1.
Confectionery
–
Confectionery, also called sweets or candy, is sweet food. The term varies among English-speaking countries, in general, though, confectionery is divided into two broad and somewhat overlapping categories, bakers confections and sugar confections. Bakers confectionery, also called flour confections, includes principally sweet pastries, cakes, in the Middle East and Asia, flour-based confections are more dominant. Sugar confectionery includes sweets, candied nuts, chocolates, chewing gum and bubblegum, sweetmeats, pastillage, in some cases, chocolate confections are treated as a separate category, as are sugar-free versions of sugar confections. The words candy, sweets, and lollies are common words for the most common varieties of sugar confectionery, the confectionery industry also includes specialized training schools and extensive historical records. Traditional confectionery goes back to ancient times, and continued to be eaten through the Middle Ages into the modern era, generally, confections are low in micronutrients and protein but high in calories. They may be fat-free foods, although some confections, especially fried doughs, are high-fat foods, many confections are considered empty calories. Specially formulated chocolate has been manufactured in the past for use as a high-density food energy source. Confections are defined by the presence of sweeteners and these are usually sugars, but it is possible to buy sugar-free sweets, such as sugar-free peppermints. The most common sweetener for cooking is table sugar, which is chemically a disaccharide containing both glucose and fructose. Hydrolysis of sucrose gives a mixture called invert sugar, which is sweeter and is also a commercial ingredient. Finally confections, especially commercial ones, are sweetened by a variety of syrups obtained by hydrolysis of starch and these sweeteners include all types of corn syrup. Bakers confectionery includes sweet baked goods, especially those that are served for the dessert course, bakers confections are sweet foods that feature flour as a main ingredient and are baked. Major categories include cakes, sweet pastries, doughnuts, scones, Sugar confections include sweet, sugar-based foods, which are usually eaten as snack food. This includes sugar candies, chocolates, candied fruits and nuts, chewing gum, in the European Union, the Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in the European Community scheme matches the UN classification, under code number 10.82. Ice cream and sorbet are classified with dairy products under ISIC1050, NACE10.52, different dialects of English use regional terms for sugar confections, In Britain, Ireland, and some Commonwealth countries, sweets or, more colloquially, sweeties. In Australia and New Zealand, lollies, chewy and Chuddy are Australian slang for chewing gum. In North America, candy, although this generally refers to a specific range of confectionery
Confectionery
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This
Kransekake is a traditional Scandinavian baker's confection.
Confectionery
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Petits fours are baker's confections.
Confectionery
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Rock candy is simply sugar with coloring or flavor added.
Confectionery
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Peeps are one of many types of
marshmallow -type candies.
2.
Comfit
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Comfits are confectionery consisting of dried fruits, nuts, seeds or spices coated with sugar candy, often through sugar panning. While licorice comfits are multi-coloured, almond comfits are usually white for weddings, a late medieval recipe for comfits is based on anise seeds, and suggests also making comfits with fennel, caraway, coriander, and diced ginger. These aniseed comfits seem to be a precursor of modern aniseed balls
Comfit
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Licorice comfits
Comfit
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French almond comfits for a baptism
Comfit
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Red almond comfits called "Confetti rossi" are used in Italy to celebrate the conferring of a degree.
3.
Almond
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The almond is a species of tree native to the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent and North Africa. Almond is also the name of the edible and widely cultivated seed of this tree, within the genus Prunus, it is classified with the peach in the subgenus Amygdalus, distinguished from the other subgenera by corrugations on the shell surrounding the seed. The fruit of the almond is a drupe, consisting of a hull and a hard shell with the seed. Shelling almonds refers to removing the shell to reveal the seed, almonds are sold shelled or unshelled. Blanched almonds are shelled almonds that have been treated with hot water to soften the seedcoat, the almond is a deciduous tree, growing 4–10 m in height, with a trunk of up to 30 cm in diameter. The young twigs are green at first, becoming purplish where exposed to sunlight, the leaves are 3–5 inches long, with a serrated margin and a 2.5 cm petiole. The flowers are white to pink, 3–5 cm diameter with five petals, produced singly or in pairs. Almond grows best in Mediterranean climates with warm, dry summers and mild, the optimal temperature for their growth is between 15 and 30 °C and the tree buds have a chilling requirement of 300 to 600 hours below 7.2 °C to break dormancy. Almonds begin bearing an economic crop in the year after planting. Trees reach full bearing five to six years after planting, the fruit matures in the autumn, 7–8 months after flowering. The almond fruit measures 3. 5–6 cm long, in botanical terms, it is not a nut but a drupe. The outer covering or exocarp, fleshy in other members of Prunus such as the plum and cherry, is instead a thick, leathery, grey-green coat, inside the hull is a reticulated, hard, woody shell called the endocarp. Inside the shell is the seed, commonly called a nut. Generally, one seed is present, but occasionally two occur, the almond is native to the Mediterranean climate region of the Middle East, eastward as far as the Yamuna River in India. The wild form of domesticated almond grows in parts of the Levant, the fruit of the wild forms contains the glycoside amygdalin, which becomes transformed into deadly prussic acid after crushing, chewing, or any other injury to the seed. Selection of the type from the many bitter types in the wild marked the beginning of almond domestication. It is unclear as to which wild ancestor of the created the domesticated species. Zohary and Hopf believe that almonds were one of the earliest domesticated fruit trees due to the ability of the grower to raise attractive almonds from seed
Almond
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Almond
Almond
Almond
–
Green almonds
Almond
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Unshelled (left) and shelled (right) almonds
4.
Sugar panning
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Sugar panning, or simply panning, is a method for adding a candy shell to candy or nuts. Popular candies that employ this process in their manufacture include dragées, M&Ms, gobstoppers, jelly beans use soft panning while the other three are examples of hard panning. The process was invented in 17th century France to make jordan almonds. Hard and soft panning both are made in a fashion, but with different ingredients and at different speeds. A dragée pan, a spherical or oval pan mounted on an angled spinning post, is used, the pan is open to the air to allow ingredients to be added and the syrup to dry. The centers are put in the pan, and syrup is added. The pan spins, and the syrup is evenly distributed over the centers, soft panned layers can be quite thick and do not well preserve the shape of the center. Hard panned layers take longer to dry and can be as thin as 10-14μm, the choice for centers is wide, but they must be strong enough to not break during the tumbling. Nuts should be dried and sealed, such as gum arabic and flour. Other centers may be precoated for sealing or to improve the syrup sticking to the center, chewing gum is difficult to pan without precoating. Soft panning uses a syrup that will not crystallize, such as glucose, to assist in drying, powdered sugar or caster sugar is added during the tumble. Enrober - a machine that typically covers confections with chocolate
Sugar panning
–
M&M with ruler marked in millimeters showing the layers of the hard panned candy shell.
5.
Wedding favors
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A party favor or party favour is a small gift given to the guests at a party as a gesture of thanks for their attendance, a memento of the occasion, or simply as an aid to frivolity. This practice has spread to other formal occasions such as baby showers, engagement parties, retirement parties, anniversaries. For small social gatherings such as parties, guests may receive a simple. In some cases guests might receive a gift bag with a handful of favors toys or trinkets, candy. Occasions such as parties, seasonal parties, unique events such as a Bar/Bat Mitzvah or Christening are a few social gatherings where favors may be appropriate. Wedding favors are small gifts given as a gesture of appreciation or gratitude to guests from the bride, the tradition of distributing wedding favors is a very old one. It is believed that the first wedding favor, common amongst European aristocrats, was known as a bonbonniere, a bonbonniere is a small trinket box made of crystal, porcelain, and/or precious stones. The contents of these boxes were generally sugar cubes or delicate confections. As the price of sugar decreased throughout centuries, the tradition of providing gifts to guests reached the populace and was embraced by couples of modest means. As sugar became more affordable, bonbonnieres were replaced with almonds, for centuries, almonds were commonly distributed to wedding guests to signify well wishes on the bridegroom’s new life. In the thirteenth century, almonds coated with sugar, known as confetti, were introduced, confetti soon transformed to sugared almonds, which later evolved into the wedding favor for modern day weddings. Traditionally, five Jordan almonds are presented in a box or wrapped in elegant fabric to represent fertility, longevity, wealth, health. The bitterness of the almond and the sweetness of the candy are a metaphor for the bitter sweetness of a marriage. Today, gifts to guests are known as wedding favors and are shared in cultures worldwide. Wedding favors have become a part of wedding planning, especially in the United States. Wedding favors are diverse and usually complement the theme or season of the event, classic favors can range from the classic sugared almonds or individual chocolates to candles and scented soaps. Modern gift trends include, CDs with the music of the bride and groom. Gifts may also be personalized with the names, initials or wedding date
Wedding favors
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Traditional Birthday Favors
Wedding favors
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A wedding favor
6.
Bomboniere
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Bomboniere also known as favors, are gifts given by hosts to their guests on special occasions such as bar and bat mitzvahs, weddings, baptism, First Communion or Confirmation. They usually include Jordan almonds, known in Italian as Confetti, five sugared almonds symbolize health, wealth, happiness, fertility and long life. Confetti can be made in forms using several different ingredients. Sugared almonds are put inside a bag made of tulle or satin, often they are adorned with dried natural flowers or artificial flowers made of silk or paper. The bag is often given stored inside a vessel made of silver. In Australia the word bomboniere is applied to any small gift or keepsake given by the hosts to guests at any function held to celebrate weddings, first holy communions and the like. Such gifts may take the form of a bottle stopper. Torta Bomboniera A different and new type of bomboniera is the Favor Cake or Torta Bomboniera as it is called in Italy and they are made using little carton box forming one or more tier of a cake. Inside each box there are the sugared almonds and a card printed with the data of ceremony, on each box there are glued several types of fine objects made of many materials. Some samples are below, for ceremonies, Evolution of Torta Bomboniera to Pasticceria Artigianale in Porcellana The following type of Italian Favor Cake is an evolution of above types. It is made using porcelain boxes shaped and hand decorated like very real edible bignè or cream puff, inside each box there are five sugared almonds and a card printed with data of ceremony. For this reasons, the name that Italians give to this new idea is Pasticceria Artigianale in Porcellana, that is Porcelain Artisan Pastries
Bomboniere
–
Sample of Italian favors used for First Holy Communion
Bomboniere
–
Sample of Italian favor made with special ribbon containing 5 sugared almonds. Note the printed tags
Bomboniere
–
Sample of Italian favors made with dried flowers
Bomboniere
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Favor Cake with 40 carton boxes and porcelain flowers, usable for wedding etc.
7.
