1.
Rome
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Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
2.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
Art museum
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An art museum or art gallery is a building or space for the exhibition of art, usually visual art. Museums can be public or private, but what distinguishes a museum is the ownership of a collection, the term is used for both public galleries, which are non-profit or publicly owned museums that display selected collections of art. On the other hand, private galleries refers to the commercial enterprises for the sale of art, however, both types of gallery may host traveling exhibits or temporary exhibitions including art borrowed from elsewhere. In broad terms, in North American usage, the word gallery alone often implies a private gallery, the term contemporary art gallery refers usually to a privately owned for-profit commercial gallery. These galleries are found clustered together in large urban centers. Smaller cities are home to at least one gallery, but they may also be found in towns or villages. Contemporary art galleries are open to the general public without charge, however. They usually profit by taking a portion of art sales, from 25% to 50% is typical, there are also many non-profit or collective galleries. Some galleries in cities like Tokyo charge the artists a flat rate per day, curators often create group shows that say something about a certain theme, trend in art, or group of associated artists. Galleries sometimes choose to represent artists exclusively, giving them the opportunity to show regularly, a gallerys definition can also include the artist cooperative or artist-run space, which often operates as a space with a more democratic mission and selection process. A vanity gallery is an art gallery that charges fees from artists in order to show their work, the shows are not legitimately curated and will frequently or usually include as many artists as possible. Most art professionals are able to identify them on an artists resume, University art museums and galleries constitute collections of art that are developed, owned, and maintained by all kinds of schools, community colleges, colleges, and universities. This phenomenon exists in both the West and East, making it a global practice, although largely overlooked, there are over 700 university art museums in America alone. This number, in comparison to other kinds of art museums, throughout history, large and expensive works of art have generally been commissioned by religious institutions and monarchs and been displayed in temples, churches, and palaces. Although these collections of art were private, they were made available for viewing for a portion of the public. In classical times, religious institutions began to function as a form of art gallery. Wealthy Roman collectors of engraved gems and other precious objects often donated their collections to temples and it is unclear how easy it was in practice for the public to view these items. At the Palace of Versailles, entrance was restricted to wearing the proper apparel – the appropriate accessories could be hired from shops outside
5.
Via del Corso
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The Via del Corso, is a main street in the historical centre of Rome. It is remarkable for being absolutely straight in an area characterized by narrow meandering alleys, considered a wide street in ancient times, today the Corso is approximately 10 metres wide, and it only has room for two lanes of traffic and two narrow sidewalks. The northern portion of the street is a pedestrian area, the length of the street is roughly 1.5 kilometres. The Corso runs in a generally north-south direction, today, the Corso is a popular place for the passeggiata, the evening stroll for the populace to be seen and to see others. It is also an important shopping street for tourists and locals alike, the history of Via del Corso began in 220 BC when Gaius Flaminius censor built a new road to link Rome with the Adriatic Sea in the north. The starting point of the road was Porta Fontinalis, a gate in the Servian city walls near present-day Piazza Venezia, in its first miles Via Flaminia cut through the plain between the Tiber and the eastern hills in a straight line. The Field of Mars, as it was called, was at the used as a training ground. Numerous tombs must have lined the road similarly to the Appian Way, the open area outside the city walls went through a process of urbanization during the late Republican and early imperial age. The city gradually spread north and monumental public buildings were built along the road. A set of dynastic monuments around the Mausoleum of Augustus was the most important development in the unpopulated northern section of the district. The first was the Arcus Novus erected by Diocletian in 303-304, then the Arch of Claudius stood further ahead and the third was later known as the Arco di Portogallo. The most important ancient monuments along Via Lata were Aurelians Temple of the Sun, the Ara Pacis, the Ustrinum Domus Augustae, the Ara Providentiae and the Column of Marcus Aurelius. A densely populated residential quarter from the Hadrianic era was discovered on the side of the road between Via delle Muratte and Via delle Convertite. From around the year 600 AD, the Corso accommodated a welfare centre linked to feeding the populace at Santa Maria in Via Lata and granaries at its southern end. During the Middle Ages the Via Lata, the present day Corso, effectively denoted a boundary, to the city mainly developed to the south. From the fifteenth century, the Via del Corso became a street for new or renovated churches. The lack of regularity and decorum of this street of the city meant that it became a main urban priority of Pope Alexander VII. Where he met with success was over imposing order on the street by empowering the maestri di strade
6.
Santa Maria in Via Lata
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Santa Maria in Via Lata is a church on the Via del Corso, in Rome, Italy. It stands diagonal from the church of San Marcello al Corso and it is claimed that St. Paul spent two years here, in the crypt under the church, whilst under house arrest waiting for his trial. This conflicts with the tradition regarding San Paolo alla Regola, the same was also claimed for St Peter, Pauls secretary Luke, Peters disciple Martial, St John. The first Christian place of here was a 5th-century oratory in the Roman building beneath the present church. This was constructed within the remains of a large Roman warehouse, some 250 metres long, the churchs upper level was added in the 9th century, and murals added to the lower level between the 7th and 9th centuries. The cosmatesque pavement from this phase survives, the churchs 13th century icon of the Virgin Advocate, said to have performed many miracles, and relics of the 3rd century Deacon and martyr Agapitus lie beneath it. The Arcus Novus, which stood on site were destroyed during reconstruction of the church in the late 15th century. Antonio Tebaldeo, poet and friend of Raphael, was buried at the end of the aisle in 1537. The church was renovated in 1639 by Cosimo Fanzago, but the facade and he appears to evoke a triumphal arch in the facade. The high altar Madonna Advocata is one of the few paintings in churches attributed to Bernini, the ciborium in the apse is made of alabaster and lapis-lazuli. The first excavations of the site occurred at this date. The families of Joseph and Lucien Bonaparte were buried here in the 19th century. Along the right side of the nave, the first altarpiece is a Martydom of St Andrew by Giacinto Brandi, while the altarpiece is a Saints Giuseppe, Nicola. In the chapel to the left of the apse, is a Madonna with child and Saints Cyriac and Catherine by Giovanni Odazzi. The second altar on the left has a Saint Paul baptizes Sabine and children by Pier Leone Ghezzi while the first altarpiece is a Virgin and Saints Lawrence, six oval paintings on the right nave include canvases by P. de Pietri and Agostino Masucci. On the left nave are five ovals, painted by P. de Pietri, Masucci, an altar in the lower church has a marble bas relief by Cosimo Fancelli. Descrizione delle Pitture, Sculture e Architetture esposte in Roma, luigi Cavazzi, La diaconia di S. Maria in Via Lata e il monastero di S. Ciriaco, memorie storiche. Richard Krautheimer, Corpus Basilicarum Christianarum Romae, The Early Christian Basilicas of Rome, tyrone Joseph Castellarin, The Facade of Santa Maria in Via Lata by Pietro Da Cortona
7.
Doria-Pamphilii-Landi
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The House of Doria-Pamphili-Landi is a princely Roman family of Genoese extraction. Legend has that the origins of the Doria family date from the early 11th century, the descent of the several Doria lines in Genoa is well-known and appears described in Natale Battilanas 19th century genealogical study of old Genoese families. Admiral Andrea Doria was descended from a Doria di Oneglia, Genoese soldier Aitone Doria who fought for the French at the battle of Crécy. One of the most famous members of the family was Andrea Doria, perpetual censor of Genoa in 1528 and admiral to the emperor Charles V and these titles were inherited by Gian Andrea Doria, son of Giannettino Doria who was a second cousin and adopted son of Andrea Doria. Giannettino Doria was killed in 1547 during the Fieschi conspiracy against the power of Andrea Doria over Genoa, another famous member of the family was Cardinal Giovanni Battista Pamphilj, who rose to the Papacy as Pope Innocent X. They had already incorporated by marriage the wealthy inheritance of the Landi family, the Palazzo Doria Pamphili in Rome was built in the 17th century, and contains one of the most valuable private collections of paintings in the world, the Doria Pamphilj Gallery. The Villa Doria Pamphili was, during the siege of 1849 Giuseppe Garibaldis headquarters, Prince Filippo Andrea VI Doria Pamphili, a staunch anti-Fascist, in 1944 became the first mayor of Rome following its liberation by the Allies. Princess Orietta Doria-Pamphili-Landi, the last of the line, married Royal Navy Commander Frank George Wignall Pogson in London in 1958 and he changed his name to Frank George Wignall Pogson Doria Pamphilj by deed poll. After the reforms of the Second Vatican Council in the 1960s, Princess Orietta and her husband, in 2000, Queen Elizabeth II visited Rome and attended the Anglican Centre, which is housed in the Palazzo Doria Pamphilj. Jonathan Doria Pamphilj formed a partnership with Elson Edeno Braga. The ability of Jonathan Pamphiljs children to inherit, after his death, was called into question in October 2009, in 2010 a court in Rome declined to hear the case. N. Battilana, Famiglia Doria in Genealogia delle Famiglie Nobili di Genova,1827, official Web Site, English version The Peerage website Obituary in The Telegraph
8.
