikolai Bukharin,
Mikhail Tomsky,
Mikhail Lashevich,
Lev Kamenev,
Yevgeni Preobrazhensky,
Leonid Serebryakov,
Vladimir Lenin and
Alexei Rykov.
Bolshevik
–
Boris Kustodiev ’s 1920 painting " Bolshevik "
Bolshevik
–
Left to right:
Leon Trotsky,
Vladimir Lenin, and
Lev Kamenev
Bolshevik
–
"Down with Bolshevism. Bolshevism brings war and destruction, hunger and death", anti-Bolshevik propaganda, Germany, 1919.
11.
Lenin
–
Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, better known by the alias Lenin, was a Russian communist revolutionary, politician, and political theorist. He served as head of government of the Russian Republic from 1917 to 1918, of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic from 1918 to 1924, under his administration, Russia and then the wider Soviet Union became a one-party socialist state governed by the Russian Communist Party. Ideologically a Marxist, he developed political theories known as Leninism, born to a wealthy middle-class family in Simbirsk, Lenin embraced revolutionary socialist politics following his brothers execution in 1887. Expelled from Kazan Imperial University for participating in protests against the Russian Empires Tsarist regime and he moved to Saint Petersburg in 1893 and became a senior figure in the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. In 1897, he was arrested for sedition and exiled to Shushenskoye for three years, where he married Nadezhda Krupskaya, after his exile, he moved to Western Europe, where he became a prominent party theorist through his publications. In 1903, he took a key role in a RSDLP ideological split, Lenins government was led by the Bolsheviks—now renamed the Communist Party—with some powers initially also held by elected soviets. It redistributed land among the peasantry and nationalised banks and large-scale industry, opponents were suppressed in the Red Terror, a violent campaign orchestrated by the state security services, tens of thousands were killed and others interned in concentration camps. Anti-Bolshevik armies, established by both right and left-wing groups, were defeated in the Russian Civil War from 1917 to 1922, responding to wartime devastation, famine, and popular uprisings, in 1921 Lenin promoted economic growth through a mixed economic system. Seeking to promote world revolution, Lenins government created the Communist International, waged the Polish–Soviet War, in increasingly poor health, Lenin expressed opposition to the growing power of his successor, Joseph Stalin, before dying at his Gorki mansion. He became a figurehead behind Marxism-Leninism and thus a prominent influence over the international communist movement. Lenins father, Ilya Nikolayevich Ulyanov, was from a family of serfs, his origins remain unclear, with suggestions being made that he was Russian, Chuvash, Mordvin. Despite this lower-class background he had risen to middle-class status, studying physics and mathematics at Kazan Imperial University before teaching at the Penza Institute for the Nobility, Ilya married Maria Alexandrovna Blank in mid-1863. Well educated and from a prosperous background, she was the daughter of a German–Swedish woman. Soon after their wedding, Ilya obtained a job in Nizhny Novgorod, five years after that, he was promoted to Director of Public Schools for the province, overseeing the foundation of over 450 schools as a part of the governments plans for modernisation. His dedication to education earned him the Order of St. Vladimir, the couple had two children, Anna and Alexander, before Lenin—who would gain the childhood nickname of Volodya—was born in Simbirsk on 10 April 1870, and baptised several days later. They were followed by three children, Olga, Dmitry, and Maria. Two later siblings died in infancy, Ilya was a devout member of the Russian Orthodox Church and baptised his children into it, although Maria – a Lutheran – was largely indifferent to Christianity, a view that influenced her children. Every summer they holidayed at a manor in Kokushkino
Lenin
–
Lenin in 1920
Lenin
–
"Volodya", aged four.
Lenin
–
Lenin, c. 1887.
Lenin
–
Lenin (left) in December 1895 and his wife Nadezhda.
12.
Communist Party of Poland
–
The Communist Party of Poland was a communist party in Poland. It was a result of the fusion of Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania, elections for the Workers Councils which sprang up in 1918 revealed that the new party had a level of support almost equal to that of the Polish Socialist Party. However this support was undermined by both national feeling and due to the party being driven underground by reactionary legislation. The KPRP would be illegal for the rest of its life but took part, in the shape of Józef Unszlicht, in the founding of the Communist International in March 1919. Despite the immense difficulties facing the new party the KPRP promoted the unification of the union movement. Clashes in this region became a full-scale war with Russia in April 1920 as Józef Piłsudski, in alliance with Symon Petliura. This was successfully repulsed and the Red Army advanced to the gates of Warsaw only to be pushed back in its turn, the war ended with the Peace of Riga in March 1921. The period 1921-1926 saw relative political freedom in Poland and the KPRP took full advantage of all legal avenues offered it. Gains were also made from the Bund when a faction led by Aleksander Minc joined, rapid gains were also made in the eastern borderlands at this time, see the entry for the KPZU. The Partys third Conference in 1922 saw the consolidation of the leadership around the Three Ws - Adolf Warski, Maksymilian Horwitz, the party was able to assume a stable organisational form and founded Red Factions within the unions. An electoral list was constructed called the Union of Town and Country Proletariat, yet the party only managed to win 130,000 votes and two seats in the November 1922 elections. In general the idea of the United Front - recently made policy by the Communist International - provided a guide for the partys activities, autonomous sections of the Party were also recognised as being needed in Polands borderlands which were inhabited by non-Polish groups. In accordance with party decisions, Communist Parties were then organised both in the Western Ukraine and in Western Belarus, within the Communist International, the Polish leadership of the Three Ws aligned with Grigory Zinoviev and therefore opposed to the embryonic Left Opposition. The main persecutor in the case against the Polish leadership was Julian Leszczyński Lenski, but the Chair of the Commission would wield the decisive blows, lenskis reward was his appointment to a new party central committee, appointed without reference to a Party Congress. His task - to Bolshevise the KPRP, the Partys Third Congress gathered at Minsk in March 1925 with the slogan Bolshevisation of the Party. Significantly the Partys name was changed, with its contraction to Communist Party of Poland, Warski returned to the leadership and the party again embarked on attempts to build a United Front with the PPS. With rising unemployment and a deteriorating economic situation Pilsudski staged a coup d’etat in May 1926. Confused as to the meaning of this the KPP engaged in battles with troops loyal to the Witos government
Communist Party of Poland
–
Polish Communist Party Komunistyczna Partia Polski
13.