Sulmona
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Sulmona is a city and comune of the province of LAquila in Abruzzo, Italy. It is in Valle Peligna, a plateau once occupied by a lake that disappeared in prehistoric times, Sulmona was one of the principal cities of the Peligni, as an independent tribe, but no notice of it is found in history before the Roman conquest. A tradition alluded to by Ovid and Silius Italicus, which ascribed its foundation to Solymus, the first mention of Sulmo occurs in the Second Punic War, when its territory was ravaged by Hannibal in 211 BC, who, however, did not attack the city itself. The writings of that rhetorical writer are not, however, to be taken literally, antonius as soon as he presented himself. Not much more is known historically of Sulmo, which, however, from the Liber Coloniarum we learn also that it had received the status of a colony, probably in the time of Augustus, though Pliny does not give it the title of a Colonia. Inscriptions, as well as the geographers and Itineraries, attest its continued existence as a municipal town throughout the Roman Empire, traditionally, the beginning of the Christian age in Sulmona is set in the 3rd century. The city was part of the diocese of Valva, while a Sulmonese bishop is known from the 5th century, one of the earliest bishops was Saint Pamphilus, an Italian pagan convert to Christianity in the 7th century from nearby Corfinium. He was elected bishop of Valva in 682 and died in 706 and he is the patron saint of Sulmona and is buried in the church dedicated to him, the present Sulmona Cathedral. Sulmona became a commune under the Normans. Despite that, it continued to expand and a new line of walls was added in the 14th century, in the 16th century a flourishing paper industry was started. In 1706 the city was razed by an earthquake. Much of the city was rebuilt in the prevailing elegant Baroque style of the 18th Century. Sulmona experienced a boom in the late 19th Century due its railway hub. The anarchist and labor organiser Carlo Tresca was born there in 1879 and was active in the Italian Railroad Workers Federation until emigrating to the US in 1904, sulmonas strategic position also made it a target for air raids during World War II. The railway station, the sections and parts of the old town were damaged. Campo 78 at Sulmona served as a POW camp in both world wars, the camp itself was built on a hillside and consisted of a number of brick barracks surrounded by a high wall. During World War II, conditions in Sulmona, as in many Italian camps, were good, regular rations of macaroni soup and bread were augmented by fresh fruit and cheese in the summer, and food parcels from the International Committee of the Red Cross were distributed regularly. For recreation, the laid out a football field, and they also had equipment for cricket
Sulmona
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Sulmona
Sulmona
–
The Roman poet
Ovid, born in the city
Sulmona
–
Basilica della Santissima Annunziata
Sulmona
–
Church of Santa Maria della Tomba
8.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
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The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
9.
Jordan River
–
The Jordan River is a 251-kilometre -long river in the Middle East that flows roughly north to south through the Sea of Galilee and on to the Dead Sea. Israel and the West Bank border the river to the west, while the Golan Heights, both Jordan and the West Bank take their names from the river. The Jordan River has a course and a lower one. In this sense, the Jordan Valley may be separated into upper, central, over its upper course, the river drops rapidly in a 75-kilometre run to the once large and swampy Lake Hula, which is slightly above sea level. Exiting the now much diminished lake, it goes through an even steeper drop over the 25 kilometres down to the Sea of Galilee, the Jordan deposits much of the silt it is carrying within the lake, which it leaves again near its southern tip. At that point the river is situated about 210 metres below sea level, two major tributaries enter from the east during this last section, the Yarmouk River and Zarqa River. Its section north of the Sea of Galilee is within the boundaries of Israel, south of the lake, it forms the border between the Kingdom of Jordan, and Israel. The streams coming together to create the River Jordan in its basin are, west to east, Iyyon. Hasbani, a stream flows from Mount Lebanon. Dan, a stream whose source is also at the base of Mount Hermon, Banias, a stream arising from a spring at Banias at the foot of Mount Hermon. The full text of W. F. Lynchs 1849 book Narrative of the United States Expedition to the River Jordan, in 1964, Israel began operating a pumping station that diverts water from the Sea of Galilee to the National Water Carrier. Also in 1964, Jordan constructed a channel that diverted water from the Yarmouk River, another tributary of the Jordan River to the East Ghor Canal. Syria has also built reservoirs that catch the Yarmouks waters, environmentalists blame Israel, Jordan and Syria for extensive damage to the Jordan River ecosystem. In modern times, the waters are 70% to 90% used for human purposes, because of this and the high evaporation rate of the Dead Sea, as well as industrial extraction of salts through evaporation ponds, the sea is shrinking. All the shallow waters of the end of the sea have been drained in modern times and are now salt flats. A small section of the northernmost portion of the Lower Jordan, 3-kilometre below the Sea of Galilee, has been kept pristine for baptism and local tourism. Most polluted is the 100-kilometre downstream stretch—a meandering stream from above the confluence with the Yarmouk to the Dead Sea, environmentalists say the practice of letting sewage and brackish water flow into the river has almost destroyed its ecosystem. Rescuing the Jordan could take decades, according to environmentalists, the same environmentalist organization had said in a report that the Jordan River could dry up by 2011 unless the decay is stopped
Jordan River
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Jordan River
Jordan River
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Colored postcard of the Jordan River, by
Karimeh Abbud, circa 1925
Jordan River
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"The Children of Israel Crossing the Jordan" by
Gustave Doré
Jordan River
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The excavated remains of
Bethabara, in modern-day
Jordan, where
John the Baptist is believed to have conducted his ministry and where
Jesus Christ is believed to have been baptized.
10.
Verdun
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Verdun is a small city in the Meuse department in Grand Est in northeastern France. It is an arrondissement of the department, Verdun is the biggest city in Meuse, although the capital of the department is the slightly smaller city of Bar-le-Duc. Verdun was founded by the Gauls and it has been the seat of the bishop of Verdun since the 4th century, with interruptions. The 843 Treaty of Verdun divided Charlemagnes empire into three parts, the city has been famous for dragées or sugared almonds from 1200 onwards, they were distributed at the baptism of French princes. Verdun was part of the kingdom of Lotharingia, and in 1374 it became a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire. The Bishopric of Verdun formed together with Tull and Metz the Three Bishoprics, from 1624 to 1636, a large bastioned citadel was constructed on the site of the Abbey of Saint Vanne. In 1670, Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban visited Verdun and drew up a scheme to fortify the whole city. Although much of his plan was built in the following decades, despite the extensive fortifications, Verdun was captured by the Prussians in 1792 during the War of the First Coalition, but abandoned by them after the Battle of Valmy. During the Napoleonic War, the citadel was used to hold British prisoners of war, in the Franco-Prussian War, Verdun was the last French fortress to surrender in 1870. Shortly afterwards, a new system of fortification was begun and this consisted of a mutually supporting ring of 22 polygonal forts up to 8 kilometres from the city, and an inner ring of 6 forts. The Battle of Verdun was fought on August 20,1792 between French Revolutionary forces and a Prussian army and this therefore opened the path to Paris. Norwich Duff visited Verdun in 1819, shortly after the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars and he writes, Verdun is prettily situated in a valley surrounded by hills. The River Meuse runs through the town and forms several canals and ditches round the town which is fortified and, I believe, the citadel and are a good deal out of repair and were at work on them. Though there is little to see at Verdun, every part of it felt interesting from the number of our countrymen confined here during the war, Verdun is famous for its sweetmeats, sugar plums, confits etc. which are said to be the best in France. They made us show our passports it being a fortified town, Verdun was the site of a major battle, and the longest-lasting, of the First World War. One of the costliest battles in history, Verdun exemplified the policy of a war of attrition pursued by both sides, which led to an enormous loss of life and very large casualty lists. Following the failure of the Schlieffen Plan in 1914 and the solidifying of the Western Front, once the French army had bled to death, Britain could be brought down by Germanys submarine blockade and superior military strength. Recent scholarship by Holger Afflerbach and others, however, has questioned the veracity of the Christmas memo, no copy has ever surfaced and the only account of it appeared in Falkenhayns post-war memoir
Verdun
–
Verdun and the Meuse river
Verdun
–
Bird's-eye view of Verdun in 1638
Verdun
–
Early map of Verdun, circa 1695
Verdun
–
Citadel of Verdun during World War I
11.
Cake decorating
–
Cake decorating is one of the sugar arts that uses icing or frosting and other edible decorative elements to make plain cakes more visually interesting. Alternatively, cakes can be molded and sculpted to resemble three-dimensional persons, places, Cakes are decorated to mark a special celebration. They can also mark national or religious holidays, or be used to promote commercial enterprises, however, cakes may be baked and decorated for almost any social occasion. Cake decorating originated in 17th century Europe, Cakes began to take on decorative shapes, were adorned with additional icing formed into patterns and flowers, and food coloring was used to accent frosting or layers of cake. Cake decorating was rumored to be started by a French bakery in the 1840s where a French baker wanted to increase the prices of the cakes, a cake turntable can be used when decorating a cake. Cake decorations are adornments or embellishments that are placed on top or around cakes, Cake decorations can be made of edible material or food-safe plastics. Fondant, also known as sugar paste or ready roll icing, exists in different colors. It must be rolled out with cornstarch to avoid sticking to any surface, once completely smooth and thin enough, cake decorators are able to mold fondant into many different artistic expressions. Many of these expressions are also taught in professional cake decorating classes, fondant is primarily used to cover cakes, but it is also used to create individual show pieces for cakes. Royal icing is a sweet white icing made by whipping egg whites with icing sugar. Royal icing produces well-defined icing edges and is ideal for piping intricate writing, borders and it dries very hard and preserves indefinitely if stored in a cool, dry place, but is susceptible to soften and wilt in high humidity. Marzipan is often used for modeling cake decorations and sometimes as a cover over cakes, gum paste, also known as florist paste, is an edible, brittle material that dries quickly and can be sculpted to make cake decorations such as flowers or molded designs. Modeling chocolate is a paste made by melting chocolate and combining it with corn syrup, glucose syrup. The chocolate is formed into a variety of shapes and structures that cannot be accomplished with other softer edible materials such as buttercream frosting, marzipan. Modeling chocolate can be made from white, dark, semi-sweet, edible ink printing is also used in decorating cakes. After breakthroughs in nontoxic inks and printing materials in the early 1990s, it possible to print images. It is the process of creating preprinted images with edible food colors onto various confectionery products such as cookies, cakes, designs made with edible ink can be created with an edible printer, a specialty device which transfers an image onto a thin, edible paper. Edible paper is made of starches and sugars and printed on with edible food colors, originally introduced as a specialty service provided by bakeries, this technology can now be used by home consumers using the specialized paper, ink and printers
Cake decorating
–
Buttercream swirls are piped onto the sides of a cake with a
pastry bag
Cake decorating
–
These frog cakes are frosted with sugar paste, decorated with edible chalks, and painted with vodka-blended paints.
Cake decorating
–
Gum paste bow for cake decorating.
Cake decorating
–
Advanced cake decorating techniques.
12.
Cookie
–
A cookie is a baked or cooked good that is small, flat, and sweet, usually containing flour, sugar and some type of oil or fat. It may include ingredients such as raisins, oats, chocolate chips or nuts. In most English-speaking countries except for the US and Canada, crisp cookies are called biscuits, chewier biscuits are sometimes called cookies even in the UK. Some cookies may also be named by their shape, such as squares or bars. Cookies or biscuits may be mass-produced in factories, made in bakeries or home-made. Cookies are often served with such as milk, coffee or tea. Factory-made cookies are sold in stores, convenience stores and vending machines. Fresh-baked cookies are sold at bakeries and coffeehouses, with the latter ranging from small business-sized establishments to multinational corporations such as Starbucks, in most English-speaking countries outside North America, including the United Kingdom, the most common word for a crisp cookie is biscuit. The term cookie is used to describe chewier ones. However, in many regions both terms are used, in Scotland the term cookie is sometimes used to describe a plain bun. Cookies that are baked as a layer on a sheet pan and then cut. According to the Scottish National Dictionary, its Scottish name derives from the form of the word cook, giving the Middle Scots cookie. It also gives an etymology, from the Dutch word koekje, the diminutive of koek. There was much trade and cultural contact across the North Sea between the Low Countries and Scotland during the Middle Ages, which can also be seen in the history of curling and, perhaps, golf. Cookies are most commonly baked until crisp or just long enough that they remain soft, Cookies are made in a wide variety of styles, using an array of ingredients including sugars, spices, chocolate, butter, peanut butter, nuts, or dried fruits. The softness of the cookie may depend on how long it is baked, a general theory of cookies may be formulated this way. Despite its descent from cakes and other sweetened breads, the cookie in almost all its forms has abandoned water as a medium for cohesion. Water in cakes serves to make the base as thin as possible, in the cookie, the agent of cohesion has become some form of oil
Cookie
–
Chocolate chip cookies
Cookie
–
Chip Cookies.