Doria (family)
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Documentary evidence refers to two members of that family, Martino and Genuardo, in 1110, they are called filii Auriae. The Doria had fiefs in Sardinia from the 12th century to the 15th century, although uncommon, Doria is also known as a female first name. Simon Doria lived in the late 12th century and was an admiral of the Genoese in the assault against Saint Jean dAcre. Percivalle Doria, who died in 1275 fighting for the Ghibelline, was an infamous warlord, also a poet, Simon Doria was podestà of Savona and Albenga. Tedisio Doria financed the expedition of Vadino and Ugolino Vivaldi in 1291, branca Doria is mentioned by Dante in the Divine Comedy because of his treacherous murder of Michele Zanche, his father-in-law, in 1275. Brancaleone Doria ruled the Giudicato of Arborea and nearly conquered the whole of Sardinia in the fourteenth century. Ottone Doria commanded the 5,000 or more Genoese crossbowmen hired by the French for the Battle of Crécy against the English, like many of his troops, he was killed in the battle, where the Genoese ended by being attacked by both sides. Heavy rain had made their bowstrings wet and useless so Ottone ordered a retreat, the French cavalry saw this as cowardice and attacked them, while others were slain by the English bowmen. The most remarkable member of the family is Admiral Andrea Doria, Prince of Melfi and his nephew was Giovanni Andrea Doria, another admiral, Giovanni Andreas son was Giovanni Doria, a cardinal of the Catholic Church. Other notable Dorias of the period include admiral Carlo Doria and art collector Giovanni Carlo Doria, the family had relationships with political entities both in and out of Europe. During the attempts by the Mongol ilkhanate ruler Abaqa to form a Franco-Mongol alliance, many male children of the Doria family were named after foreign rulers, such as Abaga, Casano, and Aitone, named after Hayton, or Hethum I, king of Cilician Armenia. Some members of the family became doge of Genoa, agnatic members of the family are marchesi al cognome, that is, bear the title of marquess attached to the family name as a courtesy title. Non-agnatic princely branches like the Colonna-Doria are still flourishing, there are also titled branches outside Italy, such as the Porrata Doria family in Spain, which rank as marquesses. The Doria clan helped finance the Portuguese and Spanish navigations in the late 15th and 16th centuries, francesco Doria, a banker at Seville, financed Christopher Columbuss expeditions, and his son Aleramo Doria was a banker to King John III of Portugal until 1556. Finally, Aleramos daughter Clemenza Doria was one of the earliest settlers in the 16th-century Portuguese colonization of Brazil, or João Agripino da Costa Doria III held a cabinet-level position in the José Sarney administration in Brazil. The genoese Lodisio Doria, knight of Christs Order, settled in the island of Madeira and their descendants are the Teixeira Doria, lords of Pena dAguia, and França Doria families, which also have as direct ancestor the Portuguese navigator Tristão Vaz. The França Doria branch is headed by the Count of Calçada, the name Doria was used in Cornelia Funkes Inkheart series for a semi-main character who eventually fell in love with the teenage heroine. Documentary sources at the Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo, Lisbon Phillips, J. R. S
9.
Pamphilj
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The Pamphili are one of the papal families deeply entrenched in Roman Catholic Church, Roman and Italian politics of the 16th and 17th centuries. Later, the Pamphili family line merged with the Doria and Landi family lines to form the Doria-Pamphili-Landi family line, the Pamphili surname originated in Gubbio and went to Rome under the pontificate of Pope Innocent VIII. The peak of Pamphili power came with the election of Giovanni Battista Pamphili as Pope Innocent X, like the reign of his predecessor Pope Urban VIII, Innocent Xs rule was littered with examples of nepotism. Members of the Pamphili family members did exceptionally well from the Innocent X papacy, the following family members were created cardinals, Camillo Francesco Maria Pamphili, the Popes nephew and son of Olimpia Maidalchini, the Popes sister-in-law and close adviser. He later renounced his cardinalate to marry Olimpia Aldobrandini, widow of Paolo Borghese Francesco Maidalchini, Camillo Astalli a cousin of Olimpia Maidalchini whom the Pope had adopted as a Cardinal-Nephew. He was later deprived of this title for disloyalty to Innocent X Benedetto Pamphili, son of Camillo Pamphili and Olimpia Aldobrandini, like other Italian noble families, the Pamphili bought property and created self-styled principalities. Family members regularly had princely titles bestowed upon them by family patriarchs or matriarchs, Olimpia Maidalchini received the honorific title of Princess of San Martino, effectively turning the small enclave of San Martino into a principality in its own right. After he left the cardinalate to marry, Camillo Pamphili was given the titles Prince of San Martino, Pope Innocent X was elected to replace him. Innocent set about investigating some of the related to the conflict which had been administered by the Barberini. On the orders of Innocent X, Castro was razed on 2 September 1649 by troops of the Papal Army, from 1652, on Saturdays and Sundays in August, the piazza was turned into a lake to celebrate the Pamphili family, a festival that was suppressed in 1866. Today, the functions as the Brazilian Embassy in Rome. The tomb of Innocent X is located in SantAgnese, another building in central Rome is the Palazzo Doria Pamphilj, which houses the gallery of the same name
10.
House of Landi
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The Landi were a noble family from Piacenza, now in Reggio-Emilia, in central Italy. From 1551 to 1582, they were princes of the Val di Taro, now in the province of Parma, at that time in papal territory. Their principality is sometimes called Lo Stato Landi, although the term is not well known, there is documentation of it in the Archivio Segreto Vaticano. The Landi were a family from the area of Piacenza. They are thought to have descended from one Rodolfo Landi, however, the family divided into several lines, of which the most notable is that of Compiano, which descended from Giannone Landi, a great-grandson of Rodolfo. From mediaeval times, most of the Val di Taro was held by the Landi family, in 1582, their lands passed into the hands of Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma, following a failed conspiracy against the Farnese family, some thirty years before the better-known Sanvitale conspiracy. Landi was stripped of his titles and his status in 1578. However, as a prince of the Holy Roman Empire, he was not subject to the judgement of ordinary courts and he was pardoned on 27 September 1583 by the emperor Rudolf II, who also ordered Landis confiscated lands returned to him, they were not
11.
Aldobrandini
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The Aldobrandini are an Italian noble family from Florence, with close ties to the Vatican. Its Roman fortunes were made when Ippolito Aldobrandini became pope under the name Pope Clement VIII and he arranged the marriage that linked the Aldobrandini with the Roman family of Pamphili. Additionally, they were linked to marriage alliances with the Farnese and Borghese. The family also lends its name to the Palazzo Aldobrandini on the Quirinal Hill, the Aldobrandini family, having reached the height of its powers when Ippolito Aldobrandini became Pope Clement VIII, began the building of the villa. In 1600 Clement VIII acquired the Orti Vitelli on the Quirinal hill, the old buildings of the Vitelli Family were demolished and construction began on the new villa and adjacent garden. The villa was never the seat as the Aldobrandini family owned even more splendid residences elsewhere in Rome. The villa on the Quirinal hill served essentially for ceremonial functions, more famous was the Villa Aldobrandini in Frascati. Inside there are paintings of Mannerist and Baroque artists such as the Zuccari brothers, outside there is a monumental gate by Carlo Francesco Bizzaccheri. The Doria, Pamphilj, Landi and Aldobrandini families have become united through marriage, the Aldobrandini family palazzo and its collections of works of art and furnishings is now the Doria Pamphilj Gallery in Rome. The family name lives on, however, via a branch of the Borghese family, princess Olimpia Anna Aldobrandini, also a non-lineal descendent of Napoleon on her mothers side, married into the Rothschild family. The princely family is represented by Prince Camillo Aldobrandini, whose heir is Don Clemente Aldobrandini. Other notable members of the Aldobrandini family are, Alessandro Cardinal Aldobrandini, Pietro Cardinal Aldobrandini, raised to the cardinalate 1593 by Clement VIII
12.
Innocent X
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Pope Innocent X, born Giovanni Battista Pamphilj, was Pope from 15 September 1644 to his death in 1655. Trained as a lawyer, he succeeded Pope Urban VIII on 15 September 1644, as one of the most politically shrewd pontiffs of the era, Giovanni Battista Pamphili was born in Rome on 5 May 1574, the son of Camillo Pamphili, of the Roman Pamphili family. The family, originally from Gubbio, was descended from Pope Alexander VI. In 1594 he graduated from the Collegio Romano and followed a conventional cursus honorum and he served as a Consistorial lawyer in 1601, and in 1604 succeeded his uncle, Cardinal Girolamo Pamphilj, as auditor of the Roman Rota, the ecclesiastical appellate tribunal. He was also a canonist of the Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary, a second tribunal, in 1623 Pope Gregory XV sent him as nuncio to the court of the Kingdom of Naples. In 1625 Urban VIII sent him to accompany his nephew, Francesco Barberini, in January 1626 Pamphili was appointed titular Latin Patriarch of Antioch. The 1644 conclave for the election of a successor to Urban VIII was long and stormy, the large French faction led by Pope Urbans nephews objected to the Spanish candidate, as an enemy of Cardinal Mazarin, who guided French policy. They put up their own candidate but could not establish enough support for him and agreed to Pamphilj as an acceptable compromise, Mazarin, bearing the French veto of Cardinal Pamphilj, arrived too late, and the election was accomplished. Soon after his accession, Innocent X initiated legal action against the Barberini for misappropriation of public funds, the brothers Francesco Barberini, Antonio Barberini and Taddeo Barberini fled to Paris, where they found a powerful protector in Cardinal Mazarin. The French parliament declared the ordinance void in France. In 1653, Innocent X with the Cum occasione papal bull condemned five propositions of Janseniuss Augustinus, inspired by St. Augustine, as heretical and close to Lutheranism. The death of Pope Urban VIII is said to have been hastened by chagrin at the result of the First War of Castro, a war he had undertaken against Odoardo Farnese, the duke of Parma. Hostilities between the papacy and the Duchy of Parma resumed in 1649, and forces loyal to Pope Innocent X destroyed the city of Castro on 2 September 1649, the protests were ignored by the European powers. Olimpia Maidalchini, who had married to his late brother, was believed to be Innocent Xs mistress because of her influence over him in matters of promotion. The relationship between Olimpia and Innocent X, both before and during his papacy, is the concern of the book Mistress of the Vatican by Eleanor Hermann. The less-than-subtle political statement still hangs in a chapel of the Capuchin friars Church of the Conception in Rome. During the papacy of Pope Urban VIII, Giovanni Battista Pamphilj was the popes most significant rival among the College of Cardinals, Antonio Barberini, the popes brother, was a cardinal who had begun his career with the Capuchin brothers. He raised Colegio de Nuestra Senora del Santisimo Rosario to a University in November 20,1645 during his pontificate, in 1650, Innocent X celebrated a Jubilee
13.