Ukrainian SSR
–
The Ukrainian SSR was a founding member of the United Nations, although it was legally represented by the All-Union state in its affairs with countries outside of the Soviet Union. From the start, the city of Kharkiv served as the republics capital. However, in 1934, the seat of government was moved to the city of Kyiv. Geographically, the Ukrainian SSR was situated in Eastern Europe to the north of the Black Sea, bordered by the Soviet republics of Moldavia, Byelorussia, the Ukrainian SSRs border with Czechoslovakia formed the Soviet Unions western-most border point. According to the Soviet Census of 1989 the republic had a population of 51,706,746 inhabitants, the name Ukraine, derived from the Slavic word kraj, meaning land or border. It was first used to part of the territory of Kievan Rus in the 12th century. The name has been used in a variety of ways since the twelfth century, after the abdication of the tsar and the start of the process of the destruction of the Russian Empire many people in Ukraine wished to establish a Ukrainian Republic. During a period of war from 1917-23 many factions claiming themselves governments of the newly born republic were formed, each with supporters. The two most prominent of them were the government in Kyiv and the government in Kharkiv, the former being the Ukrainian Peoples Republic and the latter the Ukrainian Soviet Republic. This government of the Soviet Ukrainian Republic was founded on 24–25 December 1917, in its publications it names itself either the Republic of Soviets of Workers, Soldiers, and Peasants Deputies or the Ukrainian Peoples Republic of Soviets. The last session of the government took place in the city of Taganrog, in July 1918 the former members of the government formed the Communist Party of Ukraine, the constituent assembly of which took place in Moscow. On 10 March 1919, according to the 3rd Congress of Soviets in Ukraine the name of the state was changed to the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic. After the ratification of the 1936 Soviet Constitution, the names of all Soviet republics were changed, transposing the second, during its existence, the Ukrainian SSR was commonly referred to as Ukraine or the Ukraine. On 24 August 1991, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic declared independence, since the adoption of the Constitution of Ukraine in June 1996, the country became known simply as Ukraine, which is the name used to this day. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, several factions sought to create an independent Ukrainian state, the most popular faction was initially the local Socialist Revolutionary Party that composed the local government together with Federalists and Mensheviks. The Bolsheviks boycotted any government initiatives most of the time, instigating several armed riots in order to establish the Soviet power without any intent for consensus, immediately after the October Revolution in Petrograd, Bolsheviks instigated the Kiev Bolshevik Uprising to support the Revolution and secure Kyiv. Due to a lack of support from the local population and anti-revolutionary Central Rada, however. Most moved to Kharkiv and received the support of the eastern Ukrainian cities, later, this move was regarded as a mistake by some of the Peoples Commissars
Ukrainian SSR
–
Territories claimed by the
Ukrainian People's Republic (1917–1920).
Ukrainian SSR
–
Flag
Ukrainian SSR
–
Soviet soldiers preparing rafts to cross the
Dnieper during the
Battle of the Dnieper (1943). The sign reads "To Kiev!".
Ukrainian SSR
–
"Eternally Together": a Soviet poster made for the 300th anniversary of the
Treaty of Pereyaslav in 1954.
14.
Christian Rakovsky
–
Christian Rakovsky was a Bulgarian socialist revolutionary, a Bolshevik politician and Soviet diplomat, he was also noted as a journalist, physician, and essayist. Rakovskys political career took him throughout the Balkans and into France and Imperial Russia, for part of his life, subsequently, he was a founding member of the Comintern, served as head of government in the Ukrainian SSR, and took part in negotiations at the Genoa Conference. He was ultimately recalled from France in autumn 1927, after signing his name to a controversial Trotskyist platform which endorsed world revolution, credited with having developed the Trotskyist critique of Stalinism as bureaucratic centrism, Rakovsky was subject to internal exile. Submitting to Stalins leadership in 1934 and being reinstated, he was nonetheless implicated in the Trial of the Twenty One, imprisoned. He was rehabilitated in 1988, during the Soviet Glasnost period, Rakovskys original Bulgarian name was Krastyo Georgiev Stanchev, which he himself changed to Krastyo Rakovski. The usual form his first name took in Romanian was Cristian, while his last name was spelled Racovski, Racovschi and his given name was occasionally rendered as Ristache, an antiquated hypocoristic—he was known as such to his acquaintance, the writer Ion Luca Caragiale. In Russian, his name, including patronymic, was Khristian Georgievich Rakovsky. Christian is a rendition of Krastyo, as used by Rakovsky himself. In Ukrainian, Rakovskys name is rendered as Християн Георгійович Раковський, during his lifetime, he was also known under the pseudonyms H. Insarov and Grigoriev, which he used in signing several articles for the Russian-language press. Christian Rakovsky was born to a wealthy Bulgarian family in Gradets—near Kotel—at the time part of Ottoman-ruled Rumelia. Rakovskys father was a merchant who belonged to the Democratic Party, although his parents moved to the Kingdom of Romania in 1880, settling in Gherengic, he completed his education in newly emancipated Bulgaria. Rakovsky was expelled from the gymnasium in Gabrovo for his political activities and it was around that time that he became a Marxist, and began collaborating with the socialist journalist Evtim Dabev, whom he aided in printing works by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. While in Switzerland, he joined the Socialist Student Circle at the University of Geneva, a polyglot, Rakovsky became close to Georgy Plekhanov, the founder of Russian Marxism, and his circle, eventually writing a number of articles and a book in Russian. He also briefly worked with Rosa Luxemburg, Pavel Axelrod and Vera Zasulich, unable to attend the First International Congress of Socialist Students in Brussels, he became involved in organizing the Second Congress, held in Geneva during the fall of 1893. He was an editor of the Geneva-based Bulgarian-language magazine Sotsial-Demokrat and later a major contributor to the Bulgarian Marxist publications Den, Rabotnik. He soon became involved in distributing socialist propaganda inside Bulgaria, at a time when Stefan Stambolov organized a crackdown on political opposition, later in 1893, Rakovsky enrolled in a medical school in Berlin, contributing articles for Vorwärts and becoming close to Wilhelm Liebknecht. As a Bulgarian delegate to the Second International Congress in Zürich, he met with Engels. Six months later, he was arrested and expelled from the German Empire for maintaining contacts with the Russian revolutionaries there
Christian Rakovsky
–
Christian Rakovsky Кръстьо Раковски, Xристиан Георгиевич Раковский, Християн Георгійович Раковський, Cristian Racovski
Christian Rakovsky
–
Front page of Jos Despotizmul!.. ("Down with
Despotism!!!"), a special issue of
România Muncitoare, entirely dedicated to criticism of the
Imperial Russian authorities (February 1905)
Christian Rakovsky
–
From left: Rakovsky,
Leon Trotsky, and
Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea, during a meeting in
Bucharest (1913 drawing)
Christian Rakovsky
–
Advertising, Parliamentary elections, 1916
15.
