1.
Turkish language
–
Outside of Turkey, significant smaller groups of speakers exist in Germany, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Northern Cyprus, Greece, the Caucasus, and other parts of Europe and Central Asia. Cyprus has requested that the European Union add Turkish as an official EU language, in 1928, as one of Atatürks Reforms in the early years of the Republic of Turkey, the Ottoman Turkish alphabet was replaced with a Latin alphabet. The distinctive characteristics of Turkish are vowel harmony and extensive agglutination, the basic word order of Turkish is subject–object–verb. Turkish has no classes or grammatical gender. Turkish has a strong T–V distinction and usage of honorifics, Turkish uses second-person pronouns that distinguish varying levels of politeness, social distance, age, courtesy or familiarity toward the addressee. The plural second-person pronoun and verb forms are used referring to a person out of respect. Turkic languages belong to the Altaic language group, the Turkic family comprises some 30 living languages spoken across Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and Siberia. Turkish is a member of the Oghuz group of languages, a subgroup of the Turkic language family, there is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between Turkish and the other Oghuz Turkic languages, including Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Qashqai, Gagauz, and Balkan Gagauz Turkish. The earliest known Old Turkic inscriptions are the three monumental Orkhon inscriptions found in modern Mongolia, erected in honour of the prince Kul Tigin and his brother Emperor Bilge Khagan, these date back to the second Turk Kaghanate. The Seljuqs of the Oghuz Turks, in particular, brought their language, following the adoption of Islam c. Turkish literature during the Ottoman period, particularly Divan poetry, was influenced by Persian, including the adoption of poetic meters. One of the tasks of the newly established association was to initiate a reform to replace loanwords of Arabic. By banning the usage of imported words in the press, the association succeeded in removing several hundred words from the language. While most of the words introduced to the language by the TDK were newly derived from Turkic roots, owing to this sudden change in the language, older and younger people in Turkey started to differ in their vocabularies. While the generations born before the 1940s tend to use the terms of Arabic or Persian origin. The past few decades have seen the work of the TDK to coin new Turkish words to express new concepts and technologies as they enter the language. Many of these new words, particularly information technology terms, have received widespread acceptance, however, the TDK is occasionally criticized for coining words which sound contrived and artificial. Some earlier changes—such as bölem to replace fırka, political party—also failed to meet with popular approval, some words restored from Old Turkic have taken on specialized meanings, for example betik is now used to mean script in computer science
2.
Clothing
–
Clothing is fiber and textile material worn on the body. The wearing of clothing is mostly restricted to human beings and is a feature of all human societies. The amount and type of clothing worn depends on type, social. Some clothing types can be gender-specific, physically, clothing serves many purposes, it can serve as protection from the elements, and can enhance safety during hazardous activities such as hiking and cooking. It protects the wearer from rough surfaces, rash-causing plants, insect bites, splinters, thorns, Clothes can insulate against cold or hot conditions. Further, they can provide a barrier, keeping infectious. Clothing also provides protection from ultraviolet radiation, there is no easy way to determine when clothing was first developed, but some information has been inferred by studying lice. The body louse specifically lives in clothing, and diverge from head lice about 170 millennia ago, another theory is that modern humans are the only survivors of several species of primates who may have worn clothes and that clothing may have been used as long ago as 650 millennia. Other louse-based estimates put the introduction of clothing at around 42, the most obvious function of clothing is to improve the comfort of the wearer, by protecting the wearer from the elements. In hot climates, clothing provides protection from sunburn or wind damage, shelter usually reduces the functional need for clothing. For example, coats, hats, gloves, and other layers are normally removed when entering a warm home. Similarly, clothing has seasonal and regional aspects, so that thinner materials, Clothing performs a range of social and cultural functions, such as individual, occupational and gender differentiation, and social status. In many societies, norms about clothing reflect standards of modesty, religion, gender, Clothing may also function as a form of adornment and an expression of personal taste or style. Clothing can and has in history been made from a wide variety of materials. Materials have ranged from leather and furs, to materials, to elaborate and exotic natural. Not all body coverings are regarded as clothing, Clothing protects against many things that might injure the uncovered human body. Clothes protect people from the elements, including rain, snow, wind, however, clothing that is too sheer, thin, small, tight, etc. offers less protection. Clothes also reduce risk during activities such as work or sport, some clothing protects from specific environmental hazards, such as insects, noxious chemicals, weather, weapons, and contact with abrasive substances
3.
Sleeve
–
A sleeve is the part of a garment that covers the arm, or through which the arm passes or slips. The pattern of the sleeve is one of the characteristics of fashion in dress, varying in every country, various survivals of the early forms of sleeve are still found in the different types of academic or other robes. Where the long hanging sleeve is worn it has, as still in China and Japan, been used as a pocket, whence has come the phrase to have up ones sleeve, to have something concealed ready to produce. There are many other proverbial and metaphorical expressions associated with the sleeve, such as to ones heart upon ones sleeve. Sleeve length varies from barely over the shoulder to floor-length, most contemporary shirt sleeves end somewhere between the mid-upper arm and the wrist. Early medieval sleeves were cut straight, and underarm triangle-shaped gussets were used to ease of movement. In the 14th century, the sleeve cap was invented. Often the names applied to sleeves in historical costume are modern, oxford English Dictionary Picken, Mary Brooks, The Fashion Dictionary, Funk and Wagnalls,1957. Media related to Sleeves at Wikimedia Commons
4.
Turkish people
–
Turkish people, or the Turks, also known as Anatolian Turks, are a Turkic ethnic group and nation living mainly in Turkey and speaking Turkish, the most widely spoken Turkic language. They are the largest ethnic group in Turkey, as well as by far the largest ethnic group among the speakers of Turkic languages, ethnic Turkish minorities exist in the former lands of the Ottoman Empire. In addition, a Turkish diaspora has been established with modern migration, the ethnonym Turk may be first discerned in Herodotus reference to Targitas, first king of the Scythians, furthermore, during the first century AD. Pomponius Mela refers to the Turcae in the north of the Sea of Azov. The first definite references to the Turks come mainly from Chinese sources in the sixth century, in these sources, Turk appears as Tujue, which referred to the Göktürks. Although Turk refers to Turkish people, it may sometimes refer to the wider language group of Turkic peoples. In the 19th century, the word Türk only referred to Anatolian villagers, the Ottoman ruling class identified themselves as Ottomans, not usually as Turks. In the late 19th century, as the Ottoman upper classes adopted European ideas of nationalism the term Türk took on a more positive connotation. The Turkish-speakers of Anatolia were the most loyal supporters of Ottoman rule, Turkish Jews, Christians, or even Alevis may be considered non-Turks. On the other hand, Kurdish Arab followers of the Sunni branch of Islam who live in eastern Anatolia are sometimes considered Turks, article 66 of the Turkish Constitution defines a Turk as anyone who is bound to the Turkish state through the bond of citizenship. Anatolia was first inhabited by hunter-gatherers during the Paleolithic era, most of the Turkic peoples were followers of Tengriism, sharing the cult of the sky god Tengri, although there were also adherents of Manichaeism, Nestorian Christianity and Buddhism. However, during the Muslim conquests, the Turks entered the Muslim world proper as servants, during the booty of Arab raids, the Turks began converting to Islam after Muslim conquest of Transoxiana through the efforts of missionaries, Sufis, and merchants. Although initiated by the Arabs, the conversion of the Turks to Islam was filtered through Persian, under the Umayyads, most were domestic servants, whilst under the Abbasids, increasing numbers were trained as soldiers. By the ninth century, Turkish commanders were leading the caliphs’ Turkish troops into battle, as the Abbasid caliphate declined, Turkish officers assumed more military and political power taking over or establishing provincial dynasties with their own corps of Turkish troops. During the 11th century the Seljuk Turks who were admirers of the Persian civilization grew in number and were able to occupy the province of the Abbasid Empire. By 1055, the Seljuk Empire captured Baghdad and began to make their first incursions into the edges of Anatolia, when the Seljuk Turks won the Battle of Manzikert against the Byzantine Empire in 1071, it opened the gates of Anatolia to them. Although ethnically Turkish, the Seljuk Turks appreciated and became the purveyors of the Persian culture rather than the Turkish culture, in dire straits, the Byzantine Empire turned to the West for help setting in motion the pleas that led to the First Crusade. Once the Crusaders took Iznik, the Seljuk Turks established the Sultanate of Rum from their new capital, Konya, by the 12th century the Europeans had begun to call the Anatolian region Turchia or Turkey, meaning the land of the Turks
5.