Palazzo Pamphilj
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See also Palazzo Doria Pamphilj Palazzo Pamphilj, also spelled Palazzo Pamphili, is a palace facing onto the Piazza Navona in Rome. It was built between 1644 and 1650, in 1644, Cardinal Giambattista Pamphilj of the powerful Pamphilj family, who already owned a palace between the Piazza Navona and the Via Pasquino, became Pope Innocent X. With this election came the desire for a more magnificent building to reflect his family’s increased prestige. Further land was bought, the architect Girolamo Rainaldi received the commission and construction began in 1646, the new project was to incorporate some existing buildings, including the former palace of the Pamphilj and the Palazzo Cibo. In 1647, the Baroque architect Francesco Borromini was consulted about the design, however, the prevailing preference was for Rainaldi’s more staid and conservative design. The Gallery extends through the width of the block with a large Serliana window at either end, between 1651 and 1654, the painter Pietro da Cortona was commissioned to decorate the Gallery vault. His secular fresco cycle depicts scenes from the life of Aeneas, the Pamphili claim to be descended from Aeneas. So Cortona devised a series of scenes around a central painted framed ‘Apotheosis of Aeneas’ into the Olympian heavens, the elaborate doorframes regularly spaced along the longer walls of the Gallery display a combination of motifs typically used by Borromini and by Cortona The plan has three courtyards. The rooms on the piano nobile have frescoes and friezes by artists such as Giacinto Gimignani, Gaspard Dughet, Andrea Camassei, Giacinto Brandi, Francesco Allegrini, carlo Rainaldi, the son of Girolamo, completed the building around 1650. The new palazzo became the home of Innocents widowed and unpopular sister-in-law Olimpia Maidalchini and she was the mother of Camillo Pamphilj, the one time cardinal, who through his marriage came into the possession of the Palazzo Aldobrandini, now known as the Palazzo Doria Pamphilj. Confusingly, until the unification of the Doria and Pamphilj surnames both palazzi were known as Palazzo Pamphilj, or in the case of todays Doria Pamphilj sometimes Palazzo Pamfilio, both spellings Pamphilj and Pamphili are in common Italian usage, even though the family prefers Pamphilj. The Palazzo Pamphilj in Piazza Navona, Constructing Identity In Early Modern Rome,2008, Rome in the Age of Bernini, volume II, Almquist & Wiksell, Stockholm,1986, Chapter 1 Innocent X Brazilian Embassy in Rome Official website Palazzo Pamphilj Virtual tour
14.
Piazza Navona
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Piazza Navona is a piazza in Rome, Italy. It is built on the site of the Stadium of Domitian, built in 1st century AD, the ancient Romans went there to watch the agones, and hence it was known as Circus Agonalis. It is believed that time the name changed to in avone to navone. Piazza Navona has two other fountains, at the southern end is the Fontana del Moro with a basin and four Tritons sculpted by Giacomo della Porta to which, in 1673, Bernini added a statue of a Moor, or African, wrestling with a dolphin. At the northern end is the Fountain of Neptune also created by Giacomo della Porta, during its history, the piazza has hosted theatrical events and other ephemeral activities. From 1652 until 1866, when the festival was suppressed, it was flooded on every Saturday and Sunday in August in elaborate celebrations of the Pamphilj family. The pavement level was raised in the 19th century, and in 1869 the market was moved to the nearby Campo de Fiori, a Christmas market is held in the piazza. During June 2008, Ron Howard directed several scenes of the adaptation of Angels & Demons on the southern section of the piazza. The piazza is featured in scenes of director Mike Nichols 1970 adaptation of Joseph Hellers novel. The Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi was used in the 1990 film Coins in the Fountain, the characters threw coins into the fountain as they made wishes. The Trevi Fountain was used in the 1954 version of the film, the piazza is featured in Eugene Levys Once Upon A Crime film. In the early hours of 3 September 2011, the Fontana del Moro was damaged by a vandal, roth, Leland M. Understanding Architecture, Its Elements, History, and Meaning. Birds eye view of Piazza Navona, virtual Tour of Piazza Navona Bernini Fountains Video Introduction
15.
Camillo Pamphilj
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Not to be confused with his cousin Camillo Astalli, later adopted by Pope Innocent X as Camillo Astalli-Pamphili. Camillo Francesco Maria Pamphili was an Italian Catholic Cardinal and later nobleman of the Pamphili family and his name is often spelled with the final long i orthography, Pamphilj. Pamphili was born in Naples on 21 February 1622 and his uncle, Cardinal Giovanni Battista Pamphili, was papal nuncio to the Kingdom of Naples and his father, Pamphilio Pamphili, had moved there with his wife Olimpia Maidalchini. As a young man Pamphili studied humanistic topics such as poetry, philosophy, mathematics, when Camillos father died, in 1639, the prospect of a marriage to perpetuate the lineage was explored. This remained the intention after his uncles election to the papacy, Olimpia Maidalchini advocated for the candidacy of Taddeo Barberinis daughter, Lucrezia, then twelve years old. The move was designed to mend the rift between the Pamphili and the Barberini which had developed after Pope Innocents election, on September 15,1644 Giovanni Battista Pamphili was elected to the papal throne as Pope Innocent X. Shortly thereafter Camillo was appointed General of the Papal Army and this post was usually assigned to the lay-nephew of the Pope, but shortly afterwards Camillo Pamphili expressed his wish to become Cardinal-nephew. Camillo was created Cardinal Deacon in the consistory of November 14,1644, some of the duties were shared with the Secretary of State Giovanni Giacomo Panciroli. Military tasks were delegated to his two brothers-in-law, Niccolò Ludovisi and Andrea Giustiniani, husband of his older sister Maria Flaminia, however, Camillo developed a particular interest in a young noblewoman who had been in attendance at the Palazzo Pamphili the day after his uncles coronation. Olimpia Aldobrandini was clever, and beautiful, a grand-niece and later sole heir) of Pope Clement VIII, however she was married to powerful nobleman Paolo Borghese and Pamphili, according to his contemporaries, was not one to indulge in an illicit affair. When Borghese died in 1646, Pamphili made his intentions clear, the two families were already close, Aldobrandinis maternal uncle, Niccolò Ludovisi, had married Camillos sister, Costanza. Against his mothers wishes He resigned the cardinalate on 21 January 1647, the choice of the bride so displeased the Pope and his mother, who both favored a union with the Barberini, that neither of them took part in the wedding. His cousin, Francesco Maidalchini, was appointed Cardinal-nephew, Aldobrandinis dowry included a collection of paintings, villas in Montemagnanapoli and Frascati, the great Albodrandini estates in Romagna on the Corso in Rome and the Palazzo Aldobrandini. These estates and property passed to the Pamphili family and became the nucleus for the Galleria Doria Pamphilj. So furious was Olympia that she banished them from Rome and the Palazzo Pamphili, Camillo and Aldobrandini had five children including Giovan Battista Pamphili, Benedetto Pamphili and Anna Pamphili who married the Genoese nobleman Giovanni Andrea III Doria Landi in 1671. When the Roman branch of the Pamphlili family ended in 1760, Anna, Benedetto Pamphili became Grand prior in Rome of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem, and in 1681 was named a cardinal by also appointed by Pope Innocent XI. Camillo Pamphili commissioned Gian Lorenzo Bernini to build the baroque Church of SantAndrea al Quirinale, the church was not completed until 1670, after Pamphilis death. He died at his Palazzo Pamphili on the via Lata, Rome, teresa Pamphili married Carlo II Cybo-Malaspina, Duke of Massa and had children
16.
State rooms
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A state room in a large European mansion is usually one of a suite of very grand rooms which were designed to impress. The term was most widely used in the 17th and 18th centuries and they were the most lavishly decorated in the house and contained the finest works of art. State rooms are only found in the houses of the upper echelons of the aristocracy. They were generally to accommodate and entertain distinguished guests, especially a monarch and or a consort, or other high-ranking aristocrats and state officials. In their original form a set of rooms made up a state apartment which always included a bedroom. In England in particular state rooms in houses were seldom used. The owner of the house and his family lived in the second best apartments in the house. Unlike the main rooms of later houses, state apartments were not freely open to all the guests in the house. Admittance to the apartment was a privilege, and the further one penetrated the greater the honour. This is certainly true at Wilton House, Blenheim Palace, examples of such residences with surviving state suites which have never really changed their function include Chatsworth House and Boughton House. On board a ship, the state room defines a superior first-class cabin. In the United States, riverboat passenger rooms were named after a state, e. g. Alabama. Life in the English Country House
17.
Chapel
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The term chapel usually refers to a place of prayer and worship that is attached to a larger, often nonreligious institution or that is considered an extension of a primary religious institution. Chapel has also referred to independent or nonconformist places of worship in Great Britain—outside of the established church, the earliest Christian places of worship are now often referred to as chapels, as they were not dedicated buildings but rather a dedicated chamber within a building. Most larger churches had one or more secondary altars, which if they occupied a distinct space, in Russian Orthodox tradition, the chapels were built underneath city gates, where most people could visit them. The most famous example is the Iberian Chapel, although chapels frequently refer to Christian places of worship, they are also commonly found in Jewish synagogues and do not necessarily connote a specific denomination. In England—where the Church of England is established by law—non-denominational or inter-faith chapels in such institutions may nonetheless be consecrated by the local Anglican bishop, non-denominational chapels are commonly encountered as part of a non-religious institution such as a hospital, airport, university or prison. Many military installations have chapels for the use of military personnel, the earliest Christian places of worship were not dedicated buildings but rather a dedicated chamber within a building, such as a room in an individuals home. Here one or two people could pray without being part of a communion/congregation, people who like to use chapels may find it peaceful and relaxing to be away from the stress of life, without other people moving around them. The word, chapel, like the word, chaplain, is ultimately derived from Latin. The other half he wore over his shoulders as a small cape, the beggar, the stories claim, was Christ in disguise, and Martin experienced a conversion of heart, becoming first a monk, then abbot, then bishop. This cape came into the possession of the Frankish kings, the tent which kept the cape was called the capella and the priests who said daily Mass in the tent were known as the capellani. From these words, via Old French, we get the names chapel, the word also appears in the Irish language in the Middle Ages, as Welsh people came with the Norman and Old English invaders to the island of Ireland. While the traditional Irish word for church was eaglais, a new word, séipéal, in British history, chapel or meeting house, was formerly the standard designation for church buildings belonging to independent or Nonconformist religious societies and their members. As a result, chapel is used as an adjective in the UK to describe the members of such churches. A proprietary chapel is one that belonged to a private person. In the 19th century they were common, often being built to cope with urbanisation, frequently they were set up by evangelical philanthropists with a vision of spreading Christianity in cities whose needs could no longer be met by the parishes. Some functioned more privately, with a wealthy person building a chapel so they could invite their favorite preachers and they are anomalies in the English ecclesiastical law, having no parish area, but being able to have an Anglican clergyman licensed there. Historically many Anglican Churches were Proprietary Chapels, over the years they have often been converted into normal Parishes. While the usage of the chapel is not exclusively limited to Christian terminology
18.
