1.
Rembrandt
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Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn was a Dutch draughtsman, painter, and printmaker. A prolific and versatile master across three media, he is considered one of the greatest visual artists in the history of art. Having achieved youthful success as a painter, Rembrandts later years were marked by personal tragedy. Yet his etchings and paintings were popular throughout his lifetime, his reputation as an artist remained high, Rembrandts portraits of his contemporaries, self-portraits and illustrations of scenes from the Bible are regarded as his greatest creative triumphs. His self-portraits form a unique and intimate biography, in which the artist surveyed himself without vanity and his reputation as the greatest etcher in the history of the medium was established in his lifetime, and never questioned since. Few of his paintings left the Dutch Republic whilst he lived, but his prints were circulated throughout Europe, because of his empathy for the human condition, he has been called one of the great prophets of civilization. Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn was born on 15 July 1606 in Leiden, in the Dutch Republic and he was the ninth child born to Harmen Gerritszoon van Rijn and Neeltgen Willemsdochter van Zuijtbrouck. His family was quite well-to-do, his father was a miller, religion is a central theme in Rembrandts paintings and the religiously fraught period in which he lived makes his faith a matter of interest. His mother was Roman Catholic, and his father belonged to the Dutch Reformed Church, unlike many of his contemporaries who traveled to Italy as part of their artistic training, Rembrandt never left the Dutch Republic during his lifetime. He opened a studio in Leiden in 1624 or 1625, which he shared with friend, in 1627, Rembrandt began to accept students, among them Gerrit Dou in 1628. In 1629, Rembrandt was discovered by the statesman Constantijn Huygens, as a result of this connection, Prince Frederik Hendrik continued to purchase paintings from Rembrandt until 1646. He initially stayed with an art dealer, Hendrick van Uylenburgh, Saskia came from a good family, her father had been a lawyer and the burgemeester of Leeuwarden. When Saskia, as the youngest daughter, became an orphan, Rembrandt and Saskia were married in the local church of St. Annaparochie without the presence of Rembrandts relatives. In the same year, Rembrandt became a burgess of Amsterdam and he also acquired a number of students, among them Ferdinand Bol and Govert Flinck. In 1635 Rembrandt and Saskia moved into their own house, renting in fashionable Nieuwe Doelenstraat, in 1639 they moved to a prominent newly built house in the upscale Breestraat, today known as Jodenbreestraat in what was becoming the Jewish quarter, then a young upcoming neighborhood. The mortgage to finance the 13,000 guilder purchase would be a cause for later financial difficulties. Rembrandt should easily have been able to pay the house off with his income, but it appears his spending always kept pace with his income. It was there that Rembrandt frequently sought his Jewish neighbors to model for his Old Testament scenes, in 1640, they had a second daughter, also named Cornelia, who died after living barely over a month
2.
Louvre
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The Louvre or the Louvre Museum is the worlds largest museum and a historic monument in Paris, France. A central landmark of the city, it is located on the Right Bank of the Seine in the citys 1st arrondissement, approximately 38,000 objects from prehistory to the 21st century are exhibited over an area of 72,735 square metres. The Louvre is the second most visited museum after the Palace Museum in China. The museum is housed in the Louvre Palace, originally built as a fortress in the late 12th century under Philip II, remnants of the fortress are visible in the basement of the museum. Due to the expansion of the city, the fortress eventually lost its defensive function and. The building was extended many times to form the present Louvre Palace, in 1692, the building was occupied by the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres and the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, which in 1699 held the first of a series of salons. The Académie remained at the Louvre for 100 years, during the French Revolution, the National Assembly decreed that the Louvre should be used as a museum to display the nations masterpieces. The museum opened on 10 August 1793 with an exhibition of 537 paintings, because of structural problems with the building, the museum was closed in 1796 until 1801. The collection was increased under Napoleon and the museum renamed Musée Napoléon, the collection was further increased during the reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X, and during the Second French Empire the museum gained 20,000 pieces. Holdings have grown steadily through donations and bequests since the Third Republic, whether this was the first building on that spot is not known, it is possible that Philip modified an existing tower. According to the authoritative Grand Larousse encyclopédique, the name derives from an association with wolf hunting den, in the 7th century, St. Fare, an abbess in Meaux, left part of her Villa called Luvra situated in the region of Paris to a monastery. This territory probably did not correspond exactly to the modern site, the Louvre Palace was altered frequently throughout the Middle Ages. In the 14th century, Charles V converted the building into a residence and in 1546, Francis acquired what would become the nucleus of the Louvres holdings, his acquisitions including Leonardo da Vincis Mona Lisa. After Louis XIV chose Versailles as his residence in 1682, constructions slowed, however, on 14 October 1750, Louis XV agreed and sanctioned a display of 96 pieces from the royal collection, mounted in the Galerie royale de peinture of the Luxembourg Palace. Under Louis XVI, the museum idea became policy. The comte dAngiviller broadened the collection and in 1776 proposed conversion of the Grande Galerie of the Louvre – which contained maps – into the French Museum, many proposals were offered for the Louvres renovation into a museum, however, none was agreed on. Hence the museum remained incomplete until the French Revolution, during the French Revolution the Louvre was transformed into a public museum. In May 1791, the Assembly declared that the Louvre would be a place for bringing together monuments of all the sciences, on 10 August 1792, Louis XVI was imprisoned and the royal collection in the Louvre became national property
3.
Visual arts
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The visual arts are art forms such as ceramics, drawing, painting, sculpture, printmaking, design, crafts, photography, video, filmmaking, literature, and architecture. Many artistic disciplines involve aspects of the arts as well as arts of other types. Also included within the arts are the applied arts such as industrial design, graphic design, fashion design, interior design. Current usage of the visual arts includes fine art as well as the applied, decorative arts and crafts. The distinction was emphasized by artists of the Arts and Crafts Movement, Art schools made a distinction between the fine arts and the crafts, maintaining that a craftsperson could not be considered a practitioner of the arts. The increasing tendency to painting, and to a lesser degree sculpture. The Western hierarchy of genres reflected similar attitudes, training in the visual arts has generally been through variations of the apprentice and workshop systems. Visual arts have now become a subject in most education systems. Drawing is a means of making an image, using any of a variety of tools. Digital tools that simulate the effects of these are also used, the main techniques used in drawing are, line drawing, hatching, crosshatching, random hatching, scribbling, stippling, and blending. An artist who excels in drawing is referred to as a draftsman or draughtsman, drawing goes back at least 16,000 years to Paleolithic cave representations of animals such as those at Lascaux in France and Altamira in Spain. In ancient Egypt, ink drawings on papyrus, often depicting people, were used as models for painting or sculpture, drawings on Greek vases, initially geometric, later developed to the human form with black-figure pottery during the 7th century BC. Painting taken literally is the practice of applying pigment suspended in a carrier, like drawing, painting has its documented origins in caves and on rock faces. The finest examples, believed by some to be 32,000 years old, are in the Chauvet, in shades of red, brown, yellow and black, the paintings on the walls and ceilings are of bison, cattle, horses and deer. Paintings of human figures can be found in the tombs of ancient Egypt, in the great temple of Ramses II, Nefertari, his queen, is depicted being led by Isis. The Greeks contributed to painting but much of their work has been lost, one of the best remaining representations are the hellenistic Fayum mummy portraits. Another example is mosaic of the Battle of Issus at Pompeii, Greek and Roman art contributed to Byzantine art in the 4th century BC, which initiated a tradition in icon painting. Apart from the manuscripts produced by monks during the Middle Ages
4.
Paper
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Paper is a thin material produced by pressing together moist fibres of cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets. It is a material with many uses, including writing, printing, packaging, cleaning. The modern pulp and paper industry is global, with China leading its production, the oldest known archaeological fragments of the immediate precursor to modern paper, date to the 2nd century BC in China. The pulp papermaking process is ascribed to Cai Lun, a 2nd-century AD Han court eunuch, with paper as an effective substitute for silk in many applications, China could export silk in greater quantity, contributing to a Golden Age. Because of papers introduction to the West through the city of Baghdad, in the 19th century, industrial manufacture greatly lowered its cost, enabling mass exchange of information and contributing to significant cultural shifts. In 1844, the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and the German F. G. Keller independently developed processes for pulping wood fibres, before the industrialisation of the paper production the most common fibre source was recycled fibres from used textiles, called rags. The rags were from hemp, linen and cotton, a process for removing printing inks from recycled paper was invented by German jurist Justus Claproth in 1774. Today this method is called deinking and it was not until the introduction of wood pulp in 1843 that paper production was not dependent on recycled materials from ragpickers. The word paper is etymologically derived from Latin papyrus, which comes from the Greek πάπυρος, although the word paper is etymologically derived from papyrus, the two are produced very differently and the development of the first is distinct from the development of the second. Papyrus is a lamination of natural plant fibres, while paper is manufactured from fibres whose properties have changed by maceration. To make pulp from wood, a chemical pulping process separates lignin from cellulose fibres and this is accomplished by dissolving lignin in a cooking liquor, so that it may be washed from the cellulose, this preserves the length of the cellulose fibres. Paper made from chemical pulps are also known as wood-free papers–not to be confused with paper, this is because they do not contain lignin. The pulp can also be bleached to produce paper, but this consumes 5% of the fibres, chemical pulping processes are not used to make paper made from cotton. There are three main chemical pulping processes, the process dates back to the 1840s and it was the dominant method extent before the second world war. Most pulping operations using the process are net contributors to the electricity grid or use the electricity to run an adjacent paper mill. Another advantage is that this process recovers and reuses all inorganic chemical reagents, soda pulping is another specialty process used to pulp straws, bagasse and hardwoods with high silicate content. There are two major mechanical pulps, thermomechanical pulp and groundwood pulp, in the TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into steam heated refiners, where the chips are squeezed and converted to fibres between two steel discs. In the groundwood process, debarked logs are fed into grinders where they are pressed against rotating stones to be made into fibres
5.