Arne Sunde
–
Arne Toralf Sunde was a Norwegian politician, Olympic shooter and army officer. He is best known for his participation in the 1940 Norwegian Campaign, his participation in Nygaardsvolds Cabinet during its 1940–1945 exile in London, Sunde was President of the United Nations Security Council in June 1949 and July 1950. Arne Sunde was born on 6 December 1883 in the Norwegian capital Kristiania and his parents were Director General of the Norwegian State Railways, Member of Parliament and Minister of Finance Elias Sunde and his wife Benedicte Louise Tjersland. On 26 July 1916 Arne Sunde married Sigrid Nicoline Aubert Lie and his wife was a daughter of writer Bernt Lie. Thus, Arne Sunde was a brother-in-law of Emil Lie, Sundes wife was also a second cousin of Jonas Lie, a Nazi police chief who joined the pretending government after Sunde and many others fled Norway during the Second World War. On the other hand, Sundes wifes aunt was the mother of resistance member Tikken Manus, the couple had three sons by 1930. Sunde died in Oslo on 30 July 1972, aged 88, Sunde was an avid sports shooter in the Oslo-based rifle association Christiania Skytterlag. He participated in the Norwegian team in the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm, Sunde competed in the following events in 1912, Sunde was educated in law and military studies, first graduating from Kristiania Cathedral School in 1902. From 1907 to 1909 Sunde taught at the NCO school in Bergen and he then served with the 5th Østoplandenes Infantry Regiment until 1918. In 1911 he took the cand. jur, from 1911 to 1912 he worked as a barrister and judge. In 1913 Sunde studied political science at the École Libre des Sciences Politiques in Paris and he then served as a district stipediary magistrate for Eiker, Modum and Sigdal District Court in Buskerud from 1913 to 1914. From 1918 he served as a captain in the Norwegian Army 2nd Division. Between 1917 and 1920 Sunde worked for Det Norske A/S for Elektrokemisk Industri, as a legal advisor, in the same time period he was the secretary of the Norwegian State Financial Council, and from 1922 he served as a barrister at the Supreme Court. In 1920–1921 he was secretary during the Norwegian treaty negotiations with the so-called wine countries with regards to the Norwegian prohibition, in 1924 he was a board member of the bank Den Norske Handelsbank and a member of the administrative board of the Bank of Norway. From 1918 to 1930, he commanded Company 7 of the 5th Østoplandenes Infantry Regiment, one of Arne Sundes earliest encounters with national politics came in 1926. In 1929 Sunde became deputy mayor of Aker, where he now lived and he advanced to mayor of the same municipality in 1930, and serving until 1931 with the exception of his Minister of Justice period. Sunde was appointed Minister of Justice in the Liberal Party of Norways Mowinckels Second Cabinet in November 1930 and he lost this position in May 1931, when the Agrarian Kolstads Cabinet took over. In 1932–1933 Sunde presided for Norway in the Eastern Greenland Case at the Permanent Court of International Justice, in March 1933, the Agrarian cabinet fell, and Sunde returned to government as Minister of Justice in the Mowinckels Third Cabinet
Arne Sunde
–
Arne Toralf Sunde
16.
Faris al-Khoury
–
Faris al-Khoury was a Syrian statesman, minister, Prime Minister, speaker of Parliament, and Godfather of modern Syrian politics, born in Hasbaya in todays modern Lebanon. Faris Khoury went on to become Prime minister of Syria from October 14,1944 to October 1,1945, Khourys ascension to the upper echelons of Syrian politics is remarkable, in light of the fact that he was Christian. Faris Kourys position as Prime Minister is, till this day, Khourys electoral popularity was due in part to his staunch secularist and nationalist policies. As a die-hard Syrian nationalist, Khoury never compromised on his principles and was resolutely against pan-Arabism, Khoury opposed the short-lived union between Nassers Egypt and republican Syria, the United Arab Republic. Through it all Faris Khoury served his country for almost 50 years and he was the grandfather of noted Syrian novelist Colette Khoury. Faris Khoury was born in Kfeir in the Hasbaya District to a Greek Orthodox Christian family that converted to Presbyterianism. Faris studied at the American University of Beirut, at the time called Syrian Protestant College and he started his career as an instructor at AUB and became involved in al-Fatat, the leading anti-Ottoman movement, after its creation in Paris in 1911. Khoury became the Christian member of the Ottoman Parliament representing Damascus in 1908, in 1916, Khoury joined the Arab resistance and promised to support the Arab Revolt, launched from Mecca by Sharif Husayn. His connections with Husayn, the prime nationalist of his era, resulted in his arrest, after King Faisals arrival and liberation of Syria, Khoury pledged allegiance to King Faisal, the newly proclaimed King of Syria, by the Syrian peoples. In September 18,1918 Khoury created a government with a group of notables in Damascus. Khoury then became minister of Finance in the new Syrian cabinet of Prime Minister Rida Pasha al-Rikabi and his post was renewed by Prime Minister Hashim al-Atassi in May 1920. He held this position until King Faisal was dethroned and the French Colonial forces imposed their mandate on Syria in July 1920, Khoury laid the groundwork for the Syrian Ministry of Finance, created its infrastructure, distributed its administrative duties, formulated its laws, and handpicked its staff. In 1923, he helped found Damascus University and along with a group of veteran educators, in 1925 Khoury joined Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar to found the Peoples Party, of which he became vice-president. Minister of Education from April to July 1926, he was elected member of the Syrian Constituent Assembly in 1928, then elected to the Syrian Parliament in 1932 and he was a member of the Syrian delegation that negotiated the Franco-Syrian Treaty in Paris in 1936. Faris Khoury was the first Syrian statesman to visit the United States, Syria was one of the original 53 founding members of the United Nations. As the head of Syrias delegation in San Francisco, Faris al-Khourys superb oratory, after hearing Khourys eloquent speech, a US diplomat remarked, It is impossible for a country with men like these, to be occupied. It is worth noting that the process of Syrias independence started in this same UN session and he became Prime Minister from October 14,1944 till October 1,1945, then again president of the parliament till the military coup of Husni al-Zaim who dissolved it in April 1949. In his old age, Faris al-Khury never stayed at home, spending quality time with his wife, child, and three grandchildren, Faris Jr, Colette, and Samer
Faris al-Khoury
–
Faris al-Khoury فارس الخوري
17.