Cookie
–
A dish full of cookies
Cookie
–
Cookies packed in a tin for shipment
13.
Cakes
–
Cake is a form of sweet dessert that is typically baked. Typical cake ingredients are flour, sugar, eggs, butter or oil, a liquid, common additional ingredients and flavourings include dried, candied, or fresh fruit, nuts, cocoa, and extracts such as vanilla, with numerous substitutions for the primary ingredients. Cakes can also be filled with preserves or dessert sauces, iced with buttercream or other icings. Cake is often served as a dish on ceremonial occasions, such as weddings, anniversaries. There are countless cake recipes, some are bread-like, some are rich and elaborate, the term cake has a long history. The word itself is of Viking origin, from the Old Norse word kaka, the ancient Greeks called cake πλακοῦς, which was derived from the word for flat, πλακόεις. It was baked using flour mixed with eggs, milk, nuts and they also had a cake called “satura”, which was a flat heavy cake. During the Roman period, the name for cake became “placenta” which was derived from the Greek term, placenta were baked on a pastry base or inside a pastry case The Greeks invented beer as a leavener, frying fritters in olive oil, and cheesecakes using goats milk. In ancient Rome, basic bread dough was sometimes enriched with butter, eggs, and honey, latin poet Ovid refers his and his brothers birthday party and cake in his first book of exile, Tristia. Sponge cakes, leavened with beaten eggs, originated during the Renaissance, during the Great Depression, there was a surplus of molasses and the need to provide easily made food to millions of economically depressed people in the United States. One company patented a cake-bread mix in order to deal with this economic situation, in so doing, cake as it is known today became a mass-produced good rather than a home- or bakery-made specialty. Later, during the boom, other American companies developed this idea further, marketing cake mix on the principle of convenience. When sales dropped heavily in the 1950s, marketers discovered that the cake in a box rendered the cake-making function of housewives relatively dispiriting, in order to compensate for this situation, the marketing psychologist Ernest Dichter ushered in the solution to the cake mix problem, frosting. Ever since, cake in a box has become a staple of supermarkets, Cakes are broadly divided into several categories, based primarily on ingredients and mixing techniques. Although clear examples of the difference between cake and bread are easy to find, the classification has always been elusive. For example, banana bread may be considered either a quick bread or a cake. Butter cakes are made from creamed butter, sugar, eggs and they rely on the combination of butter and sugar beaten for an extended time to incorporate air into the batter. A classic pound cake is made with a pound each of butter, sugar, eggs, baking powder is in many butter cakes, such as Victoria sponge
Cakes
–
A layered
pound cake filled with
raspberry jam and
lemon curd, and finished with
buttercream frosting
Cakes
–
German chocolate cake
Cakes
–
Raisin cake
Cakes
–
A large cake
garnished with strawberries
14.
Nonpareils
–
Nonpareils are a decorative confectionery of tiny balls made with sugar and starch, traditionally an opaque white but now available in many colors. Their origin is uncertain, but they may have evolved out of the use of sugar. The French name has been interpreted to mean they were equal for intricate decoration of cakes, desserts, and other sweets. The term nonpareil can also refer to a confection made using nonpareils, namely, flat discs of chocolate coated with nonpareils. An 18th-century American recipe for a wedding cake calls for nonpareils as decoration. By the early 19th century, colored nonpareils seem to have available in the U. S. Like nonpareils, their function is more decorative than gustatory as their taste is indistinct. Candy-covered anise seeds called muisjes, sometimes mistaken for traditional nonpareils, are offered at breakfast in the Netherlands to be served on bread. They are, however, usually served on rusk to celebrate the birth of a child and this is known as beschuit met muisjes. In the UK, Australia and New Zealand, nonpareils are known as hundreds-and-thousands, in Australia and New Zealand, they are often eaten on top of patty cakes or on buttered bread as fairy bread, as festive items at childrens birthday parties. The term nonpareils can also refer to a confection, a round flat chocolate drop with the upper surface coated with nonpareils. This confection is referred to as chocolate nonpareils. Nestlé makes a variety marketed as Sno-Caps, in Australia, these confections are commonly known as chocolate freckles, or simply freckles. A common way to eat these in Australia is to lick the coloured top, nonpareils are also sold in the United Kingdom as Jazzles, Jazzies, jazz drops and Snowies. Confetti candy Sno-Caps Sprinkles Dragée Muisjes
Nonpareils
–
Multicolor nonpareil balls coating the top of a chocolate nonpareil
Nonpareils
–
Fairy bread: Nonpareils on sliced bread
15.
Pearl tapioca
–
Tapioca is a starch extracted from cassava root. This species is native to the North Region of Brazil but spread throughout South America, the plant was carried by Portuguese and Spanish explorers to most of the West Indies, and the continents of Africa and Asia, including the Philippines and Taiwan. Its a shrubby, tropical, perennial plant that is common in the temperate zone. Tapioca thrives better in poor soils than any other major food plant, as a result, fertilization is rarely necessary Around the world, Tapioca is a vital staple food for about 500 million people. Tapiocas starchy roots produce more energy per unit of land than any other staple crop. Its leaves, commonly eaten as a vegetable in parts of Asia and Africa, provide vitamins, nutritionally, the Tapioca is comparable to potatoes, except that it has twice the fiber content and a higher level of potassium. Its used as an agent in various foods. Tapioca is derived from the word tipióka, its name in the Tupí language spoken by natives when the Portuguese first arrived in the Northeast Region of Brazil around 1707 and this Tupí word refers to the process by which the cassava starch is made edible. Tapioca is one of the purest forms of food. The cassava plant has red or green branches with blue spindles on them. The root of the green-branched variant requires treatment to remove linamarin, a cyanogenic glycoside occurring naturally in the plant, konzo is a paralytic disease associated with several weeks of almost exclusive consumption of insufficiently processed bitter cassava. In the north and northeast of Brazil, traditional community-based production of tapioca is a by-product of manioc flour production from cassava roots, in this process, the manioc is ground to a pulp with a small hand- or diesel-powered mill. This masa is then squeezed to dry it out, the wet masa is placed in a long woven tube called a tipiti. This liquid is collected and the water allowed to evaporate, leaving behind a fine-grained tapioca powder similar in appearance to corn starch, commercially, the starch is processed into several forms, hot soluble powder, meal, pre-cooked fine/coarse flakes, rectangular sticks, and spherical pearls. Pearls are the most widely available shape, sizes range from about 1 mm to 8 mm in diameter, flakes, sticks, and pearls must be soaked well before cooking, in order to rehydrate, absorbing water up to twice their volume. After rehydration, tapioca products become leathery and swollen, processed tapioca is usually white, but sticks and pearls may be colored. Traditionally, the most common color applied to tapioca has been brown, Tapioca pearls are generally opaque when raw, but become translucent when cooked in boiling water. Brazil in South America, Thailand in Asia, and Nigeria in Africa are the worlds largest producers of cassava, currently, Thailand accounts for about 60 percent of worldwide exports
Pearl tapioca
–
Cassava root
Pearl tapioca
–
Cooked cassava dish from
Kerala, India
Pearl tapioca
–
Spicy and non-spicy tapioca chips
Pearl tapioca
–
Cassava plant
16.
Pearlescent coatings
–
Pearlescent or nacreous coatings or pigments possess optical effects that not only serve decorative purposes, but also provide important functional roles, such as security printing or optical filters. ChromaFlair Iridescence Maile, Frank J. Pfaff, Gerhard, Reynders, Peter
Pearlescent coatings
–
This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the
talk page.
17.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
–
The Food and Drug Administration is a federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments. As of 2017, 3/4th of the FDA budget is funded by the pharmaceutical companies due to the Prescription drug user fee act and these include regulating lasers, cellular phones, condoms and control of disease on products ranging from certain household pets to sperm donation for assisted reproduction. The FDA is led by the Commissioner of Food and Drugs, appointed by the President with the advice, the Commissioner reports to the Secretary of Health and Human Services. Dr. Robert M. Califf, MD is the current commissioner, who took over in February 2016 for Dr. Stephen Ostroff, the FDA has its headquarters in unincorporated White Oak, Maryland. The agency also has 223 field offices and 13 laboratories located throughout the 50 states, the United States Virgin Islands, in 2008, the FDA began to post employees to foreign countries, including China, India, Costa Rica, Chile, Belgium, and the United Kingdom. The site was renamed from the White Oak Naval Surface Warfare Center to the Federal Research Center at White Oak, the first building, the Life Sciences Laboratory, was dedicated and opened with 104 employees on the campus in December 2003. Only one original building from the facility was kept. All other buildings are new construction, the project is slated to be completed by 2017, assuming future Congressional funding While most of the Centers are located in the Washington, D. C. The Office of Regulatory Affairs is considered the eyes and ears of the agency, the Office of Regulatory Affairs is divided into five regions, which are further divided into 20 districts. Districts are based roughly on the divisions of the federal court system. Each district comprises a main office and a number of Resident Posts. ORA also includes the Agencys network of laboratories, which analyze any physical samples taken. Though samples are usually food-related, some laboratories are equipped to analyze drugs, cosmetics, the Office of Criminal Investigations was established in 1991 to investigate criminal cases. Unlike ORA Investigators, OCI Special Agents are armed, and dont focus on aspects of the regulated industries. In many cases, OCI pursues cases involving Title 18 violations, OCI Special Agents often come from other criminal investigations backgrounds, and work closely with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Assistant Attorney General, and even Interpol. OCI receives cases from a variety of sources—including ORA, local agencies, OCI is a smaller branch, comprising about 200 agents nationwide. The FDA frequently works with federal agencies, including the Department of Agriculture, Drug Enforcement Administration, Customs and Border Protection. Often local and state government agencies also work with the FDA to provide regulatory inspections, the FDA regulates more than US$1 trillion worth of consumer goods, about 25% of consumer expenditures in the United States
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
–
FDA Building 31 houses the Office of the Commissioner and the Office of Regulatory Affairs.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
–
Food and Drug Administration
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
–
Regulation of therapeutic goods in the United States
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
–
FDA Building 51 houses the Center for Drug Evaluation and Research.
18.
Mercury (element)
–
Mercury is a chemical element with symbol Hg and atomic number 80. It is commonly known as quicksilver and was formerly named hydrargyrum, Mercury occurs in deposits throughout the world mostly as cinnabar. The red pigment vermilion is obtained by grinding natural cinnabar or synthetic mercuric sulfide, likewise, mechanical pressure gauges and electronic strain gauge sensors have replaced mercury sphygmomanometers. Mercury remains in use in research applications and in amalgam for dental restoration in some locales. It is used in fluorescent lighting, electricity passed through mercury vapor in a fluorescent lamp produces short-wave ultraviolet light which then causes the phosphor in the tube to fluoresce, making visible light. Mercury poisoning can result from exposure to water-soluble forms of mercury, Mercury is a heavy, silvery-white liquid metal. Compared to other metals, it is a conductor of heat. It has a point of −38.83 °C and a boiling point of 356.73 °C. Upon freezing, the volume of mercury decreases by 3. 59%, the coefficient of volume expansion is 181.59 × 10−6 at 0 °C,181.71 × 10−6 at 20 °C and 182.50 × 10−6 at 100 °C. Solid mercury is malleable and ductile and can be cut with a knife, because this configuration strongly resists removal of an electron, mercury behaves similarly to noble gases, which form weak bonds and hence melt at low temperatures. The stability of the 6s shell is due to the presence of a filled 4f shell, an f shell poorly screens the nuclear charge that increases the attractive Coulomb interaction of the 6s shell and the nucleus. Like silver, mercury reacts with hydrogen sulfide. Mercury reacts with solid sulfur flakes, which are used in mercury spill kits to absorb mercury, Mercury dissolves many other metals such as gold and silver to form amalgams. Iron is an exception, and iron flasks have traditionally used to trade mercury. Several other first row transition metals with the exception of manganese, copper, other elements that do not readily form amalgams with mercury include platinum. Sodium amalgam is a reducing agent in organic synthesis, and is also used in high-pressure sodium lamps. Mercury readily combines with aluminium to form a mercury-aluminium amalgam when the two pure metals come into contact, since the amalgam destroys the aluminium oxide layer which protects metallic aluminium from oxidizing in-depth, even small amounts of mercury can seriously corrode aluminium. For this reason, mercury is not allowed aboard an aircraft under most circumstances because of the risk of it forming an amalgam with exposed aluminium parts in the aircraft, Mercury embrittlement is the most common type of liquid metal embrittlement
Mercury (element)
–
Mercury, 80 Hg
Mercury (element)
–
Spectral lines of mercury (UV not seen)
Mercury (element)
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A
pound coin (density ~7.6 g/cm 3) floats in mercury due to the combination of the
buoyant force and
surface tension.