Mummy
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Some authorities restrict the use of the term to bodies deliberately embalmed with chemicals, but the use of the word to cover accidentally desiccated bodies goes back to at least 1615 CE. Mummies of humans and other animals have found on every continent. Over one million animal mummies have been found in Egypt, many of which are cats, in addition to the well-known mummies of ancient Egypt, deliberate mummification was a feature of several ancient cultures in areas of America and Asia with very dry climates. The Spirit Cave mummies of Fallon, Nevada in North America were accurately dated at more than 9,400 years old. Before this discovery, the oldest known deliberate mummy was a child, one of the Chinchorro mummies found in the Camarones Valley, Chile, which dates around 5050 BCE. The oldest known naturally mummified corpse is a severed head dated as 6,000 years old. These substances were defined as mummia, the OED defines a mummy as the body of a human being or animal embalmed as a preparation for burial, citing sources from 1615 CE onward. However, Chambers Cyclopædia and the Victorian zoologist Francis Trevelyan Buckland define a mummy as follows, also applied to the frozen carcase of an animal imbedded in prehistoric snow. Wasps of the genus Aleiodes are known as mummy wasps because they wrap their prey as mummies. While interest in the study of mummies dates as far back as Ptolemaic Greece, prior to this, many rediscovered mummies were sold as curiosities or for use in pseudoscientific novelties such as mummia. The first modern scientific examinations of mummies began in 1901, conducted by professors at the English-language Government School of Medicine in Cairo, Egypt. The first X-ray of a mummy came in 1903, when professors Grafton Elliot Smith, British chemist Alfred Lucas applied chemical analyses to Egyptian mummies during this same period, which returned many results about the types of substances used in embalming. Lucas also made significant contributions to the analysis of Tutankhamun in 1922, pathological study of mummies saw varying levels of popularity throughout the 20th century. In 1992, the First World Congress on Mummy Studies was held in Puerto de la Cruz on Tenerife in the Canary Islands, more than 300 scientists attended the Congress to share nearly 100 years of collected data on mummies. This was not possible prior to the Congress due to the unique, in more recent years, CT scanning has become an invaluable tool in the study of mummification by allowing researchers to digitally unwrap mummies without risking damage to the body. The level of detail in such scans is so intricate that small linens used in areas such as the nostrils can be digitally reconstructed in 3-D. Such modelling has been utilized to perform autopsies on mummies to determine cause of death and lifestyle. Mummies are typically divided into one of two categories, anthropogenic or spontaneous
19.
Dead body
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A cadaver, also called corpse in medical, literary, and legal usage, or when intended for dissection, is a deceased body. Observation of the stages of decomposition can help determine how long a body has been dead. The first stage is autolysis, more known as self-digestion. However, these enzymes are released into the cells because of active processes ceasing in the cells, as a result of autolysis, liquid is created that gets between the layers of skin and makes the skin peel off. During this stage, flies start to lay eggs in the openings of the body, eyes, nostrils, mouth, ears, open wounds, hatched larvae, of blowflies, subsequently get under the skin and start to eat the body. This bloating occurs largely in the abdomen, and sometimes in the mouth and this usually happens in about the second week of decomposition. Gas accumulation and bloating will continue until the body is decomposed sufficiently for the gas to escape and it is the last and longest stage. Putrefaction is where the structures of the body break down. The digestive organs, the brain, and lungs are the first to disintegrate, under normal conditions, the organs are unidentifiable after three weeks. The muscles can be eaten by bacteria or devoured by animals, eventually, sometimes after several years, all that remains is the skeleton. In acid-rich soils, the skeleton will eventually dissolve into its base chemicals, the rate of decomposition depends on many factors including temperature and the environment. The warmer and more humid the environment, the faster the body is broken down, greek physicians Herophilus and Erasistratus were among the first on record to have dissected bodies. Andreas Vesalius, author of De humani corporis fabrica, who was able to dispel many misconceptions by dissecting human cadavers, is regarded as the father of human anatomy. The tradition of dissecting criminals was carried up into the eighteenth and nineteenth century when anatomy schools became popular in England and Scotland, at that time, a greater percentage of Christians believed in the literal raising from the dead. Because the souls of dissected bodies could not go to heaven, criminals who were executed for their crimes were used as the first cadavers. From the 16th century until 1832, and the passage of the Anatomy Act, the demand for cadavers increased when the number of criminals being executed decreased. Since corpses were in high demand, it became commonplace to steal bodies from graves in order to keep the market supplied. The methods of preserving cadavers have changed over the last 200 years, at that time, cadavers had to be used immediately because there were no adequate methods to keep the body from quickly decaying
20.
Saint
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A saint, also historically known as a hallow, is a term used for a person who is recognized as having an exceptional degree of holiness or likeness to God. Depending on the context and denomination, the term also retains its original Christian meaning, as any believer who is in Christ and in whom Christ dwells, whether in Heaven or on Earth. Depending on the religion, saints are recognized either by official ecclesiastical declaration, the English word saint comes from the Latin sanctus. The word translated the Greek ἅγιος, which derives from the verb ἁγιάζω, the word ἅγιος appears 229 times in the Greek New Testament, and its English translation 60 times in the corresponding text of the King James Version of the Bible. In the New Testament, saint did not denote the deceased who had recognized as especially holy or emulable. Many religions also use similar concepts to venerate persons worthy of some honor, the anthropologist Lawrence Babb in an article about Sathya Sai Baba asks the question Who is a saint. These saintly figures, he asserts, are the points of spiritual force-fields. They exert powerful attractive influence on followers but touch the lives of others in transforming ways as well. In the Bible, only one person is called a saint, They envied Moses also in the camp. The apostle Paul declared himself to be less than the least of all saints in Ephesians 3,8, in the Catholic Church, a saint is anyone in Heaven, whether recognized on Earth or not. There are many persons that the Church believes to be in Heaven who have not been formally canonized, sometimes the word saint also denotes living Christians. They remind us that the Church is holy, can never stop being holy and is called to show the holiness of God by living the life of Christ, the Catholic Church teaches that it does not make or create saints, but rather recognizes them. Proofs of heroicity required in the process of beatification will serve to illustrate in detail the general principles exposed above upon proof of their holiness or likeness to God. On 3 January 993, Pope John XV became the first pope to proclaim a person a saint, on the petition of the German ruler, before that time, the popular cults, or venerations, of saints had been local and spontaneous. Pope John XVIII subsequently permitted a cult of five Polish martyrs, walter of Pontoise was the last person in Western Europe to be canonized by an authority other than the Pope, Hugh de Boves, the Archbishop of Rouen, canonized him in 1153. Thenceforth a decree of Pope Alexander III in 1170 reserved the prerogative of canonization to the Pope, one source claims that there are over 10,000 named saints and beatified people from history, the Roman Martyrology and Orthodox sources, but no definitive head count. Alban Butler published Lives of the Saints in 1756, including a total of 1,486 saints, the latest revision of this book, edited by Rev. Herbert Thurston, SJ and British author Donald Attwater, contains the lives of 2,565 saints. Monsignor Robert Sarno, an official of the Congregation for the Causes of Saints of the Holy See, expressed that it is impossible to give an exact number of saints
21.
Medieval
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
22.
Byzantine art
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Byzantine art is the name for the artistic products of the Eastern Roman Empire, as well as the nations and states that inherited culturally from the empire. A number of states contemporary with the Byzantine Empire were culturally influenced by it, after the fall of the Byzantine capital of Constantinople in 1453, art produced by Eastern Orthodox Christians living in the Ottoman Empire was often called post-Byzantine. Byzantine art never lost sight of this classical heritage, the Byzantine capital, Constantinople, was adorned with a large number of classical sculptures, although they eventually became an object of some puzzlement for its inhabitants. And indeed, the art produced during the Byzantine Empire, although marked by periodic revivals of an aesthetic, was above all marked by the development of a new aesthetic. The most salient feature of new aesthetic was its abstract. The nature and causes of this transformation, which took place during late antiquity, have been a subject of scholarly debate for centuries. Giorgio Vasari attributed it to a decline in skills and standards. Although this point of view has been revived, most notably by Bernard Berenson. Alois Riegl and Josef Strzygowski, writing in the early 20th century, were all responsible for the revaluation of late antique art. Riegl saw it as a development of pre-existing tendencies in Roman art. In any case, the debate is purely modern, it is clear that most Byzantine viewers did not consider their art to be abstract or unnaturalistic, religious art was not, however, limited to the monumental decoration of church interiors. One of the most important genres of Byzantine art was the icon, an image of Christ, the illumination of manuscripts was another major genre of Byzantine art. The most commonly illustrated texts were religious, both scripture itself and devotional or theological texts, secular texts were also illuminated, important examples include the Alexander Romance and the history of John Skylitzes. Small ivories were also mostly in relief, Byzantine ceramics were relatively crude, as pottery was never used at the tables of the rich, who ate off silver. Two events were of importance to the development of a unique. First, the Edict of Milan, issued by the emperors Constantine I and Licinius in 313, allowed for public Christian worship, second, the dedication of Constantinople in 330 created a great new artistic centre for the eastern half of the Empire, and a specifically Christian one. Major Constantinopolitan churches built under Constantine and his son, Constantius II, included the foundations of Hagia Sophia. The next major building campaign in Constantinople was sponsored by Theodosius I, the most important surviving monument of this period is the obelisk and base erected by Theodosius in the Hippodrome
23.