President of the United Nations Security Council
–
Article 30 of the United Nations Charter states that the Security Council is empowered to establish rules of procedure, including the method of selecting its President. The Security Council has established the method of selecting the president. The rotation takes place in order of the member states official United Nations names in English. For example, in January 2000, a month in which the United States held the presidency of the Security Council, vice President Al Gore headed the United States delegation to the United Nations for a few days. As a result, Gore was the President of the Security Council during this time, the role of president of the Security Council involves calling the meetings thereof, approving the provisional agenda, presiding at its meetings, and overseeing any crisis. The president is authorized to issue both Presidential Statements and notes, which are used to make declarations of intent that the full Security Council can then pursue, the President also usually speaks to the press on behalf of the Security Council. Below is a chronological list of presidents of the UN Security Council, the Procedure of the UN Security Council. The Law of the United Nations, A Critical Analysis of Its Fundamental Problems Edward C, the UN Security Council, A Primer. ISBN 0-415-35531-1 UN Security Council Presidency, official website Presidents of the Security Council in
President of the United Nations Security Council
–
Flag of the United Nations
18.
All-Ukrainian Revolutionary Committee
–
The committee possessed both legislative and executive powers and was based in Homel. Initially it was composed of five members, Grigoriy Petrovsky, Dmitriy Manuilsky, Volodymyr Zatonsky, Hryhoriy Hrynko, later the number of members was increased to eight with Christian Rakovsky, Vlas Chubar, and Myron Vladimirov. The committees secretary was Veniamin Yeroshchenko, has a communist his native land. October 27,2001 Establishment of the Soviet power in Ukraine
All-Ukrainian Revolutionary Committee
–
Ukrainian SSR
19.
Emanuil Kviring
–
Emanuel Kwiring was a Soviet politician. Born into a German family in Friesenthal, in the Samara Governorate of the Russian Empire, he became a socialist activist, after World War I and the Bolshevik Revolution, he was a leader of the Communist Party of Ukraine. He was an opponent of the Ukrainization policy, so he had to leave Kharkiv for Moscow, then he worked as an economist in the State Planning Committee. In 1937, he was arrested and executed by NKVD, in 1956, Kwiring was posthumously rehabilitated by a decision of the USSR Supreme Court
Emanuil Kviring
–
Emanuel Kviring Емануїл Йонович Квірінг
20.
President of Ukraine
–
The president of Ukraine is the Ukrainian head of state. The president represents the nation in international relations, administers the foreign political activity of the state, conducts negotiations, the president is directly elected by the citizens of Ukraine for a five-year term of office, limited to two terms consecutively. The presidents official residence is the Mariyinsky Palace, located in the Pechersk district of the capital Kyiv, other official residences include the House with Chimaeras and the House of the Weeping Widow, which are used for official visits by foreign representatives. Since the offices establishment on 5 July 1991, there have been five presidents of Ukraine, Leonid Kravchuk was the inaugural president, serving three years from 1991 until his resignation in 1994. Leonid Kuchma was the president to have served two consecutive terms in office. Oleksandr Turchynov was the acting president in Ukraines modern history. On 18 June 2015, Yanukovych was officially deprived of the title of president of Ukraine, the current president is Petro Poroshenko who took the oath of office on 7 June 2014. The prime minister serves as the head of government, a role filled by Volodymyr Groysman who was appointed to the position in April 2016. As with the separation of powers, the president has checks on the authority of parliament, for instance, any law passed by the parliament can be vetoed by the president, however, parliament can override his veto with a 2/3 constitutional majority vote. The president has limited authority to disband the Verkhovna Rada, and nominates candidates for the Minister of Foreign Affairs, six out of eighteen of the Constitutional Court judges are appointed by the president. Decisions of the president are subject to review by Ukraines courts with the Constitutional Court having the sole authority, while in office, the president enjoys the right of immunity. By-passing local governments is a practice in Ukraine. With the proclamation of the last universal of the UPR dated 25 January 1918 due to a military aggression, the Central Rada of the UPR proclaimed its independence from the Russia. On 29 April 1918, the Rada elected Mykhailo Hrushevskyi as the first President of the Central Rada of the Ukrainian Peoples Republic, although a rather widespread misconception, the state leadership position title varied and none of them had an official presidential title. In November of the year the directorate government of the UPR was established as the opposition movement to the Skoropadskys regime. Although really the Directorate was the governing body until the new Ukrainian Constituent Assembly would elect its president. Symon Petliura assumed the representation of the state after Vynnychenkos resignation on 11 February 1919, after the Soviet offensive in 1920 and brought control of the Ukrainian territory under the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic, the Ukrainian Peoples Republic was forced into exile. Upon the assassination of Petliura, the control over the affairs were transferred to the former Prime Minister Andriy Livytskyi who in 1948 created the office of the President of Ukraine
President of Ukraine
–
Incumbent
Petro Poroshenko since 7 June 2014
President of Ukraine
–
Presidential Standard
President of Ukraine
–
First President
Mykhailo Hrushevskyi (1917-18).