Mercury (element)
–
Mercury-discharge spectral calibration lamp
19.
United Kingdom
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
United Kingdom
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Stonehenge, in
Wiltshire, was erected around 2500 BC.
United Kingdom
–
Flag
United Kingdom
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The
Bayeux Tapestry depicts the
Battle of Hastings, 1066, and the events leading to it.
United Kingdom
–
The
Treaty of Union led to a single united kingdom encompassing all Great Britain.
20.
Jawbreakers
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Gobstoppers, also known as jawbreakers in Canada and the United States, are a type of hard candy. The term gobstopper derives from gob, which is slang in United Kingdom, the sweet was a favourite amongst British schoolboys between World War I and World War II. In his childrens book Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, British author Roald Dahl described Everlasting Gobstoppers, Gobstoppers usually consist of a number of layers, each layer dissolving to reveal a different colour layer, before dissolving completely. Gobstoppers are sucked or licked, being too hard to bite without risking dental damage, Gobstoppers have been sold in traditional sweet shops for at least a century, often sold by weight from jars. As gobstoppers dissolve very slowly, they last a long time in the mouth. Larger ones can take days or even weeks to fully dissolve, Gobstoppers are made by slowly depositing layers onto a core. Gobstoppers are made in large, rotating, heated pans, the candies take several weeks to manufacture, as the process of adding liquid sugar is repeated multiple times. Natural and artificial colors and flavors are added during the panning process. In Dahls story, Everlasting Gobstoppers are purported to last forever, Dahl named the sweet after Gobstoppers, which were a favourite among British schoolboys between the two World Wars. As a young boy in the early 1920s, Dahl put a mouse into a jar of Gobstoppers in his local sweet shop. In 2003, Taquandra Diggs, a girl in Starke, Florida, suffered severe burns. A2003 episode of the Discovery Channel television program MythBusters featured a myth called Exploding Jawbreaker inspired by the incidents with Diggs, if the candy was compressed — including in someones jaws — the candy could explosively burst and its almost molten centers could cause painful burns. This was tested with an oven and a jaw rig. In the microwave oven test, Savage and Chamberlain received light burns after a gobstopper exploded, aniseed ball Atomic Fireball Ed, Edd n Eddy Humbug Lemonheads Police report on Taquandra Diggs exploding gobstopper
Jawbreakers
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Gobstoppers of various sizes and colors. The largest one is 3 inches (~7.5 cm) in diameter
Jawbreakers
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Rainbow gobstopper
Jawbreakers
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Split single-coloured Ferrara Pan gobstopper showing layers of sugar
Jawbreakers
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Big gobstoppers
21.
Jelly bean
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Jelly beans are small bean-shaped sugar candies with soft candy shells and thick gel interiors. The confection comes in a variety of colors and flavors. It is generally thought that jelly beans first surfaced in 1861 and it was not until July 5,1905, that jelly beans were mentioned in the Chicago Daily News. The advertisement publicised bulk jelly beans sold by volume for nine cents per pound, according to the book The Century in Food, Americas Fads and Favorites. Today, most historians contend that jelly beans were first linked with celebrations of Easter in the United States sometime in the 1930s for their egg-like shape, the American National Jelly Bean Day is on April 22. The basic ingredients of jelly beans include sugar, corn syrup, relatively minor amounts of the emulsifying agent lecithin, anti-foaming agents, an edible wax such as beeswax, salt, and confectioners glaze are also included. The ingredients that give each bean its character are also small in proportion. Most jelly beans are sold as an assortment of around eight different flavors, assortments of spiced jellybeans and gumdrops are also available, which include a similar number of spice and mint flavors. The colors of jelly beans often correspond with a fruit and a spiced flavor, while these are also sold as assortments, individual flavors can be individually purchased from distributors. A version of the Bertie Botts Every Flavor Beans from the Harry Potter series was commercially available and included flavors described as earwax, dirt, pepper. For example, the μA741 might be considered a jelly bean op amp, F. Scott Fitzgerald wrote a story about such a character, The Jelly-Bean, in 1920. In William Faulkners 1929 novel The Sound and the Fury, Jason complained bitterly about his niece Quentins promiscuity, the song Jelly Bean was made popular in the 1940s by Phil Harris. It was written by Jimmie Dupre, Sam Rosen, and Joe Verges and published in New Orleans in 1920 by Universal Music Publishers, Inc
Jelly bean
–
Jelly bean (
Jelly Belly brand) flavor and color assortment
Jelly bean
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1920 sheet music cover
22.
List of almond dishes
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This is a list of almond foods and dishes, which use almond as a primary ingredient. The almond is a species of native to the Middle East. Almond is also the name of the edible and widely cultivated seed of this tree, within the genus Prunus, it is classified with the peach in the subgenus Amygdalus, distinguished from the other subgenera by the corrugated shell surrounding the seed. The fruit of the almond is a drupe, consisting of an outer hull and a hard shell with the seed inside
List of almond dishes
–
Shelled
almonds
List of almond dishes
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Ajoblanco is a popular Spanish
cold soup made of bread, crushed
almonds, garlic, water, olive oil, salt and sometimes vinegar.
List of almond dishes
–
Bethmaennchen
List of almond dishes
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Eggnog mousse cake prepared with almond
dacquoise
23.
Sprinkles
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Sprinkles or sugar strands are very small pieces of confectionery used as a decoration or to add texture to desserts such as cupcakes, doughnuts or ice cream. The tiny candies are produced in a variety of colors and are used as a topping or a decorative element. Popular terminology for this confection tends to overlap, while manufacturers are more precise with their labeling, what consumers often call sprinkles covers several types of candy decorations that are sprinkled randomly over a surface, as opposed to decorations that are placed in specific spots. These latter come in a variety of shapes, often flavored, for holidays or themes, such as Halloween witches and pumpkins, Candy cane shapes may taste like peppermint, and gingerbread men like gingerbread cookies. Sanding sugar is a transparent crystal sugar of larger size than general-use refined white sugar, crystal sugar tends to be clear and of much larger crystals than sanding sugar. Pearl sugar is relatively large, opaque white spheroids of sugar, both crystal and pearl sugars are typically used for sprinkling on sweet breads, pastries, and cookies in many countries. Some American manufacturers deem the elongated opaque sprinkles the official sprinkles, in British English, these are sugar strands or hundreds-and-thousands. In the Northeastern United States, sprinkles are often referred to as jimmies, jimmies, in this sense, are usually considered to be used as an ice cream topping, while sprinkles are for decorating baked goods, but the term can be used for both. The sprinkles known as nonpareils in French and American English are tiny opaque spheres that were traditionally white, the sprinkle-type of dragée is like a large nonpareil with a metallic coating of silver, gold, copper, or bronze. The food-sprinkle dragée is now made in a form resembling pearls. Nonpareils date back at least to the late 18th-century, if not earlier and they were used as decoration for pièces montées and desserts. The candy company Just Born cites its founder, Sam Born, as inventing the chocolate sprinkles called jimmies in Brooklyn, New York, Dutch hagelslag was invented in 1936 by Gerard de Vries for Venz, a Dutch company made popular by said treat. Most of the butter is spread out so the hagelslag does not fall off. After much research and venture, de Vries and Venz created the first machine to produce the tiny cylindrical treats and they were named hagelslag after their resemblance to a weather phenomenon prominent in the Netherlands, hail. Only hagelslag with a percentage of more than 32% can bear the name chocoladehagelslag. If the percentage is under the 32%, it has to be called cacaofantasie or cacaofantasiehagelslag, sanding sugar has been commercially available in a small range of colors for decades. Now it comes in a variety, including black and metallic-like glitter. Jimmies is the most popular term for sprinkles in the Philadelphia, the origin of the name jimmies is first documented in 1930, as a topping for cake
Sprinkles
–
Rainbow sprinkles
Sprinkles
–
A pink cupcake with colored sprinkles
Sprinkles
–
Sprinkles,
chocolate syrup and
whipped cream on top of
ice cream.
Sprinkles
–
In the
Netherlands and
Belgium, sprinkles— hagelslag —are commonly used as a sandwich topping.
24.
Sugar plum
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A sugar plum is a piece of dragée or hard candy made of hardened sugar in a small round or oval shape. Plum in the name of this confection does not mean plum in the sense of the fruit of the same name, according to The Atlantic Monthly, traditional sugar plums contained no fruit, but were instead hardened sugar balls. According to the Huffington Post, these hardened sugar balls were comfits, the term sugar plum came into general usage in the 1600s. At that time, adding layers of sweet which give sugar plums and comfits their hard shell was done through a slow, until the mechanization of the process, it often took several days, and thus the sugar plum was largely a luxury product. In fact, in the 18th century the word plum became British slang for a pile of money or a bribe. However, by the 1860s manufacturers were using steam heat and mechanized rotating pans, today, some candy manufacturers have taken sugar plum literally, creating plum-flavored, plum-shaped candies and marketing them as sugar plum candy. This mixture is rolled into balls, then coated in sugar or shredded coconut, moores poem A Visit from St. Nicholas, better known as Twas the Night Before Christmas. In the childrens board game Candy Land the character Plumpy, a gingerbread troll, receiving the Plumpy card meant the player had to undo most of their progress, which could lead to great frustration and often prolonged the game. The Plumpy character was replaced in 2002 by Mama Gingertree, Sugar plums have also gained widespread recognition through the poem The Sugar Plum Tree by Eugene Field. The poem begins Have you ever heard of the Sugar-Plum Tree, tis a marvel of great renown. Sugar Plum is also a 1971 jazz song by American jazz pianist Bill Evans, while Sugar Plum Fairies is a Norwegian folk and pop band formed in 2000
Sugar plum
–
Santa Claus Sugar Plums. Confection label, showing
Santa Claus on sleigh with reindeer., 1868.
25.
Suikerboon
–
A suikerboon, or sugar bean, is a type of sweet traditionally given on the occasion of the birth or baptism of a child in Belgium and parts of the Netherlands. In French, they are called dragées and it has strong resemblance with Jordan almonds and to Italian Confetti. Originally sugar-coated almonds, they are now often sugar-coated chocolates of the same shape, in the Netherlands, a more common tradition is to give beschuit met muisjes after the birth of a child. Beschuit met muisjes Dragée Noghl Jackie Alpers, recipes and Ideas for Rainbowlicious Desserts
Suikerboon
–
Chocolate rounds
26.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
Greek language
–
Idealized portrayal of
Homer
Greek language
–
regions where Greek is the official language
Greek language
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Greek language road sign, A27 Motorway, Greece
27.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
28.
Wayback Machine
–
The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
Wayback Machine
–
Wayback Machine
29.