Two-dimensional space
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In physics and mathematics, two-dimensional space is a geometric model of the planar projection of the physical universe. The two dimensions are commonly called length and width, both directions lie in the same plane. A sequence of n numbers can be understood as a location in n-dimensional space. When n =2, the set of all locations is called two-dimensional space or bi-dimensional space. Each reference line is called an axis or just axis of the system. The coordinates can also be defined as the positions of the projections of the point onto the two axes, expressed as signed distances from the origin. The idea of system was developed in 1637 in writings by Descartes and independently by Pierre de Fermat. Both authors used a single axis in their treatments and have a length measured in reference to this axis. The concept of using a pair of axes was introduced later, after Descartes La Géométrie was translated into Latin in 1649 by Frans van Schooten and these commentators introduced several concepts while trying to clarify the ideas contained in Descartes work. Later, the plane was thought of as a field, where any two points could be multiplied and, except for 0, divided and this was known as the complex plane. The complex plane is called the Argand plane because it is used in Argand diagrams. These are named after Jean-Robert Argand, although they were first described by Norwegian-Danish land surveyor, Argand diagrams are frequently used to plot the positions of the poles and zeroes of a function in the complex plane. In mathematics, analytic geometry describes every point in space by means of two coordinates. Two perpendicular coordinate axes are given which cross each other at the origin and they are usually labeled x and y. Another widely used system is the polar coordinate system, which specifies a point in terms of its distance from the origin. In two dimensions, there are infinitely many polytopes, the polygons, the first few regular ones are shown below, The Schläfli symbol represents a regular p-gon. The regular henagon and regular digon can be considered degenerate regular polygons and they can exist nondegenerately in non-Euclidean spaces like on a 2-sphere or a 2-torus. There exist infinitely many non-convex regular polytopes in two dimensions, whose Schläfli symbols consist of rational numbers and they are called star polygons and share the same vertex arrangements of the convex regular polygons
6.
Graphite
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Graphite, archaically referred to as plumbago, is a crystalline form of carbon, a semimetal, a native element mineral, and one of the allotropes of carbon. Graphite is the most stable form of carbon under standard conditions, therefore, it is used in thermochemistry as the standard state for defining the heat of formation of carbon compounds. Highly ordered pyrolytic graphite or more correctly highly oriented pyrolytic graphite refers to graphite with a spread between the graphite sheets of less than 1°. The name graphite fiber is sometimes used to refer to carbon fibers or carbon fiber-reinforced polymer. Graphite occurs in rocks as a result of the reduction of sedimentary carbon compounds during metamorphism. It also occurs in rocks and in meteorites. Minerals associated with graphite include quartz, calcite, micas and tourmaline, in meteorites it occurs with troilite and silicate minerals. Small graphitic crystals in meteoritic iron are called cliftonite, Graphite is not mined in the United States, but U. S. production of synthetic graphite in 2010 was 134 kt valued at $1.07 billion. Graphite has a layered, planar structure, the individual layers are called graphene. In each layer, the atoms are arranged in a honeycomb lattice with separation of 0.142 nm. Atoms in the plane are bonded covalently, with three of the four potential bonding sites satisfied. The fourth electron is free to migrate in the plane, making graphite electrically conductive, however, it does not conduct in a direction at right angles to the plane. Bonding between layers is via weak van der Waals bonds, which allows layers of graphite to be easily separated, the two known forms of graphite, alpha and beta, have very similar physical properties, except for that the graphene layers stack slightly differently. The alpha graphite may be flat or buckled. The alpha form can be converted to the form through mechanical treatment. The acoustic and thermal properties of graphite are highly anisotropic, since phonons propagate quickly along the tightly-bound planes, graphites high thermal stability and electrical and thermal conductivity facilitate its widespread use as electrodes and refractories in high temperature material processing applications. However, in oxygen containing atmospheres graphite readily oxidizes to form CO2 at temperatures of 700 °C, Graphite is an electric conductor, consequently, useful in such applications as arc lamp electrodes. It can conduct electricity due to the vast electron delocalization within the carbon layers and these valence electrons are free to move, so are able to conduct electricity
7.
Pencil
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Pencils create marks by physical abrasion, leaving behind a trail of solid core material that adheres to a sheet of paper or other surface. They are distinct from pens, which instead disperse a trail of liquid or gel ink that stains the light colour of the paper, most pencil cores are made of graphite mixed with a clay binder which leaves grey or black marks that can be easily erased. Other types of core are less widely used, such as charcoal pencils. Grease pencils have a softer, crayon-like waxy core that can leave marks on smooth surfaces such as glass or porcelain, the most common type of pencil casing is of thin wood, usually hexagonal in section but sometimes cylindrical, permanently bonded to the core. Similar permanent casings may be constructed of materials such as plastic or paper. To use the pencil, the casing must be carved or peeled off to expose the working end of the core as a sharp point, mechanical pencils have more elaborate casings which support mobile pieces of pigment core that can be extended or retracted through the casing tip as needed. Pencil, from Old French pincel, from Latin penicillus a little tail originally referred to a fine brush of camel hair. Though the archetypal pencil was a brush, the stylus, a thin metal stick used for scratching in papyrus or wax tablets, was used extensively by the Romans. The meaning of writing implement apparently evolved late in the 16th century. Prior to 1565, a deposit of graphite was discovered on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria. This particular deposit of graphite was pure and solid. This remains the only deposit of graphite ever found in this solid form. Chemistry was in its infancy and the substance was thought to be a form of lead. Many people have the misconception that the graphite in the pencil is lead, the words for pencil in German, Irish, Arabic, and other languages literally mean lead pen. The value of graphite was soon realised to be enormous, mainly because it could be used to line the moulds for cannonballs, when sufficient stores of graphite had been accumulated, the mines were flooded to prevent theft until more was required. Graphite had to be smuggled out for use in pencils, because graphite is soft, it requires some form of encasement. Graphite sticks were initially wrapped in string or sheepskin for stability, the news of the usefulness of these early pencils spread far and wide, attracting the attention of artists all over the known world. England continued to enjoy a monopoly on the production of pencils until a method of reconstituting the graphite powder was found, the distinctively square English pencils continued to be made with sticks cut from natural graphite into the 1860s
8.
Pen
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A pen is a writing implement used to apply ink to a surface, such as paper, for writing or drawing. Historically, reed pens, quill pens, and dip pens were used, ruling pens allow precise adjustment of line width, and still find a few specialized uses, but technical pens such as the Rapidograph are more commonly used. Modern types also include ballpoint, rollerball, fountain, and felt or ceramic tip pens, the ink dries almost immediately on contact with paper. The ballpoint pen is usually reliable and comes in both inexpensive and expensive types and it has replaced the fountain pen as the most common tool for everyday writing. A rollerball pen dispenses a water-based liquid or gel ink through a ball tip similar to that of a ballpoint pen, the less-viscous ink is more easily absorbed by paper than oil-based ink, and the pen moves more easily across a writing surface. The rollerball pen was designed to combine the convenience of a ballpoint pen with the smooth wet ink effect of a fountain pen. A fountain pen uses water-based liquid ink delivered through a nib, the ink flows from a reservoir through a feed to the nib, then through the nib, due to capillary action and gravity. The nib has no moving parts and delivers ink through a slit to the writing surface. A fountain pen reservoir can be refillable or disposable, this type being an ink cartridge. A pen with a refillable reservoir may have a mechanism, such as a piston, to ink from a bottle through the nib. Refill reservoirs, also known as cartridge converters, are available for some pens which use disposable cartridges, a marker, or felt-tip pen, has a porous tip of fibrous material. The smallest, finest-tipped markers are used for writing on paper, medium-tip markers are often used by children for coloring and drawing. Larger markers are used for writing on other such as corrugated boxes, whiteboards and for chalkboards. Markers with wide tips and bright but transparent ink, called highlighters, are used to mark existing text, markers designed for children or for temporary writing typically use non-permanent inks. Large markers used to label shipping cases or other packages are usually permanent markers, a dip pen usually has no ink reservoir and must be repeatedly recharged with ink while drawing or writing. The dip pen has certain advantages over a fountain pen, dip pens are now mainly used in illustration, calligraphy, and comics. The ink brush is the writing implement in East Asian calligraphy. The body of the brush can be made from bamboo, or rarer materials such as red sandalwood, glass, ivory, silver
9.
