1.
Violence against women
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Violence against women, also known as gender-based violence, is, collectively, violent acts that are primarily or exclusively committed against women. Sometimes considered a crime, this type of violence targets a specific group with the victims gender as a primary motive. This type of violence is gender-based, meaning that the acts of violence are committed against women expressly because they are women. At least one out of three women around the world has been beaten, coerced into sex, or otherwise abused in her lifetime with the abuser usually someone known to her. Violence against women can fit into broad categories. These include violence carried out by individuals as well as states, many forms of VAW, such as trafficking in women and forced prostitution are often perpetrated by organized criminal networks. The World Health Organization, in its research on VAW, has analyzed and categorized the different forms of VAW occurring through all stages of life from birth to old age. Other definitions of VAW are provided by the 1994 Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment, Violence perpetrated or condoned by the state or its officials, d. These definitions of VAW as being gender-based are seen by some to be unsatisfactory and these definitions are conceptualized in an understanding of society as patriarchal, signifying unequal relations between men and women. Opponents of such definitions argue that the definitions disregard violence against men, Other critics argue that employing the term gender in this particular way may introduce notions of inferiority and subordination for femininity and superiority for masculinity. The history of violence against women remains vague in scientific literature and this is in part because many kinds of violence against women are under-reported, often due to societal norms, taboos, stigma, and the sensitive nature of the subject. It is widely recognized that even today, a lack of reliable, although the history of violence against women is difficult to track, it is clear that much of the violence was accepted, condoned and even legally sanctioned. This rule for punishment of wives prevailed in England and America until the late 19th century, the history of violence against women is closely related to the historical view of women as property and a gender role of subservience. Explanations of patriarchy and a world system or status quo in which gender inequalities exist and are perpetuated are cited to explain the scope. According to the UN, there is no region of the world, no country, several forms of violence are more prevalent in certain parts of the world, often in developing countries. For example, dowry violence and bride burning is associated with India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, acid throwing is also associated with these countries, as well as in Southeast Asia, including Cambodia. Honor killing is associated with the Middle East and South Asia, Female genital mutilation is found mostly in Africa, and to a lesser extent in the Middle East and some other parts of Asia. Marriage by abduction is found in Ethiopia, Central Asia and the Caucasus, Abuse related to payment of bride price is linked to parts of Sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania
Violence against women
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Burning witches, with others held in Stocks
Violence against women
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An illustration from
JJ Grandville 's Cent Proverbes (1845) captioned "Qui aime bien châtie bien" (Who loves well, punishes well). A man beating a woman is shown in the back.
Violence against women
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Sati (a Hindu practice whereby a
widow immolates herself on the funeral pyre of her husband) ceremony.
Violence against women
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X-ray of
bound feet, China
2.
Acid throwing
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Perpetrators of these attacks throw acid at their victims, usually at their faces, burning them, and damaging skin tissue, often exposing and sometimes dissolving the bones. The most common types of acid used in these attacks are sulfuric and nitric acid, hydrochloric acid is sometimes used, but is much less damaging. The long term consequences of attacks may include blindness, as well as permanent scarring of the face and body, along with far-reaching social, psychological. Today, acid attacks are reported in parts of the world. Since the 1990s, Bangladesh has been reporting the highest number of attacks and highest incidence rates for women, Acid attacks have been used to punish married women if her family is unable or unwilling to pay additional dowry demanded by the husband or his family. Such attacks are common in societies where there is a level of gender inequality. Conflicts regarding inheritance and other property issues are a cause of acid attacks, people are often assaulted due to land disputes. Acid attacks related to conflicts between criminal gangs occur in places, ranging from the United Kingdom to Indonesia. The intention of the attacker is often to humiliate rather than to kill the victim, in the UK such attacks are believed to be underreported, and as a result many of them do not show up in official statistics. Attacks against individuals due to their social or political activities, or due to their religious beliefs also occur. These attacks may be targeted against an individual, due to their activities. In Pakistan, female students have had thrown in their faces as a punishment for attending school. Acid attacks due to religious conflicts have been reported in Tanzania, the most notable effect of an acid attack is the lifelong bodily disfigurement. According to the Acid Survivors Foundation in Pakistan, there is a survival rate amongst victims of acid attacks. These far-reaching effects on their lives impact their psychological, social, the medical effects of acid attacks are extensive. As a majority of attacks are aimed at the face. The severity of the damage depends on the concentration of the acid, the acid can rapidly eat away skin, the layer of fat beneath the skin, and in some cases even the underlying bone. Eyelids and lips may be destroyed, the nose and ears severely damaged
Acid throwing
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Acid attack victim in
Cambodia
Acid throwing
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Acid attack victims in Bangladesh.
3.
Outline of domestic violence
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It is also known as domestic abuse, spousal abuse, battering, family violence, and intimate partner violence. Negative reinforcement, removing one from a situation as a reward. For example, You wont have to walk home if you allow me to do this to you, intermittent or partial reinforcement, partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt. Partial or intermittent positive reinforcement can encourage the victim to persist, punishment, berating, yelling, refusing to speak to partner, intimidation, threats, swearing, emotional blackmail, the guilt trap, sulking, crying, and playing the victim. Oppression – exercise of authority or power in a burdensome, cruel, epidemiology of domestic violence – Domestic violence occurs across the world, in various cultures, and affects people across society, irrespective of economic status or gender. The following table includes the forms of violence typically defined as part of Intimate partner violence and it also includes a column for other family members or partners. The rate of occurrence varies considerably based upon ones country, socio-economic class, culture, religion, family history, LGBT Domestic violence - an under-researched area with a very wide range of estimates of prevalence. Lesbians often have resources available for shelter and counselling. Mens rights groups – state that women are as violent as men, a large study, compiled by Martin S. Fiebert, shows that women are as likely to be abusive to men, but the men are less likely to be hurt. However, he noted, men are injured in 38% of the cases in which extreme aggression is used. Fiebert additionally noted that his work was not meant to minimize the effects of men who abuse women. Women are far more likely to use weapons, such as throwing a plate or firing a gun and this survey was conducted within a safety or crime context and clearly found more partner abuse by men against women. Another study published in the Violence & Victims Journal Vol.1 concluded that a feminist analysis of Domestic Abuse was necessary to combat common misconceptions. The study found that 92% of women who used violence against their partners were in self-defense. Conflict tactics scale – research method for identifying intimate partner violence by measuring the conflict tactic behaviors, Cycle of violence Within a relationship – repeated acts of violence as a cyclical pattern, associated with high emotions and doctrines of retribution or revenge. The pattern, or cycle, repeats and can happen many times during a relationship, each phase may last a different length of time and over time the level of violence may increase. Intergenerational cycle of violence – violence that is passed from father to son or daughter, parent to child, misandry – the hatred or dislike of men or boys, which manifests like Misogyny. Misogyny – the hatred or dislike of women or girls, may be manifested in varying degrees of intensity, relational disorder – dysfunction within a relationship, versus being specific to a specific individuals dysfunction
Outline of domestic violence
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The four phases of the Cycle of Abuse in ongoing domestic violence situations
4.