Wedding
–
A wedding is a ceremony where two people are united in marriage. Wedding traditions and customs vary greatly between cultures, ethnic groups, religions, countries, and social classes, most wedding ceremonies involve an exchange of marriage vows by the couple, presentation of a gift, and a public proclamation of marriage by an authority figure. Special wedding garments are worn, and the ceremony is sometimes followed by a wedding reception. Music, poetry, prayers or readings from religious texts or literature are commonly incorporated into the ceremony. Some cultures have adopted the traditional Western custom of the wedding, in which a bride wears a white wedding dress. This tradition was popularized through the marriage of Queen Victoria, some say Victorias choice of a white gown may have simply been a sign of extravagance, but may have also been influenced by the values she held which emphasized sexual purity. Within the modern white wedding tradition, a dress and veil are unusual choices for a womans second or subsequent wedding. The use of a ring has long been part of religious weddings in Europe and America. Historian Vicki Howard points out that the belief in the ancient quality of the practice is most likely a modern invention, double ring ceremonies are also a modern practice, a grooms wedding band not appearing in the United States until the early 20th century. The kittel is worn only under the Chupah, and is removed before the reception, different wedding clothing around the world Music played at Western weddings includes a processional song for walking down the aisle either before or after the marriage service. An example of use is reported in the wedding of Nora Robinson. Selections by George Frideric Handel, perhaps most notably the Air from his Water Music as processional, the Bridal Chorus from Lohengrin by Richard Wagner, often used as the processional and commonly known as Here Comes the Bride. Richard Wagner is said to have been anti-Semitic, and as a result, johann Pachelbels Canon in D is an alternative processional. The Wedding March from Felix Mendelssohns incidental music for the Shakespeare play, A Midsummer Nights Dream, the Toccata from Charles-Marie Widors Symphony for Organ No. Segments of the Ode to Joy, the movement of Ludwig van Beethovens Ninth Symphony. Other alternative considerations include various contemporary melodies like Bob Marleys One Love which is performed by a steel drum band. Most religions recognize a union with established ceremonies and rituals. Some religions permit polygamous marriages or same-sex marriages, many Christian faiths emphasize the raising of children as a priority in a marriage
Wedding
–
A church wedding in Finland
Wedding
–
Hindu wedding (
India)
Wedding
–
Same-sex civil wedding (
United States)
Wedding
–
Roman Catholic white wedding (
Philippines)
30.
Engagement
–
An engagement, betrothal, or fiancer is a promise to wed, and also the period of time between a marriage proposal and a marriage. During this period, a couple is said to be betrothed, intended, affianced, engaged to be married, future brides and grooms may be called the betrothed, a wife-to-be or husband-to-be, fiancée or fiancé, respectively. The duration of the courtship varies vastly, and is dependent on cultural norms or upon the agreement of the parties involved. Long engagements were once common in formal arranged marriages, and it was not uncommon for parents betrothing children to arrange marriages many years before the couple were old enough. Erusin changes the couples interpersonal status, while nissuin brings about the consequences of the change of status. This was later adopted in Ancient Greece as the gamos and engeysis rituals, Betrothal is a formal state of engagement to be married. Since the Middle Ages the two ceremonies have taken place as a ceremony performed in public. The betrothal is now part of the Jewish wedding ceremony. As mentioned above, betrothal in Judaism is separate from engagement, breaking a betrothal requires a formal divorce, for adults, it may be anywhere from several hours to a period of several years. A year and a day are common in neo-pagan groups today, in the case of child marriage, betrothal might last from infancy until the age of marriage. The responsibilities and privileges of betrothal vary, in most cultures, the betrothed couple is expected to spend much time together, learning about each other. In some historical cultures, the betrothal was essentially a trial marriage, almost all cultures are loosening restrictions against physical contact between partners, even in cultures that normally had strong prohibitions against it. The betrothal period was considered to be a preparatory time, in which the groom built a house. A betrothal is considered to be a semi-binding contract, in some common law countries, including England and Wales and many US states, it was once possible for the spurned partner to sue the other for breach of promise or heart-balm. The Rite of Betrothal in the Anglican Communion is found within The Book of Common Prayer, the Anglican Communion, as well as the Methodist Church and Presbyterian Church, has questions & responses for family members in its Rite of Betrothal. In the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Rite of Betrothal is traditionally performed in the narthex of the church, the priest blesses the couple and gives them lit candles to hold. Then, after a litany, and a prayer at which everyone bows, he places the ring on the ring finger of the grooms right hand. The rings are exchanged three times, either by the priest or by the best man, after which the priest says a final prayer
Engagement
–
William-Adolphe Bouguereau 's The Proposal
Engagement
–
Engagement photograph of
Lionel Logue and Myrtle Gruenert, 1906.
Engagement
–
Les [Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry] depicting a betrothal
Engagement
–
Three stone engagement ring – in
yellow gold
31.
Wedding planner
–
A wedding planner is a professional who assists with the design, planning and management of a clients wedding. Weddings are significant events in peoples lives and as such, couples are often willing to spend considerable amount of money to ensure that their weddings are well-organized. Wedding planners are often used by couples who work long hours and have little time available for sourcing and managing wedding venues. Professional wedding planners are based worldwide but the industry is the largest in the USA, India, western Europe, various wedding planning courses are available to those who wish to pursue the career. Planners generally charge either a percentage of the total wedding cost, planners are also popular with couples planning a destination wedding, where the documentation and paperwork can be complicated. Any country where a wedding is held requires different procedures depending on the nationality of each the bride, for instance, US citizens marrying in Italy require a Nulla Osta, plus an Atto Notorio, and legalization of the above. Some countries instead have agreements and the couple can get their No Impediment forms from their local registrar and have it translated by the consulate in the country of the wedding, a local wedding planner can take care of the different procedures. The services of a planner may include, Interview the couple. Acquisition of custom decorations, such as a travel map Coordination of deliveries / services on the wedding day, have a back-up plan in the event of a disaster. Help and prepare legal documentation and translations - especially for destination weddings Event layout indicating the location of the floor, buffet points, tables, chairs, lounges. Also, many TV shows that have branched from wedding planning and this is a reality show that follows brides as they shop at the prestigious Kleinfelds for their perfect wedding dress. Another show is My Fair Wedding with celebrity party planner David Tutera, more recently, Bollywood film Band Baaja Baaraat is about marriage planners falling in love. Ranveer Singh made his debut with this film and won Best Debutant at several awards, the film had a successful run at the theaters. The 2011 Hong Kong television drama Only You tells the stories of a fictional wedding services agency and their clients
Wedding planner
–
Wedding reception at Haiku Mill,
Maui,
Hawaii
32.
Bridal shower
–
A bridal shower is a gift-giving party held for a bride-to-be in anticipation of her wedding. The custom originated in the 1890s and is today most common in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. The history of the custom is rooted not necessarily for the provision of goods for the matrimonial home. Men are typically not allowed at these functions, but recently more men have been attending. In such situations, friends of the woman would gather together and bring gifts that would compensate for the dowry, the earliest stories about these events have been known to originate in Brussels, Belgium around 1860. A frequently quoted legend traces the origin of this practice to the 16th or 17th Century Netherlands, however, there are also parallels with many dowry practices and the United States colonial or hope chest custom. A related custom practised in medieval England was the Bride Ale and this was a feast held before the wedding day, at which the bride made beer and sold it to the guests at a high price. In the United States, bridal showers started in areas in the 1890s mainly among the upper middle classes. By the 1930s, bridal showers had spread to rural America, and may derive from the custom in Victorian times for the presents to be put inside a parasol, which when opened would shower the bride-to-be with gifts. Many different customs have developed in different regions and social groups, but the format has been relatively unchanged for generations. Historian Elizabeth Pleck echoes this dynamic in pointing out that traditional shower gifts were for the bedroom or the kitchen, but this role is more of an homage to the mothers and grandmothers than a reflection of how the bride-to-be will actually behave in the marriage. Although the format has remained consistent, there have been some significant changes. Showers are often held during the afternoon or evening, but not generally as luncheons or dinner parties and they commonly take place four to six weeks before the wedding. Due to the history of showers being purely spontaneous and informal. Invitations may be issued informally, by mail, telephone, or e-mail, as showers are explicitly a gift-giving occasion, everyone who attends the shower is expected to bring a small gift. People who decline the invitation for any reason are not expected to send a gift or otherwise participate in the party, the hosts are expected to hand over gifts, or favors. These can be small gifts like chocolate coins that have been personalized with the name of the bride, food can be served at bridal showers. Treats such as cake and candy buffets can also be served for guests, hosting the bridal shower falls to one or more close friends of the bride, often one or more of the bridesmaids
Bridal shower
–
A bridal shower traditionally involves giving gifts to the future wife.
33.
Wedding invitation
–
A wedding invitation is a letter asking the recipient to attend a wedding. It is typically written in formal, third-person language and mailed five to eight weeks before the wedding date, with computer technology, some are able to print directly on envelopes from a guest list using a mail merge with word processing and spreadsheet software. Traditionally, anyone within earshot became part of the celebration, in the Middle Ages, illiteracy was widespread, so the practice of sending written wedding invitations emerged among the nobility. Families of means would commission monks, skilled in the art of Calligraphy, such documents often carried the Coat of arms, or personal crest, of the individual and were sealed with wax. However, the tradition of announcing weddings in the newspaper did become established at this time, in 1642, the invention of metal-plate engraving by Ludwig von Siegen brought higher-quality wedding invitations within the reach of the emerging middle class. Engraving, as the name implies, requires an artisan to hand write the text in reverse onto a plate using a carving tool. The resulting engraved invitations were protected from smudging by a sheet of paper placed on top. At the time, the wording of wedding invitations was more elaborate than today, typically, following the invention of Lithography by Alois Senefelder in 1798, it became possible to produce very sharp and distinctive inking without the need for engraving. This paved the way for the emergence of a genuine mass-market in wedding invitations, Wedding invitations were still delivered by hand and on horseback, however, due to the unreliability of the nascent postal system. A ‘double envelope’ was used to protect the invitation from damage en route to its recipient and this tradition remains today, despite advances in postal reliability. About this time, prominent society figures, such as Amy Vanderbilt and Emily Post, growth in the use of wedding stationery was also underpinned by the development of thermography. Although it lacks the fineness and distinctiveness of engraving, thermography is an expensive method of achieving raised type. This technique, often called poor mans engraving, produces shiny, as such, wedding invitations - either printed or engraved - finally became affordable for all. More recently Letterpress printing has made a resurgence in popularity for wedding invitations. It has a boutique and craft appeal due to the deep impression or bite that can be achieved. It was not the intent of letterpress to bite into the paper in this way. The bite or deep impression is a recent aesthetic that adds the sensory experience of touch to letterpress printed wedding invitations, many letterpress printers that specialize in wedding invitations are small start ups or artisan printers, rather than large printing companies. Laser engraving has also making headway in the wedding invitation market over the last few years
Wedding invitation
–
Mix of wedding invitations of Chinese and western styles
Wedding invitation
–
Laser engraved wood walnut and maple wedding invitations.
Wedding invitation
–
A modern wedding invitation
34.