Paint
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Paint is any liquid, liquefiable, or mastic composition that, after application to a substrate in a thin layer, converts to a solid film. It is most commonly used to protect, color, or provide texture to objects, Paint can be made or purchased in many colors—and in many different types, such as watercolor, synthetic, etc. Paint is typically stored, sold, and applied as a liquid, in 2001 and 2004, South African archeologists reported finds in Blombos Cave of a 100, 000-year-old human-made ochre-based mixture that could have been used like paint. Further excavation in the cave resulted in the 2011 report of a complete toolkit for grinding pigments. Cave paintings drawn with red or yellow ochre, hematite, manganese oxide, ancient colored walls at Dendera, Egypt, which were exposed for years to the elements, still possess their brilliant color, as vivid as when they were painted about 2,000 years ago. The Egyptians mixed their colors with a substance, and applied them separately from each other without any blending or mixture. They appear to have used six colors, white, black, blue, red, yellow and they first covered the area entirely with white, then traced the design in black, leaving out the lights of the ground color. They used minium for red, and generally of a dark tinge, pliny mentions some painted ceilings in his day in the town of Ardea, which had been done prior to the foundation of Rome. He expresses great surprise and admiration at their freshness, after the lapse of so many centuries, Paint was made with the yolk of eggs and therefore, the substance would harden and adhere to the surface it was applied to. Pigment was made from plants, sand, and different soils, Most paints used either oil or water as a base. The process was done by hand by the painters and exposed them to lead poisoning due to the white-lead powder, in 1718, Marshall Smith invented a Machine or Engine for the Grinding of Colours in England. It is not known precisely how it operated, but it was a device that increased the efficiency of pigment grinding dramatically. By the proper onset of the Industrial Revolution, paint was being ground in steam-powered mills, interior house painting increasingly became the norm as the 19th century progressed, both for decorative reasons and because the paint was effective in preventing the walls rotting from damp. Linseed oil was also used as an inexpensive binder. In 1866, Sherwin-Williams in the United States opened as a large paint-maker and it was not until the stimulus of World War II created a shortage of linseed oil in the supply market that artificial resins, or alkyds, were invented. Cheap and easy to make, they held the color well. The vehicle is composed of the binder, or, if it is necessary to thin the binder with a diluent like solvent or water, it is the combination of binder + diluent. In this case, once the paint has dried or cured very nearly all of the diluent has evaporated, thus, an important quantity in coatings formulation is the vehicle solids, sometimes called the resin solids of the formula
10.
Ink
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Ink is a liquid or paste that contains pigments or dyes and is used to color a surface to produce an image, text, or design. Ink is used for drawing or writing with a pen, brush, thicker inks, in paste form, are used extensively in letterpress and lithographic printing. Ink can be a medium, composed of solvents, pigments, dyes, resins, lubricants, solubilizers, surfactants, particulate matter, fluorescents. The components of inks serve many purposes, the carrier, colorants. Pigments are solid, opaque particles suspended in ink to provide color, pigment molecules typically link together in crystalline structures that are 0. 1–2 µm in size and comprise 5–30 percent of the ink volume. Qualities such as hue, saturation, and lightness vary depending on the source, dye-based inks are generally much stronger than pigment-based inks and can produce much more color of a given density per unit of mass. However, because dyes are dissolved in the phase, they have a tendency to soak into paper, making the ink less efficient. To circumvent this problem, dye-based inks are made with solvents that dry rapidly or are used with quick-drying methods of printing, other methods include harder paper sizing and more specialized paper coatings. The latter is particularly suited to inks used in non-industrial settings, another technique involves coating the paper with a charged coating. If the dye has the charge, it is attracted to and retained by this coating. Cellulose, the material most paper is made of, is naturally charged. Such a compound is used in ink-jet printing inks. A more recent development in dye-based inks are dyes that react with cellulose to permanently color the paper, such inks are not affected by water, alcohol, and other solvents. As such, their use is recommended to prevent frauds that involve removing signatures and this kind of ink is most commonly found in gel inks and in certain fountain pen inks. Many ancient cultures around the world have discovered and formulated inks for the purposes of writing and drawing. The knowledge of the inks, their recipes and the techniques for their production comes from archaeological analysis or from written text itself. Evidence for the earliest Chinese inks, similar to modern inksticks, is around 256 BC in the end of the Warring States period and produced from soot, the best inks for drawing or painting on paper or silk are produced from the resin of the pine tree. They must be between 50 and 100 years old, the Chinese inkstick is produced with a fish glue, whereas Japanese glue is from cow or stag
11.
Brush
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A brush is a tool with bristles, wire or other filaments, used for cleaning, grooming hair, make up, painting, surface finishing and for many other purposes. It is one of the most basic and versatile tools known to mankind, and it generally consists of a handle or block to which filaments are affixed either parallel- or perpendicular-wise, depending on the way the brush is to be gripped during use. The material of both the block and bristles or filaments is chosen to withstand hazards of its application, such as corrosive chemicals, heat or abrasion. The staple can be replaced with a kind of anchor, which is a piece of rectangular profile wire that is anchored to the wall of the hole, configurations include twisted-in wire, cylinders and disks. The action of these brushes is mainly in the tip of each flexible bristle which dislodges particles of matter, broom The action of such brushes is mostly from the sides, not the tip, contact with which releases material held by capillary action. Certain varieties of hairbrush are however designed to brush the scalp itself free of such as dead skin. Hair brush Dog-grooming brush Cat fur brush Brush, used on electrical motors Drum stick#Brushes Magnetic brush Stippling brush Medical sampling brush Brushes used for cleaning come in various sizes. They vary in size ranging from that of a toothbrush, to the standard household version accompanied by a dustpan, there are brushes for cleaning tiny cracks and crevices and brushes for cleaning enormous warehouse floors. Brushes perform a multitude of cleaning tasks, specific brushes are used for diverse activities from cleaning vegetables, as a toilet brush, washing glass, cleaning tiles, and as a mild abrasive for sanding. Wire brush Hairbrush Ink brush Pastry brush Test tube brush The Grove Encyclopedia of Materials and Techniques in Art, ISBN 978-0-19-531391-8 Glossary of Brush Terms
12.
Colored pencil
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A colored pencil, coloured pencil or pencil crayon is an art medium constructed of a narrow, pigmented core encased in a wooden cylindrical case. Unlike graphite and charcoal pencils, colored pencils’ cores are wax- or oil-based and contain varying proportions of pigments, additives, water-soluble pencils and pastel pencils are also manufactured as well as colored leads for mechanical pencils. Rising popularity of colored pencils as an art medium sparked the beginning of the Colored Pencil Society of America, according to its website, “ was founded in 1990 as a nonprofit organization dedicated to artists over 18 years of age working with colored pencil”. The CPSA not only promotes colored pencil art as fine art, other countries such as United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia and Mexico – among many others – have formed their own organizations and societies for colored pencil artists. In Canada, colored pencils are known as pencil crayons, or, Colored pencils are commonly stored in pencil cases to prevent damage. The history of the pencil is not entirely clear. The use of wax-based mediums in crayons is well-documented, however, and can be traced back to the Greek Golden Age, wax-based materials have appealed to artists for centuries due to their resistance to decay, the vividness and brilliance of their colors, and their unique rendering qualities. Although colored pencils had been used for “checking and marking” for decades prior, manufacturers that began producing artist-grade colored pencils included Faber-Castell in 1908 and Caran d’Ache in 1924, followed by Berol Prismacolor in 1938. Other notable manufacturers include Blick Studio, Bruynzeel-Sakura, Cretacolor, Derwent, Holbein, Koh-i-Noor Hardtmuth, Lyra, Mitsubishi, Schwan-Stabilo, several types of colored pencils are manufactured for both artistic and practical uses. Artist-grade pencils are filled with higher concentrations of high-quality pigments than student-grade colored pencils and their lightfastness – resistance to UV rays in sunlight – is also measured and documented. Core durability, break and water resistance, and brand popularity are also features of artist-grade colored pencils. Artist-grade pencils have the largest color ranges,72 color sets are very common and they are also typically available as individual pencils. Many of the companies that produce artist-grade colored pencils also offer student-grade materials. Lightfastness rating is not included in student- and scholastic-grade colored pencils. Core composition and pigment-binder ratio vary among artist- and student-grade colored pencils even when the company produces them. As they are intended for different users, student- and scholastic-grade colored pencils lack the high quality pigments, also their color range is smaller, most often limited to 24 or 36 colors. Using lower grade colored pencils does have its advantages, however, some companies offer erasable colored pencils for beginning artists to experiment with. Also, due to their lower prices, student-grade colored pencils are ideal for elementary
13.