Cassock
–
The white or black cassock, or soutane, is an item of Christian clerical clothing used by the clergy of Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican and Reformed churches, among others. Ankle-length garment is the meaning of the corresponding Latin term. It is related to habit traditionally worn by nuns, monks, the cassock derives historically from the tunic that in ancient Rome was worn underneath the toga and the chiton that was worn beneath the himation in ancient Greece. In religious services, it has traditionally been worn underneath vestments, the word cassock comes from Middle French casaque, meaning a long coat. In turn, the old French word may come ultimately from Turkish quzzak, the name was originally specially applied to the dress worn by soldiers and horsemen, and later to the long garment worn in civil life by both men and women. As an ecclesiastical term the word came into use somewhat late, being mentioned in canon 74 of 1604. The word soutane is a French-derived word, coming from Italian sottana, derived in turn from Latin subtana, the cassock comes in a number of styles or cuts, though no particular symbolism attaches to these. A Roman cassock often has a series of buttons down the front – sometimes thirty-three, in some English-speaking countries these buttons may be merely ornamental, with a concealed fly-front buttoning, known as a Chesterfield front, used to fasten the garment. A French cassock also has buttons sewn to the sleeves after the manner of a suit, an Ambrosian cassock has a series of only five buttons under the neck, with a sash on the waist. A Jesuit cassock, in lieu of buttons, has a fly fastened with hooks at the collar and is bound at the waist with a cincture knotted on the right side. The ordinary Roman cassock worn by Roman Catholic clerics is black except in tropical countries, the 1969 Instruction on the dress of prelates stated that for all of them, even cardinals, the dress for ordinary use may be a simple black cassock without coloured trim. A band cincture or sash, known also as a fascia, the Instruction on the dress of prelates specifies that the two ends that hang down by the side have silk fringes, abolishing the sash with tassels. The Pope wears a white watered-silk fascia, sometimes with his coat of arms on the ends, cardinals have the additional distinction of having both choir cassock sleeves and the fascia made of scarlet watered-silk. The cut of the cassock is still a Roman-cut or French-cut Roman cassock. In the past, a cardinals cassock was made entirely of watered silk and this train was abolished by the motu proprio Valde solliciti of Pope Pius XII with effect from 1 January 1953. An elbow-length shoulder cape, open in front, is worn with the cassock. It is known as a pellegrina and it is distinct from the mozzetta, which is buttoned in front and is worn over a rochet. The general rule of the Roman Catholic Church is that the pellegrina may be worn with the cassock by cardinals, others too have made the same distinction between the simar and the cassock, but many scholars disagree with Nainfas distinction
6.
Hussar
–
A Hussar was a member of any one of several types of light cavalry used during the 18th and 19th centuries, beginning in Central Europe. Historically, the term derives from the cavalry of late medieval Hungary, the title and distinctive dress of these horsemen were subsequently widely adopted by light cavalry regiments in European and European colonial armies in the late 17th and 18th centuries. A number of armored or ceremonial mounted units in modern armies retain the designation of hussars, the first written mention of the word Hussarones has been found in documents dating from 1432 in Southern Hungary. A type of light horsemen was already well-established by the 15th century in medieval Hungary. Etymologists are divided over the derivation of the word hussar, byzantinist scholars argue that the term originated in Roman military practice, and the cursarii. 10th-century Byzantine military manuals mention chonsarioi, light cavalry, recruited in the Balkans, especially Serbs and this word was subsequently reintroduced to Western European military practice after its original usage had been lost with the collapse of Rome in the west. According to Websters Dictionary, the word stems from the Hungarian huszár. On the other hand, husz means twenty in Hungarian whilst ar is a unit of measurement or acre. Hussars are so named as they were a form of military levy whereby any land owner with twenty acres was duty bound to provide a mounted and equipped soldier to the army at their own expense. The elaborate uniforms were based on traditional Magyar horsemans clothes with highly braided, tight riding breeches, close fitting pointed boots, the hussars reportedly originated in bands of mostly Serbian warriors, crossing into southern Hungary after the Ottoman conquest of Serbia at the end of the 14th century. Regent-Governor John Hunyadi created mounted units inspired by the Ottomans and his son, Matthias Corvinus, later king of Hungary, is unanimously accepted as the creator of these troops, commonly called Rac. Initially, they fought in bands, but were reorganised into larger. The first hussar regiments comprised the cavalry of the Black Army of Hungary. Under Corvinus command, the took part in the war against the Ottoman Empire in 1485 and proved successful against the sipahis as well as against the Bohemians. After the kings death, in 1490, hussars became the form of cavalry in Hungary in addition to the heavy cavalry. The Habsburg emperors hired Hungarian hussars as mercenaries to serve against the Ottomans, early hussars wore armor when they could afford to it like the later Polish hussars. Hungarian hussars abandoned using shields and later armors and became entirely light cavalry in the first half of the 17th century, initially the first units of Polish hussars in the Kingdom of Poland were formed in 1500, influenced by Serbian mercenaries. A small number of Serbian mercenaries were recruited and became citizens of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Polish heavy hussars of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth were far more manoeuvrable than the heavily armoured lancers previously employed
7.
Atilla (clothing)
–
The atilla is a fancy, braided Hungarian shell-jacket or short coat, decorated with lace and knots. It has become part of the uniform of the Hungarian cavalry, hussar. It was made in styles and many colors including black, gray, blue, green, red. The origins of atilla believed to go back to the 16th century when Hungarians started wearing their coats on one shoulder. One opinion is a legend, explained by an English general to the effect that one night a Hungarian cavalry unit was attacked by the Turks. Instead they just threw on the short coat half shouldered and this is how they went to the battle, others believe that the cavalry wore their short coat on half shoulder to use it as a shield, like their ancestors did, wearing animal skins for the same purpose. After 1850, the worn by the cavalry men became longer. In 1892, the atilla also became part of the Hungarian foresters ceremonial uniform and it was dark green or black with seven golden braids and golden buttons
8.
Pelisse
–
A pelisse was originally a short fur lined or fur trimmed jacket that was usually worn hanging loose over the left shoulder of hussar light cavalry soldiers, ostensibly to prevent sword cuts. The name was applied to a fashionable style of womans coat worn in the early 19th century. The style of incorporating the pelisse originated with the Hussar mercenaries of Hungary in the 17th Century. As this type of cavalry unit became popular in Western Europe. In the 19th century pelisses were in use throughout most armies in Europe, in appearance the pelisse was characteristically a very short and extremely tight fitting jacket, the cuffs and collar of which were trimmed with fur. The jacket was decorated with patterns sewn in bullion lace. The front of the jacket was distinctive and featured several rows of parallel frogging and loops, for officers of the British Hussars this frogging, regimentally differentiated, was generally of gold or silver bullion lace, to match either gold or silver buttons. Other ranks had either yellow lace with brass buttons or white lace with white-metal buttons, lacing varied from unit to unit and country to country. The pelisse was usually slung over the left shoulder, in the manner of a short cloak, over a jacket of similar style -. It was held in place by a lanyard, in cold weather the pelisse could be worn over the dolman. The two hussar regiments of the Spanish Army retained pelisses until 1931, the Danish Garderhusarregimentet are the only modern military unit to retain this distinctive item of dress, as part of their mounted full-dress uniform. Although initially these Regency-era pelisses copied the Hussars fur and braid, they soon lost these initial associations and they did, however, tend to retain traces of their military inspiration with frog fastenings and braid trim. British Military Spectacle, From The Napoleonic Wars Through The Crimea, cambridge, Massachusetts- London, England, Harvard University Press. CS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Orbis Books, Military uniforms, the splendour of the past. Coat, 1800-1815, in the Staten Island Historical Society Online Collections Database
9.
Harper's Bazaar
–
Harpers Bazaar is an American womens fashion magazine, first published in 1867. Harpers Bazaar is published by Hearst and, as a magazine, considers itself to be the resource for women who are the first to buy the best. Writers Alice Meynell, Daisy Fellowes, Gloria Guinness, and Eleanor Hoyt Brainerd, when Harpers Bazaar began publication, it was a weekly magazine catering to women in the middle and upper classes. It showcased fashion from Germany and Paris in a newspaper-design format and it was not until 1901 that Harpers moved to a monthly issued magazine which it maintains today. Now Harpers Bazaar is owned and operated by the Hearst Corporation in the U. S. harper & Brothers founded the magazine. This company also gave birth to Harpers Magazine and HarperCollins Publishing, glenda Bailey is the editor-in-chief of U. S. edition of Harpers Bazaar. As the turn-of-the-century began in America, Harpers Bazaar began featuring both illustrations and photographs for its covers and inside features of society and increasingly of fashion. During the late Victorian period, as the suffrage movement was gaining momentum. Bazaar also began profiling prominent socialites, such as the Astors, in 1933, editor-in-chief Carmel Snow brought photojournalist Martin Munkacsi to a windswept beach to shoot a swimwear spread. As the model ran toward the camera, Munkacsi took the picture that made fashion-magazine history, until that moment, nearly all fashion was carefully staged on mannequin-like models in a studio. Snows buoyant spirit and wicked sense of adventure brought life to the pages of Bazaar, Snows genius came from cultivating the best people. Her first big find was art director Alexey Brodovitch, who innovated Bazaars iconic Didot logo, Snow also unleashed the force of nature known as Diana Vreeland, whom she brought on as fashion editor in 1936. The collaboration of these four visionaries resulted in some of the germane fashion shoots of the 20th century and ended only with Snows retirement, at the age of 70, throughout his career at the magazine, Brodovitch, a Russian émigré, revolutionized magazine design. With his directive Astonish me, he inspired some of the greatest visual artists of the 20th century, one of his assistants was future Rolling Stone art director Tony Lane. Sadly, Brodovitchs personal life was less triumphant, plagued by alcoholism, he left Bazaar in 1958 and eventually moved to the south of France, where he died in 1971. Diana, who is said to have invented the word pizzazz, before long, she became fashion editor, collaborating with photographers Louise Dahl-Wolfe and Richard Avedon and, later, art director Henry Wolf. Her eccentricity, perception and wit, as well as her sharp wit and sweeping pronouncements, were memorialized in the movie Funny Face, making her, for many, Richard Avedon began creating fashion portfolios for Harpers Bazaar at the age of 22. His distinctive photographs showed both chic insouciance and boundless vitality, avedons women leapt off curbs, roller-skated on the Place de la Concorde, and were seen in nightclubs, enjoying the freedom and fashions of the postwar era
10.