Bachelor party
–
A bachelor party, also known as a stag party, stag night, stag do, stag weekend, or a bucks night is a party held for a man shortly before he enters marriage, to celebrate his last night of freedom. A bachelor party is planned by the best man, occasionally with the assistance of a bachelor party planning company. The party is restricted to men only, but sometimes may feature female company such as strippers or topless waitresses. The equivalent event for the bride-to-be is known as a party or hens night. Some also choose instead to hold a so-called stag and doe party in the US, or a hag party or hag do in the UK, in Germany, this event is called Junggesellenabschied, which literally means farewell to bachelorhood. There is also an event that the couple celebrates together on the evening prior to their wedding. At the Polterabend the guests break old porcelain and earthenware to bring luck to the couples marriage, the tradition is said to go back to pre-Christian times, by noisily breaking ceramics evil spirits – especially spirits of envy – are supposed to be driven out. In the last couple of years, Anglo-style bachelor parties have more and more popular among bachelors. In parts of northern Germany that lack a Carnival tradition, funny costuming has become a part of bachelor or bachelorette parties. For women it is enterrement de vie de jeune fille, translated as burial/funeral of the life as a young girl/maiden, as in English-speaking countries, such parties often feature heavy drinking and various humiliations, and sometimes the presence of a stripper. In Israel, the party is called מסיבת רווקים, literally meaning a party of single men. In the United Kingdom, it is now common for the party to last for more than one evening, hence the increasing prevalence of the stag weekend. A spin-off has been the growth of the stag weekend industry in the UK with various companies taking over the preparation of the event. In the UK, stag weekend trips are becoming mini-holidays with the taking part in various day-time activities as well as the expected night out on the town. With the rise of budget airlines, some stags in the UK go abroad, with Kraków, Dublin, and Riga topping the list, followed by Prague, Amsterdam, Bratislava, stag parties abroad have been known to involve visits to brothels and prostitutes. Booking a stag do in the UK can be difficult, as many establishments can be wary about admitting such parties, hoteliers and club owners in particular have a reputation for disallowing such events in their facilities, due to the activities that often accompany such groups. This is especially true in hospitality establishments such as hotels or restaurants and this can drastically reduce the amount and quality of sleep for hotel patrons staying in the vicinity of the suite in which the party is being hosted. If the experience is unpleasant, guests may choose to avoid returning to a hotel that they perceive as being too lenient on such disruptive stag parties
Bachelor party
–
A bachelor being led to his party
35.
Bachelorette party
–
A bachelorette party, hen party, hen night or hen do, is a party held for a woman who is about to get married. The terms stagette and hen party are sometimes used in Canada and it may also be referred to as a girls night out or kitchen tea or other terms in other English-speaking countries. The bachelorette party is modeled after the party, which is itself historically a dinner given by the bridegroom to his friends shortly before his wedding. Prior to its usage as a term for a pre wedding party hen party was used in the United States as a term for an all female gathering usually held at a hostesss residence. In 1897, The Deseret News noted that hen party was a time honored idea that tea and chitchats, gossip smart hats, in 1940 Eleanor Roosevelt was described as hosting a Christmas time hen party for cabinet wives and ladies of the press. The bachelorette party is modelled after the centuries-old bachelors party. Although the practice of giving a party to honour the bride-to-be goes back for centuries, in its modern form and it was uncommon until at least the mid-1980s, and the first book on planning bachelorette parties wasnt published until 1998. Its cultural significance is largely tied to concepts of gender equality, parties that honored the bride-to-be without these elements avoided that label. Now the term is used for a variety of parties. Pop out cakes are a common accoutrement, bachelorette parties were especially popular around the turn of the 21st century and frequently appeared in the news. The phrase Hen Party mirrors the male Stag Party in referencing social stereotypes of gender at the party. Many different kinds of entertainment are selected, depending on what the organizers think will best please their guest of honor. While notions of a party as a night of drunken debauchery persist in some social circles. According to etiquette expert Peggy Post, Whatever entertainment is planned, it should not embarrass, humiliate, when held in a private venue, such as the hostesss home, the party may take any form that pleases the hostesses and honors the bride-to-be. Dinners and cocktail parties, which provide opportunities for participants to talk or to give intimate advice to the bride-to-be, are common. Other hostesses choose a party, such as a pamper party, with guests indulging in spa treatments. While proposing a toast to the bride-to-be is common at most bachelorette parties, many companies sell products aimed at the organizers of bachelorette parties, including packs of themed games, pre-printed invitations, decorations, novelties, and sex toys. A common theme of parties is male nudity, in North America, it is common to hire a male stripper or attend a male strip club
Bachelorette party
–
An American bachelorette party, with the bride-to-be wearing a veil, at left
Bachelorette party
–
A woman dancing on the bar at a bachelorette party in the USA
Bachelorette party
–
Topless butlers serving guests at a hen party
36.
Marriage licence
–
A marriage license is a document issued, either by a church or state authority, authorizing a couple to marry. The procedure for obtaining a license varies between countries and has changed over time, Marriage licenses began to be issued in the Middle Ages, to permit a marriage which would otherwise be illegal. Today, they are a requirement in some jurisdictions and may also serve as the record of the marriage itself, if signed by the couple. In other jurisdictions, a license is not required, in some jurisdictions, a pardon can be obtained for marrying without a license, and in some jurisdictions, common-law marriages and marriage by cohabitation and representation are also recognized. These do not require a marriage license, there are also some jurisdictions where marriage licenses do not exist at all and a marriage certificate is given to the couple after the marriage ceremony had taken place. They are entitled to rights as to marriage, during marriage. Marriage shall be entered only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses. For most of Western history, marriage was a contract between two families. Until the 16th century, Christian churches accepted the validity of a marriage on the basis of a couple’s declarations, if two people claimed that they had exchanged marital vows—even without witnesses—the Catholic Church accepted that they were validly married. Some states in the US hold that public cohabitation can be sufficient evidence of a valid marriage, Marriage license application records from government authorities are widely available starting from the mid-19th century. Some are available dating from the 17th century in colonial America, Marriage licenses have been required since 1639 in Massachusetts, with their use gradually expanding to other jurisdictions. A requirement for banns of marriage was introduced to England and Wales by the Church in 1215, licences were usually granted by an archbishop, bishop or archdeacon. The other was the licence, which could only be granted by the Archbishop of Canterbury or his officials. To obtain a licence, the couple, or more usually the bridegroom, had to swear that there was no just cause or impediment why they should not marry. A bond was also lodged with the authorities for a sum of money to be paid if it turned out that the marriage was contrary to Canon Law. The bishop kept the allegation and bond and issued the licence to the groom, there was no obligation for the vicar to keep the licence and many were simply destroyed. Hence, few examples of marriage licences, in England and Wales. However, the allegations and bonds were usually retained and are an important source for English genealogy, Hardwickes Marriage Act 1753 affirmed this existing ecclesiastical law and built it into statutory law
Marriage licence
–
Marriage License from the State of Georgia
37.
Wedding chapel
–
A wedding chapel is a building or room, other than a legal court, where marriages are regularly performed. Usually wedding chapels are for-profit venues to host weddings in resort areas to encourage hotel room stays, the buildings are generally religiously themed and imitate church architecture. In some cases, religious institutions have chapels that are used specifically for marriages or closed churches are converted into wedding chapels, Las Vegas, particularly, is famous for its large number of wedding chapels because Nevada has no waiting period to file for a marriage certificate. Some of the chapels in Las Vegas feature Elvis Presley impersonators. Wedding chapels across the world must perform their ceremonies under some laws, in the United States, for example, wedding chapels must usually require, a marriage license and proof of age of the couple. Requirements for minors to marry vary from state to state
Wedding chapel
–
A traditional
French chapel at
Château de Hattonchâtel
Wedding chapel
–
Celebration Chapel in the historic
Rondout district of
Kingston, New York opened on the day that the
Marriage Equality Act became law in New York state
38.
Gretna Green
–
Gretna Green is a village in the south of Scotland famous for runaway weddings. It is in Dumfries and Galloway, near the mouth of the River Esk and was historically the first village in Scotland, Gretna Green railway station serves both Gretna Green and Gretna. The Quintinshill rail crash, the worst rail crash in British history, Gretna Green sits alongside the main town of Gretna. Both are accessed from the A74 motorway and are near the border of Scotland with England and it has usually been assumed that Gretnas famous runaway marriages began in 1754 when Lord Hardwickes Marriage Act came into force in England. Under the Act, if a parent of a minor objected to the minors marriage, the parent could legally veto the union. The Act tightened the requirements for marrying in England and Wales but did not apply in Scotland, Scottish law allowed for irregular marriages, meaning that if a declaration was made before two witnesses, almost anybody had the authority to conduct the marriage ceremony. The blacksmiths in Gretna became known as anvil priests, culminating with Richard Rennison, the local blacksmith and his anvil became lasting symbols of Gretna Green weddings. Two in particular, The Old Blacksmiths Shop, built around 1712, and Gretna Hall Blacksmiths Shop became, in folklore at least. The Old Blacksmiths Shop opened to the public as an attraction as early as 1887. It is a place whose name is typical of brightening prospects. The poet sings of the greenest spot on memorys waste, then the legend of the blacksmith who forged the links of love, added interest to the place, and invested the whole with fairy feature. How much better, brighter, more promising, in short, and yet they are equally efficacious. Gretna Green indeed, is as superior in reality as it is in name and it looks as if it were the capital of the God of Love, while the others exhibit the bustling, trading, money-making pursuits of matter-of-fact life. Though we dare say Gretna Green is as unlike what most people fancy and it is a pretty south country-looking village, much such as used to exist in the old days of posting and coaching. A hall house converted into an hotel, and the located in the neighbouring cottages. There is an air of quiet retirement about it that eminently qualifies it for its holy, since 1929, both parties in Scotland have had to be at least 16 years old, but they still may marry without parental consent. In England and Wales, the age for marriage is now 16 with parental consent and 18 without, of the three forms of irregular marriage that had existed under Scottish law, the last was abolished by the Marriage Act 1939, which came in force from 1 July 1940. Prior to this act, any citizen was able to witness a public promise, Gretnas two blacksmiths shops and countless inns and smallholding became the backdrops for tens of thousands of weddings
Gretna Green
–
The old blacksmith's shop at Gretna Green
Gretna Green
–
Historic view of Gretna Green
39.
Las Vegas weddings
–
Las Vegas, Nevada came to be known as the Marriage Capital of the World as a result of the ease of acquiring a marriage license and the minimal costs involved. The city continues to be known as a popular wedding destination for the same reasons, Nevada marriage licenses are notoriously easy to get, there is no blood test or required waiting period. Las Vegas has streamlined the process further, there are numerous options for wedding ceremonies in Las Vegas. The least expensive option, costing $60, is to marry at the Office of Civil Marriages, most weddings performed in Las Vegas may be a civil or religious service depending upon the wedding venue selected. With an average of 115,000 weddings a year, the Las Vegas wedding industry is competitive, most of the citys major hotels have wedding chapels and many of the local restaurants offer wedding ceremonies. Weddings may also be performed in the churches, at one of the many golf courses. The majority of the wedding chapels are located on the Las Vegas Strip. A local law in the 1970s made it impossible to build a free standing wedding chapel on the Las Vegas Strip, the older wedding chapels will be found downtown. Many chapels also offer themed weddings, common themes include Hawaiian, fairy tale, Star Trek, goth, and weddings with an Elvis or Michael Jackson impersonator. The Tropicana has offered a rock star wedding officiated by former Quiet Riot frontman Paul Shortino, second in popularity to the wedding chapel option, is to have a ceremony performed outdoors somewhere in the surrounding Las Vegas area. Gretna Green, a town in Scotland famous for marriages between eloping couples from England
Las Vegas weddings
–
Chapel of the Flowers, one of the many wedding chapels in Las Vegas
40.