Crayon
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A crayon is a stick of colored wax, charcoal, chalk or other material used for writing or drawing. A crayon made of pigment with a dry binder is a pastel, a grease pencil or Chinese marker is made of colored hardened grease. There are also watercolor crayons, sometimes called water-soluble crayons, Crayons are available at a range of prices and are easy to work with. They are less messy than most paints and markers, blunt, typically nontoxic and these characteristics make them particularly good instruments for teaching small children to draw in addition to being used widely by student and professional artists. In the modern English-speaking world, the term crayon is commonly associated with the wax crayon. Such crayons are usually approximately 3.5 inches in length, paraffin wax is heated and cooled to achieve the correct temperature in which a usable wax substance can be dyed and then manufactured and shipped for use around the world. Paraffin waxes are used for cosmetics, candles, for the preparation of printing ink, fruit preserving, in the industry, for lubricating purposes. Colin Snedeker, a chemist for Binney & Smith, developed the first washable crayons in response to complaints regarding stained fabrics. A patent for the washable solid marking composition utilized in the washable crayons was awarded to Snedeker in 1990, the history of the crayon is not entirely clear. The word crayon dates to 1644, coming from crale and the Latin word creta, the notion to combine a form of wax with pigment actually goes back thousands of years. Encaustic painting is a technique that uses hot beeswax combined with colored pigment to bind color into stone, a heat source was then used to burn in and fix the image in place. Pliny the Elder, a Roman scholar, was thought to describe the first techniques of wax crayon drawings and this method, employed by the Egyptians, Romans, Greeks and even indigenous people in the Philippines, is still used today. However, the process wasnt used to make crayons into a form intended to be held, contemporary crayons are purported to have originated in Europe where some of the first cylinder shaped crayons were made with charcoal and oil. Pastels are an art medium having roots with the modern crayon, conté crayons, out of Paris, are a hybrid between a pastel and a conventional crayon, used since the late 1790s as a drawing crayon for artists. Later, various hues of powdered pigment eventually replaced the primary charcoal ingredient found in most early 19th century product, references to crayons in literature appear as early as 1813 in Jane Austens Pride and Prejudice. Joseph Lemercier, considered by some of his contemporaries to be the soul of lithography, was one of the founders of the modern crayon. Through his Paris business circa 1828 he produced a variety of crayon, but even as those in Europe were discovering that substituting wax for the oil strengthened the crayon, various efforts in the United States were also developing. The initial era of wax crayons saw a number of companies and products competing for the lucrative education, Binney & Smith Company developed their own famous line of wax crayons beginning on June 10,1903
14.
Charcoal (art)
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These charcoals are often used by artists for their versatile properties such as the rough texture that leaves marks less permanent than other art media. It can produce lines that are light or intensely black while being easily removable and vulnerable to leave stains on paper. The dry medium can be applied to almost any surface from smooth to a very coarse, fixatives are often used with charcoal drawings to solidify the positions to prevent erasing or rubbing off of charcoal dusts. The method to create artists charcoal is similar to that of charcoal used throughout different types of fields such as producing gunpowder. Therefore the type of material and preparation method allows different variation of charcoal to be produced. There are various types and uses of charcoal as an art medium, but the commonly used types are, Compressed, Vine, Compressed charcoal is shaped into a block or form of a stick. Intensity of the shade is determined by hardiness, the amount of gum or wax binders used during the production process affects the hardiness. Soft hardiness leaves intensely black markings while Hard hardiness leave light markings, Vine charcoal is a long and thin piece of charcoal stick that is the result of burning sticks or vines in a kiln without air. The removable properties of charcoal from dusting and erasing is favored by artists for making preliminary sketches or basic composition. This also makes vine charcoal less suitable for creating detailed images, Charcoal pencils are compressed charcoals that are wrapped with a layer of wood. The design of charcoal pencils are similar to that of graphite pencils while keeping intact with the properties of charcoal, often used for fine and crisp detailed drawings while keeping the users hand from being marked during its use. Other types of artists such as charcoal crayons were developed during the 19th century. Charcoal powders are used to create patterns and pouncing, a method of patterns from one surface to another. There are variation of each types of charcoal that range in shading. Production from different companies varies due to materials that are included such as clay. Paper used with artists charcoal can vary in quality, rough texture may allow more charcoal to adhere to the paper. The use of toned paper allows different possibilities as white oil pastels can be used in combination with charcoal to create contrast and it is a method in which thin, dark lines are continuously placed parallel to each-other. When done with charcoal, it comes out smoother and darker, rubbing is done with a sheet of paper pressed against the targeted surface then rubbing charcoal against the paper
15.
Sidewalk chalk
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Sidewalk chalk is typically large colored sticks of chalk mostly used for drawing on pavement or concrete sidewalks. A single piece of chalk is called a schibel and it is sometimes used by children to draw a four square court or a hopscotch board. There are several different types of chalk, typically coming in solid-colored sticks. 3-D sidewalk chalk sets, in each stick of chalk is created with two particular colors that appear 3-dimensional when viewed through the 3-D glasses that come with the chalk. Sidewalk chalk can be cheaply homemade, sidewalk chalk is used at some universities to advertise for events, especially where there is much concrete. Prohibitions are set for where students can chalk, usually limiting it to areas that will be washed away with rain, some teachers promote use of sidewalk chalk on a carpet as an interactive teaching tool. On September 16–17,2006, an event was held to promote peace through sidewalk chalk drawings. Designated areas on sidewalks, pavement, and concrete were used for the participants to draw on while volunteers took pictures of the street paintings. Aaron used his own money and donations to provide sidewalk chalk to areas of the world that he believed did not have access to good quality chalk, there are many competitions for chalk artists, including the Pavement Art Competition in the Bold Street Festival in Liverpool in 2010. The largest sidewalk chalk festival in the world is the Pasadena Chalk Festival, held annually in Pasadena, the 2010 edition involved about six hundred artists of all ages and skills and attracted more than 100,000 visitors. Artists such as Kurt Wenner, Ellis Gallagher and Julian Beever have created intricate and realistic street paintings using the chalk and it is typical for sidewalk chalk artists to use anamorphic drawing when drawing with sidewalk chalk. Nonanamorphic drawing are drawings that are drawn to be observed face-on, all I had to do was color them and then fill in the pool inside…I was so impressed with the result… that I had to do more. Sidewalk Sam was well known in the Boston area for his reproductions of European masterpieces, busker Alley - videos of sidewalk artists with chalks and paints Gallery of sidewalk chalk art drawn by children Drawing on Earth Worlds Largest Chalk Drawing Pasadena Chalk Festival-official site
16.
Pastel
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A pastel is an art medium in the form of a stick, consisting of pure powdered pigment and a binder. The pigments used in pastels are the same as used to produce all colored art media, including oil paints. The color effect of pastels is closer to the natural dry pigments than that of any other process, Pastels have been used by artists since the Renaissance, and gained considerable popularity in the 18th century, when a number of notable artists made pastel their primary medium. An artwork made using pastels is called a pastel, Pastel used as a verb means to produce an artwork with pastels, as an adjective it means pale in color. Pastel sticks or crayons consist of powdered pigment combined with a binder. The exact composition and characteristics of an individual pastel stick depends on the type of pastel and it also varies by individual manufacturer. Dry pastels have historically used binders such as gum arabic and gum tragacanth, methyl cellulose was introduced as a binder in the twentieth century. Often a chalk or gypsum component is present and they are available in varying degrees of hardness, the softer varieties being wrapped in paper. Some pastel brands use pumice in the binder to abrade the paper, dry pastel media can be subdivided as follows, Soft pastels, This is the most widely used form of pastel. The sticks have a portion of pigment and less binder. The drawing can be readily smudged and blended, but it results in a proportion of dust. White chalk may be used as a filler in producing pale, Pan Pastels, These are formulated with a minimum of binder in flat compacts and applied with special Soft micropore sponge tools. A 21st-century invention, Pan Pastels can be used for the painting or in combination with soft. Hard pastels, These have a portion of binder and less pigment. These can be used with other pastels for drawing outlines and adding accents, hard pastels are traditionally used to create the preliminary sketching out of a composition. However, the colors are brilliant and are available in a restricted range in contrast to soft pastels. Pastel pencils, These are pencils with a pastel lead and they are useful for adding fine details. In addition, pastels using a different approach to manufacture have been developed, Oil pastels, These have a soft, buttery consistency and they are dense and fill the grain of paper and are slightly more difficult to blend than soft pastels, but do not require a fixative
17.