Wayback Machine
–
The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
11.
Public domain
–
The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
12.
History of clothing and textiles
–
The study of the history of clothing and textiles traces the availability and use of textiles and other materials and the development of technology for the making of clothing over human history. The wearing of clothing is exclusively a characteristic and is a feature of most human societies. Clothing and textiles have been important in history and reflect the materials available to a civilization as well as the technologies that had been mastered. The social significance of the product reflects their culture. Textiles can be felt or spun fibers made into yarn and subsequently netted, looped, knit or woven to make fabrics, scholarship of textile history, especially its earlier stages, is part of material culture studies. The development of textile and clothing manufacture in prehistory has been the subject of a number of studies since the late 20th century. These sources have helped to provide a coherent history of these prehistoric developments, evidence suggests that humans may have begun wearing clothing as far back as 10,000 to 50,000 years ago. These estimates predate the first known human exodus from Africa, although other species who may have worn clothes –. Possible sewing needles have been dated to around 40,000 years ago, the earliest definite examples of needles originate from the Solutrean culture, which existed in France from 19,000 BC to 15,000 BC. The earliest dyed flax fibers have found in a prehistoric cave in the Republic of Georgia. At a slightly later date the Venus figurines were depicted with clothing and those from western Europe were adorned with basket hats or caps, belts worn at the waist, and a strap of cloth that wrapped around the body right above the breast. Eastern European figurines wore belts, hung low on the hips, archaeologists have discovered artifacts from the same period that appear to have been used in the textile arts, net gauges, spindle needles and weaving sticks. The first actual textile, as opposed to skins sewn together, was probably felt, surviving examples of Nålebinding, another early textile method, date from 6500 BC. Our knowledge of ancient textiles and clothing has expanded in the recent past thanks to technological developments. In northern Eurasia peat bogs can also preserve textiles very well, from pre-history through the early middle ages, for most of Europe, the Near East and North Africa, two main types of loom dominate textile production. These are the loom and the two-beam loom. The length of the cloth beam determined the width of the cloth woven upon it, the second loom type is the two-beam loom. Early woven clothing was made of full loom widths draped, tied
13.
Clothing in the ancient world
–
The clothing used in the ancient world strongly reflects the technologies that these peoples mastered. Archaeology plays a significant role in documenting this aspect of ancient life, for fabric fibers, in many cultures the clothing worn was indicative of the social status achieved by various members of their society. The attire fashion and clothing is exclusively human characteristic and is a feature of most human societies, clothing and textiles in different periods and ages reflect the development of civilization and technologies in different periods of time at different places. The most common textile in ancient Egypt was flax, while being aware of other materials, the ancient Egyptians preferred to use linen, a product made from the flax plant. Aside from this, other animal based products, such as animal pelts, were reserved for priests and eventually saw adoption by only the highest class of ancient Egyptian citizenry. Linen is also light, strong and flexible which made it ideal for life in the climate, wherein abrasion. Thus, aside from small minority, every ancient Egyptian used linen as their predominant textile. They also used more complex drapery, designs and patterns that included dyed threads and these materials were expensive and the wearer showed greater status by wearing them. On the other hand, cheaper thicker linen was used within the lower class and it was considered acceptable for men and woman alike to bear their chests, in both upper and lower class. Certain clothing was common to both genders such as the tunic and the robe, around 1425 to 1405 BCE, a light tunic or short-sleeved shirt was popular, as well as a pleated skirt. Clothing for adult women remained unchanged over several millennia, save for small details, draped clothes, with very large rolls, gave the impression of wearing several items. It was in fact a hawk, often of very fine muslin and these suspenders were sometimes wide enough to cover the breasts and were painted and colored for various reasons, for instance to imitate the plumage on the wings of Isis. Clothing of the family was different, and was well documented, for instance the crowns of the pharaohs, feather headdresses. Shoes were the same for both sexes, sandals braided with leather, or, particularly for the bureaucratic and priestly classes, beauty and cosmetics in ancient Egypt Embalming made it possible to develop cosmetic products and perfumery very early. Perfumes in Egypt were scented oils which were very expensive, in antiquity, people made great use of them. The Egyptians used make-up much more than anyone else at the time, kohl, used as eyeliner, was eventually obtained as a substitute for galena or lead oxide which had been used for centuries. Eye shadow was made of crushed malachite and lipstick of ochre, substances used in some of the cosmetics were toxic, and had adverse health effects with prolonged use. Beauty products were mixed with animal fats in order to make them more compact, more easily handled
14.
Clothing in ancient Egypt
–
Ancient Egyptian clothes refers to clothing worn in ancient Egypt from the end of the Neolithic period to the collapse of the Ptolemaic dynasty with the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC. Egyptian clothing was filled with a variety of colors, adorned with precious gems and jewels, the fashions of the Ancient Egyptians were made for not only beauty but also comfort. Egyptian fashion was created to keep cool while in the hot desert, in ancient Egypt, linen was by far the most common textile. It helped people to be comfortable in the subtropical heat, linen is made from the flax plant by spinning the fibers from the stem of the plant. Spinning, weaving and sewing were very important techniques for all Egyptian societies, plant dyes could be applied to clothing but the clothing was usually left in its natural color. Wool was known, but considered impure, only the wealthy wore animal fibers that were the object of taboos. They were used on occasion for overcoats, but were forbidden in temples and sanctuaries, peasants, workers and other people of modest condition often wore nothing, but the shenti was worn by all people. The most common headdress was the khat or nemes, a cloth worn by men. From about 2130 BC during the Old Kingdom, garments were simple, the men wore wrap around skirts known as the shendyt, which were belted at the waist, sometimes pleated or gathered in the front. During this time, mens skirts were short, as the Middle Kingdom of Egypt,1600 B. C. came, the skirt was worn longer. Then, around 1420 BC, there was a tunic or blouse with sleeves. During the Old, Middle and New Kingdom, Ancient Egyptian women often wore simple sheath dresses called kalasiris, womens clothing in ancient Egypt was more conservative than mens clothing. The dresses were held up by one or two straps and were worn down to the ankle, while the edge could be worn above or below the breasts. The length of the dress denoted the social class of the wearer, beading or feathers were also used as an embellishment on the dress. Over the dress, women had a choice of wearing shawls, capes, the shawl was a piece of cloth around 4 feet wide by 13 or 14 feet long. This was mostly worn pleated as well, female clothes only changed slightly through the millennia. Draped clothing sometimes gave the impression of different clothing. It was made of haïk, a fine muslin
15.