Management of domestic violence
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The management of domestic violence deals with the treatment of victims of domestic violence and preventing repetitions of such violence. The response to violence in Western countries is typically a combined effort between law enforcement, social services and health care. The role of each has evolved as domestic violence has brought more into public view. Historically, domestic violence has been viewed as a family matter that need not involve the government or criminal justice. Police officers were reluctant to intervene by making an arrest. The courts were reluctant to any significant sanctions on those convicted of domestic violence. Medical professionals can make a difference in the lives of those who experience abuse, many cases of spousal abuse are handled solely by physicians and do not involve the police. Sometimes cases of violence are brought into the emergency room. Subspecialist physicians are increasingly playing an important role. Medical professionals are in a position to give advice, and refer them to appropriate services, the health care professional has not always met this role, with uneven quality of care, and in some cases misunderstandings about domestic violence. Carole Washaw suggests that many prefer not to get involved in peoples private lives. Jenny Clifton, John Jacobs, Jo Tulloch found that training for practitioners in the United States about domestic violence was very limited or they had no training. Furthermore, in the model of health care, injuries are often just treated and diagnosed. As well, there is substantial reluctance for victims to come forward, on average, women experience 35 incidents of domestic violence before seeking treatment. Health professionals have a responsibility to recognize and address exposure to abuse in their patients. Physicians must also consider abuse in the diagnosis for a number of medical complaints. In the 1970s, studies in Europe and North America showed that domestic violence was widespread in homes, resulting in emotional and physical trauma. Into the 21st century many countries have taken steps to eradicate domestic violence, such as criminalization of violence against women, organizations have been formed which provide assistance and protection of domestic abuse victims, laws and criminal remedies, and domestic violence courts
Management of domestic violence
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October is observed as domestic abuse month in the United States. This poster was issued by various branches of the United States Military to educate and prevent domestic abuse.
Management of domestic violence
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Afghan National Police instructors conduct a role playing scenario dealing with sexual abuse at the Afghan National Police Academy, Kabul, Afghanistan on December 30, 2010. Dr. Anna Baldry taught the Train the Trainer Gender Seminar to give ANP instructors more comprehensive and effective delivery methods for the current curriculum on domestic violence and sexual abuse. (U.S. Navy photo by Chief Petty Officer Brian Brannon/Released)
Management of domestic violence
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True Manhood - Anti-Domestic Violence Sign outside Entebbe, Uganda. "Beating my wife destroyed my marriage: Don't do what I did. A true man does not beat his partner."
5.
Eve teasing
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Considered a problem related to delinquency in youth, it is a form of sexual aggression that ranges in severity from sexually suggestive remarks, brushing in public places and catcalls to groping. Some non-governmental organizations have suggested that the expression be replaced by an appropriate term. According to them, considering the semantic roots of the term in Indian English, Eve teasing refers to the nature of Eve. The feminist publication Rethinking Violence Against Women referred to this behavior as a kind of little rape, some guidebooks to the region warn female tourists to avoid attracting the attention of these kinds of men by wearing conservative clothing. However, this harassment is reported both by Indian women and by conservatively dressed foreign women, the problem first received public and media attention in the 1970. In response, the problem grew to alarming proportions, despite not being the case in other cultures where women go. Soon the Indian government had to take measures, both judicial and law enforcement, to curb the practice. Efforts were made to sensitize the police about the issue, the deployment of plain-clothed female police officers for the purpose has been particularly effective. Other measures taken in various states by the police were setting up of dedicated womens helplines in various cities, police-stations staffed by women, and special police cells. Also seen during this period was a rise in the number of women coming forward to report cases of sexual harassment. In addition, the severity of incidents grew as well, in some cases leading to acid throwing. The number of organization and those working for womens rights also increased. The increase in the number of violent incidents involving women meant previously lackadaisical attitudes towards womens rights had to be revised and supported by law. The death of a student, Sarika Shah, in Chennai in 1998. After murder charges were brought, about a half-dozen reports of suicide have been attributed to pressures caused by this behaviour, many other cases go unreported for fear of reprisals and exposure to public shame. In some cases police let the offenders go, after public humiliation through the murga punishment, young men tend to emulate the example, depicted so flawlessly on screen and which gave rise to the term roadside Romeo, which even made it into a film version in Roadside Romeo. Nowadays, this issue is also featured in Indian television soaps like Savdhaan India @11, in the case of a repeated offense, the offender may have a fine of ₹5,000 with five years imprisonment imposed. The Amendment also introduced new sections making acts like disrobing a woman without consent, stalking, the National Commission for Women also proposed No 9
Eve teasing
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The Blank Noise Project 's intervention on
Majestic bus stand, against eve teasing.
6.
Infibulation
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Infibulation is the surgical removal of the external female genitalia and the suturing of the vulva. It can also refer to placing a clasp through the foreskin in men and it is mostly practised in northeastern Africa, particularly Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia and Sudan. The procedure leaves a wall of skin and flesh across the vagina, by inserting a twig or similar before the wound heals, a small hole is created for the passage of urine and menstrual blood. The procedure is usually accompanied by the removal of the clitoral glans, the legs are bound together for two to four weeks to allow healing. The vagina is usually penetrated at the time of a marriage by her husbands penis. The vagina is opened further for childbirth, and usually closed again afterwards, infibulation can cause chronic pain and infection, organ damage, prolonged micturition, urinary incontinence, inability to get pregnant, difficulty giving birth, obstetric fistula and fatal bleeding. Infibulation also referred to placing a clasp through the male foreskin, in ancient Greece, male athletes, singers and other public performers used a clasp or string to close the foreskin and draw the penis over to one side, in a practice known as kynodesmē. It therefore conveyed the moral worth and modesty of the subject, many kynodesmē are depicted on vases, almost exclusively confined to symposiasts and komasts, who are as a general rule older men. ISBN 978-0-7432-8968-9 Pieters, Guy and Lowenfels, Albert B, infibulation in the Horn of Africa, New York State Journal of Medicine,77, April 1977, pp. 729–731. Whitehorn, James, Oyedeji Ayonrinde, and Samantha Maingay, female Genital Mutilation, Cultural and Psychological Implications, Sexual and Relationship Therapy,17.2, pp. 161–170
Infibulation
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The Greek poet
Anacreon (582–485 BCE), showing
kynodesmē
7.
Foot binding
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Foot binding was the custom of applying painfully tight binding to the feet of young girls to modify the shape of the foot. Foot binding became popular as a means of displaying status and was adopted as a symbol of beauty in Chinese culture. Its prevalence and practice however varied in different parts of the country, Feet altered by binding were called lotus feet. The Manchu Kangxi Emperor tried to ban foot binding in 1664, foot-binding resulted in lifelong disabilities for most of its subjects, and a few elderly Chinese women still survive today with disabilities related to their bound feet. There are many suggestions for the origin of foot binding, another story tells of a favorite courtesan of Emperor Xiao Baojuan, Pan Yuer, who had delicate feet, dancing barefeet over a floor decorated with golden lotus flower design. The emperor expressed admiration and said that lotus springs from her every step, a reference to the Buddhist legend of Padmavati under whose feet lotus springs forth. This story may have given rise to the golden lotus or lotus feet used to describe bound feet. The general view is that the practice is likely to have originated from the time of Emperor Li Yu, yao Niangs dance was said to be so graceful that others sought to imitate her. The binding of feet was then replicated by other upper-class women, the practice of foot binding became popular among the elite during the Song dynasty, and the earliest known references to bound feet appeared in the late eleventh century. In the twelfth century, in the earliest extant discourse on the practice of binding, Zhang Bangji considered that a bound foot should be arch-shape. A thirteenth-century writer, Che Ruoshui, complained that little children not yet four or five years old, I do not know what use this is. Evidence from archaeology indicates that footbinding was practiced among the wives, by the end of the Song dynasty, men would drink from a special shoe whose heel contained a small cup. During the Yuan dynasty, some would also directly from the shoe itself. This practice was called toast to the lotus and lasted until the late Qing dynasty. The practice however become common among the gentry families, later spreading to the general population, as commoners. By the Ming period, the practice was no longer the preserve of the gentry, however, few Han Chinese complied with the edicts and Kangxi eventually abandoned the effort in 1668. By the 19th century, it was estimated that 40-50% of Chinese women had bound feet, and among upper class Han Chinese women, Bound feet became a mark of beauty and was also a prerequisite for finding a husband. Her younger sisters would grow up to be bond-servants or domestic slaves and be able to work in the fields, but the eldest daughter would assume to never have the need to work
Foot binding
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A lotus shoe for bound feet. The ideal length for a bound foot was 3 Chinese inches (寸), which is around 4 inches (10 cm) in western measurement.