President of Ukraine
–
2nd President
Volodymyr Vynnychenko (1918-19).
21.
Ukraine
–
Ukraine is currently in territorial dispute with Russia over the Crimean Peninsula which Russia annexed in 2014 but which Ukraine and most of the international community recognise as Ukrainian. Including Crimea, Ukraine has an area of 603,628 km2, making it the largest country entirely within Europe and it has a population of about 42.5 million, making it the 32nd most populous country in the world. The territory of modern Ukraine has been inhabited since 32,000 BC, during the Middle Ages, the area was a key centre of East Slavic culture, with the powerful state of Kievan Rus forming the basis of Ukrainian identity. Following its fragmentation in the 13th century, the territory was contested, ruled and divided by a variety of powers, including Lithuania, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. A Cossack republic emerged and prospered during the 17th and 18th centuries, two brief periods of independence occurred during the 20th century, once near the end of World War I and another during World War II. Before its independence, Ukraine was typically referred to in English as The Ukraine, following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state. Nonetheless it formed a limited partnership with the Russian Federation and other CIS countries. In the 2000s, the government began leaning towards NATO, and it was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future. Former President Viktor Yanukovych considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO and these events formed the background for the annexation of Crimea by Russia in March 2014, and the War in Donbass in April 2014. On 1 January 2016, Ukraine applied the economic part of the Deep, Ukraine has long been a global breadbasket because of its extensive, fertile farmlands and is one of the worlds largest grain exporters. The diversified economy of Ukraine includes a heavy industry sector, particularly in aerospace. Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate powers, legislative, executive. Its capital and largest city is Kiev, taking into account reserves and paramilitary personnel, Ukraine maintains the second-largest military in Europe after that of Russia. Ukrainian is the language and its alphabet is Cyrillic. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodoxy, which has strongly influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature, there are different hypotheses as to the etymology of the name Ukraine. According to the older and most widespread hypothesis, it means borderland, while more recently some studies claim a different meaning, homeland or region. The Ukraine now implies disregard for the sovereignty, according to U. S. ambassador William Taylor. Neanderthal settlement in Ukraine is seen in the Molodova archaeological sites include a mammoth bone dwelling
Ukraine
–
Gold
Scythian pectoral, or neckpiece, from a royal
kurgan in
Ordzhonikidze, dated to the 4th century BC
Ukraine
–
Flag
Ukraine
–
Principalities of
Kievan Rus', 1054-1132
Ukraine
–
The baptism of the Grand Prince Vladimir led to the adoption of Christianity in
Kievan Rus'.
22.
Mykhailo Hrushevsky
–
Mykhailo Serhiyovych Hrushevsky was a Ukrainian academician, politician, historian, and statesman, one of the most important figures of the Ukrainian national revival of the early 20th century. He died under suspicious circumstances during Stalins purges in 1934, Mykhailo Hrushevsky was born on September 29,1866 in a Ukrainian noble family. Hrushevsky grew up in the foothills of the Caucasian mountains in Stavropol and his spiritual native land became Podolia in the area of the village of Sestrynivka, Podolia Governorate, where his mother was born, and where her father was a local Orthodox priest. In the same village she married the professor of the Kyiv Ecclesiastical Seminary, Serhiy Hrushevskys father was a highly decorated official. In addition to major works, he wrote numerous specialized studies in which he displayed a very acute critical acumen. His personal bibliography lists over 2000 separate titles, in Hrushevskys varied historical writings certain basic ideas come to the fore. Firstly, Hrushevsky saw continuity in Ukrainian history from ancient times to his own, thus he claimed the ancient Ukrainian Steppe cultures from Scythia, through Kievan Rus to the Cossacks as part of the Ukrainian heritage. He viewed the Principality of Galicia–Volhynia as the legitimate heir of Kievan Rus. This is opposed to the scheme of Russian history which claimed Kievan Rus for the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality. Secondly, to real depth to this continuity, Hrushevsky stressed the role of the common people. Thus popular revolts against the foreign states that ruled Ukraine were also a major theme. Thirdly, Hrushevsky always put the accent upon native Ukrainian factors rather than international ones as the causes of various phenomena, thus continuity, nativism, and populism characterized his general histories. With regard to the role of statehood in Hrushevskys historical thought, after the revolution of 1905 in Russia, Hrushevsky organized the Ukrainian Scientific Society in Kyiv in 1907 that served as a prototype to the future academy of sciences. In 1899, he was a co-founder of the Galician-based National Democratic Party and this party looked forward to eventual Ukrainian independence. After 1905, Hrushevsky advised the Ukrainian Club in the Russian State Duma or Parliament, at this time, Hrushevsky was clearly revealed as a radical democrat and a socialist. Following the German-supported coup of general Pavlo Skoropadsky, he went into hiding, Hrushevsky felt that Skoropadsky had perverted the cause of Ukrainian statehood by associating it with social conservatism. Hrushevsky returned to politics following the overthrow of Skoropadsky by the Directory. He did not, however, approve of the Directory and soon found himself in conflict with it, in 1919 he emigrated, having acquired a mandate from the Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries to co-ordinate the activities of its representatives abroad
Mykhailo Hrushevsky
–
Mykhailo Hrushevsky Михайло Грушевський Михаил Грушевский
Mykhailo Hrushevsky
–
Mykhailo Hrushevskyi museum in Kryvorivnya.
Mykhailo Hrushevsky
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The Head of the Ukrainian Central Rada, Myhailo Grushevskiy, at a military parade in Kyiv in 1917
Mykhailo Hrushevsky
–
Mykhailo Hrushevskyi portrait on obverse
₴50 bill circa 2004
23.