Biblical clothing
–
The clothing of the people in Biblical times was made from wool, linen, animal skins, and perhaps silk. Most events in the Old and New Testament take place in Ancient Israel and they wore underwear and cloth skirts. Complete descriptions of the styles of dress among the people of the Bible is impossible because the material at hand is insufficient, Assyrian and Egyptian artists portrayed what is believed to be the clothing of the time, but there are few depictions of Israelite garb. One of the few sources on Israelite clothing is the Bible. Ezor, ḥagor The earliest and most basic garment was the ezor or ḥagor, an apron around the hips or loins and it was a simple piece of cloth worn in various modifications, but always worn next to the skin. Priests wore an ezor of linen known as a ephodh, if worn for mourning, it was called a saḳ. When garments were held together by a belt or girdle, the cloth was called an ezor or ḥagor. Kethōneth The ezor later became displaced among the Hebrews by the kethōneth an under-tunic, the kethōneth appears in Assyrian art as a tight-fitting undergarment, sometimes reaching only to the knee, sometimes to the ankle. In its early form the kethōneth was without sleeves and even left the left shoulder uncovered, in time men of leisure wore kethōneth with sleeves. In later times, anyone dressed only in the kethōneth was described as naked, deprived of it he would be absolutely naked, sādhı̄n The well-off might also wear a ṣādhı̄n under the kethōneth. This rather long under garment had sleeves and was of fine linen, simlāh The simlāh was the heavy outer garment or shawl of various forms. It consisted of a rectangular piece of rough, heavy woolen material, crudely sewed together so that the front was unstitched. It is translated into Greek as himation, and the ISBE concludes that it resembled, if it was not identical with. In the day it was protection from rain and cold, the front of the simlāh also could be arranged in wide folds and all kinds of products could be carried in it. Every respectable man generally wore the simlāh over the kethōneth, but since the simlāh hindered work, from this simple item of the common people developed the richly ornamented mantle of the well-off, which reached from the neck to the knees and had short sleeves. Meīl The meīl stands for a variety of garments worn over the undergarment like a cloak, the meı̄l was a costly wrap and the description of the priests meı̄l was similar to the sleeveless abaya. This, like the meı̄l of the high priest, may have reached only to the knees, but it is commonly supposed to have been a long-sleeved garment made of a light fabric. Addereth, maaṭafah At a later period the nobles wore over the simlāh, or in place of it, the leather garment worn by the prophets was called by the same name because of its width
16.
Clothing in ancient Greece
–
Clothing in Ancient Greece primarily consisted of the chiton, peplos, himation, and chlamys. Ancient Greek men and women typically wore two pieces of clothing draped about the body, an undergarment and a cloak. Clothes were customarily homemade out of lengths of rectangular linen or wool fabric with little cutting or sewing, and secured with ornamental clasps or pins. Pieces were generally interchangeable between men and women, while no clothes have survived from this period, descriptions exist in contemporary accounts and artistic depictions. Clothes were mainly homemade, and often served many purposes, common clothing of the time was plain white, sometimes incorporating decorative borders. There is evidence of design and bright colors, but these were less common. The chiton was a simple garment of lighter linen that was worn by both sexes and all ages. It consisted of a wide, rectangular tube of material secured along the shoulders, chitons typically fell to the ankles of the wearer, but shorter chitons were sometimes worn during vigorous activities by athletes, warriors or slaves. Often excess fabric would be pulled over a girdle, or belt, to deal with the bulk sometimes a strap, or anamaschalister was worn around the neck, brought under the armpits, crossed in the back and tied in the front. A himation, or cloak, could be worn over-top of the chiton, a predecessor to the himation, the peplos was a square piece of cloth that was originally worn over the chiton. The top third of the cloth was folded over and pinned at both shoulders, leaving the cloth open down one side, sometimes the peplos was worn alone as an alternative form of chiton. As with the chiton, often a girdle or belt would be used to fasten the folds at the waist, the himation was a simple outer garment worn over the peplos or chiton. It consisted of a heavy material, passing under the left arm. The cloak would be twisted around a strap that also passed under the left arm, a more voluminous himation was worn in cold weather. The himation could be pulled up over the head to cover the wearer when they were overcome by emotion or shame, the chlamys was a seamless rectangle of woolen material worn by men for military or hunting purposes. It was worn as a cloak and fastened at the shoulder with a brooch or button. The chlamys was typical Greek military attire from the 5th to the 3rd century BC, women often wore a strophion, the bra of the time, under their garments. The strophion was a band of wool or linen wrapped across the breasts
17.
Clothing in ancient Rome
–
Clothing in ancient Rome generally comprised a short-sleeved or sleeveless, knee-length tunic for men and boys, and a longer, usually sleeved tunic for women and girls. Clothing, footwear and accoutrements identified gender, status, rank and social class and this was probably most apparent in the segregation of seating tiers at public theatres, games and festivals. Magistrates, priesthoods and the military had their own distinctive and privileged forms of dress. It was usually made of linen, and was augmented as necessary with underwear, or with various kinds of weather wear, such as knee-breeches for men. In colder parts of the empire, full length trousers were worn, most urban Romans wore shoes, slippers, boots or sandals of various types, in the countryside, some wore clogs. Spinning and weaving were thought virtuous, frugal occupations for Roman women of all classes, relative to the overall basic cost of living, even simple clothing was expensive, and was recycled many times down the social scale. Romes governing elite produced laws designed to limit public displays of personal wealth, none were particularly successful, the same wealthy elite had an appetite for luxurious clothing. Exotic fabrics were available, at a price, silk damasks, translucent gauzes, cloth of gold, and intricate embroideries, not all dyes were costly, however, and most Romans wore colourful clothing. Clean, bright clothing was a mark of respectability and status among all social classes, the fastenings and brooches used to secure garments such as cloaks provided further opportunities for personal embellishment and display. The basic garment for both sexes and all classes was the tunica, often worn beneath one or more additional layers, in its simplest form, the tunic was a single rectangle of woven fabric, originally woolen, but from the mid-republic onward, increasingly made from linen. It was sewn into a tubular shape and pinned around the shoulders like a Greek chiton, to form openings for the neck. In some examples from the part of the empire, neck openings were formed in the weaving. Most working men wore knee-length, short-sleeved tunics, secured at the waist with a belt, some traditionalists considered long sleeved tunics appropriate only for women, very long tunics on men as a sign of effeminacy, and short or unbelted tunics as marks of servility. Womens tunics were usually ankle or foot-length, long-sleeved, and could be loosely or belted. Though essentially simple in design, tunics could also be luxurious in their fabric, colours. Loincloths, known as subligacula or subligaria could be worn under a tunic and they could also be worn on their own, particularly by slaves who engaged in hot, sweaty or dirty work. Women wore both loincloth and strophium under their tunics, and some wore tailored underwear for work or leisure, a 4th century AD Sicillian mosaic shows several bikini girls performing athletic feats, in 1953 a Roman leather bikini bottom was excavated from a well in London. Roman society was graded into several citizen and non-citizen classes and ranks, ruled by a minority of wealthy
18.
Hanfu
–
Hanfu is the traditional, historical dress of the Han people. The term Hanfu was originally recorded by the Book of Han, Chinese clothing is influential to Japanese kimono and Korean hanbok. From the beginning of its history, Hanfu was inseparable from silk, supposedly discovered by the Yellow Emperors consort, vivid primary colors and green were used, due to the degree of technology at the time. Such markers included the length of a skirt, the wideness of a sleeve, in addition to these class-oriented developments, Han Chinese clothing became looser, with the introduction of wide sleeves and jade decorations hung from the sash which served to keep the yi closed. The yi was essentially wrapped over, in a known as jiaoling youren, or wrapping the right side over before the left. The style of traditional / historical Han clothing can be summarized as containing garment elements that are arranged in distinctive, one can often tell the profession or social rank of someone by what they wear on their heads. The typical types of male headwear are called jin for soft caps, mao for stiff hats, officials and academics have a separate set of hats, typically the putou, the wushamao, the si-fang pingding jin and the Zhuangzi jin. A typical hairpiece for women is the ji but there are more elaborate hairpieces, in addition, managing hair was also a crucial part of ancient Han peoples daily life. Commonly, males and females would stop cutting their hair once they reached adulthood and this was marked by the Chinese coming of age ceremony Guan Li, usually performed between ages 15 to 20. They allowed their hair to grow long naturally until death, including facial hair, children were exempt from the above commandment, they could cut their hair short, make different kinds of knots or braids, or simply just let them hang without any care. However, once they entered adulthood, every male was obliged to tie his hair into a bun called ji either on or behind his head. Females on the hand, had more choices in terms of decorating their hair as adults. They could still arrange their hair into as various kinds of hairstyles as they pleased, there were different fashions for women in various dynastic periods. Han children and females were spared from this order, also Taoist monks were allowed to keep their hair, Han defectors to the Qing like Li Chengdong and Liu Liangzuo and their Han troops carried out the queue order to force it on the general population. Han-Chinese clothing had changed and evolved with the fashion of the days since its commonly assumed beginnings in the Shang dynasty, many of the earlier designs are more gender-neutral and simple in cuttings. Later garments incorporate multiple pieces with men commonly wearing pants and women wearing skirts. Clothing for women usually accentuates the bodys natural curves through wrapping of upper garment lapels or binding with sashes at the waist, each dynasty has their own styles of Hanfu as they evolved and only few styles are fossilized. Types include tops and bottoms, and one-piece robes that wrap around the body once or several times, note, Daopao doesnt necessarily means Taoists robe, it actually is a style of robe for scholars
19.