Foot binding
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Bound feet were once considered a mark of beauty
Foot binding
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18th century illustration showing Yao Niang binding her own feet
Foot binding
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A comparison between a woman with normal feet (left) and a woman with bound feet in 1902
8.
Leblouh
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Leblouh is the practice of force-feeding girls from as young as five to teenagers, in Mauritania, Western Sahara, and southern Morocco, where obesity was traditionally regarded as desirable. Especially prevalent in areas and having its roots in Tuareg tradition. The synonym gavage comes from the French term for the force-feeding of geese to produce foie gras, the practice goes back to the 11th century, and has been reported to have made a significant comeback after a military junta took over the country in 2008. Older women called fatteners force the girls to consume enormous quantities of food and liquid, inflicting pain on them if they do not eat. One way of inflicting pain is to pinch a limb between two sticks, a six-year-old might typically be forced to drink 20 litres of camels milk, and eat two kilos of pounded millet mixed with two cups of butter, every day. Although the practice is an abuse, mothers claim there is no way to secure a good future for their children. The younger generations of males in Mauritania now see fattening negatively, a similar practice is referred to in a folktale entitled The Tortoise with a Pretty Daughter, collected in Folk Stories from Southern Nigeria. The folklorist who wrote down the story explained the treatment of the pretty daughter and she is given plenty of food, and made as fat as possible, as fatness is looked upon as a great beauty by the Efik people. Women in Mauritania Human rights in Mauritania Obesity in the Middle East, forced to Be Fat July 21,2011 Force Feeding in Mauritania. The Price of Beauty Ep#104 Title, Uganda Air-date, April 5,2010 African Queens May 21,2003
Leblouh
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Big Jew, from Garrigues on Djerba island.
Leblouh
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Tunisian Jewish woman of the 1910s.
9.
Human trafficking
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Human trafficking is the trade of humans, most commonly for the purpose of forced labor, sexual slavery, or commercial sexual exploitation for the trafficker or others. This may encompass providing a spouse in the context of forced marriage, or the extraction of organs or tissues, including for surrogacy, Human trafficking can occur within a country or trans-nationally. Human trafficking is a crime against the person because of the violation of the rights of movement through coercion. Human trafficking is the trade in people, and does not necessarily involve the movement of the person from one place to another, according to the International Labour Organization, forced labor alone generates an estimated $150 billion in profits per annum as of 2014. Estimated that 21 million victims are trapped in modern-day slavery, of these,14.2 million were exploited for labor,4.5 million were sexually exploited, and 2.2 million were exploited in state-imposed forced labor. Human trafficking is thought to be one of the activities of trans-national criminal organizations. Human trafficking is condemned as a violation of rights by international conventions. In addition, human trafficking is subject to a directive in the European Union, the protocol is one of three which supplement the CTOC. The Trafficking Protocol is the first global, legally binding instrument on trafficking in over half a century, one of its purposes is to facilitate international cooperation in investigating and prosecuting such trafficking. Another is to protect and assist human traffickings victims with full respect for their rights as established in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, in 2014, the International Labour Organization estimated $150 billion in annual profit is generated from forced labor alone. The average cost of a trafficking victim today is USD $90,000 which. The average slave in 1800 America was the equivalent to USD $40,000, though illegal, there may be no deception or coercion involved. After entry into the country and arrival at their ultimate destination, Human trafficking, on the other hand, is a crime against a person because of the violation of the victims rights through coercion and exploitation. Unlike most cases of smuggling, victims of human trafficking are not permitted to leave upon arrival at their destination. While smuggling requires travel, trafficking does not, trafficked people are held against their will through acts of coercion, and forced to work for or provide services to the trafficker or others. The work or services may include anything from bonded or forced labor to commercial sexual exploitation, the arrangement may be structured as a work contract, but with no or low payment, or on terms which are highly exploitative. Sometimes the arrangement is structured as debt bondage, with the not being permitted or able to pay off the debt. Bonded labor, or debt bondage, is probably the least known form of labor trafficking today, generally, the value of their work is greater than the original sum of money borrowed
Human trafficking
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Warning of
Prostitution and Human trafficking in South Korea for G.I. by United States Forces Korea.
Human trafficking
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Slavery
10.
Raptio
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Raptio is a Latin term referring to the large scale abduction of women, i. e. kidnapping either for marriage or enslavement. The equivalent term Frauenraub, originally from German, is used in English in the field of art history. Bride kidnapping is distinguished from raptio in that the former is the abduction of one woman by one man, whereas the latter is the abduction of women by groups of men, possibly in a time of war. The English word rape retains the Latin meaning in literary language, the Latin term was also used for sexual violation, but only very rarely. Though the sexual connotation is today dominant, the word rape can be used in context in literary English. In Alexander Popes The Rape of the Lock, the means the theft of a lock. In the twentieth century, the classically trained J. R. R. Tolkien used the word with its old meaning of seizing and taking away in his The Silmarillion, the musical comedy The Fantasticks has a controversial song about an old-fashioned rape. Compare also the adjective rapacious which retains the meaning of greedy. In Roman Catholic canon law, raptio refers to the prohibition of matrimony if the bride was abducted forcibly. The practice is surmised to have been common since anthropological antiquity, in Neolithic Europe, excavation of the Linear Pottery culture site at Asparn-Schletz, Austria, the remains of numerous slain victims were found. Among them, young females and children were clearly under-represented, suggesting that attackers had killed the men. Abduction of women is a practice in warfare among tribal societies. The Rape of the Sabine Women is an important part of the legends of Rome. Romulus had established the settlement on the Palatine Hill with mostly male followers, seeking wives, the Romans negotiated with the neighboring tribe of the Sabines, without success. Faced with the extinction of their community, the Romans planned to abduct Sabine women, Romulus invited Sabine families to a festival of Neptune Equester. At the meeting he gave a signal, at which the Romans grabbed the Sabine women, the indignant abductees were implored by Romulus to accept Roman husbands. Livy claims that no sexual assault took place and he asserted that Romulus offered them free choice and promised civil and property rights to women. According to Livy he spoke to each in person
Raptio
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Rape of the Sabine Women, by
Nicolas Poussin, Rome, 1637-38 (
Louvre Museum)
11.
Witch trials in the early modern period
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Those accused of witchcraft were portrayed as being worshippers of the Devil, who engaged in such acts as malevolent sorcery at meetings known as Witches Sabbaths. Many people were accused of being witches, and were put on trial for the crime, with varying punishments being applicable in different regions. Though some of the earliest trials are from the Late Medieval period, an estimated total of 40, 000-60,000 people were executed during the witch trials. Among the best known of these trials were the Scottish North Berwick witch trials, Swedish Torsåker witch trials, among the largest and most notable were the Trier witch trials, the Fulda witch trials, the Würzburg witch trial, the Bamberg witch trials and the Salem witch trials. The sociological causes of the witch-hunts have long been debated in scholarship, the work of Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century was instrumental in developing the new theology which would give rise to the witch hunts. Because sorcery was judged by secular courts, it was not until maleficium was identified with heresy that theological trials for witchcraft could commence. e, the recognition of the existence of witchcraft as a form of Satanic influence, and its classification as a heresy. Early Modern Europe and its North American colonies were replete with a belief in the reality of magic, belief in the witch, an individual who practiced malevolent magic, was not new to Modern Europe. Many Early Modern communities contained professional or semi-professional practitioners of folk magic, in contrast to this low magic was the high magic practiced by learned men of the Renaissance. It was also during the Medieval period that the concept of Satan, in particular, he was often viewed as a goat, or as a human with goat-like features, such as horns, hooves and a tail. As Thurston noted, By about 1200, it would have been difficult to be a Christian, by 1500 scenes of the devil were commonplace in the new cathedrals and small parish churches that had sprung up in many regions. The field of demonology had emerged in Medieval Christendom as certain members of the clergy began to focus in particular on the actions of demons in the world, in the 14th and 15th centuries, the concept of the witch in Christendom underwent a relatively radical change. Instead they became the all-out malevolent Devil-worshiper, who had made a pact with him in which they had to renounce Christianity, as a part of this, they gained, new, supernatural powers that enabled them to work magic, which they would use against Christians. It was believed that they would fly to their meetings, known as the Witches Sabbath. On their death, the souls, which then belonged to the Devil. For many educated Christians in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, including theologians and judges, the inquisition had the office of protecting Christian against the internal threat of heresy. An important turning-point was the Black Death of 1348–1350, which killed a large percentage of the European population, Witchcraft had not been considered a heresy during the High Medieval period. Indeed, since the Council of Paderborn of 785, the belief in the possibility of witchcraft itself was considered heretical, the anti-semitic sentiment prevalent in the Medieval era would also influence the later witch trials, with the alleged witches meetings being termed sabbaths and synagogues. The historian Richard Kieckhefer suggested that the late medieval trials paved the way for more dramatic prosecutions to come, there had been a growth in the number of sorcery trials in Europe during the fourteenth century
Witch trials in the early modern period
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Punishments for witchcraft in 16th-century
Germany. Woodcut from Tengler's
Laienspiegel,
Mainz, 1508.