Eraser
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An eraser, is an article of stationery that is used for removing writing from paper. Erasers have a consistency and come in a variety of shapes, sizes. Some pencils have an eraser on one end, less expensive erasers are made from synthetic rubber, but more expensive or specialized erasers are vinyl, plastic, or gum-like materials. Cheaper erasers can be out of synthetic soy-based gum. Erasers were initially made for pencil markings, but more abrasive ink erasers were later introduced, the term is also used for things that remove writing from chalkboards and whiteboards. Before rubber erasers, tablets of wax were used to lead or charcoal marks from paper. Bits of rough stone such as sandstone or pumice were used to small errors from parchment or papyrus documents written in ink. Crustless bread was used as an eraser in the past, a Meiji-era Tokyo student said, Bread erasers were used in place of rubber erasers, so we thought nothing of taking these and eating a firm part to at least slightly satisfy our hunger. In 1770 English engineer Edward Nairne is reported to have developed the first widely marketed rubber eraser, until that time the material was known as gum elastic or by its Native American name caoutchouc. Nairne sold natural rubber erasers for the price of three shillings per half-inch cube. According to Nairne, he picked up a piece of rubber instead of breadcrumbs, discovered rubbers erasing properties. The invention was described by Joseph Priestley on April 15,1770, in a footnote and it is sold by Mr. Nairne, Mathematical Instrument-Maker, opposite the Royal-Exchange. In 1770 the word rubber was in use for any object used for rubbing. In 1839 Charles Goodyear discovered the process of vulcanization, a method that would cure rubber, rubber erasers became common with the advent of vulcanization. On March 30,1858, Hymen Lipman of Philadelphia, USA and it was later invalidated because it was determined to be simply a composite of two devices rather than an entirely new product. Erasers may be free-standing blocks, or conical caps that can slip onto the end of a pencil, a barrel or click eraser is a device shaped like a pencil, but instead of being filled with pencil lead, its barrel contains a retractable cylinder of eraser material. Many, but not all, wooden pencils are made with attached erasers, novelty erasers made in shapes intended to be amusing are often made of hard vinyl, which tends to smear heavy markings when used as an eraser. Originally made from rubber, but now usually from cheaper SBR, this type contains mineral fillers
18.
Marker pen
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A marker pen, fineliner, marking pen, felt-tip marker, felt-tip pen, flow, marker or texta or sketch pen, is a pen which has its own ink-source, and a tip made of porous, pressed fibers such as felt. A permanent marker consists of a container and a core of an absorbent material and this filling serves as a carrier for the ink. The upper part of the marker contains the nib that was made in time of a hard felt material. Until the early 1990s the most common solvents that were used for the ink were toluene and xylene and these two substances are both harmful and characterized by a very strong smell. Today, the ink is made on the basis of alcohols. Markers may be waterproof, dry-erase, or permanent which will be expanded on in this article. Lee Newman patented a felt-tipped marking pen in 1910, in 1926 Benjamin Paskach patented a fountain paintbrush as he called it which consisted of a sponge-tipped handle containing various paint colors. Markers of this began to be popularized with the sale of Sidney Rosenthals Magic Marker which consisted of a glass tube of ink with a felt wick. By 1958 use of felt-tipped markers was commonplace for a variety of such as lettering, labeling. The year 1962 brought the development of the modern fiber-tipped pen by Yukio Horie of the Tokyo Stationery Company, the marker reservoir, which holds the ink, is formed from polyester. The felt used for the tip is made of highly compressed synthetic fibers or porous ceramics. Toluol and xylol were used as solvents for the dye and are used for the indelible ink in permanent markers. Due to their toxicity, they have often replaced with less critical substances such as alkyl or cyclic alkylene carbonates in other types of markers. Water content of the ink can be up to 10%, besides solvents, and the dye itself, the ink may contain additives and preservatives. Permanent markers are porous pens that can write on surfaces such as glass, plastic, wood, metal, the ink is generally resistant to rubbing and water, and can last for many years. Depending on the surface and the used, however, the marks can often be removed with either vigorous scrubbing or chemicals such as acetone. Highlighters are a form of used to highlight and cover over existing writing while still leaving the writing readable. They are generally produced in neon colours to allow for colour coding and they are designed so that the user is able to easily erase the marks using either a damp cloth, tissue, handkerchief, baby wipe, or other easily cleaned or disposable items
19.
Stylus
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A stylus, plural styli or styluses, is a writing utensil, or a small tool for some other form of marking or shaping, for example in pottery. It can also be an accessory that is used to assist in navigating or providing more precision when using touchscreens. It usually refers to a narrow elongated staff, similar to a ballpoint pen. Many styluses are heavily curved to be more easily. Another widely used writing tool is the used by blind users in conjunction with the slate for punching out the dots in Braille. Styluses were first used by the ancient Mesopotamians in order to write in cuneiform, cuneiform was entirely based on the wedge-shaped mark that the end of a cut reed made when pushed into a clay tablet, from Latin cuneus = wedge. The linear nature of the writing was also dictated by the use of the stylus, in Western Europe styluses were widely used until the late Middle Ages. For learning purposes the stylus was gradually replaced by a writing slate, from the mid-14th century improved water-powered paper mills produced large and cheap quantities of paper and the wax tablet and stylus disappeared completely from daily life. A different suggestion is that the word does not derive from the Greek word στῦλος and it signifies, An iron instrument, resembling a pencil in size and shape, used for writing upon waxed tablets. Thus, vertere stilum means to erase, and hence to correct, there exists minor controversy about the correct pluralization of stylus. Some assert that stylus is a loanword from Latin and should be pluralised as styli. However, stylus is an English word based on the Latin word stilus, occasionally the pluralisation stylii is seen. Styluses are still used in arts and crafts. Example situations, rubbing off dry transfer letters, tracing designs onto a new surface with carbon paper, styluses are also used to engrave into materials like metal or clay. Styluses are used to make dots as found in folk art, oaxaca dot art is created using styluses. In the sound recording industry, a stylus is a phonograph or gramophone needle used to play back sound on gramophone records, several technologies were used to record the sounds, beginning with wax cylinders, almost half a century before the invention of the magnetic cartridge. Nowadays mostly vinyl records are used, when playing the record, the stylus is placed in the grooves of the record. By then spinning the record, the start to vibrate caused by the shape of the grooves
20.
Silverpoint
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Silverpoint is a traditional drawing technique first used by medieval scribes on manuscripts. A silverpoint drawing is made by dragging a silver rod or wire across a surface, Silverpoint is one of several types of metalpoint used by scribes, craftsmen and artists since ancient times. Metalpoint styli were used for writing on soft surfaces, ruling and underdrawing on parchment, for drawing purposes, the essential metals used were lead, tin and silver. The softness of these made them effective drawing instruments. Goldsmiths also used metalpoint drawings to prepare their detailed, meticulous designs, Albrecht Dürers father was one such craftsman who later taught his young son to draw in metalpoint, to such good effect that his 1484 self-portrait at age 13 is still considered a masterpiece. In the late Gothic/early Renaissance era, silverpoint emerged as a line drawing technique. Not blunting as easily as lead or tin, and rendering precise detail, silverpoint was especially favored in Florentine, Silverpoint drawings of this era include model books and preparatory sheets for paintings. Artists who worked in silverpoint include Jan van Eyck, Leonardo da Vinci, Albrecht Dürer, cennino Cenninis Il Libro dellArte provides a window on the practice of silver and leadpoint drawing, as well as preparing metalpoint grounds, in the late 14th century. Susan Dorothea Whites recent book Draw Like Da Vinci describes the silverpoint technique of Leonardo da Vinci, as noted by Francis Ames-Lewis, drawing styles changed at the end of the 16th century, resulting in a decline for metalpoint. The discovery of deposits at Seathwaite in Borrowdale, Cumbria, England, in the early 1500s and its increasing availability to artists in a pure. Artists sought more gestural qualities, for which graphite, red, ink and wash drawings are also prevalent in the period. In addition, these other drawing techniques required less effort and were more forgiving than silver, furthermore, the preparation of silverpoint supports, usually with hide glue with finely ground bone ash, was labor-intensive. Modern practitioners use zinc, titanium white tempera or marble dust as a ground, natural chalks and charcoal have the advantage of producing immediate results on uncoated papers. Dutch artists Hendrik Goltzius and Rembrandt maintained the silverpoint tradition into the 17th century, Rembrandt made several silverpoints on prepared vellum, the best-known being the portrait of his wife Saskia,1633. Silverpoint was for practical purposes rendered obsolete by the 18th century, Joseph Meder, Alphonse Legros, the Pre-Raphaelites and Joseph Stella helped revitalize the technique. Art historian Meder created interest in the technique in Austria and Germany, while artist. In the early 20th century, Stella was one of the few American artists working in this method on the East Coast of the United States, Stella explored the technique on zinc white gouache prepared grounds, often with crayon and other media. Stellas silverpoint oevre includes the 1921 portrait of Marcel Duchamp, with a bit too much flesh. ”An exhibit, The Fine Line, Drawing with Silver in America was curated for the Norton Museum of Art, in 1985 by Bruce Weber
21.
Computer
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A computer is a device that can be instructed to carry out an arbitrary set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. The ability of computers to follow a sequence of operations, called a program, such computers are used as control systems for a very wide variety of industrial and consumer devices. The Internet is run on computers and it millions of other computers. Since ancient times, simple manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing calculations, early in the Industrial Revolution, some mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century, the first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during World War II. The speed, power, and versatility of computers has increased continuously and dramatically since then, conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit, and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing, peripheral devices include input devices, output devices, and input/output devices that perform both functions. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and this usage of the term referred to a person who carried out calculations or computations. The word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century, from the end of the 19th century the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, a machine that carries out computations. The Online Etymology Dictionary gives the first attested use of computer in the 1640s, one who calculates, the Online Etymology Dictionary states that the use of the term to mean calculating machine is from 1897. The Online Etymology Dictionary indicates that the use of the term. 1945 under this name, theoretical from 1937, as Turing machine, devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick, later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers. The use of counting rods is one example, the abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was developed from used in Babylonia as early as 2400 BC. Since then, many forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, the Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest mechanical analog computer, according to Derek J. de Solla Price. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions and it was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to circa 100 BC
22.