History of clothing in India
–
Indians have mainly worn clothing made up of locally grown cotton. India was the one of the first places where cotton was cultivated and used even as early as 2500 BC during the Harappan Era and these scriptures view the figures of human wearing the clothes which can be wrapped around the body. Taking the instances of the Sari to that of turban and the dhoti, the clothing system was also related to the social and economic status of the person. The upper classes of the society wore fine muslin garments and silk fabrics while the common classes wore garments made up of locally made fabrics. For instance, Women from Rich families wore clothes made up of silk from China, the Indus civilisation knew the process of silk production. Recent analysis of Harappan silk fibres in beads have shown that silk was made by the process of reeling, evidences for textiles in Indus Valley Civilisation are not available from preserved textiles but from impressions made into clay and from preserved pseudomorphs. The only evidence found for clothing is from iconography and some unearthed Harappan figurines which are usually unclothed and these little depictions show that usually men wore a long cloth wrapped over their waist and fastened it at the back. Turban was also in custom in some communities as shown by some of the male figurines, evidences also show that there was a tradition of wearing a long robe over the left shoulder in higher class society to show their opulence. The normal attire of the women at that time was a very scanty skirt up to knee length leaving the waist bare, cotton made head dresses were also worn by the women. Fibre for clothing generally used were cotton, flax, silk, wool, linen, leather, one fragment of colored cloth is available in evidences which is dyed with red madder show that people in Harappan civilisation dyed their cotton clothes with a range of colors. One thing was common in both the sexes that both men and women were fond of jewellery, orthodox males and females usually wore the uttariya by throwing it over the left shoulder only, in the style called upavita. There was another garment called pravara that they used to wear in cold and this was the general garb of both the sexes but the difference existed only in size of cloth and manner of wearing. Sometimes the poor used to wear the lower garment as a loincloth only while wealthy would wear it extending to the feet as a sign of prestige. Sari was the costume for women in Vedic culture. Women used to wrap it around their waist, pleated in front over the belly and drape it over their shoulder covering their bust area, ‘Choli’ or blouse, as an upper garment was introduced in the later Vedic period with sleeves and a neck. A new version of sari, little smaller than sari, called dupatta, was incorporated later. The word sari is derived from Sanskrit शाटी śāṭī which means strip of clothand शाडी śāḍī or साडी sāḍī in Prakrit, most initial attires of men in those times were dhoti and lungi. Dhoti is basically a single cloth wrapped around the waist and by partitioning at the center, is fastened at the back, a dhoti is from four to six feet long white or colour strip of cotton
20.
Anglo-Saxon dress
–
Anglo-Saxons clothing usually used only three types of fabric. Wool was a material which was used for most garments. Lower-class people, such as slaves and poorer peasants, could only use wool for their garments, even for those worn against the skin. Linen, harvested from the plant, was a finer material which was used for garments that were worn close to the skin by better-off peasants. Silk was an expensive material and was used only by the very rich. The primary garment consisted of a woollen tunic. For the poorer theow, this would be the clothing worn, although some may have been given woolen trousers. A gebur would be able to afford woollen trousers and leather shoes, and would carry a knife. A linen undertunic and linen braies would be worn by peasants and nobility. During the 11th century, the length of the braies decreased, geneatas and thegns would often have cross-gartering on their hose, along with leather turnshoes. Over the tunic, a cloak would be worn, which was held together by a brooch or, later on, there are several illustrations of warriorlike persons wearing headgear similar to Phrygian caps or helmets found in 10th and 11th century Anglo-Saxon manuscripts. It is possible, though, that these images do not depict any actual fashion of the period, men of the northern tribes of 5th and 6th century England dressed alike regardless of social rank. The fashions during this time consisted of the cloak, tunic, trousers, leggings, the short, fur-lined cloak was designed so that the skin of the animal faced outward and the fur brushed against the undergarments. However, woollen cloaks have also been found, the garment opened either at the front or at the right shoulder. A single brooch, usually circular in shape, fastened the square or rectangular cloak, other means of fastening the cloth together included tying, lacing, or using a clasp, often made of natural materials such as thorn, bones, wood, or horns. The less prosperous wore woollen cloaks, the tunic ended between the hip and the knee and had either long or short sleeves. A belt or girdle was worn with the tunic and might have had a buckle. Trousers, traditionally worn under a tunic or with a small cloak, were ankle length
21.
Byzantine dress
–
Byzantine dress changed considerably over the thousand years of the Empire, but was essentially conservative. A different border or trimming round the edges was very common, taste for the middle and upper classes followed the latest fashions at the Imperial Court. In the early stages of the Byzantine Empire the traditional Roman toga was still used as formal or official dress. The hems often curve down to a sharp point, in general, except for military and presumably riding-dress, men of higher status, and all women, had clothes that came down to the ankles, or nearly so. Women often wore a top layer of the stola, for the rich in brocade, all of these, except the stola, might be belted or not. The chlamys, a semicircular cloak fastened to the shoulder continued throughout the period. The length fell sometimes only to the hips or as far as the ankles, much longer than the version worn in Ancient Greece. As well as his courtiers, Emperor Justinian wears one, with a huge brooch, a paragauda or border of thick cloth, usually including gold, was also an indicator of rank. Sometimes an oblong cloak would be worn, especially by the military and ordinary people, cloaks were pinned on the right shoulder for ease of movement, and access to a sword. Leggings and hose were worn, but are not prominent in depictions of the wealthy, they were associated with barbarians. Even basic clothes appear to have been expensive for the poor. Others, when engaged in activity, are shown with the sides of their tunic tied up to the waist for ease of movement, the most common images surviving from the Byzantine period are not relevant as references for actual dress worn in the period. Sandals are worn on the feet and this costume is not commonly seen in secular contexts, although possibly this is deliberate, to avoid confusing secular with divine subjects. The Theotokos is shown wearing a maphorion, a more shaped mantle with a hood and this probably is close to actual typical dress for widows, and for married women when in public. The Virgins underdress may be visible, especially at the sleeves, there are also conventions for Old Testament prophets and other Biblical figures. Apart from Christ and the Virgin, much iconographic dress is white or relatively muted in colour especially when on walls and in manuscripts, many other figures in Biblical scenes, especially if unnamed, are usually depicted wearing contemporary Byzantine clothing. Modesty was important for all except the very rich, and most women appear almost entirely covered by rather shapeless clothes, the basic garment in the early Empire comes down to the ankles, with a high round collar and tight sleeves to the wrist. The fringes and cuffs might be decorated with embroidery, with a band around the arm as well
22.
English medieval clothing
–
Clothing was over-lapped and tightly bound, “The female chest was frequently exposed, yet the true structure of the female body was visually distorted…”. The open surcoat, a garment with a bodice and a skirt that trailed to the ground. In fact, by the end of the 14th century, the gown had replaced all garment items aside from the surcoat, the basic garments for women consisted of the smock, hose, kirtle, gown, surcoat, girdle, cape, hood, and bonnet. The development of the skirt was significant for women’s medieval clothing, medieval clothes provided information about the status of the person wearing them. Early Anglo-Saxon regardless of social rank wore a cloak, tunic, trousers, leggings, the short, fur-lined cloak was designed so that the skin of the animal faced outward and the fur brushed against the undergarments. However, woolen cloaks have also been found, the garment opened either at the front or at the right shoulder. A single brooch, usually circular in shape, fastened the square or rectangular cloak, other means of fastening the cloth together included tying, lacing, or using a clasp, often made of natural materials such as thorn, bones, wood, or horns. The less prosperous wore woolen cloaks, the tunic ended between the hip and the knee and had either long or short sleeves. A belt or girdle was worn with the tunic and might have had a buckle. Multiple tunics were worn at once so that the lower one, trousers, traditionally worn under a short tunic or with a small cloak, were ankle length. If loose, the material was bunched around the waist and, as Owen-Crocker describes. Garters or leggings accompanied narrow trousers, pieces of fabric attached to the trousers forming belt loops so that the garment could be at held in place at the waist by a belt. Leggings, usually worn in pairs, acted as protection for the legs. The first legging, referred to as the proper or stocking. The second was simply a leather of fabric used to tie on the leggings or, if worn around the shin or foot, provided warmth and protection. The lower caste wore leggings made of ripped or cut cloth from old clothes, blankets, the very rich people sometimes wore jewels. Belts worn at the hips were more of a necessity rather than a luxury, buckles were common and most faced the front, however others have been found to face both sides or even, in some cases, were placed at the back of the body. Owen-Crocker mentions that “belt ornaments and tags” dangled from the belts of the Anglo-Saxons in addition to everyday equipment, beads occasionally acted as alternatives, although not often
23.