Princess
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Princess is a regal rank and the feminine equivalent of prince. Most often, the term has been used for the consort of a prince or for the daughters of a king or sovereign prince, some princesses are reigning monarchs of principalities. There have been instances of reigning princesses than reigning princes. Examples of princesses regnant have included Constance of Antioch, princess regnant of Antioch in the 12th century, as the President of France, an office for which women are eligible, is ex-officio co-Prince of Andorra, Andorra could theoretically be ruled by a co-Princess. For many centuries, the princess was not regularly used for a monarchs daughter. Old English had no equivalent of prince, earl, or any royal or noble title aside from queen. Royal women were addressed or referred to as The Lady. For example, Elizabeth and Mary, daughters of Henry VIII of England were often referred to as the Ladies Elizabeth. This practice, however, was not consistent, in the marriage contract between Prince George of Denmark and Anne, daughter of James I of Great Britain, Anne is referred to as The Princess Anne. Practice in Britain began to change in the 18th century, queen Victoria confirmed this practice in Letters Patent dated 30 January 1864. In European countries, a woman who marries a prince will almost always become a princess, from 1301 onward, the eldest sons of the Kings of England have generally been created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester, and their wives have been titled Princess of Wales. This has so far applied to Diana, Princess of Wales and Sarah, Duchess of York
24.
Louis Victor, Prince of Carignan
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Louis Victor of Savoy headed a French cadet branch of the Italian dynasty which reigned over the Kingdom of Sardinia, being known as the Prince of Carignano from 1741 till his death. Louis Victor was born at the Hôtel de Soissons, the Parisian home of his ancestor Marie de Bourbon, to Victor Amadeus I, Prince of Carignano and his wife Maria Vittoria of Savoy. His father was a grandson of Thomas Francis, Prince of Carignano and thus a descendant of Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy and Infanta Catherine Michelle of Spain. He was doubly descended from the pair, as his mother was a legitimated daughter of Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia. One of five children, he was the son of his parents, his older brother Joseph Victor had died in 1716. Louis Victor was thus heir to the branch of the House of Savoy-Carignano from birth. His older sister Anne Thérèse married the Frenchman Charles de Rohan and was Princess de Soubise by marriage and he later moved to Piedmont, between Turin and Racconigi. On 4 May 1740 Louis Victor married the Landgravine Christine of Hesse-Rotenburg, in 1741, Louis Victors father died and he became the Prince of Carignano. Louis Victor lost his wife in September,1778 and died himself on 16 December 1778 at the Palazzo Carignano, since 1835 his wifes grave has been in Turins Basilica of Superga, as is that of Louis Victor
25.
Christine of Hesse-Rotenburg
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Christine of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rotenburg was a princess of the German dynasty of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rotenburg. She was the Princess of Carignan by marriage and mother of the princesse de Lamballe and of Victor Amadeus II and her older sister Polyxena was married in 1730 to the future Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia and had issue. Another sister, Caroline was the wife of the French Prime Minister, Louis Henri, the Carignans were a cadet branch of the House of Savoy, would inherit from them the kingship of Sardinia, and would be declared kings of Italy from 1861. Christine married Louis Victor on 4 May 1740 at the age of 22, the next year her husband succeeded to the title Prince de Carignan, the seigneury of Carignan having belonged to the Savoys since 1418. Christines second child, born at the Palazzo Carignano, was named Victor Amadeus and was the great-grandfather of the future Victor Emmanuel II of Italy and her fifth daughter was her most famous, Louise, princesse de Lamballe, the tragic best friend of Marie Antoinette. Christine died at the Palazzo Carignano in Turin on the night of 31 August –1 September 1778, buried firstly at Turin Cathedral, she was moved in 1835 to Turins Basilica of Superga. She was born the 24th November,1717
26.
Portrait of Innocent X
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Portrait of Pope Innocent X is an oil on canvas portrait by the Spanish painter Diego Velázquez, executed during a trip to Italy around 1650. Many artists and art critics consider it the finest portrait ever created and it is housed in the Galleria Doria Pamphilj in Rome. A smaller version is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, the painting is noted for its realism, in that it is an unflinching portrait of a highly intelligent, shrewd but aging man. He is dressed in vestments, and the quality of the work is evident in the rich reds of his upper clothing, head-dress. The pope, born Giovanni Battista Pamphilj, was wary of having his portrait taken by Velázquez. A contributing factor for this advancement in the painters career was that he had already depicted a number of members of Pamphiljs inner court. Yet the pope remained wary and cautious, and the painting was displayed to only his immediate family. The parchment held by the pope contains Velázquezs signature, the portrait was painted during Velázquezs second voyage to Italy, between 1649 and 1651. The Popes vestments being of light linen, it was painted during the summer. Velázquez included his signature on the paper the Pope is holding, there are two versions of the story of how Velázquez came to paint the portrait. According to one of them, while visiting the Vatican City, Velázquez and he offered to paint a portrait of the Pope, but Innocent X doubted, mistrusting Velázquezs fame. Hence, he asked Veláquez to offer proof of his painting skills. It would have been then that Velázquez painted the portrait of his servant Juan de Pareja, once the Pope saw the portrait of Juan de Pareja, he allowed Velázquez to paint the portrait. Apparently, when the Pope saw the portrait, he exclaimed, somewhat disconcerted. Though he was not able to deny the quality of the portrait as a masterpiece. The portrait was kept at private display by Innocents family, the Pamphilj, french historian Hippolyte Taine considered the portrait as the masterpiece amongst all portraits and said that once it has been seen, it is impossible to forget. The art dealer René Gimpel noted in his diary in 1923 Morgan would have offered a million dollars for it and that face is a whirlpool of flesh, and blood, and life, the eyes are searching. The Irish-born painter Francis Bacon painted a series of distorted variants often known as the Screaming Popes, the picture was described by Gilles Deleuze as an example of creative re-interpretation of the classical
27.
Despotism
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Despotism is a form of government in which a single entity rules with absolute power. That entity may be an individual, as in an autocracy, or it may be a group, the English dictionary defines despotism as the rule of a despot, the exercise of absolute authority. The root despot comes from the Greek word despotes, which means master or one with power, the term has been used to describe many rulers and governments throughout history. Due to its reflexive connotation throughout history, the word despot cannot be objectively defined, colloquially, the word despot applies pejoratively to those who abuse their power and authority to oppress their populace, subjects, or subordinates. More specifically, the term applies to a head of state or government. In this sense, it is similar to the connotations that are associated with the terms tyrant. Of all the ancient Greeks, Aristotle was perhaps the most influential promoter of the concept of oriental despotism. He passed this ideology to his student, Alexander the Great, who conquered Persia, which at the time was ruled by the despotic Darius III, Aristotle asserted that oriental despotism was not based on force, but on consent. Hence, fear could not be said to be its motivating force, but rather the nature of those enslaved. Within ancient Greek society, every Greek man was free and capable of holding office, in contrast, among the barbarians, all were slaves by nature. Another difference Aristotle espoused was based on climates, possessing both spirit and intelligence, the Greeks were free to govern all other peoples. The story of Croesus of Lydia exemplifies this, leading up to Alexanders expansion into Asia, most Greeks were repelled by the Oriental notion of a sun-king, and the divine law that Oriental societies accepted. Herodotuss version of history advocated a society where men became free when they consented lawfully to the contract of their respective city-state. His eyebrows were tinged with black, and his cheeks painted with an artificial red, in its classical form, despotism is a state in which a single individual holds all the power and authority embodying the state, and everyone else is a subsidiary person. This form of despotism was common in the first forms of statehood and civilization, the word itself seems to have been coined by the opponents of Louis XIV of France in the 1690s, who applied the term despotisme to describe their monarchs somewhat free exercise of power. The word is ultimately Greek in origin, and in ancient Greek usage, the term now implies tyrannical rule. This movement was probably triggered by the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment. The Enlightenment philosopher Montesquieu believed that despotism was a government for large states
28.
Holy Year
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In Judaism and Christianity, the concept of the Jubilee is a special year of remission of sins and universal pardon. Christian Jubilees, particularly in the Latin Church, generally involve pilgrimage to a sacred site, the Catholic Church has declared the Extraordinary Jubilee of Mercy for 2015–2016. In Jewish tradition, the year of Jubilee was a time of joy, leviticus 25,10 reads, Thou shalt sanctify the fiftieth year, and shalt proclaim remission to all the inhabitants of thy land, for it is the year of jubilee. The same concept forms the fundamental idea of the Christian Jubilee, the number 50 was specially associated in the early 13th century with the idea of remission. The translation of the body of Thomas Becket took place in the year 1220,50 years after his martyrdom, in Roman Catholic tradition, a Jubilee or Holy Year is a year of forgiveness of sins and also the punishment due to sin. A Jubilee can be if it falls after the set period of years. In the face of suffering, caused by wars and diseases such as the plague thousands of pilgrims came to Rome at Christmas in 1299. The word jubilee does not occur in the bull, Boniface VIII had intended that the Jubilee should be celebrated only once in a hundred years. Before the middle of the 14th century, Bridget of Sweden, in 1343, Clement VI assented, and set the time frame for every 50 years. In 1350, a Jubilee was held, and although the pope did not return to Rome, on this occasion, daily visits to the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran were enjoined, besides those to the basilicas of St. Peter and St. Paul outside the Walls. Urban VI reduced the period to 33 years and at the next Jubilee, in 1390. The visit to these four churches has remained as one of the conditions for gaining the Roman Jubilee indulgence, in 1400, so many people came to Rome, Pope Boniface IX granted the indulgence again, though he had not decreed a Jubilee year previously. Paul also permitted foreigners to visit some specified church in their own country, philip Neri, was the most famous. In 1500, Pope Alexander VI announced that the doors in the four major basilicas would be opened simultaneously, and this act definitively ushered in several customs. The 1550 Jubilee was proclaimed by Pope Paul III, but Pope Julius III actually opened it, in 1575, in the time of Pope Gregory XIII, as many as 300,000 people came to Rome from all over Europe. The following Holy Year was proclaimed by Pope Clement VIII in 1600, in 1625, Pope Urban VIII opened the ceremonial doors for the Jubilee year. He then went on to declare a universal or extraordinary jubilee in 1628 to pray for peace and this was repeated the next year in 1629, and brought undoubted material benefits to the city. Finally, Innocent X oversaw the last of his jubilees in 1650, Pope Clement X presided over that of 1675
29.