Touchscreen
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A touchscreen is a input and output device normally layered on the top of an electronic visual display of an information processing system. A user can give input or control the processing system through simple or multi-touch gestures by touching the screen with a special stylus and/or one or more fingers. Some touchscreens use ordinary or specially coated gloves to work while others may only work using a special stylus/pen, the user can use the touchscreen to react to what is displayed and to control how it is displayed, for example, zooming to increase the text size. The touchscreen enables the user to interact directly with what is displayed, rather using a mouse, touchpad. Touchscreens are common in such as game consoles, personal computers, tablet computers, electronic voting machines, point of sale systems. They can also be attached to computers or, as terminals and they also play a prominent role in the design of digital appliances such as personal digital assistants and some e-readers. The popularity of smartphones, tablets, and many types of appliances is driving the demand and acceptance of common touchscreens for portable. The application of technology for air traffic control was described in an article published in 1968. Frank Beck and Bent Stumpe, engineers from CERN, developed a transparent touchscreen in the early 1970s, then manufactured by CERN, it was put to use in 1973. A resistive touchscreen was developed by American inventor George Samuel Hurst, the first version was produced in 1982. This arrangement can sense any fingertip-sized opaque object in close proximity to the screen, a similar touchscreen was used on the HP-150 starting in 1983, this was one of the worlds earliest commercial touchscreen computers. HP mounted their infrared transmitters and receivers around the bezel of a 9 Sony Cathode Ray Tube, in 1984, Fujitsu released a touch pad for the Micro 16, to deal with the complexity of kanji characters, which were stored as tiled graphics. In 1985, Sega released the Terebi Oekaki, also known as the Sega Graphic Board, for the SG-1000 video game console and it consisted of a plastic pen and a plastic board with a transparent window where the pen presses are detected. It was used primarily for a software application. A graphic touch tablet was released for the Sega AI Computer in 1986, touch-sensitive Control-Display Units were evaluated for commercial aircraft flight decks in the early 1980s. In 1985, the University of Toronto group including Bill Buxton developed a tablet that used capacitance rather than bulky camera-based optical sensing systems. In 1986, the first graphical point of sale software was demonstrated on the 16-bit Atari 520ST color computer and it featured a color touchscreen widget-driven interface. In 1987, Casio launched the Casio PB-1000 pocket computer with a touchscreen consisting of a 4x4 matrix, until 1988 touchscreens had the bad reputation of being imprecise
23.
Touchpad
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Touchpads are a common feature of laptop computers, and are also used as a substitute for a mouse where desk space is scarce. Because they vary in size, they can also be found on personal digital assistants, wireless touchpads are also available as detached accessories. Touchpads operate in one of several ways, including capacitive sensing, the most common technology used as of 2010 entails sensing the capacitive virtual ground effect of a finger, or the capacitance between sensors. Capacitance-based touchpads will not sense the tip of a pencil or other similar implement, gloved fingers may also be problematic. While touchpads, like touchscreens, are able to sense absolute position, resolution is limited by their size, hardware buttons equivalent to a standard mouses left and right buttons are positioned below, above, or beside the touchpad. Some touchpads and associated device driver software may interpret tapping the pad as a click, Tactile touchpads allow for clicking and dragging by incorporating button functionality into the surface of the touchpad itself. To select, one presses down on the touchpad instead of a physical button, to drag, instead performing the click-and-a-half technique, one presses down while on the object, drags without releasing pressure and lets go when done. Touchpad drivers can also allow the use of fingers to facilitate the other mouse buttons. Some touchpads have hotspots, locations on the used for functionality beyond a mouse. Many touchpads use two-finger dragging for scrolling, also, some touchpad drivers support tap zones, regions where a tap will execute a function, for example, pausing a media player or launching an application. All of these functions are implemented in the device driver software. By 1982 Apollo desktop computers were equipped with a touchpad on the side of the keyboard. Introduced a year later, the Gavilan SC included a touchpad above its keyboard, a touchpad was first developed for Psions MC 200/400/600/WORD Series in 1989. Olivetti and Triumph-Adler introduced the first laptops with touchpad in 1992. Cirque introduced the first widely available touchpad, branded as GlidePoint, in 1994. Apple Inc introduced touchpads to the laptop in the PowerBook series in 1994, using Cirque’s GlidePoint technology. Another early adopter of the GlidePoint pointing device was Sharp, later, Synaptics introduced their touchpad into the marketplace, branded the TouchPad. Epson was an early adopter of this product, as touchpads began to be introduced in laptops in the 1990s, there was often confusion as to what the product should be called. No consistent term was used, and references varied, such as, glidepoint, touch sensitive input device, touchpad, trackpad, users were often presented the option to purchase a pointing stick, touchpad, or trackball
24.
Computer mouse
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A computer mouse is a pointing device that detects two-dimensional motion relative to a surface. This motion is typically translated into the motion of a pointer on a display, physically, a mouse consists of an object held in ones hand, with one or more buttons. Mice often also other elements, such as touch surfaces and wheels. The earliest known publication of the mouse as referring to a computer pointing device is in Bill Englishs July 1965 publication. The plural for the rodent is always mice in modern usage. The plural of a mouse is mouses and mice according to most dictionaries. The first recorded usage is mice, the online Oxford Dictionaries cites a 1984 use. The trackball, a pointing device, was invented in 1944 by Ralph Benjamin as part of a World War II-era fire-control radar plotting system called Comprehensive Display System. Benjamin was then working for the British Royal Navy Scientific Service, Benjamins project used analog computers to calculate the future position of target aircraft based on several initial input points provided by a user with a joystick. Benjamin felt that a more elegant input device was needed and invented what they called a ball for this purpose. The device was patented in 1947, but only a prototype using a ball rolling on two rubber-coated wheels was ever built, and the device was kept as a military secret. Another early trackball was built by British electrical engineer Kenyon Taylor in collaboration with Tom Cranston, Taylor was part of the original Ferranti Canada, working on the Royal Canadian Navys DATAR system in 1952. DATAR was similar in concept to Benjamins display, the trackball used four disks to pick up motion, two each for the X and Y directions. When the ball was rolled, the pickup discs spun and contacts on their outer rim made periodic contact with wires, by counting the pulses, the physical movement of the ball could be determined. A digital computer calculated the tracks and sent the data to other ships in a task force using pulse-code modulation radio signals. This trackball used a standard Canadian five-pin bowling ball and it was not patented, since it was a secret military project. Douglas Engelbart of the Stanford Research Institute has been credited in published books by Thierry Bardini, Paul Ceruzzi, Howard Rheingold, Engelbart was also recognized as such in various obituary titles after his death in July 2013. That November, while attending a conference on computer graphics in Reno, Nevada, Engelbart began to ponder how to adapt the underlying principles of the planimeter to X-Y coordinate input
25.
Paperboard
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Paperboard is a thick paper-based material. While there is no differentiation between paper and paperboard, paperboard is generally thicker than paper. According to ISO standards, paperboard is a paper with a grammage above 224 g/m2, Paperboard can be single- or multi-ply. Paperboard can be cut and formed, is lightweight. Another end-use would be graphic printing, such as book and magazine covers or postcards, sometimes it is referred to as cardboard, which is a generic, lay term used to refer to any heavy paper pulp–based board. Paperboard is also used in fine arts for creating sculptures, in 1817, the first paperboard carton was produced in England. Folding cartons first emerged around the 1860s and were shipped flat to save space,1879 saw the development of mechanical die cutting and creasing of blanks. In 1911 the first kraft sulphate mill was built in Florida and in 1915 the gable top milk carton was patented, ovenable paperboard was introduced in 1974. Terminology and classifications of paperboard are not always uniform, differences occur depending on specific industry, locale, and personal choice. It is the covering over the corrugating medium. Other Binders board – a paperboard used in bookbinding for making hardcovers, pulp board are produced on pulping machines that can handle higher grammage and several plies. The above-mentioned fibrous material can come from fresh sources or from recycled waste paper. Around 90% of virgin paper is made from wood pulp and it is now mandatory in many countries for paper-based packaging to be manufactured wholly or partially from recycled material. Raw materials include, Hardwood, Ca.0.05 inches in length e. g. Birch which has short fibres and it is generally more difficult to work with, however, it does provide higher tensile strength, but lower tear and other strength properties. Although its fibres are not as long and strong as those in softwood, Hardwood fibres fill the sheet better and therefore make a smoother paper that is more opaque and better for printing. Hardwood makes an excellent corrugating medium, softwood, Ca.0.13 inches in length e. g. Pine and spruce which have typically long fibres and make superior paperboard in services where strength is important. Recycled, Used paper is collected and sorted and usually mixed with virgin fibres in order to new material. This is necessary as the recycled fibre often loses strength when reused, mixed waste paper is not usually deinked for paperboard manufacture and hence the pulp may contain traces of inks, adhesives, and other residues which together give it a grey colour
26.