Volodymyr Vynnychenko
–
Volodymyr Kyrylovych Vynnychenko was a Ukrainian statesman, political activist, writer, playwright, artist. Prior to his entry onto the stage of Ukrainian politics, he was a political activist. His works reflect his immersion in the Ukrainian revolutionary milieu, among impoverished and working-class people, Vynnychenko was born in a village Vesely Kut, the Kherson Governorate of the Russian Empire in a family of peasants. His father Kyrylo Vasyliovych Vynnychenko earlier in his life was a peasant-serf has moved from a village to the city of Yelisavetgrad where he married a widow Yevdokia Pavlenko. From her previous marriage Yevdokia had three children, Andriy, Maria, and Vasyl, while from the marriage with Kyrylo only one son Volodymyr, upon graduating from a local public school the Vynnychenko family managed to enroll Volodymyr to the Yelyzavetgrad Male Gymnasium. In later grades of the gymnasium he took part in an organization and wrote a revolutionary poem for which was incarcerated for a week. That did not stop him to continue his studying as he was getting prepared for his test to obtain the high school diploma and he successfully took the test in the Zlatopil gymnasium from which obtained his attestation of maturity. In 1900 Vynnychenko joined the Revolutionary Ukrainian Party and enrolled in the law department at Kiev University, as a member of RUP he provided political agitation and propaganda among the Kievan workers and peasants from Poltava and jailed for several months in Lukyanivska Prison. He managed to out of his incarceration. In 1902 Vynnychenko published in Kievskaya starina his first novel Beauty, afterward, due to a new arrest he was forcibly drafted into punitive battalion the Russian Imperial army where he began to agitate soldiers with revolutionary propaganda. Tipped off that his arrest was imminent, Vynnychenko illegally fled to the eastern Galicia, when trying to return to Ukraine with revolutionary literature, Vynnychenko was arrested and jailed in Kiev for two years with a threat to spend the rest of his life in katorga. After his release in 1905, he passed his exams for a law degree in Kiev University, in 1911 Vynnychenko married Rosalia Lifshitz, a French Jewish doctor. From 1914 to 1917 Vynnychenko lived illegally near Moscow throughout much of World War I, after the Russian revolution in February 1917, Vynnychenko served as the head of the General Secretariat, a representative executive body of the Russian Provisional Government in Ukraine. He was authorized by the Central Rada of Ukraine to conduct negotiations with the Russian Provisional Government,1917, Vynnychenko resigned his post in the General Secretariat on August 13 in protest for the government of Russia declining the Universal of Central Rada. For a brief period he was replaced by Dmytro Doroshenko who composed a new government the next day, Vynnychenko was offered to return, form a cabinet and redesign the Second Universal to petition a federal union with the Russian Republic. His second government was confirmed by Alexander Kerensky on September 1 and it is often claimed that political mistakes of Vynnychenko and Mykhailo Hrushevsky cost the newly established Ukrainian Peoples Republic its independence. Both men were opposed to the creation of the army of the Republic. On January 22,1918, the Ukrainian Peoples Republic has proclaimed its independents due to the Bolshevik intervention headed by Antonov-Ovseyenko, the country was squeezed between the abandoned German-Russian front-lines to its western border and the advancing Bolshevik forces of Muravyov along the eastern border
Volodymyr Vynnychenko
–
Volodymyr Vynnychenko Володимир Винниченко
Volodymyr Vynnychenko
–
In 1910s
24.
Symon Petliura
–
Petliura has been a controversial figure connected with pogroms of Jews in the Russian Empire. On May 25,1926 he was killed in the center of Paris by the Russian anarchist of Jewish origin Sholom Schwartzbard. Petliura was born on May 22,1879, in a suburb of Poltava, Ukraine and his father Vasyl Pavlovych was the Poltava city resident and had own transportation business. Petliuras mother was a daughter of hieromonk, Petliuras initial education was obtained in parochial schools, and he planned to become an Orthodox priest. During his years 1895 –1901 in the Russian Orthodox Seminary in Poltava, when his membership in Hromada was discovered in 1901, he was expelled from the seminary. In 1900 Petliura joined the Revolutionary Ukrainian Party, in December 1903, he was arrested for organizing a RUP branch in Yekaterinodar and for publishing inflammatory anti-tsarist articles in the Ukrainian press outside of Imperial Russia. He was released on bail in March 1904, moving briefly to Kiev and he contributed numerous articles to the Ukrainian language press in Galicia. After Russian censors closed this magazine in July 1905, he moved back to Kiev where he worked for the magazine Rada, in 1907–09 he became the editor of the literary magazine Slovo and co-editor of Ukrayina. Because of the closure of these publications by the Russian Imperial authorities, Petliura was forced to again move from Kiev to Moscow in 1909. There, he married Olha Bilska, with whom he had a daughter, from 1912 he was a co-editor of the influential Russian-language journal Ukrainskaya zhizn’ until May 1917. As the editor of journals and newspapers, Petliura published over 15000 critical articles, reviews, stories. His prolific work in both the Russian and Ukrainian languages helped shape the mindset of the Ukrainian population in the leading up to the Revolution in both Eastern and Western Ukraine. His prolific correspondence was of benefit when the Revolution broke out in 1917. As the Ukrainian language had been outlawed in the Russian Empire by the Ems Ukaz of 1876, there, he published the magazine Vilna Ukrayina until July 1905. Tsarist censors, however, closed this magazine, and Petliura moved back to Kiev, in Kiev, Petliura first worked for Rada. In 1907 he became editor of the literary magazine Slovo, also, he co-edited the magazine Ukrayina. In 1909, these publications were closed by Russian imperial police, there, he was co-editor of the Russian language magazine Ukrayinskaya Zhizn to familiarize the local population with news and culture of what was known as Malorossia. He was chief editor with this publication from 1912 to 1914, in Moscow he married his wife Olha Bilska in 1915
Symon Petliura
–
Chief Otaman Symon Petliura
Symon Petliura
–
Józef Piłsudski and Symon Petliura
Kiev, May 1920
Symon Petliura
–
Ukrainian
President Victor Yushchenko and
his wife laying flowers at Symon Petliura's grave in Paris, 2005
Symon Petliura
–
A bust of Petliura in
Rivne
25.