Early medieval European dress
–
Early medieval European dress changed very gradually from about 400 to 1100. The main feature of the period was the meeting of late Roman costume with that of the peoples who moved into Europe over this period. The most easily recognisable difference between the two groups was in costume, where the invading peoples generally wore short tunics, with belts. The Romanised populations, and the Church, remained faithful to the longer tunics of Roman formal costume, coming below the knee, many aspects of clothing in the period remain unknown. This is partly because only the wealthy were buried with clothing, it was rather the custom that most people were buried in burial shrouds, also called winding sheets. Fully dressed burial may have regarded as a pagan custom. Apart from the elite, most people in the period had low living standards, and clothes were probably home-made, usually from cloth made at a village level, the elite imported silk cloth from the Byzantine, and later Muslim, worlds, and also probably cotton. They also could afford bleached linen and dyed and simply patterned wool woven in Europe itself, but embroidered decoration was probably very widespread, though not usually detectable in art. Most people probably wore only wool or linen, usually undyed, the Sutton Hoo finds and the Tara Brooch are two of the most famous examples from the British Isles in the middle of the period. In France, over three hundred gold and jewelled bees were found in the tomb of the Merovingian king Childeric I, metalwork accessories were the clearest indicator of high-ranking persons. In Anglo-Saxon England, and probably most of Europe, only people could carry a seax or knife. Both mens and womens clothing was trimmed with bands of decoration, variously embroidery, tablet-woven bands, the famous Anglo-Saxon opus anglicanum needlework was sought-after as far away as Rome. The primary garment was the tunic — generally a long fabric panel, folded over with a cut into the fold. It was typical for the wealthy to display their affluence with a tunic made of finer and more colorful cloth. The tunic was usually belted, with either a leather or strong fabric belt, depending on climate, trousers were tailored either loose or tight. The most basic leggings were strips of cloth wound round the leg, and held in place by laces, presumably of leather. This may have been done with loose-fitting trousers also, over this a sleeved tunic was worn, which for the upper classes gradually became longer towards the end of the period. For peasants and warriors it was always at the knee or above, for winter, outside or formal dress, a cloak or mantle completed the outfit
24.
Ottoman clothing
–
Ottoman clothing is the style and design of clothing worn by the Ottoman Turks. While the Palace and its court dressed lavishly, the people were only concerned with covering themselves. Starting in the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, administrators enacted sumptuary laws upon clothing, the clothing of Muslims, Christians, Jewish communities, clergy, tradesmen, and state and military officials were particularly strictly regulated during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. In this period men wore outer items such as mintan, zıbın, şalvar, kuşak, potur, entari, kalpak, sarık on the head, çarık, çizme, çedik, Yemeni on the feet. The administrators and the wealthy wore caftans with fur lining and embroidery, whereas the class wore cübbe and hırka. Womens everyday wear was şalvar, a gömlek that came down to the mid-calf or ankle, a short, fitted jacket called a hırka, and a sash or belt tied at or just below the waist. For formal occasions, such as visiting friends, the added an entari. Both hırka and entari were buttoned to the waist, leaving the open in front. Both garments also had all the way to the throat. All of these clothes could be colored and patterned. However, when a left the house, she covered her clothes with a ferace. She also covered her face with a variety of veils or wraps, bashlyks, or hats, were the most prominent accessories of social status. While the people wore külahs covered with abani or Yemeni, the cream of the society wore bashlyks such as yusufi, örfi, katibi, kavaze, during the rule of Süleyman a bashlyk called perişani was popular as the palace people valued bashlyks adorned with precious stones. Kavuk, however, was the most common type of bashlyk, for this reason, a related tradesmenship was formed in the 17th century. Fur was a material of prestige in that period, political crises of the 17th century were reflected as chaos in clothes. The excessively luxurious compulsion of consumption and showing off in the Tulip Era lasted till the 19th century, the modernization attempts of Mahmut II in 1825 first had its effects in the state sector. While sarık was replaced by fez, the employed in Bab-ı Ali began to wear trousers, setre. Womens clothes of the Ottoman period were observed in the mansions, entari, kuşak, şalvar, başörtü, ferace of the 19th century continued their existence without much change
25.
1820s in Western fashion
–
During the 1820s in European and European-influenced countries, fashionable womens clothing styles transitioned away from the classically influenced Empire/Regency styles of c. 1795–1820 and re-adopted elements that had been characteristic of most of the 18th century, such as full skirts, the silhouette of mens fashion changed in similar ways, by the mid-1820s coats featured broad shoulders with puffed sleeves, a narrow waist, and full skirts. Trousers were worn for day wear, while breeches continued in use at court. Sleeves also began increasing in size, foreshadowing the styles of the 1830s, however, there was still no radical break with the Empire/Regency aesthetic. Skirts became even wider at the bottom during the 1820s, with ornamentation and definition toward the bottom of the skirt such as tucks, pleats, ruffles. During the second half of the 1820s, this aesthetic was decisively repudiated. Rich colors such as yellow and Turkey red became popular. A bustle was sometimes also worn, belts accentuated the new defined waist. Dresses were often worn with a round ruffled linen collar similar to a soft Elizabethan ruff, early in the decade, hair was parted in the center front and styled into tight curls over the temples. As the decade progressed, these became more elaborate and expansive. The bun on the back became a looped knot worn high on top of the head, wide-brimmed hats and hat-like bonnets with masses of feathers and ribbon trims were worn by mid-decade. These caps were worn under bonnets for street-wear, women also began to wear caps known as a cornette around 1816. These caps were tied under the chin and worn indoors and they also tended to be greatly adorned with plumes, ribbons, flowers, and jewels. Another alternative to the cornette was the turban, also often bejeweled and adorned, cloaks and full-length coats were worn in cold or wet weather. The fashionable shoe was a flat slipper, in the late 1820s, the first high shoe appeared and became vogue for both men and women. The shoe typically consisted of a three-inch high cloth top that laced on the side and a leather vamp that supported a long, narrow. Mademoiselle Gonin wears a dress with small puffed sleeves, with a ruffled collar. Her hair is styled into small curls at her temples, collette Versavels blue dress of 1822 is slightly cone-shaped, and is trimmed with frills around the hem
26.
Victorian fashion
–
The period saw many changes in fashion, including changes in styles, fashion technology and the methods of distribution. Various movement in architecture, literature, and the decorative and visual arts as well as a perception of the traditional gender roles also influenced fashion. Under Queen Victorias rule, England enjoyed a period of growth along with technological advancement. Mass production of sewing machines in the 1850s as well as the advent of synthetic dyes introduced major changes in fashion, clothing could be made quicker and more cheaply. Advancement in printing and proliferation of fashion magazines allowed the masses to participate in the trends of high fashion, opening the market of mass consumption. During the Victorian Era, a place was at home. Unlike in the centuries when women could help their husbands and brothers in family businesses, in the nineteenth century. Their dress styles reflected their lifestyle, Victorian fashion was not intended to be utilitarian. Clothes were seen as an expression of women’s place in society and were hence, middle class women exhibited similar dress styles, however, the decorations were not as extravagant. The layering of these make them very heavy. Corsets were also stiff and restricted movement, although the clothes were not comfortable, the type of fabrics and the in-numerous layers were worn as a symbol of wealth. Neck-line Bertha is the low shoulder neck-line worn by women during the Victorian Era, the cut exposed a woman’s shoulders and it sometimes was trimmed over with a three to six inch deep lace flounce, or the bodice has neckline draped with several horizontal bands of fabric pleats. However, the exposure of neck-line was only restricted to the upper and middle class, the décolleté style made shawls to become an essential feature of dresses. Corsets lost their shoulder straps, and fashion was to produce two bodices, one closed décolletage for day and one décolleté for evening, boning Corsets were used in women’s gowns for emphasizing the small waist of the female body. They function as an undergarment which can be adjusted to bound tightly around the waist, hold and train a person’s waistline, so to slim and it also helped stop the bodice from horizontal creasing. With the corset, a small tight fitting waist would be shown. Yet, corsets have been blamed for causing lots of diseases because of the tight waist bound, ill condition examples were curvature of the spine, deformities of the ribs and birth defects. As a result, people started to oppose the use of corsets in later times, Sleeves Sleeves were tightly fit during the early Victorian era
27.