Witch trials in the early modern period
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A late-sixteenth-century illustration of a witch feeding her familiars from England. A number of historians believe that the familiar spirit is a pre-Christian idea.
Witch trials in the early modern period
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The Obscene Kiss, an illustration of witches kissing the Devil's anus from
Francesco Maria Guazzo 's Compendium Maleficarum (1608).
Witch trials in the early modern period
–
Witches by
Hans Baldung Grien (Woodcut, 1508)
12.
Bride burning
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Bride burning or bride-burning is a form of domestic violence practiced in Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and other countries located on or around the Indian subcontinent. A category of dowry death, bride-burning occurs when a woman is murdered by her husband or his family for her familys refusal to pay additional dowry. The wife is typically doused with kerosene, gasoline, or other flammable liquid, Kerosene is most often used as the fuel. It is most common in India and has been a problem there since at least 1993. This crime has been treated as homicide and, if proven, is usually accordingly punished by up to lifelong imprisonment or death. Bride burning has been recognized as an important public health problem in India, in 1995, Time Magazine reported that dowry deaths in India increased from around 400 a year in the early 1980s to around 5800 a year by the middle of the 1990s. A year later, CNN ran a story saying that every year police receive more than 2500 reports of bride burning, according to Indian National Crime Record Bureau, there were 1948 convictions and 3876 acquittals in dowry death cases in 2008. A dowry death is the death of a woman in South Asian countries, primarily India. This results from the husband continually attempting to extract more dowry from the bride or her family, Bride burning is just one form of dowry death. Others include acid throwing and Eve teasing, because dowry typically depends on class or socioeconomic status, women are often subjected to the dowry pressures of their future husband or his relatives. These theories describe practices that contributed to the rise of dowry as a whole, thus ultimately contributing to bride burning. Because she is seen as a burden and a mouth to feed, her status as an economic liability promotes the idea that men. Once a woman marries, she is bound to her husband, another theory claims that consumerism, a primarily Western ideal that is newly founded in developing nations, has caused countries like India to become greedy. Because of this, dowry is used as a means to gain a higher socioeconomic status, as status is continually gained, the demand for bridal dowry increases in order to keep moving up the social ladder. A higher dowry would indicate a status and distinction from Islam. Finally, some argue that the dowry practice came out of British rule. When the dowry system was established within the higher castes, the British government sought to reinforce it in the lower castes as a means to eradicate their more ritualised marriages, such forms of union were discredited until only upper caste marriage systems were recognised. In India, dowry size is a reflection of wealth, the Indian author Rajesh Talwar has written a play on dowry deaths titled The Bride Who Would Not Burn
Bride burning
–
A Muslim organization -
Karnataka Forum for Dignity 's poster against Dowry system in
Bangalore, India
13.
Dowry death
–
Dowry deaths are deaths of women who are murdered or driven to suicide by continuous harassment and torture by husbands and in-laws in an effort to extort an increased dowry. Dowry deaths are found in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, India reports the highest total number of dowry deaths with 8,391 such deaths reported in 2010,1.4 deaths per 100,000 women. Adjusted for population, Pakistan, with 2,000 reported such deaths per year, has the highest rate of death at 2.45 per 100,000 women. Dowry death is considered one of the categories of violence against women, alongside rape, bride burning, eve teasing. Most dowry deaths occur when the woman, unable to bear the harassment and torture. Most of these suicides are by hanging, poisoning or by fire, sometimes the woman is killed by setting herself on fire, this is known as bride burning, and sometimes disguised as suicide or accident. Death by burning of Indian women have been frequently attributed to dowry conflicts. In dowry deaths, the family is the perpetrator of murder or suicide. India has by far the highest number of dowry related deaths in the according to Indian National Crime Record Bureau. In 2012,18,233 dowry death cases were reported across India and this means a bride was burned every 90 minutes, or dowry issues cause 1.4 deaths per year per 100,000 women in India. Although Indias dowry death rate per 100,000 is lower than equivalent rate for Pakistan and Bangladesh, according to a 1996 report by Indian police, every year it receives over 2,500 reports of bride-burning. The Indian National Crime Records Bureau reports that there were about 8331 dowry death cases registered in India in 2011. Incidents of dowry deaths during the year 2008 have increased by 14.4 per cent over 1998 level, the ratio of dowry deaths are about the same as the ratio of population in India by religions. Gifts given without a precondition are not considered dowry, and are legal, asking or giving of dowry can be punished by an imprisonment of up to six months, or a fine of up to ₹5,000. It replaced several pieces of legislation that had been enacted by various Indian states. Murder and suicide under compulsion are addressed by Indias criminal penal code, Indian womens rights activists campaigned for more than 40 years to contain dowry deaths, such as the Dowry Prohibition Act 1961 and the more stringent Section 498a of Indian Penal Code. Under the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005, a woman can put a stop to the harassment by approaching a domestic violence protection officer. Although Indian laws against dowries have been in effect for decades, the practice of dowry deaths and murders continues to take place unchecked in many parts of India and this has further added to the concerns of enforcement
Dowry death
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A map of the Indian dowry death rate per 100,000 people, 2012.
14.
Honor killing
–
The mere perception that a woman has behaved in a way that dishonors her family is sufficient to trigger an attack on her life. Although rarely, men can also be the victims of honor killings by members of the family of a woman with whom they are perceived to have an inappropriate relationship, the loose term honor killing applies to killing of both men and women in cultures that practice it. Some women who bridge social divides, publicly engage other communities, the distinctive nature of honor killings is the collective nature of the crime – many members of an extended family plan the act together, sometimes through a formal family council. Another significant feature is the connection of honor killings to the control of behavior, in particular in regard to sexuality/marriage. Another key aspect is the importance of the reputation of the family in the community, another characteristic of honor killings is that the perpetrators often dont face negative stigma within their communities, because their behavior is seen as justified. The incidence of honor killings is very difficult to determine and estimates vary widely, in most countries data on honor killings is not collected systematically, and many of these killings are reported by the families as suicides or accidents and registered as such. Although honor killings are often associated with the Asian continent, especially the Middle East and South Asia, in 2000, the United Nations estimated that 5,000 women were victims of honor killings each year. According to BBC, Womens advocacy groups, however, suspect that more than 20,000 women are killed each year. Murder is not the form of honor crime, other crimes such as acid attacks, abduction, mutilations, beatings occur. Methods of killing include stoning, stabbing, beating, burning, beheading, hanging, throat slashing, lethal acid attacks, shooting and strangulation. The murders are sometimes performed in public to warn the other individuals within the community of possible consequences of engaging in what is seen as illicit behavior. Often, minor girls and boys are selected by the family to act as the killers, so that the killer may benefit of the most favorable legal outcome. Boys and sometimes women in the family are often asked to control and monitor the behavior of their sisters or other females in the family legal, 2) preventive. First of all, legal measures refer to a modification of the criminal laws to guarantee equal legal protection of females. On top of that, Amnesty insisted the government to assure legal access for the victims of crime in the name of honor, when it comes to preventive measures, Amnesty underlined the critical need to promote public awareness through the means of media, education, and public announcements. Finally, protective measures include ensuring an environment for activists, lawyers. Also, Amnesty argued for the expansion of victim support services such as shelters, kremlin-appointed Chechen President Ramzan Kadyrov said that honor killings were perpetrated on those who deserved to die. He said that those who are killed have loose morals and are shot by relatives in honor killings
Honor killing
–
Map of India showing the States and Union Territories of the country. In 2010, the
Supreme Court of India issued notice in regard to honor killings to the states of
Punjab,
Haryana,
Bihar,
Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan,
Jharkhand,
Himachal Pradesh and
Madhya Pradesh.