Kost Levytsky
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Kost Levytsky was a Ukrainian politician. After finishing the Stanislaviv gymnasium he studied at Law faculties of Lviv, in 1884 he was awarded the Doctor’s degree in law, and in 1890 opened the barrister’s office in Lviv. Kost Levytsky took active part in public and political life in his student years, he was one of the leaders of Academic Fraternity, from the first years of his barrister’s practice K. Levytsky was a practical advocate of the rights and freedoms of people. Kost Levytsky was a patriarch of Ukrainian political life, leader of the lands first political organization Narodna Rada, a cofounder, in 1907 he was elected an ambassador of the Austrian parliament, in 1908, that of Galician Sejm, headed the ambassador’s clubs. He fought for the aspirations of Ukrainian people. He favoured development of the mass Ukrainian societies, units of intellectuals, peasants, youths, in 1916, as a prosecutor for the Austro-Hungarian Empire, he played a role in the sentencing to death of Ukrainian Russophiles, and sent others to imprisonment in Talerhof. In autumn 1918, in the course of disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian empire K, in 1923 he came back to Lviv after liquidation of the exile government. After the Soviet Army entered Western Ukraine, in September 1939, he was arrested by the People’s Commissariate of Internal Affairs, joseph Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev, Vyacheslav Molotov, and Lavrentiy Beria were involved in the proceedings concerning his case. In the spring of 1941, he was released and returned to Lviv, after the start of Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union, an independent Ukrainian State was proclaimed on June 30,1941. K. Levytsky headed the State Representative Body – a Council of Seniors, kost Levytsky died on November 12,1941 and was buried at Yanivsky Cemetery in Lviv
Kost Levytsky
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Kost Levytsky Кость Леви́цький
26.
Yevhen Petrushevych
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Yevhen Petrushevych was a Ukrainian lawyer, politician, and president of the Western Ukrainian National Republic formed after the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian empire in 1918. He was born on June 3,1863, in the town of Busk, after graduating from the Academic Gymnasium he studied law at the Lviv University, where he was one of the leaders of the student movement and headed the Academic Fraternity. After earning a doctorate in law, he started a practice in Sokal and he was regarded with favor by the people because of his professionalism in defending them from the self-will of powers. At the same time he headed the district Prosvita educational society and was an organizer of the cultural and educational life and he became an active member of Ukrainian National Democratic Party formed in 1899. In 1907 Yevhen Petrushevych was elected to the Imperial Council of Cisleithania and he became one of the leaders and then a head of Ukrainian Parliament Club. In 1910 he was elected to the Galician Sejm in Lviv from the Stryj district, during World War I as head of the Ukrainian Parliament representation he struggled against the plans of Galicia annexation by Poland and was an adherent of the territory autonomy within Austria. Jointly with Czech and Slovakian parliamentarians he worked out a project about the formation of national states united with Austria on the Empires lands, the manifest of Kaiser Karl on October 18,1918 proclaimed the right of peoples to self-determination. On October 19 the representative Ukrainian Constituent in Lvov approved the resolution on formation of the independent Ukrainian State in the ethnic territory. To implement the resolution they elected the Ukrainian National Rada, Yevhen Petrushevych became its president, being an adherent of the peaceful power transfer to Ukrainians he carried out negotiations with officials in Vienna. Levytskys government was formed on November 9 and started the construction of the national state, after the outbreak of the Polish-Ukrainian War and a defeat at Lviv, the ZUNR government remained in Stanislaviv. On June 9,1919 by decision of the top state authorities Petrushevych was granted the title of authorized dictator, when in July 1919 the Galician army retreated over the Zbruch into the Ukrainian Peoples Republic, the ZUNR government settled in Kamyanets-Podilskyi. In autumn 1919 Petrushevych left for Vienna, where the government continued its diplomatic activity for the restoration of ZUNR independence. With the aim to determine the aspirations of Ukrainians he elaborated a fundamental draft of the Constitution of Ukrainian Galician Republic, in 1922 Petrushevych headed Ukrainian delegation to Geneva where the international conference took place. But on March 15,1923 the Council of Ambassadors approved a resolution according to which the West Ukrainian lands were annexed by Poland without reservation, as a result of his disappointment over the March decision he adopted an openly Sovietophile position. He maintained contacts with the Soviet representatives in Vienna and Berlin, in 1923 the Politburo of the All-Union Communist Party decided in favour of funding Petrushevychs activities, and two years later the Ukrainian Politburo made a similar decision. Petrushevych continued receiving financial support at least until the end of the 1920s, in spite of the emigrants life difficulties, in old age he collaborated with Ukrainian National Association, maintained relations with Hetman Pavlo Skoropadsky. Petrushevych died on August 29,1940 and was buried at Berlin cemetery of St. Hedwigs Cathedral, dictatorship of the Western Province of the Ukrainian National Republic in the Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine, vol.1
Yevhen Petrushevych
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Yevhen Petrushevych Євген Петрушевич
27.