Leather
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Leather is a durable and flexible material created by tanning animal rawhide and skin, often cattle hide. It can be produced at manufacturing scales ranging from cottage industry to heavy industry, people use leather to make various goods—including clothing, bookbinding, leather wallpaper, and as a furniture covering. It is produced in a variety of types and styles. Several tanning processes transform hides and skins into leather, Chrome-tanned leather, invented in 1858, is tanned using chromium sulfate and it is more supple and pliable than vegetable-tanned leather and does not discolor or lose shape as drastically in water as vegetable-tanned. It is also known as wet-blue for its color derived from the chromium, more exotic colors are possible when using chrome tanning. The chrome tanning method usually only takes a day to finish, and it is reported that chrome-tanned leather adds up to 80% of the global leather supply. Vegetable-tanned leather is tanned using tannins and other found in different vegetable matter, such as tree bark prepared in bark mills, wood, leaves, fruits. It is supple and brown in color, with the exact shade depending on the mix of chemicals and it is the only form of leather suitable for use in leather carving or stamping. Vegetable-tanned leather is not stable in water, it tends to discolor, so if left to soak and then dried it shrinks, in hot water, it shrinks drastically and partly congeals—becoming rigid, and eventually brittle. Boiled leather is an example of this, where the leather has been hardened by being immersed in hot water, historically, it was occasionally used as armour after hardening, and it has also been used for book binding. Aldehyde-tanned leather is tanned using glutaraldehyde or oxazolidine compounds and this is the leather that most tanners refer to as wet-white leather due to its pale cream or white color. It is the type of chrome-free leather, often seen in shoes for infants. Formaldehyde tanning is another aldehyde tanning method, brain-tanned leathers fall into this category, and are exceptionally water absorbent. Brain tanned leathers are made by a process that uses emulsified oils, often those of animal brains such as deer, cattle. They are known for their softness and washability. Chamois leather also falls into the category of aldehyde tanning, and like brain tanning, produces a porous, chamois leather is made using marine oils that oxidize easily to produce the aldehydes that tan the leather to color it. Rose-tanned leather is a variation of oil tanning and brain tanning. Rose-tanned leather tanned leaves a powerful rose fragrance even years from when it is manufactured and it has been called the most valuable leather on earth, but this is mostly due to the high cost of rose otto and its labor-intensive tanning process
27.
Canvas
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Canvas is an extremely durable plain-woven fabric used for making sails, tents, marquees, backpacks, and other items for which sturdiness is required. It is also used by artists as a painting surface. It is also used in such objects as handbags, electronic device cases. The word canvas is derived from the 13th century Anglo-French canevaz, both may be derivatives of the Vulgar Latin cannapaceus for made of hemp, originating from the Greek κάνναβις. Modern canvas is made of cotton or linen, although. It differs from other cotton fabrics, such as denim. Canvas comes in two types, plain and duck. The threads in duck canvas are more tightly woven, the term duck comes from the Dutch word for cloth, doek. In the United States, canvas is classified in two ways, by weight and by a number system. The numbers run in reverse of the weight so a number 10 canvas is lighter than number 4, canvas has become the most common support medium for oil painting, replacing wooden panels. One of the earliest surviving oils on canvas is a French Madonna with angels from around 1410 in the Gemäldegalerie, however, panel painting remained more common until the 16th century in Italy and the 17th century in Northern Europe. Mantegna and Venetian artists were among those leading the change, Venetian sail canvas was readily available, as lead-based paint is poisonous, care has to be taken in using it. Early canvas was made of linen, a sturdy brownish fabric of considerable strength, linen is particularly suitable for the use of oil paint. In the early 20th century, cotton canvas, often referred to as cotton duck, linen is composed of higher quality material, and remains popular with many professional artists, especially those who work with oil paint. Cotton duck, which stretches more fully and has an even, mechanical weave, the advent of acrylic paint has greatly increased the popularity and use of cotton duck canvas. Linen and cotton derive from two different plants, the flax plant and the cotton plant, respectively. Gessoed canvases on stretchers are also available and they are available in a variety of weights, light-weight is about 4 oz or 5 oz, medium-weight is about 7 oz or 8 oz, heavy-weight is about 10 oz or 12 oz. They are prepared with two or three coats of gesso and are ready for use straight away, artists desiring greater control of their painting surface may add a coat or two of their preferred gesso
28.
Lumber
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Lumber, or timber is wood that has been processed into beams and planks, a stage in the process of wood production. Lumber may also refer to currently un-needed furniture, as in Lumber room, or an awkward gait, ultimately derived from the look of unfashionable, Lumber may be supplied either rough-sawn, or surfaced on one or more of its faces. Besides pulpwood, rough lumber is the raw material for furniture-making and it is available in many species, usually hardwoods, but it is also readily available in softwoods, such as white pine and red pine, because of their low cost. Lumber is mainly used for structural purposes but has other uses as well. It is classified more commonly as a softwood than as a hardwood, in Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and Britain, the term timber describes sawn wood products, such as floor boards. In the United States and Canada, generally timber describes standing or felled trees, before they are milled into boards, Timber there also describes sawn lumber not less than 5 inches in its smallest dimension. The latter includes the often partly finished lumber used in timber-frame construction, remanufactured lumber is the result of secondary or tertiary processing/cutting of previously milled lumber. Specifically, it is cut for industrial or wood-packaging use. Lumber is cut by ripsaw or resaw to create dimensions that are not usually processed by a primary sawmill, resawing is the splitting of 1-inch through 12-inch hardwood or softwood lumber into two or more thinner pieces of full-length boards. For example, splitting a ten-foot 2×4 into two ten-foot 1×4s is considered resawing, structural lumber may also be produced from recycled plastic and new plastic stock. Its introduction has been opposed by the forestry industry. Blending fiberglass in plastic lumber enhances its strength, durability, logs are converted into timber by being sawn, hewn, or split. Sawing with a rip saw is the most common method, because sawing allows logs of lower quality, with grain and large knots. There are various types of sawing, Plain sawn —A log sawn through without adjusting the position of the log, quarter sawn and rift sawn—These terms have been confused in history but generally mean lumber sawn so the annual rings are reasonably perpendicular to the sides of the lumber. Boxed heart—The pith remains within the piece with some allowance for exposure, heart center—the center core of a log. Free of heart center —A side-cut timber without any pith, free of knots —No knots are present. Dimensional lumber is lumber that is cut to standardized width and depth, carpenters extensively use dimensional lumber in framing wooden buildings. Common sizes include 2×4, 2×6, and 4×4, the length of a board is usually specified separately from the width and depth
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Blackboard
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A blackboard is a reusable writing surface on which text or drawings are made with sticks of calcium sulfate or calcium carbonate, known, when used for this purpose, as chalk. Blackboards were originally made of smooth, thin sheets of black or dark grey slate stone, a blackboard can simply be a piece of board painted with matte dark paint. Black plastic sign material, using the trade name sintra is also used to create custom chalkboard art, a more modern variation consists of a coiled sheet of plastic drawn across two parallel rollers, which can be scrolled to create additional writing space while saving what has been written. The highest grade blackboards are made of a rougher version porcelain enamelled steel, porcelain is very hard wearing and blackboards made of porcelain usually last 10–20 years in intensive use. Manufacturing of slate blackboards began by the 1840s, green chalkboards, generally made of porcelain enamel on a steel base, first appeared in the 1960s. Lecture theatres may contain a number of blackboards in a grid arrangement, the lecturer then moves boards into reach for writing and then moves them out of reach, allowing a large amount of material to be shown simultaneously. The chalk marks can be wiped off with a damp cloth. However, chalk marks made on some types of wet blackboard can be difficult to remove, sticks of processed chalk are produced especially for use with blackboards in white and also in various colours. These are often not from chalk rock but from calcium sulfate in its dihydrate form. Chalk sticks containing calcium carbonate typically contain 40-60% of CaCO3, as compared to whiteboards, blackboards have a variety of advantages, Chalk requires no special care, whiteboard markers must be capped or else they dry out. Chalk is an order of magnitude cheaper than whiteboard markers for a amount of writing. It is easier to draw lines of different weights and thicknesses with chalk than with whiteboard markers, dashed lines can be drawn very quickly using a technique involving the friction of the chalk and blackboard. Chalk has a smell, whereas whiteboard markers often have a pungent odor. Chalk writing often provides better contrast than whiteboard markers, Chalk can be easily erased, writing which has been left on a whiteboard for a prolonged period may require a solvent to remove. Chalk can be removed from most clothing, whiteboard markers often permanently stain fabric. On the other hand, chalk produces dust, the amount depending on the quality of chalk used, the dust also precludes the use of chalk in areas shared with dust-sensitive equipment such as computers. The writing on chalkboards is difficult to read in the dark, Chalk sticks are notorious for shrinking through use, and breaking in half unless inserted in a writing utensil designed to store chalk. According to a run by Michael Oehler, a professor at the University of Media and Communication in Cologne, Germany
30.