1830s in Western fashion
–
Womens costume featured larger sleeves than were worn in any period before or since, which were accompanied by elaborate hairstyles and large hats. The final months of the 1830s saw the proliferation of a revolutionary new technology—photography, items of historical dress including neck ruffs, ferronnières, and sleeves based on styles of earlier periods were popular. Innovations in roller printing on textiles introduced new dress fabrics, rich colors such as the Turkey red of the 1820s were still found, but delicate floral prints on light backgrounds were increasingly popular. More precise printing eliminated the need for dark outlines on printed designs, and new green dyes appeared in patterns of grasses, ferns, combinations of florals and stripes were fashionable. Overall, both mens and womens fashion showed width at the shoulder above a tiny waist, Mens coats were padded in the shoulders and across the chest, while womens shoulders sloped to huge sleeves. In the 1830s, fashionable womens clothing styles had distinctive large leg of mutton or gigot sleeves, above large full conical skirts, heavy stiff fabrics such as brocades came back into style, and many 18th-century gowns were brought down from attics and cut up into new garments. The combination of sloping shoulders and sleeves which were very large over most of the arm is distinctive to the day dresses of the 1830s. Pelerines, tippets, or lace coverings draped over the shoulders, were popular, the fashionable feminine figure, with its sloping shoulders, rounded bust, narrow waist and full hips, was emphasized in various ways with the cut and trim of gowns. To about 1835, the small waist was accentuated with a wide belt, later the waist and midriff were unbelted but cut close to the body, and the bodice began to taper to a small point at the front waist. The fashionable corset now had gores to individually cup the breasts, evening gowns had very wide necklines and short, puffed sleeves reaching to the elbow from a dropped shoulder, and were worn with mid-length gloves. The width at the shoulder was often emphasized by gathered or pleated panels of fabric arranged horizontally over the bust, morning dresses generally had high necklines, and shoulder width was emphasized with tippets or wide collars that rested on the gigot sleeves. Summer afternoon dresses might have wide, low necklines similar to evening gowns, skirts were pleated into the waistband of the bodice, and held out with starched petticoats of linen or cotton. Around 1835, the fashionable skirt-length for middle- and upper-class womens clothes dropped from ankle-length to floor-length, early 1830s hair was parted in the center and dressed in elaborate curls, loops and knots extending out to both sides and up from the crown of the head. Braids were fashionable, and were likewise looped over either ear, bonnets with wide semicircular brims framed the face for street wear, and were heavily decorated with trim, ribbons, and feathers. Married women wore a linen or cotton cap for daywear, trimmed with lace, ribbon, and frills, the cap was worn alone indoors and under the bonnet for street wear. For evening wear, hair ornaments including combs, ribbons, flowers, womens undergarments consisted of a knee-length linen chemise with straight, elbow length sleeves. Corsets compressed the waist and skirts were held in shape by layers of starched petticoats, stiffened with tucks, the full sleeves were supported by down-filled sleeve plumpers. Tall top hats with veils were worn, shawls were worn with short-sleeved evening gowns early in the decade, but they were not suited to the wide gigot sleeves of the mid-1830s
28.
1840s in Western fashion
–
1840s fashion in European and European-influenced clothing is characterized by a narrow, natural shoulder line following the exaggerated puffed sleeves of the later 1820s and 1830s. The narrower shoulder was accompanied by a lower waistline for both men and women, shoulders were narrow and sloping, waists became low and pointed, and sleeve detail migrated from the elbow to the wrists. Where pleated fabric panels had wrapped the bust and shoulders in the previous decade, they now formed a triangle from the shoulder to the waist of day dresses. Skirts evolved from a shape to a bell shape, aided by a new method of attaching the skirts to the bodice using organ or cartridge pleats which cause the skirt to spring out from the waist. Full skirts were achieved mainly through layers of petticoats, the increasing weight and inconvenience of the layers of starched petticoats would lead to the development of the crinoline of the second half of the 1850s. Sleeves were narrower and fullness dropped from just below the shoulder at the beginning of the decade to the lower arm, evening gowns were worn off the shoulder and featured wide flounces that reached to the elbow, often of lace. They were worn with sheer shawls and opera-length gloves, another accessory was a small bag. At home, bags were often white satin and embroidered or painted, outdoor bags were often green or white and tasseled. There were also crocheted linen bags, shoes were made from the same materials as handbags. There were slippers of crocheted linen and bright colored brocade satin slippers that tied around the ankle with silk ribbon. The wide hairstyles of the previous decade gave way to fashions which kept the hair closer to the head, hair was still generally parted in the center. Isolated long curls dangling down towards the front were worn, often without much relationship to the way that the rest of the hair was styled. Alternately the side hair could be smoothed back over the ears or looped and braided, linen caps with frills, lace, and ribbons were worn by married women indoors, especially for daywear. These could also be worn in the garden with a parasol, bonnets for street wear were smaller than in the previous decade, and were less heavily decorated. The decorations that did adorn bonnets included flowers on the brim or a veil that could be draped over the face. Married women wore their caps under their bonnets, the crown and brim of the bonnet created a horizontal line and when tied under the chin, the brim created a nice frame around the face. This style was often called the coal-scuttle bonnet because of its resemblance to the metals scoops used to shovel coal into furnaces. For evening, feathers, pearls, lace, or ribbons were worn in the hair, there was also a small brimless bonnet worn with the ribbon untied at the nape of the neck
29.
1850s in Western fashion
–
1850s fashion in Western and Western-influenced clothing is characterized by an increase in the width of womens skirts supported by crinolines or hoops, and the beginnings of dress reform. Masculine styles began to more in London, while female fashions originated almost exclusively in Paris. In the 1850s, the skirts of the 1840s continued to expand. Skirts were made fuller by means of flounces, usually in tiers of three, gathered tightly at the top and stiffened with horsehair braid at the bottom. Early in the decade, bodices of morning dresses featured panels over the shoulder that were gathered into a blunt point at the dropped waist. These bodices generally fastened in back by means of hooks and eyes, wider bell-shaped or pagoda sleeves were worn over false undersleeves or engageantes of cotton or linen, trimmed in lace, broderie anglaise, or other fancy-work. Separate small collars of lace, tatting, or crochet-work were worn with morning dresses, sometimes with a ribbon bow, evening ball gowns were very low-necked, off-the-shoulder, and had short sleeves. Pantalettes were essential under this new fashion for modestys sake, cape-like jackets were worn over the very wide skirts. Another fashionable outer garment was an Indian shawl or one woven in Paisley, riding habits had fitted jackets with tight sleeves, worn over a collared shirt or chemisette. They were worn long skirts and mannish top hats. The indoor cap became little more than a lace and ribbon frill worn on the back of the head, the style was promoted by editor Amelia Bloomer and was immediately christened a Bloomer suit by the press. Despite its practicality, the Bloomer suit was the subject of ridicule in the press and had little impact on mainstream fashion. The Bloomer suit, a dress worn over full trousers gathered at the ankle. Male outdoors attire and female riding-habit of 1850,1851 Parisian fashion plate shows the fashionable use of fabrics printed â la disposition on skirt flounces and for bodices and sleeves. Madame Moitessier wears a black evening gown with ruffles. She wears a brooch and bracelets on both wrists, mrs. Coventry Patmore wears a small fancy-work collar and a ribbon at her throat. Her thick, wavy hair is parted in the center and poufed over her ears,1851, matilde Juva-Branca wears a dark morning dress with a lace blouse or chemisette and cuffs and short leather gloves. Her hair is parted and worn in long curls,1851
30.
1860s in Western fashion
–
In mens fashion, the three-piece ditto suit of sack coat, waistcoat, and trousers in the same fabric emerged as a novelty. Mauveine Aniline dyes were discovered in 1856 and quickly became fashionable colors, the first ones were mauve and bright purple. Magenta was popularized in England by the Duchess of Sutherland after she was appealed to by the Spitalfields silk weavers, by the early 1860s, skirts had reached their ultimate width. After about 1862 the silhouette of the changed and rather than being bell-shaped it was now flatter at the front. This large area was occupied by all manner of decoration. Puffs and strips could cover much of the skirt, there could be so many flounces that the material of the skirt itself was hardly visible. Lace again became popular and was used all over the dress, any part of the dress could also be embroidered in silver or gold. This massive construct of a dress required gauze lining to stiffen it, even the clothes women would ride horses in received these sorts of embellishments. Day dresses featured wide pagoda sleeves worn over undersleeves or engageantes, high necklines with lace or tatted collars or chemisettes completed the demure daytime look. Evening gowns had low necklines and short sleeves, and were worn with gloves or lace or crocheted fingerless mitts. The voluminous skirts were supported by hoops, petticoats, and or crinolines, the use of hoops was not as common until 1856, prior supporting the skirts with layers if starched petticoats. Bouffant gowns with large crinolines were probably reserved for special occasions, as the decade progressed, sleeves narrowed, and the circular hoops of the 1850s decreased in size at the front and sides and increased at the back. Looped up overskirts revealed matching or contrasting underskirts, a look that would reach its ultimate expression the next two decades with the rise of the bustle, waistlines rose briefly at the end of the decade. Fashions were adopted more slowly in America than in Europe and it was not uncommon for fashion plates to appear in American womens magazines a year or more after they appeared in Paris or London. For walking, jackets were accompanied by floor-length skirts that could be looped or drawn up by means of tapes over a shorter petticoat, as skirts became narrower and flatter in front, more emphasis was placed on the waist and hips. A corset was used to help mold the body to the desired shape. This was achieved by making the longer than before. To increase rigidity, they were reinforced with strips of whalebone, cording
31.