Olimpia Maidalchini
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Olimpia Maidalchini Pamphilj, was the sister-in-law of Pope Innocent X. She was perceived by her contemporaries as having influence regarding papal appointments, Maidalchini was born in Viterbo, the eldest of three daughters of Sforza Maidalchini, a condottiere, and Vittoria Gualterio, patrician of Orvieto and Rome. Vittoria was a noble of Viterbo, the daughter of Giulio Gualterio and her family was only moderately wealthy. Olimpia refused, and in 1608 married Paolo Nini, one of the wealthiest men in Viterbo and their two children both died in infancy and Nini himself died in 1611 at the age of twenty-three. Her second marriage was to Pamphilio Pamphili, elder brother of Cardinal Giambattista Pamphili, the Cardinal had been appointed nuncio to the Kingdom of Naples, and Pamphilio and his wife joined him, living in a home adjacent to the nunciature. Their son, Camillo Francesco Maria Pamphili was born in Naples on 21 February 1622, the separate wings of the palace accommodated both the cardinals court and the residence for the eldests family. In September 1644 Cardinal Pamphilj was elected pope, taking the name Innocent X, as a pope generally found the curial bureaucracy occupied by entrenched appointees of his predecessor, it was common practice to appoint a trusted relative to oversee the administration. Soon after his election, Innocent elevated his late brothers son, however, on 21 January 1647, Camillo renounced the cardinalate to marry Olimpia Aldobrandini, the grand-niece of Pope Clement VIII and widow of Paolo Borghese, on 10 February. Innocent then appointed seventeen year old Francesco Maidalchini to the now reduced office of Cardinal-nephew, Francesco was the son of Andrea Maidalchini, Olimpias brother. Olimpia apparently attempted to influence her nephews decisions, however, he proved so incompetent that in 1650 Innocent X sought a replacement, Camillo Astalli belonged to a noble but relatively poor family from Sambuci. He is often mentioned as a cousin of Olimpia Maidalchini, the connection is through the marriage of his brother to Olimpias niece, Catherine Maidalchini Tiberius. Asalli studied at the Roman College and in 1640 graduated from the Sapienza with a doctorate in civil and he then began a career as a consistorial lawyer. Olimpia was apparently instrumental in obtaining an appointment for Astalli as secretary to the Secretary of State, when Francesco Maidalchini proved to be a failure as Cardinal-nephew, Innocent sought the advice of his Cardinal Secretary of State, and Cardinal Panciroli suggested Astalli. Astalli was elevated to Cardinal on 19 September 1650 by the Pope, Innocent also presented him with a substantial income, the Palazzo Pamphili in Piazza Navona and the villa outside the Porta San Pancrazio. The popes generosity, however, provoked the ire of the Pamphilj family, especially Donna Olimpia, Panciroli and Astalli incurred their unrelenting hostility. Plagued with constant attacks and ill health, Panciroli died 3 September 1651, faced with the hostility of Donna Olimpia and the Pamphiljs Astalli sought a new patron in King Philip IV of Spain. Cardinal Decio Azzolino was assistant to Panciroli, Olimpia Maidalchini acted as his patron, Azzolino managed the Secretariat until the return from Germany of Bishop Fabio Chigi, who was named Secretary of State in December. Azzolino was also a skilled cryptographer and investigator, when the Kingdom of Naples was made aware of invasion plans by Henry II, Duke of Guise, Azzolino concluded in February 1654, that the breach must have come from the Cardinal-nephew Astalli
30.
Gian Lorenzo Bernini
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Gian Lorenzo Bernini was an Italian sculptor and architect. While a major figure in the world of architecture, he was the sculptor of his age. Bernini was also a figure in the emergence of Roman Baroque architecture along with his contemporaries, the architect Francesco Borromini. Early in their careers they had all worked at the time at the Palazzo Barberini, initially under Carlo Maderno and, following his death. Later on, however, they were in competition for commissions, Peters Basilica, completed under Pope Paul V with the addition of Madernos nave and facade and finally re-consecrated by Pope Urban VIII on 18 November 1626, after 150 years of planning and building. Berninis design of the Piazza San Pietro in front of the Basilica is one of his most innovative, during his long career, Bernini received numerous important commissions, many of which were associated with the papacy. At an early age, he came to the attention of the nephew, Cardinal Scipione Borghese. Although he did not fare so well during the reign of Innocent X, under Alexander VII, he again regained pre-eminent artistic domination. Bernini and other artists fell from favor in later neoclassical criticism of the Baroque, the art historian Howard Hibbard concludes that, during the seventeenth century, there were no sculptors or architects comparable to Bernini. Bernini was born in Naples in 1598 to Angelica Galante and Mannerist sculptor Pietro Bernini and he was the sixth of their thirteen children. Gianlorenzo Bernini was the definition of childhood genius and he was “recognized as a prodigy when he was only eight years old, he was consistently encouraged by his father, Pietro. His precocity earned him the admiration and favor of powerful patrons who hailed him as ‘the Michelangelo of his century’” and his father was so impressed by his son’s obvious talent that he took him to Rome to showcase him to the cardinals and Pope. Bernini was presented before Pope Paul V, for whom he did a sketch of Saint Paul, once he was brought to Rome, he never left. “For Bernini there could be only one Rome, ‘You are made for Rome, ’ said Pope Urban VIII to him, ‘and Rome for you’”. It was in world of 17th century Rome and religious power. Under the patronage of the wealthy and most powerful Cardinal Scipione Borghese. By the time he was twenty-two, he was considered talented enough to have given a commission for a papal portrait. Berninis reputation, however, was established by four masterpieces
31.
Cardinal (Catholicism)
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A cardinal is a senior ecclesiastical leader, considered a Prince of the Church, and usually an ordained bishop of the Roman Catholic Church. The cardinals of the Church are collectively known as the College of Cardinals, the duties of the cardinals include attending the meetings of the College and making themselves available individually or in groups to the Pope as requested. Most have additional duties, such as leading a diocese or archdiocese or managing a department of the Roman Curia, a cardinals primary duty is electing the pope when the see becomes vacant. During the sede vacante, the governance of the Holy See is in the hands of the College of Cardinals. The right to enter the conclave of cardinals where the pope is elected is limited to those who have not reached the age of 80 years by the day the vacancy occurs. In 1059, the right of electing the pope was reserved to the clergy of Rome. The term was applied in this sense as early as the century to the priests of the tituli of the diocese of Rome. The Church of England retains an instance of this origin of the title, which is held by the two senior members of the College of Minor Canons of St Pauls Cathedral. In Rome the first persons to be called cardinals were the deacons of the seven regions of the city at the beginning of the 6th century, when the word began to mean principal, eminent, or superior. The name was given to the senior priest in each of the title churches of Rome. By the 8th century the Roman cardinals constituted a class among the Roman clergy. They took part in the administration of the church of Rome, by decree of a synod of 769, only a cardinal was eligible to become pope. In 1059, during the pontificate of Nicholas II, cardinals were given the right to elect the pope under the Papal Bull In nomine Domini. For a time this power was assigned exclusively to the cardinal bishops, Cardinals were granted the privilege of wearing the red hat by Pope Innocent IV in 1244. In cities other than Rome, the name began to be applied to certain church men as a mark of honour. This meaning of the word spread rapidly, and from the 9th century various episcopal cities had a class among the clergy known as cardinals. The use of the title was reserved for the cardinals of Rome in 1567 by Pius V, in the year 1563 the influential Ecumenical Council of Trent, headed by Pope Pius IV, wrote about the importance of selecting good Cardinals. The earlier influence of temporal rulers, notably the French kings, in early modern times, cardinals often had important roles in secular affairs
32.
Olimpia Borghese
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Olimpia Aldobrandini was a member of the Aldobrandini family of Rome, and the sole heiress to the family fortune. Donna Olimpia Aldobrandini was born 20 April 1623, the daughter of Giorgio Aldobrandini, in 1638, she married Prince Paolo Borghese of the Borghese family who died in 1646. The following year, in 1647, she married Camillo Pamphili who renounced a cardinalate to become her husband and these estates and property thus passed to the Pamphili family and became the nucleus for the Galleria Doria Pamphilj. Aldobrandini and Camillo Pamphili had five children including Giovan Battista Pamphili, Benedetto Pamphili, when the Roman branch of the Pamphlili family ended in 1760, it was the descendants of Anna and Giovanni who inherited the palazzo in Rome. Children with Prince Borghese, Giovanni Giorgio Borghese Camillo Borghese Francesco Borghese Giovanni Battista Borghese, maria Virginia Borghese married Agostino Chigi, Prince of Farnese, Duke of Ariccia and had issue. Children with Pamphili, Flaminia Pamphili married Bernardino Savelli, Duke of Castelgandolfo and had no children, married Niccolo Francesco Pallavicini, teresa Pamphili married Carlo II Cybo-Malaspina, Duke of Massa and had children. Anna Pamphili married Giannandrea Doria, Prince of Melfi and founded the Doria-Pamphili-Landi line
33.
Convent
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A convent is either a community of priests, religious brothers or religious sisters, or the building used by the community, particularly in the Roman Catholic Church and in the Anglican Communion. The term derives via Old French from Latin conventus, perfect participle of the verb convenio, meaning to convene, the original reference was to the gathering of mendicants who spent much of their time travelling. Technically, a monastery or nunnery is a community of monastics, whereas a friary or convent is a community of mendicants, and a canonry a community of canons regular. The terms abbey and priory can be applied to both monasteries and canonries, an abbey is headed by an Abbot, and a priory is a dependent house headed by a Prior. In English usage since about the 19th century the term convent almost invariably refers to a community of women, in historical usage they are often interchangeable, with convent especially likely to be used for a friary. When applied to houses in Eastern Orthodoxy and Buddhism, English refers to all houses of male religious as monasteries. Christian monasticism Enclosed religious orders Herbermann, Charles, ed. Convent, carmelite Monastery of the Sacred Hearts —- an example of a modern-day convent Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Convent
34.