Ukrainian State
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The Ukrainian State, sometimes also called the Hetmanate was an anti-socialist government that existed on most of the modern territory of Ukraine from April 29 to December 14,1918. It was installed after the socialist-leaning Central Council of the Ukrainian Peoples Republic was dispersed on April 28,1918, Ukraine turned into a provisional dictatorship of Hetman of Ukraine Pavlo Skoropadskyi, who outlawed all socialist-oriented political parties, creating an anti-Bolshevik front. It collapsed in December 1918, when Skoropadskyi was deposed and the Ukrainian Peoples Republic returned to power in the form of the Directorate, more assertive foreign policy and military support from the Central Powers saw some improved stabilization within the country. The collaborationist country lay in Eastern Europe along the middle and lower sections of the Dnieper on the coast of Black, the Ukrainian State covered most of the territory of modern-day Ukraine—minus West Ukraine and Crimea. Its territory however extended into todays Russia, Belarus, Moldova, to the southwest along the Dniester lay a border with the Kingdom of Romania, to the west Ukraine bordered the German Empire and Austria-Hungary. To the north were the German-occupied territories of Ober Ost and the Belarusian National Administration, on February 9, Ukraine signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the coalition of Central Powers and by March all Bolshevik forces of the Russian SFSR were removed from the territory of Ukraine. The German Army Group Kiev was created in order to protect Ukraine from further Bolshevik aggression, on April 25, the administration of Army Group Kiev suspected the government of Vsevolod Holubovych of kidnapping of Abram Dobry, the chairman of the Foreign Trade Bank in Kiev. Through that bank the German occupational forces were officially conducting all financial operations with the Reichsbank in Berlin, after receiving information about the situation at the congress from his couriers, Pavlo Skoropadskyi later arrived in his car to the event where he was elected the Hetman of Ukraine. After that all participants moved to St Sophias Square, where Skoropadskyi was blessed by Nykodym and that night the Hetman supporters took over government building of military and internal affairs as well as the State Bank. The following day, the elite and most loyal formation of the Central Council, Skoropadskyi issued his manifesto To the All-Ukrainian Nation and the Law of the Provisional State System. Desiring stability, the Austro-Hungarian and German forces welcomed the coup, Skoropadskyi co-operated with them, the new state retained the tryzub and the national flag, but reversed the design to light blue over yellow. The Sich Riflemen opposed the coup and were disbanded along with the Bluecoats, internal opposition was provoked by the requisitioning of food stocks and restoration of land to the wealthy landowners. Opponents of the Skoropadskyi regime committed acts of arson and sabotage and, in July 1918, assassinated Eichhorn, in August 1918, the anti-Skoropadskyi coalition succeeded in forcing him to re-form the Sich Riflemen. By then it was becoming obvious that the Central Powers had lost the war and he thus looked for support from conservative Russian elements in society and proposed joining a federation with Anton Denikin and the White Movement. This further eroded his standing among Ukrainians, in December 1918, Skoropadsky was deposed and the Directorate was established as a form of the Ukrainian Peoples Republic. Almost the entire commanding staff of the Ukrainian State armed forces consisted of officers of the former Imperial Russian Army, most officers were not supportive of the Ukrainian cause and viewed it as a way to make it through tough times. At the same time, wide masses of the population did not have a sense of national identity. Following the armistice ending World War I, Ukrainian socialists formed the Directorate of Ukraine, whose forces were spearheaded by the Sich Riflemen, although German and Austrian troops had not yet withdrawn from Ukraine, they had no further interest in fighting
Ukrainian State
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Pavlo Skoropadskyi,
Hetman of Ukraine.
Ukrainian State
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Flag
Ukrainian State
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Skoropadskyi inspects troops from the "Graycoats" division.
28.
Pavlo Skoropadskyi
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Pavlo Petrovych Skoropadskyi was a Ukrainian aristocrat, military and state leader, decorated Imperial Russian Army and Ukrainian Army general of Cossack heritage. Skoropadsky became a leader in Ukraine following the Russian Revolution of 1917. The father of Pavlo Petro Ivanovych Skoropadsky was a Cavalry Guard Colonel, afterwards he served as a speaker for the Starodub County Council until his death. Pavlos aunt Countess Yelyzaveta Myloradovych was a Ukrainian public activist and she was one of the main sponsors for foundation first Ukrainian scientific institution Shevchenko Scientific Society in Lviv. Her husband was Count Lev Myloradovych whose mother was from the Kochubey family, the grandfather Ivan also served as a speaker for the Pryluky County and Poltava Governorate councils. He also was known for building the Trostyanets Arboretum, Pavlos father Petro Ivanovych was also a descendant of the Tarnovsky family, while Pavlos mother was a descendant of Miklashewsky and Olsufiev families. Pavlo grew up at his fathers estate in Trostianets, Pryluky County and he attended a gymnasium in Starodub and later graduated from the Page Corps cadet school in Saint Petersburg. In 1893 Skoropadsky graduated from the Page Corps and was assigned as a cornet to the Chevalier Guard regiment where he was put in charge of a squadron, after two years he was assigned a duty of the Regimental adjutant in the same regiment. In December 1897 he was promoted to Poruchik, in 1897 Skoropadsky also married Aleksandra Petrovna Durnovo, a daughter of Pyotr Pavlovich Durnovo, the General Governor of Moscow. Skoropadskys first major assignment was a commander in the 2nd Chita Cossack Regiment of the Trans-Baikal Cossack Host in Chita during the Russo-Japanese War. Later he became an adjutant to the commander of the Russian forces on the Far East General Nikolay Linevich, during the war Skoropadsky was awarded the Georges Weapon and several orders. In December 1905 Tsar Nikolai II made him a Fliegel-Adjutant in a rank of Colonel, on September 4,1910 Colonel Skoropadsky was commissioned as the commander of the 20th Finnish Dragoon Regiment still continuing to be a Fliegel-Adjutant of the H. I. M. Retinue. On April 15,1911 he was reassigned to the Leib-Guard Cavalry Regiment, leib-Guards were the elite Russian military forces assigned for a personal protection of the emperor. On December 6,1912 Skoropadsky was promoted to the Major General of the H. I. M. Retinue. At the start of World War I Skoropadsky was put in charge of the reorganized 1st Brigade of the 1st Cavalry Guard Division as part of the 1st Army commanded by General Paul von Rennenkampf. Skoropadsky already worked for von Rennenkampf during the Russo-Japanese War when the last was commanding Trans-Baikal Cossack Host, on August 6,1914 his regiment distinguished itself in battles near Kraupishken as part of the Russian invasion of East Prussia. Later he was appointed as a commander of the United Cavalry Guard Division which distinguished near Kaushen, General Skoropadsky also commanded the 5th Cavalry Division. On April 2,1916 he was promoted to Lieutenant General and was commissioned the 1st Cavalry Guard Division, from January 22 to July 2,1917 he is in charge of the 34th Army Corps
Pavlo Skoropadskyi
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Pavlo Skoropadskyi Павло Петрович Скоропадський
Pavlo Skoropadskyi
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Cathedral of the Holy Wisdom, Kiev.
Pavlo Skoropadskyi
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Pavlo Skoropadsky (right center)
Pavlo Skoropadskyi
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Oleksandra Durnovo [Skoropadska]