Black tie
–
Traditionally worn only for events after 7 p. m. black tie is less formal than white tie but more formal than informal or business dress. In the United States, the form of black tie attire is often referred to as a tuxedo. Specifically it can include, Evening shoes and A ballgown. Cocktail dresses may be long or moderately short and neednt be black, in England, evening trousers with a palazzo cut are another acceptable option. Unlike the gentlemans standard, the specifics of black tie for ladies is linked to whatever evening wear is currently in fashion. When the dinner jacket first came into fashion in the Victorian era, lapels were often faced or edged in silk or satin in varying widths. Dinner jackets were considered from the first less formal than full dress, the dinner jacket was also increasingly accepted at less formal evening occasions such as warm-weather gatherings or intimate dinners with friends. After World War I, the jacket became de facto evening wear. During this interwar period, double-breasted jackets, turndown-collar shirts and cummerbunds became popular for black-tie evenings as did white, in the decades following World War II, black tie became special occasion attire rather than standard evening wear. The 1980s and 1990s saw a return to nostalgic styles, with black jackets, the 21st century has seen increased variation and a relaxation of previous strict standards, midnight blue once again became popular and lapel facings were sometimes reduced to wide edging. Traditionally, black tie was considered informal, in the 21st century black tie is often referred to as being semi-formal. Unlike white tie, which is strictly regulated, black-tie ensembles can display more variation. In brief, the components for men are, A jacket with silk facings on a shawl lapel. Many current fashion stylists and writers see notched lapels as less formal although they were used in some of the forms of the garment. Trousers with a silk or satin braid covering the outer seams, uncuffed. A black low-cut waistcoat or a cummerbund, a white dress shirt with double cuffs and a turndown collar. While the turndown is most appropriately semi-formal, the wing collar has been popular with American men since the 1980s. However, many style authorities argue that the version now typically offered is insubstantial with minuscule wings
Black tie
–
Men's black tie dress (double-breasted jacket)
Black tie
–
Cocktail party – 1936
Black tie
–
Covered cuff buttons on a dinner jacket.
Black tie
–
A modern attached wing collar (of the half-collar shape, with longer wings than a typical attached wing collar) and pre-tied bow tie
41.
Contemporary Western wedding dress
–
A contemporary Western wedding dress follows popular fashions in Western wedding gown selection from the year 2000 on. Dresses are usually white or ivory, and follow a pattern for popular silhouettes, necklines, modern bridal fashion is also characterised by specific styles of headpieces, lingerie, veils, and high heels. Some of the most popular contemporary silhouettes include, A-line, above-the-knee, column, empire, meringue, mermaid, princess, A-line A dress or skirt silhouette that is narrower at the top, flaring gently wider toward the bottom thereby resembling the letter A. Works well on most figure types, good for disguising bottom-heavy figures, above-the-knee Can be recognized by their tent-like silhouettes, hemmed short above the knee. Column In fashion, a column, similar to a dress, is a type of dress designed to tightly fit the body. It is often made of a light and thin material like cotton or silk. Unlike the shorter cocktail dress and the longer ballroom dress, a column dress typically falls around the knees or lower thighs, empire A type of dress or top where the waist line is raised above the natural waistline, sometimes as high as right below the bust. Meringue Characterized by a full skirt that begins at the waist. It has a full bodice and a cinched waistline that falls into a full skirt, mermaid The mermaid dress is close fitting through the bodice, down through the hips and to below the knees where the skirt flares out. Princess Designed to hang in smooth, close-fitting, unbroken lines from shoulder to flared hem, trumpet A straight skirt with a hem flounce that flares away from the body at the hem. Popular contemporary necklines types include asymmetric, bateau, halter, jewel, off-the-shoulder, portrait, scoop, sheer, square, strapless, sweetheart, the neckline refers to the shape of the material at the top of the dress as it falls on the neck and shoulders. Asymmetric Asymmetrical by its very definition means there is no symmetry or no balance, so this neckline appears different on either side of the centre front. Bateau Also known as the Boatneck and this is a wide, high neckline that follows the curve of the collarbone and ends in points on the shoulder seams. Halter Necklines have a panel on the front, which is then tied around the neck for support and, optionally, may be tied behind the neck or include a clasp, exposing the back. Jewel A plain, slightly rounded neckline without a collar, Also known as the T-shirt neckline, the jewel neckline is round and sits at the base of the throat. Off-the-shoulder This neckline sits below the shoulders, with straps that cover part of the upper arm. Shows off your collarbone and shoulders, portrait Characterised by a wide, soft scoop from shoulder to shoulder. Scoop Also known as a ballerina neckline, this U-shaped style is often cut low, sheer A neckline that is created by sheer or translucent fabric, such as lace or netting, rather than an opaque material or strap
Contemporary Western wedding dress
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A bride in a contemporary version of the traditional long white wedding dress with train, tiara and white veil.
42.
Garter (stockings)
–
Garters are articles of clothing, narrow bands of fabric fastened about the leg, used to keep up stockings, and sometimes socks. In the eighteenth to twentieth centuries, they were tied just below the knee, the advent of elastic has made them less necessary from this functional standpoint, although they are still often worn for fashion. Garters have been worn by men and women, depending on fashion trends. Garters were popular in the 1930s and 1940s, and were a convenient way for ladies to carry small valuables, in Elizabethan fashions, men wore garters with their hose, and colorful garters were an object of display. In Shakespeares Twelfth Night, cross braced garters are an object of some derision, in male fashion, a type of garter for holding up socks has continued as a part of male dress up to the present, although its use may be considered somewhat stodgy. There is a Western wedding tradition for a bride to wear a garter to her wedding and this garter is not normally used to support stockings. This practice is interpreted as symbolic of deflowering, though some sources attribute its origin to a superstition that taking an article of the brides clothing will bring good luck. In the Middle Ages, the groomsmen would rush at the new bride to take her garters as a prize, today, the practice of removing the brides garter is traditionally reserved to the groom, who will then toss the garter to the unmarried male guests. This is performed after the tossing of the bouquet, in which the bride tosses her bouquet over her shoulder to be caught by the female guests. According to superstition, the lady who catches the bouquet and the man who catches the garter will be the man and woman among those in attendance to be married. The ceremony often continues with the man who catches the garter obliged to place it on the leg of the lady who caught the bouquet, traditionally, the pair are obliged to share the next dance. Prom garters were common in the 1960s & 70s, and often conferred on the date as a souvenir, if the date received the garter, it was typically hung from his rear-view mirror. The prom garter may be throughout the evening and is sometimes given to the young womans date as a souvenir. A young woman may choose to keep the garter rather than give it away. In cases like this where the garter is given early in the evening, the suspenders are typically clipped to the stockings with metal clips into which a rubber disc is inserted through the stocking material effectively locking the stocking in place. These are normally attached to a length of elastic allowing for adjustment and these clips, also known as suspender slings, are best attached to stockings with a simple welt that do not have lace, or hold-ups with a silicon rubber lining. Suspender belts for men do exist, usually worn when there is a need to wear support hosiery for medical reasons, suspender belts are usually worn at the waist or just slightly below. If worn too low on the hips, there is a chance of the sliding down
Garter (stockings)
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A wedding garter
Garter (stockings)
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Hip flask tucked into a garter during
Prohibition
Garter (stockings)
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Bride putting on a garter
Garter (stockings)
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A woman with her suspenders showing
43.
Morning dress
–
Morning dress is the daytime formal dress code, consisting chiefly of, for men, a morning coat, waistcoat, and striped trousers, and an appropriate dress for women. The semi-formal counterpart of this code is the stroller and it will also be seen sometimes worn at services in St Pauls Cathedral, London and St Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh. The name originated from the practice of gentlemen in the nineteenth century riding a horse in the morning with a cutaway front, in the Edwardian era it took over in popularity from the frock coat as the standard daytime form of mens full dress. The waistcoat may also match, or not, Morning suits will sometimes be a middle-tone gray. Morning suits, especially the ones, are considered slightly less formal than morning coat ensembles. The following can optionally be worn or carried with morning dress, alternatively, a top hat made of fur felt or wool felt, is another common option. The formal trousers worn with it are either cashmere striped, or black, the most traditional colours for a waistcoat are grey, buff, or black. At social or festive occasions, e. g, other colours sold by traditional English tailors include powder blue and a pale pink. Generally, traditional waistcoats are made from wool or linen, waistcoats may be either single-breasted with, or without, lapels or double-breasted with lapels. Single-breasted models with lapels usually feature a step collar, whilst double-breasted models commonly have either a shawl collar or a peak lapel, formal trousers should not have turn-ups, and should have one or two forward pleats to each leg. Braces should be worn to prevent the waistband from appearing beneath the waistcoat, belts should not be worn with morning dress. Less common alternatives to striped trousers are houndstooth check, and grey flannel trousers, a white stiff collar is traditional, with the plain turn-down cutaway variety standard since the World War II, in this case a normal long tie is worn. Because of this Debretts, for example, considers the Ascot, if the shirt has turn-down collars it usually has sleeves with double cuffs fastened with cufflinks as standard. Contemporary shirts often do not have a collar at all. The most formal colour for a shirt is white, but if a coloured or striped shirt is worn, traditional formal colourings are Wedgwood blue, solid or in thin vertical stripes. Previously, a grey or a black neck-tie was obligatory, now all colours are worn, in many clubs and societies the Club Tie is acceptable to distinguish members from guests at formal lunches and breakfasts. The original silver Macclesfield design is used particularly with cravats. The English etiquette authority, Debretts, dictate that ties are preferred to cravats, bow ties may be worn as an alternative to the necktie
Morning dress
–
Morning dress with matching black
waistcoat with a then-fashionable shorter skirt length, top hat, formal gloves, contrasting top
Oxford boots with punching across the toe cap, boldly striped long tie, striped shirt with contrasting white turn-down collar and cuffs, and formal striped trousers. The characteristic angle of the cutaway front of the skirt is clearly visible, as is the waist seam. (May 1901)
Morning dress
–
Nancy and
Ronald Reagan,
Emperor Hirohito, 1983
Morning dress
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Formal wear by the Lord Mayor of Bruges, in Catholic procession and ceremonial
Morning dress
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Men in morning grey suits at the races in Australia, in 1937
44.
Tuxedo
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The suit is typically black or midnight blue and commonly worn with a formal shirt, shoes and other accessories, most traditionally in the form prescribed by the black tie dress code. Dinner jacket in the context of menswear first appeared in England around 1887, in the 1960s it became associated in the United States with white or colored jackets specifically. Tuxedo in the context of menswear originated in the US around 1888 and it was named after Tuxedo Park, a Hudson Valley enclave for New York’s social elite where it was often seen in its early years. The term was capitalized until the 1930s and at first referred only to the jacket, when the jacket was later paired with its own unique trousers and accessories in the 1900s the term began to be associated with the entire suit. In French, Italian, Portuguese, German, Polish, Russian, Turkish and this name is in reference to the jacket’s early similarity to Victorian smoking jackets. The suit with accompanying accessories is sometimes nicknamed a penguin suit given its resemblance to the black body. Other slang terms include monkey suit and, since 1918, soup, men also sought a similar alternative to the formal evening tailcoat worn every evening. The jacket was tailored for use at Sandringham, the Princes informal country estate and was described as a smoking jacket and it was originally intended for warm weather use but soon spread to informal or stag winter occasions. As it was simply an evening tailcoat substitute, it was worn all the same accoutrements as the tailcoat including the trousers. The most famous reference originates from Tuxedo Park, an upstate New York countryside enclave for Manhattans wealthiest citizens. Although it is not known whether this garment was a jacket or a conventional dinner jacket. An essay in the Tuxedo Park archives attributes the jackets importation to America to resident James Brown Potter a merchant banker who had worked in London for Brown Brothers specifically, however this claim for Potter cannot be verified through independent sources. Period newspaper accounts indicate that at first the jacket was worn by young mavericks to gatherings considered strictly formal and this led the American establishment to reject it out of hand. It was only by 1888 that polite society accepted its role solely as a summer, the earliest tuxedo jackets were of the same black material as the dress coat with one, two or no buttons and a shawl collar faced in satin or ribbed silk. By the turn of the century the peaked lapel was equally popular. When trousers were sold with the jacket they were of the same material, edwardian dandies often opted for Oxford grey or a very dark blue for their evening wear. By World War I, the option had fallen out of favour but the midnight blue alternative became increasingly popular. Notch lapels, imported from the business suit, were a brief vogue in the 1920s
Tuxedo
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A double-breasted dinner
suit
Tuxedo
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Illustration of English peaked lapel and shawl collar dinner jackets, 1898. As substitutes for tailcoats, dinner jackets were originally worn with
full dress accessories
Tuxedo
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1888 American tuxedo / dinner jacket, sometimes called a dress sack.