15.
Femicide
–
Femicide or feminicide is a sex-based hate crime term, broadly defined as the killing of women but definitions vary depending on the cultural context. Feminist author Diana E. H. Russell is one of the pioneers of the term. Other feminists place emphasis on the intention or purpose of the act being directed at females specifically because they are female, often, the necessity of defining the murder of females separately from overall homicide is questioned. Opponents argue that over 80% of all murders are of men, in addition, the study of femicide is a social challenge. An alternative term offered is gendercide which is ambiguous and inclusive. However, some argue that the term gendercide perpetrates the taboo of the subject of the murder of females. Feminists also argue that the motives for femicide are vastly different than those for androcide, instead of centering in street violence, much of femicide is centered within the home. Feminist author Diana Russell narrows the definition of femicide to the killing of females by males because they are female, Russell places emphasis on the idea that males commit femicide with sexist motives. She also chooses to replace the word woman with female to show that femicide can occur to both girls and infants as well, whenever these forms of terrorism result in death, they become femicides. The term femicide was first used in England in 1801 to signify the killing of a woman, in 1848, this term was published in Whartons Law Lexicon. Another term used is feminicide, which is formed from the Latin femina. The current usage emerged with the 1970s feminist movements, which aimed to raise feminine consciousness, American author, Carol Orlock, is widely credited with initiating the usage of the term in this context in her unpublished anthology on femicide. Diana Russell publicised the term at the Crimes Against Women Tribunal in 1976, here is part of what she wrote for the proceedings, We must realize that a lot of homicide is in fact femicide. We must recognize the sexual politics of murder, but since it involves mere females, there was no name for it until Carol Orlock invented the word femicide. Until recently femicide was invisible in much of the scientific literature, according to the Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence. is proposed as an alternative to the gender-neutral term of homicide. Feminists and proponents of the word believe it is prudent to make the distinction between homicide and femicide, the distinction is not meant to denigrate or render invisible the murder of men because they make up 80% of the victims of global murders and are the vast majority of perpetrators. Part of this political oversight is the lack of data on violence against women and this data is related to how thoroughly and properly their murders are investigated, prosecuted and classified. Violence against women constitutes the most common crime in the world with the highest levels of impunity for perpetrators, often it is misreported as general manslaughter or accidental homicide showing a general tolerance for violence against women
Femicide
–
Declaration of the enactment of the law against femicide in
Chile, 2010
Femicide
–
17th Century persecution of the religiously dissident
Waldensians gave Italian men a pretext to commit a very conspicuous act of Femicide - and to British men a pretext to very graphically portray it (illustration from
Samuel Moreland 's "History of the Evangelical Churches of the Valleys of Piemont" published in London in 1658).
Femicide
–
A candle memorial to women killed by femicide (femicidio),
Chile, 2007.
16.
Female infanticide
–
Female infanticide is the deliberate killing of newborn female children. In countries with a history of female infanticide, the practice of sex-selective abortion is often discussed as a closely related issue. Female infanticide is a cause of concern in several nations such as China. It has been argued that the low status in women are viewed in patriarchal societies creates a bias against females. The practice has been documented among the indigenous peoples of Australia, Northern Alaska and South Asia. Initially Sens suggestion of gender bias was contested and it was suggested that hepatitis B was the cause of the alteration in the sex ratio. However it is now accepted that the numerical worldwide deficit in women, is due to gender specific abortions, infanticide. In seventh-century Arabia, before Islamic culture became established, female infanticide was widely practiced and this is attributed by scholars to the fact that women were deemed property within those societies. Others have speculated that to prevent their daughters from a life of misery, with the arrival of Islamic rule the practice was made illegal. Among the Inuit of Northern Alaska and Canada, the practice of infanticide was a common occurrence. China has a history of female infanticide spanning 2,000 years, in the seventeenth century, Matteo Ricci documented that the practice occurred in several of Chinas provinces and that the primary reason for the practice was poverty. In 19th-century China, female infanticide was widespread, readings from Qing texts show a prevalence of the term ni nü, and drowning was the common method used to kill female children. Other methods used were suffocation and starvation, leaving a child exposed to the elements was another method of killing an infant, the child would be placed in a basket which was then placed in a tree. Buddhist nunneries created baby towers for people to leave a child, in 1845 in the province of Jiangxi, a missionary wrote that these children survived for up to two days while exposed to the elements, and that those passing by would pay no attention. The majority of Chinas provinces practiced female infanticide during the 19th century, in 1878, French Jesuit missionary Gabriel Palatre collected documents from 13 provinces and the Annales de la Sainte-Enfance also found evidence of infanticide in Shanxi and Sichuan. According to the information collected by Palatre, the practice was widely spread in the southeastern provinces. In China, the practice of infanticide was not wholly condoned. Buddhism in particular was quite forceful in its condemnation of it, however the Buddhist belief in reincarnation meant that the death of an infant was not final, as the child would be reborn, this belief eased the guilt felt over female infanticide
Female infanticide
–
Matteo Ricci
Female infanticide
–
Chinese anti infanticide tract circa 1800.
17.
Matricide
–
Matricide is the act of killing ones mother. Amastris, queen of Heraclea, was drowned by her two sons in 284 BC, cleopatra III of Egypt was assassinated in 101 BC by order of her son, Ptolemy X, for her conspiracy. Ptolemy XI of Egypt had his wife, Berenice III, murdered shortly after their wedding in 80 BC and she was also his stepmother, or perhaps his mother. In AD59, the Roman Emperor Nero is said to have ordered the murder of his mother Agrippina the Younger, mary Ann Lamb, the mentally ill sister of essayist Charles Lamb, killed their invalid mother during an episode of mania in 1796. Sidney Harry Fox, a British man, hanged in 1930 for killing his mother to gain from her insurance. Battle of Okinawa,1945, There are accounts in which Okinawan civilians killed their mothers to prevent them from being captured, raped, tortured, the Parker–Hulme murder case of 1954. This case was chronicled in the 1994 film Heavenly Creatures, jack Gilbert Graham killed his mother along with 44 people by planting a dynamite bomb in his mothers suitcase, that was subsequently loaded aboard United Airlines Flight 629 in 1955. Henry Lee Lucas killed his mother in 1960 by stabbing her in the neck and he was eventually shot and killed by Austin police. John Emil List murdered his mother, wife and his three children on November 9,1971, making List also guilty of filicide and uxoricide and he was a fugitive for 18 years. He was apprehended on June 1,1989 after an episode of Americas Most Wanted aired, on May 1,1990 he was sentenced to 5 life terms in prison. Antony Baekeland murdered his mother, Barbara Daly Baekeland on November 11,1972 and she had allegedly forced him to have sex with her, in order to cure his homosexuality. Savage Grace is a book and a movie based on this event, serial killer Edmund Kemper beat his mother to death in 1973, along with one of his mothers friends before turning himself in to the police. He had previously committed half-a-dozen sex-murders, Kemper had been psychologically abused by his domineering mother in his youth. He was indicted for murders and remains at large, jim Gordon, a session musician who played drums with Eric Clapton band Derek and the Dominos bludgeoned his mother with a hammer and then stabbed her to death with a butchers knife in 1983. In May 1984 he was sentenced to sixteen years to life in prison, susan Cabot, 1950s actress, was beaten to death in 1986 at her Hollywood home by her son Timothy Roman. He was convicted of involuntary manslaughter, the Menendez Brothers were convicted during a highly publicized trial in July 1996 for the shotgun killings of their parents in 1989. Brett Reider, a 15-year-old boy in Omaha, Nebraska, stabbed his mother to death during a dispute in 1993 and he was convicted of second degree murder and sentenced as an adult to 11–20 years. In 1996, his sister, Alissa Reider made an HBO documentary, Brett Killed Mom
Matricide
–
Orestes Pursued by the Furies by
William-Adolphe Bouguereau.