Jesuits
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The Society of Jesus Latin, Societas Iesu, S. J. SJ or SI) is a religious congregation of the Catholic Church which originated in Spain. The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents, Jesuits work in education, intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, and promote social justice, Ignatius of Loyola founded the society after being wounded in battle and experiencing a religious conversion. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ, ignatiuss plan of the orders organization was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by a bull containing the Formula of the Institute. Ignatius was a nobleman who had a background, and the members of the society were supposed to accept orders anywhere in the world. The Society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council, the Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General. The Society of Jesus on October 3,2016 announced that Superior General Adolfo Nicolás resignation was officially accepted, on October 14, the 36th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus elected Father Arturo Sosa as its thirty-first Superior General. The headquarters of the society, its General Curia, is in Rome, the historic curia of St. Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit Mother Church. In 2013, Jorge Mario Bergoglio became the first Jesuit Pope, the Jesuits today form the largest single religious order of priests and brothers in the Catholic Church. As of 1 January 2015, Jesuits numbered 16,740,11,986 clerics regular,2,733 scholastics,1,268 brothers and 753 novices. In 2012, Mark Raper S. J. wrote, Our numbers have been in decline for the last 40 years—from over 30,000 in the 1960s to fewer than 18,000 today. The steep declines in Europe and North America and consistent decline in Latin America have not been offset by the significant increase in South Asia, the Society is divided into 83 Provinces with six Independent Regions and ten Dependent Regions. On 1 January 2007, members served in 112 nations on six continents with the largest number in India and their average age was 57.3 years,63.4 years for priests,29.9 years for scholastics, and 65.5 years for brothers. The current Superior General of the Jesuits is Arturo Sosa, the Society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably, higher education. It operates colleges and universities in countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines. In the United States it maintains 28 colleges and universities and 58 high schools and he ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550. The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life and apostolate of the new religious order, the meeting is now commemorated in the Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre
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Collegio Romano
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The Roman College was a school established by St. Ignatius of Loyola in 1551, just 17 years after he founded the Society of Jesus. It quickly grew to include classes from school through university level. It moved to different locations to accommodate its growing student population. The college, renamed Gregorian University in 1584 after its benefactor, since then the Gregorian University has occupied new quarters, but the buildings on this full square block memorialize the early commitment of the Society of Jesus to education. With the burgeoning student population the Jesuits in 1626 replaced the chapel of the Annunziata with the church of St. Ignatius on the premises, in 1787 the college added an observatory that became preeminent. With the Capture of Rome in 1870, the building was taken over by the Italian government, currently, its eastern wing houses the headquarters of the Ministry of Heritage and Culture and the wing that overlooks the square is home to the high school Ennio Quirino Visconti. The first university founded by the Jesuits was the College of Messina in 1548, the funding came from Francis Borgia, 4th Duke of Gandía. He had been a member of the Society of Jesus since 1548 but secretly, he retained his rank while attending to his obligations. In 1551 the Collegio Romano was a small, rented building at the base of the Capitoline Hill, polanco wrote of teaching Latin and Greek and later Hebrew, Christian doctrine is taught. Above the door of the school a sign says, a school of grammar, humanism. Jesuits were the first pupils, Edmond Auger, Emmanuel Gomez, John Egnazi, within its first year the building could not accommodate the influx of students and Ignatius sought a larger facility. Without leaving the center of Rome, in September 1551 he rented a building on Via del Gesù behind the ancient church of Santo Stefano del Cacco and this second home of the Roman College was called the House of Frangipani after the famous family which owned it. This then was the home of the Roman College. Despite the cost, Ignatius wanted to begin teaching philosophy and theology in the school year 1553–1554 and this increased the student body, both of Jesuits and externs. At this time also Ignatius founded the print shop which over the years introduced new typefaces, the Roman College was here for only four years when it became too small for the growing number of students and larger premises were sought. The building was demolished when Salviati built the new Roman College, in 1560, Vittoria della Tolfa, Marchesa della Valle, a relative of Paul IV, donated an entire city block and its existing buildings to the Society of Jesus. This remained the site of the Roman College until the takeover of its buildings by the Italian government in 1870, Ignatius of Loyola had died on 31 July 1556 and was succeeded by Fr. James P. Laynez, a companion of Ignatius and a papal theologian during the three periods of the Council of Trent
36.
Gabriele Valvassori
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Gabriele Valvassori was an Italian architect of the late-Baroque period, mainly active in his native city of Rome. In Rome, he was patronized by the Pamphilj family, helping design the altar in the church of SantAgnese in Agone. In the 1730s, he helped in the designs of the Palazzo Doria-Pamphili, the complex we see today had expanded laterally from the palace at the site once owned by the Della Rovere and Aldobrandini families. Initial designs by Carlo Maderno, were amplified by Antonio del Grande and added to by Carlo Fontana, Valvassori is responsible for the massive façade on the Via del Corso. For the Archiconfraternity of Padri Bergamaschi, from 1729 to 1735, he helped develop their property on Piazza Colonna and he aided in the restoration and remodeling of the Dominican church of Santi Quirico e Giulitta, in Rome. He designed the façade of Santa Maria dellOrto, in 1737, he became a member of the Accademia di San Luca and professor in 1758. He became a regent of the Congregazione dei Virtuosi al Pantheon
37.
Baroque
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The style began around 1600 in Rome and Italy, and spread to most of Europe. The aristocracy viewed the dramatic style of Baroque art and architecture as a means of impressing visitors by projecting triumph, power, Baroque palaces are built around an entrance of courts, grand staircases, and reception rooms of sequentially increasing opulence. However, baroque has a resonance and application that extend beyond a reduction to either a style or period. It is also yields the Italian barocco and modern Spanish barroco, German Barock, Dutch Barok, others derive it from the mnemonic term Baroco, a supposedly laboured form of syllogism in logical Scholastica. The Latin root can be found in bis-roca, in informal usage, the word baroque can simply mean that something is elaborate, with many details, without reference to the Baroque styles of the 17th and 18th centuries. The word Baroque, like most periodic or stylistic designations, was invented by later critics rather than practitioners of the arts in the 17th, the term Baroque was initially used in a derogatory sense, to underline the excesses of its emphasis. In particular, the term was used to describe its eccentric redundancy and noisy abundance of details, although it was long thought that the word as a critical term was first applied to architecture, in fact it appears earlier in reference to music. Another hypothesis says that the word comes from precursors of the style, Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola and he did not make the distinctions between Mannerism and Baroque that modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century. Long despised, Baroque art and architecture became fashionable between the two World Wars, and has remained in critical favour. In painting the gradual rise in popular esteem of Caravaggio has been the best barometer of modern taste, William Watson describes a late phase of Shang-dynasty Chinese ritual bronzes of the 11th century BC as baroque. The term Baroque may still be used, usually pejoratively, describing works of art, craft, the appeal of Baroque style turned consciously from the witty, intellectual qualities of 16th-century Mannerist art to a visceral appeal aimed at the senses. It employed an iconography that was direct, simple, obvious, germinal ideas of the Baroque can also be found in the work of Michelangelo. Even more generalised parallels perceived by some experts in philosophy, prose style, see the Neapolitan palace of Caserta, a Baroque palace whose construction began in 1752. In paintings Baroque gestures are broader than Mannerist gestures, less ambiguous, less arcane and mysterious, more like the stage gestures of opera, Baroque poses depend on contrapposto, the tension within the figures that move the planes of shoulders and hips in counterdirections. Baroque is a style of unity imposed upon rich, heavy detail, Baroque style featured exaggerated lighting, intense emotions, release from restraint, and even a kind of artistic sensationalism. There were highly diverse strands of Italian baroque painting, from Caravaggio to Cortona, the most prominent Spanish painter of the Baroque was Diego Velázquez. The later Baroque style gradually gave way to a more decorative Rococo, while the Baroque nature of Rembrandts art is clear, the label is less often used for Vermeer and many other Dutch artists. Flemish Baroque painting shared a part in this trend, while continuing to produce the traditional categories
38.
General public
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In public relations and communication science, publics are groups of individual people, and the public is the totality of such groupings. This is a different concept to the concept of the Öffentlichkeit or public sphere. The concept of a public has also defined in political science, psychology, marketing. In public relations and communication science, it is one of the more ambiguous concepts in the field, the name public originates with the Latin publicus, from populus, and in general denotes some mass population in association with some matter of common interest. So in political science and history, a public is a population of individuals in association with civic affairs, in social psychology, marketing, and public relations, a public has a more situational definition. John Dewey defined a public as a group of people who, in facing a problem, recognize it. Deweys definition of a public is thus situational, people organized about a situation, built upon this situational definition of a public is the situational theory of publics by James E. Grunig, which talks of nonpublics, latent publics, aware publics, and active publics. In public relations and communication theory, a public is distinct from a stakeholder or a market, a public is a subset of the set of stakeholders for an organization, that comprises those people concerned with a specific issue. Publics are targeted by public relations efforts, the public is often targeted especially in regard to political agendas as their vote is necessary in order to further the progression of the cause. As seen in Massachusetts between 2003 and 2004, it was necessary to win a critical mass of states and a mass of public support in order to get same-sex marriage passed in the commonwealth. Public schools are often under controversy for their agenda-building, especially in debates over whether to teach a religious or secular curriculum, the promotion of an agenda is commonplace whenever one is in a public environment, but schools have exceptional power in that regard. In the public system, it is the responsibility of those within the system to determine what agenda is being promoted. He argued the concept should also be seen in the light of a principle, beyond a critic. In accordance, the public may be regarded as the result of the social activities made by individuals sharing symbolic representations, seen with lower-case, the concept is a set of subjectivities who look publicly for a feeling of belonging. So, in perspective, the public is still a fundamental notion to social life although in a different manner in comparison to 18th century Public Spheres Public. He means above all the textures and configurations where successive layers of social experience are built up. The general public also sets social norms which causes people to themselves in socially acceptable manners. Social publics are groups of people united by common ideas, ideology or hobbies, communications behaviours and attitudes of environmental publics, Two studies
39.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
40.