1870s in Western fashion
–
1870s fashion in European and European-influenced clothing is characterized by a gradual return to a narrow silhouette after the full-skirted fashions of the 1850s and 1860s. By 1870, fullness in the skirt had moved to the rear and this fashion required an underskirt, which was heavily trimmed with pleats, flounces, rouching, and frills. Day dresses had high necklines that were closed, squared. Sleeves of morning dresses were narrow throughout the period, with a tendency to flare slightly at the wrist early on, women often draped overskirts to produce an apronlike effect from the front. Evening gowns had low necklines and very short, off-the-shoulder sleeves, other characteristic fashions included a velvet ribbon tied high around the neck and trailing behind for evening. Under the influence of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and other artistic reformers, newly fashionable tea gowns, an informal fashion for entertaining at home, combined Pre-Raphaelite influences with the loose sack-back styles of the 18th century. Leisure dress was becoming an important part of a womans wardrobe, seaside dress in England had its own distinct characteristics but still followed the regular fashions of the day. Seaside dress was seen as more daring, frivolous, eccentric, even though the bustle was extremely cumbersome, it was still a part of seaside fashion. With the narrower silhouette, emphasis was placed on the bust, waist, a corset was used to help mold the body to the desired shape. This was achieved by making the longer than before. To increase rigidity, they were reinforced with strips of whalebone, cording. Steam-molding, patented in 1868, helped create a curvaceous contour, skirts were supported by a hybrid of the bustle and crinoline or hooped petticoat sometimes called a crinolette. The cage structure was attached around the waist and extended down to the ground, the crinolette itself was quickly superseded by the true bustle, which was sufficient for supporting the drapery and train at the back of the skirt. In keeping with the emphasis, hair was pulled back at the sides and worn in a high knot or cluster of ringlets. Bonnets were smaller to allow for the elaborately piled hairstyles and resembled hats except for their ribbons tied under the chin, smallish hats, some with veils, were perched on top of the head, and brimmed straw hats were worn for outdoor wear in summer. The main kind of wrap that dominated in the 1870s were capes, some examples are the pelisse and the paletot coat. Walking dress of 1870 has a tiered and ruffled skirt back,1870 fashion plate shows jacket-bodices with draped and trimmed skirts in back. Ruffles and pleated frills are characteristic trimmings of the 1870s, french morning dress of 1871 features a narrow red ribbon at the low neckline and a large matching bow with streamers at the back waist
32.
1880s in Western fashion
–
Fashion in the 1880s in Western and Western-influenced countries is characterized by the return of the bustle. The long, lean line of the 1870s was replaced by a full, fashionable waists were low and tiny below a full, low bust supported by a corset. The Rational Dress Society was founded in 1881 in reaction to the extremes of fashionable corsetry, as in the previous decade, emphasis remained on the back of the skirt, with fullness gradually rising from behind the knees to just below the waist. The fullness over the bottom was balanced by a fuller, lower chest and these gowns typically did not have a long train in the back, which was different from the gowns worn in the 1870s, and were extremely tight. They were known as the due to the tightness of them. Winter gowns were made in darker hues whereas summer ones were made in lighter colors, velvet was also a very popular fabric used during this period. Skirts were looped, draped, or tied up in various ways, the polonaise was a revival style based on a fashion of the 1780s, with a fitted, cutaway overdress caught up and draped over an underskirt. Long, jacket-like fitted bodices called basques were also popular for clothing during the day, evening gowns were sleeveless and low-necked, and were worn with long over the elbow or shoulder length gloves of fine kidskin or suede. Choker necklaces and jewelled collars were fashionable under the influence of Alexandra, Princess of Wales, bodices were very tight fitted as a result of darts and princess seams. In the early 19th century dropped waists were common, creating a long torso. Most ended in a point just below the waist, collars that were very high and banded were very popular. These types of collars were called officers collars, the bustle returned to fashion and reached its greatest proportions c. 1886–1888, extending almost straight out from the back waist to support a profusion of drapery, frills, swags, the fashionable corset created a low, full bust with little separation of the breasts. A usual type of undergarment was called combinations, a camisole with attached knee- or calf-length drawers, worn under the corset, bustle, woolen combinations were recommended for health, especially when engaging in fashionable sports. Riding habits had become a uniform of matching jacket and skirt worn with a shirt or chemisette, with a top hat. They were worn without bustles, but the cut of the jacket followed the silhouette of the day, in contrast, hunting costumes were far more fashionably styled, with draped ankle-length skirts worn with boots or gaiters. Tailored costumes consisting of a jacket and skirt were worn for travel or walking, these were worn with the bustle. Travelers wore long coats like dusters to protect their clothes from dirt, rain, artistic or Aesthetic dress remained an undercurrent in Bohemian circles throughout the 1880s
33.
1890s in Western fashion
–
Fashion in the 1890s in European and European-influenced countries is characterized by long elegant lines, tall collars, and the rise of sportswear. Fashionable womens clothing styles shed some of the extravagances of previous decades, early 1890s dresses consisted of a tight bodice with the skirt gathered at the waist and falling more naturally over the hips and undergarments than in previous years. The mid-1890s introduced leg omutton sleeves, which grew in size each year until they disappeared in about 1906, during the same period of the mid-1890s, skirts took on an A-line silhouette that was almost bell-like. The late 1890s returned to the tighter sleeves often with small puffs or ruffles capping the shoulder, skirts took on a trumpet shape, fitting more closely over the hip and flaring just above the knee. Corsets in the 1890s helped define the figure as immortalized by artist Charles Dana Gibson. In the very late 1890s, the elongated, giving the women a slight S-bend silhouette that would be popular well into the Edwardian era. Changing attitudes about acceptable activities for women also made popular for women, with such notable examples as the bicycling dress. Unfussy, tailored clothes, adapted from the theme of mens tailoring and simplicity of form, were worn for outdoor activities. The shirtwaist, a costume with a bodice or waist tailored like a shirt with a high collar, was adopted for informal daywear. Walking suits featured ankle-length skirts with matching jackets, the notion of rational dress for womens health was a widely discussed topic in 1891, which led to the development of sports dress. This included ample skirts with a blouse for hockey. In addition, cycling became very popular and led to the development of cycling costumes, by the 1890s, women bicyclists increasingly wore bloomers in public and in the company of men as well as other women. Bloomers seem to have more commonly worn in Paris than in England or the United States and became quite popular. In the United States, bloomers were more intended for exercise than fashion, the rise of American womens college sports in the 1890s created a need for more unencumbered movement than exercise skirts would allow. By the end of the decade, most colleges that admitted women had womens basketball teams, across the nations campuses, baggy bloomers were paired with blouses to create the first womens gym uniforms. They were particularly useful for cycling, walking or sporting pursuits as the shorter hems were less likely to catch in the mechanisms or underfoot. Swimwear was also developed, usually made of blue wool with a long tunic over full knickers. Afternoon dresses typical of the period had high necks, wasp waists, puffed sleeves
34.
1900s in Western fashion
–
Fashion in the period 1900–1909 in the Western world continued the long elegant lines of the 1890s. Tall, stiff collars characterize the period, as do womens broad hats, a new, columnar silhouette introduced by the couturiers of Paris late in the decade signaled the approaching abandonment of the corset as an indispensable garment. With the decline of the bustle, sleeves began to increase in size, the fashionable silhouette in the early 20th century was that of a confident woman, with full low chest and curvy hips. The health corset of this period removed pressure from the abdomen, in 1897, the silhouette slimmed and elongated by a considerable amount. Necklines were supported by very high boned collars, skirts brushed the floor, often with a train, even for day dresses, in mid-decade. The fashion houses of Paris began to show a new silhouette, with a thicker waist, flatter bust, by the end of the decade the most fashionable skirts cleared the floor and approached the ankle. The overall silhouette narrowed and straightened, beginning a trend that would continue into the leading up to the Great War. Unfussy, tailored clothes were worn for activities and traveling. The shirtwaist, a costume with a bodice or waist tailored like a shirt with a high collar, was adopted for informal daywear. Wool or tweed suit called tailor-mades or tailleurs featured ankle-length skirts with matching jackets, ladies of fashion wore them with fox furs and huge hats. Two new styles of headgear which became popular at the turn of the century were the motoring veil for driving an sailor hats worn for tennis matches, bicycling and croquet. This decade marked the flowering of Parisian haute couture as the arbiter of styles and silhouettes for women of all classes. Designers sent fashion models or mannequins to the Longchamp races wearing the latest styles, in 1908, a new silhouette emerged from Callot Soeurs, Vionnet at the house of Doucet, and most importantly, Paul Poiret. The styles were variously called Merveilleuse, Directoire, and Empire after the fashions of the turn of the nineteenth century, the new styles featured form-fitting gowns with high or indefined waists, or ankle-length skirts and long tunic-like jackets, and required a different straight line corset. The Paris correspondent for Vogue described this new look as straighter and straighter, less bust, less hips, and more waist. how slim, how graceful, how elegant. Huge, broadbrimmed hats were worn in mid-decade, trimmed with masses of feathers and occasionally complete stuffed birds, or decorated with ribbons, masses of wavy hair were fashionable, swept up to the top of the head and gathered into a knot. Large hats were worn with evening wear, by the end of the decade, hats had smaller drooping brims that shaded the face and deep crowns, and the overall top-heavy effect remained. Shoes were narrow and often emphasized and they had a pointed toe and a medium height heel
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Dolman". Encyclopædia Britannica. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 392.