Clytemnestra was murdered by
Orestes and the
Furies torment him for his crime
18.
Sati (practice)
–
Sati or suttee is an obsolete Hindu funeral custom where a widow immolates herself on her husbands pyre or commits suicide in another fashion shortly after her husbands death. Mention of the practice can be dated back to the 4th century BC, under British rule, the practice was initially tolerated. In the province of Bengal, Sati was attended by a government official, which states Ahmed, not only seemed to accord an official sanction. Between 1815 and 1818, the number of Sati in Bengal province doubled from 378 to 839, under sustained campaigning against Sati by Christian missionaries such as William Carey and Brahmin Hindu reformer such as Ram Mohan Roy, the provincial government banned Sati in 1829. This was followed up by similar laws by the authorities in the states of India in the ensuing decades. In Nepal, sati was banned in 1920, the Indian Sati Prevention Act from 1988 further criminalised any type of aiding, abetting, and glorifying of sati. Sati is derived from the name of the goddess Sati, who self-immolated because she was unable to bear her father Dakshas humiliation to her husband Shiva, the term sati was originally interpreted as chaste woman. Sati appears in Hindi and Sanskrit texts, where it is synonymous with good wife, Sati designates therefore originally the woman, rather than the rite, the rite itself having technical names such as sahagamana or sahamarana. Anvarohana is occasionally met, as well as satidaha as terms to designate the process, satipratha is also, on occasion, used as a term signifying the custom of burning widows alive. Two other terms related to sati are sativrata and satimata, sativrata, an uncommon and seldom used term, denotes the woman who makes a vow, vrat, to protect her husband while he is alive and then die with her husband. Satimata denotes a venerated widow who committed sati, the Indian Commission of Sati Act,1987 Part I, Section 2 defines sati as the act or rite itself. Few reliable records exist of the practice before the time of the Gupta empire, after about this time, instances of sati began to be marked by inscribed memorial stones. According to Axel Michaels, the first clear proof of the practice is from Nepal in 464 AD, in India, the earliest of these memorial stones are found in Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, the largest collections date from several centuries later and are found in Rajasthan. Those who declined to die were disgraced, in 317 BC Eumenes cosmopolitan army defeated that of Antigonus in the Battle of Paraitakene. Among the fallen was one Ceteus, the commander of Eumenes Indian soldiers, Diodorus writes that Ceteus had been followed on campaign by his two wives, at his funeral the two wives competed for the honour of joining their husband on the pyre. After the older wife was found to be pregnant, Eumenes generals ruled in favour of the younger and she was led to the pyre crowned in garlands to the hymns of her kinsfolk. The whole army then marched three times around the pyre before it was lit, according to Diodorus the practice of sati started because Indians married for love, unlike the Greeks who favoured marriages arranged by the parents. When inevitably many of these marriages turned sour, the woman would often poison the husband and find a new lover
Sati (practice)
–
An 18th-century painting on sati.
Sati (practice)
–
Description of the
Balinese rite of self-sacrifice or Suttee, in Houtman's 1597 Verhael vande Reyse... Naer Oost Indien
Sati (practice)
–
A
Hindu widow burning herself with the corpse of her husband, 1820s.
Sati (practice)
–
Suttee, by
James Atkinson 1831
19.
Uxoricide
–
Uxoricide is murder of ones wife or romantic partner. It can refer to the act itself or the person who carries it out, overall, rates of uxoricide are much higher than rates of mariticide. Of the 2340 deaths at the hands of partners in America in 2007. In the region of South-East Asia, 55% of all murdered women died at the hands of their partner, followed by 40% in the African region, preliminary findings of an ongoing study estimate that globally, approximately 35% of murders of women are committed by intimate partners. Evolved Homicide Theory states that men have evolved a particular killing strategy in order to deprive male rivals of sexual access to their mate, therefore, when a man experiences partner infidelity, he may kill his partner as a reproductive strategy. Proponents of Psychodynamic theories have offered explanations for the underlying the occurrence of Uxoricide. It has been suggested that men who kill their partners experience both an unconscious dependence on their wife and a resentment of her. These men wish to leave the relationship, but unknowingly perceive themselves as too helpless to do so, links have also been established between violence in childhood and likelihood of uxoricide occurring. Other psychodynamic researchers have reported that Thematic Apperception tests reveal significant trends of rejection by a mother or wife in men who commit uxoricide, psychoanalytic dream interpretation has also argued that unconscious conflict manifests into violent outbursts. For example, in one instance one man had experienced and recorded over 200 distressing, cohabiting women are at greater risk of domestic violence and uxoricide than married women. Research has found that women are 9 times more likely to be killed by their intimate partner than married women. A number of reasons for this finding have been studied. Cohabiting women are likely to be younger, have a lower level of education and are more likely to bring children from a previous relationship into their home with their new intimate partner. This may be because investment from a stepfather reduces reproductive benefits, research has found that the presence of step-children can significantly increase the risk of uxoricide for women. A large number of filicides are accompanied by uxoricide and suicide, research has shown that females often experience increased abuse following the termination of a relationship. An Australian study found that of a sample of uxoricide cases, sexual jealousy may be a possible reason for this heightened risk following separation. Another risk factor for Uxoricide is estrangement, women who choose to leave their partner place themselves at higher risk of spousal homicide. Therefore, by killing his partner he will avoid the damage associated with intrasexual competition
Uxoricide
–
18th century illustration of Matthias Brinsden murdering his wife.
20.