Frank Pogson
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The House of Doria-Pamphili-Landi is a princely Roman family of Genoese extraction. Legend has that the origins of the Doria family date from the early 11th century, the descent of the several Doria lines in Genoa is well-known and appears described in Natale Battilanas 19th century genealogical study of old Genoese families. Admiral Andrea Doria was descended from a Doria di Oneglia, Genoese soldier Aitone Doria who fought for the French at the battle of Crécy. One of the most famous members of the family was Andrea Doria, perpetual censor of Genoa in 1528 and admiral to the emperor Charles V and these titles were inherited by Gian Andrea Doria, son of Giannettino Doria who was a second cousin and adopted son of Andrea Doria. Giannettino Doria was killed in 1547 during the Fieschi conspiracy against the power of Andrea Doria over Genoa, another famous member of the family was Cardinal Giovanni Battista Pamphilj, who rose to the Papacy as Pope Innocent X. They had already incorporated by marriage the wealthy inheritance of the Landi family, the Palazzo Doria Pamphili in Rome was built in the 17th century, and contains one of the most valuable private collections of paintings in the world, the Doria Pamphilj Gallery. The Villa Doria Pamphili was, during the siege of 1849 Giuseppe Garibaldis headquarters, Prince Filippo Andrea VI Doria Pamphili, a staunch anti-Fascist, in 1944 became the first mayor of Rome following its liberation by the Allies. Princess Orietta Doria-Pamphili-Landi, the last of the line, married Royal Navy Commander Frank George Wignall Pogson in London in 1958 and he changed his name to Frank George Wignall Pogson Doria Pamphilj by deed poll. After the reforms of the Second Vatican Council in the 1960s, Princess Orietta and her husband, in 2000, Queen Elizabeth II visited Rome and attended the Anglican Centre, which is housed in the Palazzo Doria Pamphilj. Jonathan Doria Pamphilj formed a partnership with Elson Edeno Braga. The ability of Jonathan Pamphiljs children to inherit, after his death, was called into question in October 2009, in 2010 a court in Rome declined to hear the case. N. Battilana, Famiglia Doria in Genealogia delle Famiglie Nobili di Genova,1827, official Web Site, English version The Peerage website Obituary in The Telegraph
41.
Palazzo Colonna
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The Palazzo Colonna is a palatial block of buildings in central Rome, Italy, at the base of the Quirinal Hill, and adjacent to the church of Santi Apostoli. It is built in part over ruins of an old Roman Serapeum, the first part of the palace dates from the 13th century, and tradition holds that the building hosted Dante in his visit to Rome. The first documentary mention notes that the property hosted Cardinal Giovanni and it was also home to Cardinal Oddone Colonna before he ascended to the papacy as Martin V. With his passing, the palace was sacked during feuds, and it returned to the Colonna family when Marcantonio I Colonna married Lucrezia Gara Franciotti Della Rovere, the niece of pope Julius II. The Colonnas alliance to the Habsburg power, likely protected the palace from looting during the Sack of Rome, starting with Filippo Colonna many changes have refurbished and create a unitary complex around a central garden. Architects including Girolamo Rainaldi and Paolo Marucelli labored on specific projects, only in the 17th and 18th centuries were the main facades completed, one facing Piazza SS. Apostoli and the other Via della Pilotta, much of this design was completed by Antonio del Grande, and Girolamo Fontana. Ceiling frescoes by Filippo Gherardi, Giovanni Coli, Sebastiano Ricci, an Apotheosis of Martin V was painted by Benedetto Luti. There are frescoed apartments completed after 1664 by Crescenzio Onofri, Gaspard Dughet, other rooms were frescoed in the 18th century by Pompeo Batoni and Pietro Bianchi. The gallery is open to the public on Saturday mornings, featuring guided tours in English at 11.45 a. m. It contains a collection of landscapes and genre scenes by painters like Gaspard Dughet, Caspar Van Wittel, along with the possessions of the Doria-Pamphilij and Pallavacini-Rospigliosi families, this is one of the largest private art collections in Rome. Rome Art Lover site Galleria Colonna website
42.
Palazzo Pallavicini-Rospigliosi
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The Palazzo Pallavicini-Rospigliosi is a palace in Rome, Italy. Its first inhabitant was the art collector Cardinal Scipione Borghese, the nephew of Pope Paul V. The palace and garden of the Pallavicini-Rospigliosi were the product of the sites and were designed by Giorgio Vasanzio. Scipione owned this site for less than a decade, 1610–16, the Roman palace of this name should not be mistaken for the panoramic Villa Pallavicino on the shores of Lake Como in Lombardy. The palaces main attraction, beside the art gallery, is the Casino dellAurora, the casino was designed by Vasanzio is located overlooking the Piazza del Quirinale. On the walls are four frescoes of the Seasons by Paul Bril and its ceiling displays what is considered the Bolognese painter Guido Renis fresco masterpiece, commonly called LAurora. It is surrounded by a frame or quadro riportato and depicts Apollo in his Chariot preceded by Dawn bringing light to the world. The incorporated heraldic symbols were meant to link Scipione with Apollo, the work is classically restrained and mimics poses from ancient Roman sarcophagi, many of which are part of the museums collection. The chariot procession, which recalls the Annibale Carracci paintings in the Farnese Gallery in the Farnese Palace, the pergolata is decorated by Paul Bril. The architect Vasanzio succeeded in achieving a balance between the architectural structure and the lavish decoration of the façade. It is characterised by slabs from Roman sarcophagi of the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, which recount ancient mythological tales linked to the subject of love-death and the immortality of the soul. Later the site was sold to Giovanni Angelo Altemps for the sum of 115,000 scudi with the Reni Aurora fresco valued at 200 scudi and it was then sold to the Bentivoglio family, followeed by the Lante family, and then to Cardinal G. Mazarini. It is during the ownership by these families and individuals that the building of the palace took its final shape. The palace served as the French embassy in Rome prior before it moved to its more spacious current accommodation at the Palazzo Farnese. In 1704, the became a property of the Rospigliosi-Pallavicini family, who still own it. The casino is rented out for meetings, the art gallery, the Galleria Pallavicini, was begun by Cardinal Lazzaro Pallavicini, and includes more than 540 paintings, designs and sculptures. Aside from the collections of the Doria-Pamphili and Colonna families, this is the largest private collection in Rome, the rooms are frescoed by Paul Brill, and a loggia in a garden is decorated with frescoes by Orazio Gentileschi and Agostino Tassi. Among the paintings remain in the collection, following some sales and losses in previous centuries, are works by artists such as
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Carlo Fontana
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Carlo Fontana was an Italian architect originating from todays Canton Ticino, who was in part responsible for the classicizing direction taken by Late Baroque Roman architecture. There seems to be no proof that he belonged to the family of architects of the same name. Born in Brusato, near Como, Fontana went to Rome before 1655 and he became a draughtsman for the architectural plans of Pietro da Cortona, Carlo Rainaldi, and Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Bernini employed him for nearly a decade in diverse projects and his first independent project may be the church of San Biagio in Campitelli, completed by 1665. His façade at San Marcello al Corso is described as one of his most successful works. Among his other works were the designs for a Jesuit complex in Azpeitia, Spain, in the village of Loyola where Saint Ignatius of Loyola. This grandiose basilica was an influence upon baroque architecture of the New World. Fontana was an able artist and a designer, but lacked the innovation that characterized early Baroque architects like Cortona. In addition, he was successful as an architect than as a writer. By order of Innocent XI he wrote a historical description of the Templum Vaticanum. Fontana made a calculation of the expense of St. Peters from the beginning to 1694. He also published works on the Colosseum, the Aqueducts, the inundation of the Tiber, furthermore, twenty seven manuscript volumes of his writings and sketches are preserved in the Royal Library at Windsor. Fontana was principe of the Accademia di San Luca in 1686, fontanas studio was one of the most prolific in Europe, its designs for fountains, tombs, and altars were often imitated or reproduced abroad. Other Fontana pupils include Giovan Battista Contini and Carlo Francesco Bizzaccheri, rebuilding and refurbishing, with Francesco Borromini and others Palazzo Montecitorio, the headquarters of the Camera dei Deputati of the Italian government since 1871. Façade of the church of San Marcello al Corso, the conventional scrolls that ordinarily flank the upper central section are appropriately replaced with the martyrs palms. Church of Santa Maria dei Miracoli, in collaboration with Gian Lorenzo Bernini, church of San Biagio in Campitelli. Interior of Basilica dei Santi Apostoli, the fountain in the left of the Piazza San Pietro. The fountain in front of Santa Maria in Trastevere, one of the oldest fountains of Rome, was restored by Fontana The Cybo Chapel in Santa Maria del Popolo, sistine Chapel in Santa Maria Maggiore
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Ercole Ferrata
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Ercole Ferrata was an Italian sculptor of the Roman Baroque. A native of Pellio Inferiore, near Como, Ferrata initially apprenticed with Alessandro Algardi and he is best known for two works in SantAgnese in Agone in Rome, the Bernini-inspired The Death of St. Agnes as well as the marble relief Stoning of St Emerenziana. The latter has a restraint influenced by his mentor, Algardi, although the half was completed by one of his pupils. Under the leadership of Bernini, he sculpted the Angel with a Cross for the Ponte SantAngelo, early in his career he worked with Cosimo Fanzago and Giuliano Finelli in Naples. He also made the statue of Saint Catherine of Siena for the Chigi Chapel in the Duomo di Siena, with Francesco Aprile he sculpted SantAnastasia in Santa Anastasia in Rome, another statue resembling Berninis famous dying Beata Ludovica Albertoni. In 1677, when the Grand Duke arranged to get his antique sculptures released from Rome, Ercole Ferrata was recalled to Florence to unpack, Ferrata is less known for the documented fact that he provided the elegant arms for the Venus de Medici. He showed remarkable flair in making just the kind of additions to a mutilated statue which most appealed to connoisseurs, according to Francis Haskell. Of the generation after Bernini and Algardi, which included Domenico Guidi and Antonio Raggi, Ferratas pupils included the Florentine Foggini as well as Caffà, who acted as Ercoles studio assistant. In addition he trained Leonardo Retti, Francesco Aprile, Michele Maglia, Filippo Carcani, Giuseppe Mazzuoli, Lorenzo Ottoni, among his last pupils was Camillo Rusconi, who moved to Rome in 1686 to work briefly in Ferratas studio. Ercole Ferrata died at Rome in 1686, taste and the Antique, The Lure of Ancient Sculpture 1500-1900. Page at Web Gallery of Art Page at Artcyclopedia
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