45.
Wedding dress
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A wedding dress or wedding gown is the clothing worn by a bride during a wedding ceremony. Color, style and ceremonial importance of the gown can depend on the religion, in Western cultures, brides often choose white wedding dress, which was made popular by Queen Victoria in the 19th century. In eastern cultures, brides often choose red to symbolize auspiciousness, weddings performed during and immediately following the Middle Ages were often more than just a union between two people. They could be a union between two families, two businesses or even two countries, many weddings were more a matter of politics than love, particularly among the nobility and the higher social classes. Brides from wealthy families often wore rich colors and exclusive fabrics and it was common to see them wearing bold colors and layers of furs, velvet and silk. Brides dressed in the height of current fashion, with the richest materials their families money could buy, the poorest of brides wore their best church dress on their wedding day. The amount and the price of material a wedding dress contained was a reflection of the social standing. This was not a trend, however, prior to the Victorian era. White became an option in 1840, after the marriage of Queen Victoria to Albert of Saxe-Coburg. The official wedding portrait photograph was published, and many brides opted for white in accordance with the Queens choice. Even after that, for a period, wedding dresses were adapted to the styles of the day, for example, in the 1920s, they were typically short in the front with a longer train in the back and were worn with cloche-style wedding veils. This tendency to follow current fashions continued until the late 1960s, today, Western wedding dresses are usually white, though wedding white includes shades such as eggshell, ecru and ivory. About 75 percent of wedding dresses on the market are strapless dresses or sleeveless, however, the sleeved wedding gown as well as wedding gowns with straps have both become more popular in recent years. Many wedding dresses in China, India, Pakistan and Vietnam are red, nowadays, many women choose other colours besides red. In modern mainland Chinese weddings, the bride may opt for Western dresses of any colour, in modern Taiwanese weddings, the bride generally picks red or white silk for the wedding gown material, but most will wear the red traditional garment for their formal wedding banquets. Traditionally, the father of the bride is responsible for the banquet hosted on the brides side. Thus out of respect for the elders, wedding banquets are usually done formally and traditionally, red wedding saris are the traditional garment choice for brides in Indian culture. Sari fabric is also traditionally silk, over time, colour options and fabric choices for Indian brides have expanded
Wedding dress
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White wedding dress from 1891
Wedding dress
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The woman to the far right is wearing a typical wedding dress from 1929. Until the late 1960s, wedding dresses reflected the styles of the day. From that time onward, wedding dresses have often been based on Victorian styles.
Wedding dress
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Qing dynasty styled traditional Chinese wedding dress with
phoenix crown (鳳冠) headpiece still used in modern
Taiwanese weddings.
Wedding dress
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Japanese formal wedding dress still used today.
46.
White tie
–
White tie, also called full evening dress, is the most formal evening dress code in Western high fashion. For men, it consists of a black tailcoat worn over a white starched shirt, marcella waistcoat, high-waisted black trousers and patent leather shoes complete the outfit, although decorations can be worn and a top hat and white scarf are acceptable as accessories. Women wear full evening or ball gown and, optionally, jewellery, tiaras. By the 1840s the minimalist black and white combination had become the standard evening wear for upper class men, despite the emergence of the dinner jacket as a less formal and more comfortable alternative in the 1880s, full evening dress remained the staple. From the 1920s onward black tie slowly replaced white tie as the default evening wear for important events, the Vienna Opera Ball and the Nobel Prize ceremony are white tie events, and some European universities retain it as the dress code for doctoral conferment ceremonies. Over this is worn a black single-breasted barathea wool or ultrafine herringbone tailcoat with silk peak lapels, the trousers have double-braiding down the outside of both legs, while the correct shoes are patent leather or highly polished black dress shoes. Although a white scarf remains popular in winter, the white gloves, top hats, canes. Women wear an evening dress, with the option of jewellery, a tiara, a pashmina, coat or wrap. The waistcoat should not be visible below the front of the tailcoat, as one style writer for GQ magazine summarises The simple rule of thumb is that you should only ever see black and white not black, white and black again. Decorations may also be worn and, unlike Debretts, Cambridge Universitys Varsity student newspaper suggests a top hat, opera cloak and silver-topped cane are acceptable accessories. As the 18th century drew to a close, high society began adopting more austere clothing which drew inspiration from the dark hues and simpler designs adopted by country gentlemen. From around 1815, a garment called the frock coat became increasingly popular and was eventually established, along with the morning coat. The dress coat, meanwhile, became reserved for wear in the evening, the dandy Beau Brummell adopted a minimalistic approach to evening wear—a white waistcoat, dark blue tailcoat, black pantaloons and striped stockings. Although Brummell felt black an ugly colour for evening dress coats, it was adopted by other dandies, like Charles Baudelaire, over the course of the 19th century, the monotone colour scheme became a codified standard for evening events after 6pm in upper class circles. The styles evolved and evening dress consisted of a dress coat and trousers, white or black waistcoat. Despite its growing popularity, the dinner jacket remained the reserve of family dinners, by the turn of the 20th century, full evening dress consisted of a black tailcoat made of heavy fabric weighing 16-18 oz per yard. According to The Delineator, the years after World War I saw white tie almost abandoned, White tie was worn with slim-cut trousers in the early 1920s, by 1926, wide-lapelled tailcoats and double-breasted waistcoats were in vogue. White tie is worn in the early 21st century
White tie
–
A caricature in Vanity Fair from 1899, showing
a British peer wearing white tie
White tie
–
President of the United States Gerald Ford, First Lady
Betty Ford, Japanese
Emperor Hirohito and
Empress Nagako during a state dinner, 1975
White tie
–
The German actor
Rudolf Platte wearing white tie on stage in 1937
47.
Chuppah
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A chuppah, also huppah, chipe, chupah, or chuppa, is a canopy under which a Jewish couple stand during their wedding ceremony. It consists of a cloth or sheet, sometimes a tallit, stretched or supported over four poles, a chuppah symbolizes the home that the couple will build together. In a more general sense, chupah refers to the method by which nesuin, according to some opinions, it is accomplished by the couple standing under the canopy, however, there are other views. A traditional chuppah, especially within Orthodox Judaism, recommends that there be open sky exactly above the chuppah, if the wedding ceremony is held indoors in a hall, sometimes a special opening is built to be opened during the ceremony. Many Hasidim prefer to conduct the entire ceremony outdoors and it is said that the couples ancestors are present at the chuppah ceremony. This room was decorated with large hanging sheets of colored, patterned cloth, replete with wall cushions. Their marriage is consummated when they have left together alone in this room. For we recite in the Jerusalem Talmud, Sotah 46a, Those bridal chambers, they hang within them patterned sheets and gold-embroidered ribbons, the word chuppah appears in the Hebrew Bible. There were for centuries regional differences in what constituted a huppah, indeed, Solomon Freehof finds that the wedding canopy was unknown before the 16th century. Alfred J. Kolatch notes that it was during the Middle Ages that the chupa. in use today became customary, daniel Sperber notes that for many communities prior to the 16th Century, the huppah consisted of a veil worn by the bride. In others, it was a spread over the shoulders of the bride. Numerous illustrations of Jewish weddings in medieval Europe, North Africa, moses Isserles notes that the portable marriage canopy was widely adopted by Ashkenazi Jews in the generation before he composed his commentary to the Shulchan Aruch. In Biblical times, a couple consummated their marriage in a room or tent, in Talmudic times, the room where the marriage was consummated was called the chuppah. Jewish weddings consist of two parts, the betrothal ceremony, known as erusin or kiddushin, and the actual wedding ceremony. The first ceremony prohibits the bride to all men and cannot be dissolved without a religious divorce. The second ceremony permits the bride to her husband, originally, the two ceremonies usually took place separately. After the ceremony the bride and groom would spend an hour together in a room, and then the bride would enter the chuppah and, after gaining her permission. In the Middle Ages these two stages were combined into a single ceremony and the chuppah lost its original meaning
Chuppah
–
A chuppah at the
Sixth & I Synagogue in
Washington D.C.
Chuppah
–
Orthodox Jewish wedding with chuppah in
Vienna 's first district, close to
Judengasse, 2007.
Chuppah
–
Chuppa at a synagogue in Toronto, Canada
Chuppah
–
Jewish wedding
48.
Las arras
–
Las arras, or Las arras matrimoniales are wedding paraphernalia used in Christian wedding ceremonies in Spain, Latin American countries, and the Philippines. The tradition is followed, with varying names and customs. Traditionally, in Spain and Latin America, it is made up of thirteen gold coins presented in a box or chest, in the Philippines. After being blessed by a priest, they are given or presented by the groom to the bride, the word arras is a Spanish word meaning earnest money, bride price, or bride wealth. The custom of using coins in weddings can be traced to a number of places including Spain, the book An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies claims that origin of arras was from gold rings or coins in Visigothic Law. Whereas the Sex and Society claims the practice emerged from Frankish marriage ceremonies, the ancient Roman custom includes the act of breaking gold or silver equally into two pieces. This signifies the promise to marry by two individuals, the thirteen wedding unity coins symbolize Jesus and the twelve apostles. The exchange of the coins represent the promise to provide for his family. In Filipino and other Spanish American bridal entourages typically include an arrhae-bearer or coin-bearer, unlike the ring bearer, he carries the actual arrahe on a pillow. This optional Hispanic tradition in Spanish was approved by the U. S, conference of Catholic Bishops in 2010. In September 2016, an English language version was approved and placed in the English Order of Celebrating Matrimony along with the Wedding cord. Depending on the culture in which tradition is followed, the tradition of arras may be used on different occasions. They may be used for quinceañeras, debutante balls for young ladies, in legal terminology an arras is a civil law contract. Legally, it could also mean money or items with value given by a buyer to a vendor, the purpose of giving such a payment is to provide an evidence of contract earnest. It is usually part of a pre-contract, espín, Orlando O. Nickoloff, James B. An introductory dictionary of theology and religious studies, - Total pages,1521 Reynolds, Lyndon, Witte, John. To have and to hold, marrying and its documentation in Western Christendom, - Total pages,519 Wainwright, Geoffrey, Tucker, Karen Beth Westerfield. The Oxford history of Christian worship
Las arras
–
Wedding token
Las arras
–
13 arras matrimoniales, gold coins
49.
Lebes Gamikos
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The lebes gamikos, or nuptial lebes, is a form of ancient Greek Pottery used in marriage ceremonies. It was probably used in the ritual sprinkling of the bride with water before the wedding, in form, it has a large bowl-like body and a stand that can be long or short. Painted scenes are placed on either the body of the vessel or the stand, one of the earliest lebes gamikos was painted by, apparently, a follower of Sophilos. The lebes gamikos had the wedding procession, accompanied by the unique addition of chariots bearing Helen and Menelaos. A typical lebes gamikos shows wedding scenes (including mythic weddings such as the wedding of Peleus and Thetis, media related to Lebetes at Wikimedia Commons
Lebes Gamikos
–
Lebes Gamikos by
Asteas, c. 340 BC,
National Archaeological Museum of Spain
Cookbook: Dragée 
Media: Dragée