Pregnancy from rape
–
Pregnancy is a potential result of rape. It has been studied in the context of war, particularly as a tool for genocide, as well as other unrelated contexts, such as rape by a stranger, statutory rape, incest, and underage pregnancy. Rape can cause difficulties during and after pregnancy, with negative consequences for both the victim and a resulting child. Medical treatment following a rape includes testing for, preventing, a woman who becomes pregnant after a rape may face a decision about whether to raise the child, give the child up for adoption or parenting by others, or to have an abortion. In some countries where abortion is illegal after rape and incest, over 90% of pregnancies in girls age 15, the false belief that pregnancy can almost never result from rape was widespread for centuries. Any female capable of ovulation may become pregnant after rape by a fertile male, estimates of the numbers of pregnancies from rape vary widely. Recent estimates suggest that rape conception happens between 25,000 and 32,000 times each year in the U. S. A1996 study of 44 cases of rape-related pregnancy estimated that in the United States, a 1987 study also found a 5% pregnancy rate from rape among 18- to 24-year-old college students in the US. A2005 study placed the rape-related pregnancy rate at around 3–5%, a study of Ethiopian adolescents who reported being raped found that 17% subsequently became pregnant, and rape crisis centres in Mexico reported the figure the rate of pregnancy from rape at 15–18%. Psychologist Robert L. Smith states that studies have reported unusually high rates of conception following rape. He cites a paper by C. A. Smith also cites veterinary scientist Wolfgang Jöchle, adjusting for these factors, they estimated that rapes are about twice as likely to result in pregnancies as consensual, unprotected penile-vaginal intercourse. They discuss a variety of explanations and advance the hypothesis that rapists tend to target victims with biological cues of high fecundity or subtle indications of ovulation. A1995 study of women who became pregnant after rape found that 60% had been impregnated during consensual intercourse, randy Thornhill and Craig T. Palmer are key popularizers of this hypothesis. They assert that most rape victims are women of childbearing age, rape-pregnancy rates are crucial in evaluating these theories, because a high or low pregnancy rate from rape would determine whether such adaptations are favored or disfavored by natural selection. In 1995–96, the journal Family Planning Perspectives published a study by the Guttmacher Institute, because of difficulties in bringing such cases to trial, however, data from the period 1975–1978. Indicate that, on average, only 413 men were arrested annually for statutory rape in California, in that state, it was found that two thirds of babies born to school-age mothers were fathered by adult men. A2007 paper by Child Trends examined studies from 2000 to 2006 to identify links between sexual abuse and teenage pregnancy, starting with Blinn-Pike et al. s 2002 metastudy of 15 studies since 1989 and it found that childhood sexual abuse has a significant association with adolescent pregnancy. The more severe forms of abuse, such as rape and incest, in Nicaragua, between 2000 and 2010, around 172,500 births were recorded for girls under 14, representing around 13% of the 10.3 million births during that period
Pregnancy from rape
–
Forced prostitution was used by the Japanese Army during
World War II.
Rangoon,
Burma. 8 August 1945. A young
ethnic Chinese woman who was in one of the
Imperial Japanese Army 's "
comfort battalions " is interviewed by an
Allied officer.
Pregnancy from rape
–
The Ancient Greek physician
Galen 's belief that women could not conceive without pleasure influenced medical and legal thinking for centuries.
21.
Laws regarding rape
–
Rape is a type of sexual assault initiated by one or more persons against another person without that persons consent. The act may be carried out by force, or where the person is under threat or manipulation. Definitions of rape vary, and though rape is usually dependent upon whether or not consent was present during the act, minors, for example, are often considered too young to consent to sexual relations with older persons. Depending on the jurisdiction, rape may be characterized as an offence or an offence against the person. Rape may also be characterized as a form of aggravated assault or battery, to sustain a conviction, rape might require proof that the defendant had sexual penetration with another person. The essence of the corpus of international humanitarian law as well as human rights law lies in the protection of the human dignity of every person. Countries around the world differ in how they deal with the mens rea element in the law regarding rape, There is not always a requirement that the victim did not consent. In the England and Wales, section 5 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003 creates the offence of rape of a child under 13 and contains no reference to consent. After describing the act the offence prohibits, the explanatory notes to the Act say whether or not the child consented to this act is irrelevant. The issue arises in law as who can legally consent, for example with regard to persons who suffer from mental or physical disability, however, the abuse of the existence of such a disability in order to engage in sexual activities with a child should be criminalised. From the second part of the 20th century onwards, the crime of rape has undergone changes in definition in many countries. This redefinition of rape had the effect of defining male rape, There have also been changes in the legal definition of consent/coercion. This was supported by the laws in many legal systems. Such laws were ended in Mexico in 1991, Colombia in 1997, Peru in 1999, Egypt in 1999, Ethiopia in 2005, Brazil in 2005, Uruguay in 2005, Guatemala in 2006, Costa Rica in 2007, and Morocco in 2014. Throughout much of the history, rape in marriage was not a crime, with a few notable exceptions, it was during the past 30 years when most laws against marital rape have been enacted. The convention came into force in August 2014, furthermore, in many legal systems the consent of the woman to sexual intercourse was not a defense - the act was still a crime if done without the consent of her father. Rape was an offense under the law of England. That offense became an offense under the law of other countries, including Australia and it is discussed at Rape in English law#History
Laws regarding rape
–
Sex and the law
22.
Types of rape
–
These categories are referred to as types of rape. Acquaintance rape constitutes the vast majority of reported rapes, while DFSA is infrequent, DFSA is when the rapist intentionally incapacitates the victim via drugs, while acquaintance rape can occur when the victim is not incapacitated. A college survey conducted by the United States National Victim Center reported that one in four women have been raped or experienced attempted rape. This report indicates that women are at considerable risk of becoming a victim of date rape while in college. Gang rape occurs when a group of people participate in the rape of a single victim, rape involving at least two or more violators is widely reported to occur in many parts of the world. Systematic information on the extent of the problem, however, is scant, one study showed that offenders and victims in gang rape incidents were younger with a higher possibility of being unemployed. Gang rapes involved more alcohol and other use, night attacks and severe sexual assault outcomes and less victim resistance. The two groups were about the same in the amount of drinking and other drug use during the assault, also known as marital rape, wife rape, husband rape, partner rape or intimate partner sexual assault, is rape between a married or de facto couple. Research reveals that victims of marital/partner rape suffer longer lasting trauma than victims of stranger rape, rape of a child is a form of child sexual abuse. When committed by another child or adolescent, it is called child-on-child sexual abuse, when committed by a parent or other close relatives such as grandparents, aunts and uncles, it is also incest and can result in serious and long-term psychological trauma. The offense is often based on a presumption that people under a certain age do not have the capacity to give consent. The age at which individuals are considered competent to consent, called the age of consent, varies in different countries and regions, in the US. Sexual activity that violates age-of-consent law, but is neither violent nor physically coerced, is described as statutory rape. Rates of prison rape have been reported as affecting between 3% and 12% of prison inmates in the US, although prison rapes are more commonly same-sex crimes, the attacker usually does not identify as homosexual. This phenomenon is less common elsewhere in the western world. This is partly because of the differences in the structure of the system in the US as compared to the prison systems in Canada, Australia. The attacker is most commonly another inmate, serial rape is rape committed by a person over a relatively long period of time and committed on a number of victims. Most times this type of rapist is unknown to the victim and follows a specific, payback rape, also called punishment rape or revenge rape, is a form of rape specific to certain cultures, particularly the Pacific Islands
Types of rape
–
Brennus and His Share of the Spoils, by
Paul Jamin, 1893
Types of rape
–
Amna Sur Museum in
Sulaymaniyah. A replica of a
Kurdish girl in prison. The girl was imprisoned at a young age. She was repeatedly beaten and raped by the guards in the prison, and died from her ordeal.
23.
Corrective rape
–
Corrective rape is a hate crime in which one or more people are raped because of their perceived sexual orientation or gender identity. The common intended consequence of the rape, as seen by the perpetrator, is to turn the person heterosexual or to enforce conformity with gender stereotypes. The term corrective rape was coined in South Africa after well-known cases of rapes of lesbians such as Eudy Simelane. Although some countries have laws protecting LGBT people, corrective rape is often overlooked, Corrective rape is the use of rape against people who do not conform to perceived social norms regarding human sexuality or gender roles. The goal is to punish perceived abnormal behavior and reinforce societal norms, the crime was first identified in South Africa, where it is sometimes supervised by members of the womans family or local community. The United Nations UNAIDS2015 Terminology Guidelines suggests that use of the corrective rape should no longer be used. The guidelines propose that the term homophobic rape should be used instead, Corrective rape is a hate crime. However, due to homophobia and heteronormativity, hate crimes based on sexuality are often not recognized by authorities, some people believe corrective rape can fix people who do not conform to gender norms or who are not heterosexual. ActionAid reports that survivors remember being told that they were being taught a lesson, some perpetrators of the hate crime are impelled by a sense of misogyny and chauvinism. Some sources argue that cases of corrective rape are caused by drawing moral conclusions from the nature–nurture debate. Because of this, some of people believe sexual orientation can be changed, or in this case. Intersectionality is intersecting social identities and related systems of oppression, domination, in South Africa, black lesbians face homophobia, sexism, racism, and classism. Research in 2008 by Triangle, a gay group, revealed that black lesbians were twice as afraid of sexual assault compared to white lesbians. In addition, black women who identify as lesbians are seen as un-African by their peers, taking into account race and sexuality together is essential when examining corrective rape, as both subjects cross into each other and influence each other heavily. Sexuality and gender especially, define the social and political rank of victims, many are ostracized, and other abusive measures are taken in order to cure individuals of their sexuality. Corrective rape and other accompanying acts of violence can result in physical and psychological trauma, mutilation, unwanted pregnancy, Corrective rape is a major contributor to HIV infection in South African lesbians. In South Africa approximately 10% of lesbians are HIV positive, with corrective rape being the most likely cause, HIV in South Africa is pandemic, and due to homophobia there is a lack of education about sexually transmitted diseases among lesbians. Homophobic laws and discrimination in South Africa contribute to the quality of health care for minorities
Corrective rape
–
Soweto Pride 2012 participants remember two lesbians who were raped and murdered in 2007.
Corrective rape
–
Soweto Pride 2012 participants protest against violence against lesbians with a "Dying for Justice" banner and T-shirts which read "Solidarity with women who speak out".
24.
Gang rape
–
Gang rape occurs when a group of people participate in the rape of a single victim. Rape involving at least two or more violators is widely reported to occur throughout the world, systematic information and statistics on the extent of the problem, however is limited. One study showed that offenders and victims in gang rape incidents were younger with a possibility of being unemployed. Gang rapes involved more alcohol and drug use, night attacks and severe sexual assault outcomes and less victim resistance, the two groups were about the same in the amount of drug use and drinking during the assault. Gang rape is sometimes referred to as rape, party rape. Gang rapes often involve three or more men as perpetrators, gang rapes are more violent, the sexual and non-sexual injuries to the victim are often far more severe. The gang members typically dehumanize their target victim before and during the rape, porter and Alison have analyzed 739 gang rape cases from US and UK, and found over 20% of the gang rape victims died from injuries from the gang rape. A2013 study based on 25 year crime data from US and Europe, less than one in three gang rapes are reported, while less than 1 in 20 attempted but failed gang rapes are reported. Most cases were not reported to law enforcement, and just 23% of single or multiple perpetrator rapes that were reported by the victims ended in prison sentence. Everywhere there is a tendency to blame the victim, however, gang rapes are almost always premeditated in their intent, target victim, social proof, certain events such as civil wars, hate propaganda, and ethnic conflicts increase the incidence rate of gang rapes. According to one study, over 70% of the victims were raped by rapists of same race. Most covered and debated gang rapes tend to be those involving victim, gang rape can be interpreted as an example of a group criminal spin. Accordingly, a group of individuals may perform a behavior that proceeds in a criminal direction far beyond the initial intention of its participants. It is considered a group criminal spin because the most gang members perform this act only during a group interaction, in the same way, a group interaction may display an I must motive, thus social forces within the group directs it towards raping. This is an incomplete list of countries, where government and/or media have acknowledged the problem of gang rape. A2013 Lancet study reports 1. 9% of all men in Bangladesh have committed multiple perpetrator rape of a woman who was not a partner. 35% of those who have committed gang rapes against women have committed additional rapes where the victim was a man. The motives of rape included a combination of reasons, gang rape, or estupro coletivo, is prevalent in Brazil
Gang rape
–
An artwork showing gang rape.
25.
Marital rape
–
Marital rape is the act of sexual intercourse with ones spouse without consent. It is a form of violence and sexual abuse. Still, in countries, marital rape either remains outside the criminal law, or is illegal. Laws are rarely being enforced, due to ranging from reluctance of authorities to pursue the crime. Marital rape is more widely experienced by women, though not exclusively, Marital rape is often a chronic form of violence for the victim which takes place within abusive relations. It exists in a web of state governments, cultural practices. Most countries criminalized marital rape from the late 20th century onward—very few legal systems allowed for the prosecution of rape within marriage before the 1970s. One of the origins of the concept of an exemption from rape laws is the idea that by marriage a woman gives irrevocable consent for her husband to have sex with her any time he demands it. This view was described by Sir Matthew Hale, in History of the Pleas of the Crown, where he wrote that the wife hath given up herself in this kind unto her husband, which she cannot retract. Given that a wife had no standing of her own. English common law also had a impact on many legal systems of the world through colonialism. For this reason, in many cultures there was a conflation between the crimes of rape and adultery, since both were seen and understood as a violation of the rights of the husband. Rape as a crime was constructed as a property crime against a father or husband not as a crime against the right to self-determination. The property to be withheld in a female was her virginity, following this line of logic, a woman was first the property of her father, then, upon marriage, the property of her husband. Therefore, a man could not be prosecuted for raping his own wife because she was his possession, however, if another man raped someones wife, this was essentially stealing property. In English customs, bride capture was thought to be stealing a fathers property by raping his daughter, therefore, rape laws were created to …protect the property interests men had in their women, not to protect women themselves. This concept of women as property permeates current marital rape ideology, in some cultures, marriage is arranged for the purpose of creating access to procreation. In these situations, the parties do not necessarily consent to marriage, following this logic, if consent is not part of marriage, then it is not necessary for intercourse
Marital rape
–
Sex and the law
26.
Statutory rape
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Statutory rape is sexual activity in which one of the individuals is below the age required to legally consent to the behavior in some common law jurisdictions. In statutory rape, overt force or threat is not present. Statutory rape laws presume coercion, because a minor or mentally handicapped adult is legally incapable of giving consent to the act, the term statutory rape generally refers to sex between an adult and a sexually mature minor past the age of puberty. Sexual relations with a prepubescent child, generically called child abuse or molestation, is typically treated as a more serious crime. In many jurisdictions, the age of consent is interpreted to mean mental or functional age, as a result, victims can be of any chronological age if their mental age makes them unable to consent to a sexual act. Other jurisdictions, such as Kentucky, eliminate the concept of mental age. Consensual teenage sex is common in the United States, a 1995 study revealed that 50% of U. S. teenagers have had sexual intercourse by the age of sixteen. In fact, it is estimated there are more than 7 million incidents of statutory rape every year. However, it is clear that most incidents are not prosecuted and do not lead to arrests, laws vary in their definitions of statutory rape. It is generally intended to punish heinous cases of an adult taking sexual advantage of a minor, thus, many jurisdictions prohibit allowing a juvenile to be tried as an adult under this law. Some jurisdictions also specify a difference in age in order for the offense to be applicable. Under such terms, if the adult is, for instance and these are called Romeo and Juliet clauses. Statutory rape laws are based on the premise that an individual is legally incapable of consenting to sexual intercourse until that person reaches a certain age, the law mandates that even if he or she willingly engages in sexual intercourse, the sex is not legally consensual. Another rationale comes from the fact that minors are generally economically, socially, by making it illegal for an adult to have sex with a minor, statutory rape laws aim to give the minor some protection against adults in a position of power over the youth. Another argument presented in defense of statutory rape laws relates to the difficulty in prosecuting rape in the courtroom, because forced sexual intercourse with a minor is considered a particularly heinous form of rape, these laws relieve the prosecution of the burden to prove lack of consent. This makes conviction more frequent in cases involving minors, the original purpose of statutory rape laws was to protect young, unwed females from males who might impregnate them and not take responsibility by providing support for the child. In the past, the solution to problems was often a shotgun wedding. This rationale aims to preserve the marriageability of the girl and to prevent unwanted teenage pregnancy, historically, a man could defend himself against statutory rape charges by proving that his victim was already sexually experienced prior to their encounter
Statutory rape
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Sex and the law