Whiteboard
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A whiteboard is any glossy, usually white surface for nonpermanent markings. Whiteboards are analogous to blackboards, but with a surface allowing rapid marking and erasing of markings on their surface. The popularity of whiteboards increased rapidly in the mid-1990s and they have become a fixture in many offices, meeting rooms, school classrooms, the term whiteboard is also used metaphorically to refer to features of computer software applications that simulate whiteboards. Such virtual whiteboards allow one or more people to write or draw images on a simulated canvas and this is a common feature of many virtual meeting, collaboration, and instant messaging applications. The term whiteboard is used to refer to interactive whiteboards. According to one account, whiteboards were invented by Martin Heit, when he accidentally marked a photographic negative with a marker and tried to wipe it off, he realized the marker ink came off very easily. He created a whiteboard with a similar to that found on photographic negatives. The night before he was set to unveil his invention at a trade show, rather than create another prototype, he sold his patent to Dri-Mark. The second account is that Albert Stallion invented whiteboards while working at Alliance in the 1960s, Alliance produced enameled steel for architectural cladding, but Stallion noted it could also potentially be used as a writing surface. Stallion later left Alliance to form his own production company. Whiteboards became commercially available in the early 1960s, but did not become widely used until 40 years later, early whiteboards needed to be wiped with a damp cloth and markers had a tendency to leave marks behind, even after erasing the board. Dry-erase markers for whiteboards were invented in 1975, whiteboards started becoming commonly used by businesses in the early 1990s. They became more common in classrooms during the 1990s due to concerns over health problems in children with dust allergies, by the late 1990s, about 21% of American classrooms had converted from chalkboards to whiteboards. The first whiteboards were very expensive and were made of an enameled steel, cheaper versions were then produced, including laminated chipboard, high-pressure laminates and steel boards with a white, usually polyester or acrylic, coating. Enameled whiteboards, also referred to as porcelain, and sometimes glass boards, have the advantage that markings can be erased completely, clear marker surfaces, made of glass or specially coated acrylic, became available around the mid-2000s. They are generally manufactured from technical glass, e. g. for monitor screen filters, whiteboard material can be bought in rolls, sheets, and pre-formed boards. Adhesive whiteboards come in either a sheet or a roll and feature a stick back enabling the user to create a custom size board or project with the material. Adhesive whiteboards allow for custom projects such as dry erase wall calendars, whiteboard tables, cupboard grocery lists, indoor games for kids, the whiteboard pen was invented by Jerry Woolf of Techform Laboratories and later patented by Pilot Pen in 1975
31.
Illustration
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The origin of the word “illustration” is late Middle English, via Old French from Latin illustratio, from the verb illustrate. Contemporary illustration uses a range of styles and techniques, including drawing, painting, printmaking, collage, montage, digital design, multimedia. Most illustrators work on a freelance basis, depending on the purpose, illustration may be expressive, stylised, realistic or highly technical. This may include exploded views, cutaways, fly-throughs, reconstructions, instructional images, component designs, in contemporary illustration practice, 2D and 3D software is often used to create accurate representations that can be updated easily, and reused in a variety of contexts. In the art world, illustration has at times been considered of less importance than graphic design, original illustration art has been known to attract high prices at auction. The US artist Norman Rockwells painting Breaking Home Ties sold in a 2006 Sothebys auction for USD15.4 million, many other illustration genres are equally valued, with pinup artists such as Gil Elvgren and Alberto Vargas, for example, also attracting high prices. Historically, the art of illustration is closely linked to the processes of printing and publishing. The illustrations of medieval codices were known as illuminations, and were hand drawn. With the invention of the press during the 15th century, books became more widely distributed. Subjects included traditional folk tales, popular figures and every day life, hokusai’s The Great Wave of Kanazawa is a famous image of the time. During the 16th and 17th centuries in Europe, the main reproduction processes for illustration were engraving and etching, in 18th Century England, a notable illustrator was William Blake, who used relief etching. By the early 19th century, the introduction of lithography substantially improved reproduction quality, in Europe, notable figures of the early 19th Century were John Leech, George Cruikshank, Dickens illustrator Hablot Knight Browne, and, in France, Honoré Daumier. All contributed to both satirical and “serious” publications, at this time, there was a great demand for caricature drawings encapsulating social mores, types and classes. Although all fine art trained, their reputations were gained primarily as illustrators, in common with similar magazines such as the Parisian Le Voleur, Punch realised good illustration sold as well as good text. With publication continuing into the 21st Century, Punch chronicles a gradual shift in popular illustration, from the early 1800s newspapers, mass market magazines, and illustrated books had become the dominant consumer media in Europe and the New World. By the 19th Century, improvements in printing technology freed illustrators to experiment with color, in America, this led to a golden age of illustration from before the 1880s until the early 20th Century. A small group of illustrators became highly successful, with the imagery they created considered a portrait of American aspirations of the time
32.
Traditional animation
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Traditional animation is an animation technique where each frame is drawn by hand. The technique was the dominant form of animation in cinema until the advent of computer animation, Animation productions begin by deciding on a story. The oral or literary source material must then be converted into a film script. The storyboard has a somewhat similar to a comic book, and it shows the sequence of shots as consecutive sketches that also indicate transitions, camera angles. The images allow the team to plan the flow of the plot. The storyboard artists will have meetings with the director and may have to redraw or re-board a sequence many times before it meets final approval. Before true animation begins, a soundtrack or scratch track is recorded. A completed cartoon soundtrack will feature music, sound effects, often, an animatic or story reel is made after the soundtrack is created, but before full animation begins. An animatic typically consists of pictures of the storyboard synchronized with the soundtrack and this allows the animators and directors to work out any script and timing issues that may exist with the current storyboard. The storyboard and soundtrack are amended if necessary, and a new animatic may be created and reviewed with the director until the storyboard is perfected, advertising agencies today employ the use of animatics to test their commercials before they are made into full up spots. Animatics use drawn artwork, with moving pieces, video storyboards are similar to animatics but do not have moving pieces. Photomatics are another option when creating test spots, but instead of using drawn artwork, there is a shoot in which hundreds of digital photographs are taken. The large amount of images to choose from may make the process of creating a test commercial a bit easier, as opposed to creating an animatic, because changes to drawn art take time and money. Photomatics generally cost more than animatics, as they may require a shoot, however, the emergence of affordable stock photography and image editing software permits the inexpensive creation of photomatics using stock elements and photo composites. Once the animatic has been approved, it and the storyboards are sent to the design departments, character designers prepare model sheets for all important characters and props in the film, these are used to help standardize appearance, poses, and gestures. These model sheets will show how a character or object looks from a variety of angles with a variety of poses, sometimes, small statues known as maquettes may be produced, so that an animator can see what a character looks like in three dimensions. While design is going on, the director takes the animatic and analyzes exactly what poses, drawings. An exposure sheet is created, this is a table that breaks down the action, dialogue
33.
Architectural drawing
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An architectural drawing or architects drawing is a technical drawing of a building that falls within the definition of architecture. Architectural drawings are made according to a set of conventions, which include particular views, sheet sizes, units of measurement and scales, annotation and cross referencing. Conventionally, drawings were made in ink on paper or a similar material, the twentieth century saw a shift to drawing on tracing paper, so that mechanical copies could be run off efficiently. Today the vast majority of drawings are created using CAD software, the size of drawings reflects the materials available and the size that is convenient to transport – rolled up or folded, laid out on a table, or pinned up on a wall. The draughting process may impose limitations on the size that is realistically workable, sizes are determined by a consistent paper size system, according to local usage. Normally the largest paper size used in architectural practice is ISO A0 or in the USA Arch E or Large E size. Architectural drawings are drawn to scale, so that relative sizes are correctly represented, the scale is chosen both to ensure the whole building will fit on the chosen sheet size, and to show the required amount of detail. At the scale of one eighth of an inch to one foot or the metric equivalent 1 to 100, walls are typically shown as simple outlines corresponding to the overall thickness. At a larger scale, half an inch to one foot or the nearest common metric equivalent 1 to 20, construction details are drawn to a larger scale, in some cases full size. Scale drawings enable dimensions to be read off the drawing, i. e. measured directly, imperial scales are equally readable using an ordinary ruler. On a one-eighth inch to one foot scale drawing, the divisions on the ruler can be read off as feet. Architects normally use a ruler with different scales marked on each edge. A third method, used by builders in estimating, is to measure directly off the drawing, dimensions can be measured off drawings made on a stable medium such as vellum. All processes of reproduction introduce small errors, especially now that different copying methods mean that the drawing may be re-copied. Consequently, dimensions need to be written on the drawing, the disclaimer Do not scale off dimensions is commonly inscribed on architects drawings, to guard against errors arising in the copying process. This section deals with the conventional views used to represent a building or structure, see the Types of architectural drawing section below for drawings classified according to their purpose. Technically it is a section cut through a building, showing walls, windows and door openings. The plan view includes anything that could be seen below that level, objects above the plan level can be indicated as dashed lines
34.
Engineering drawing
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An engineering drawing, a type of technical drawing, is used to fully and clearly define requirements for engineered items. More than merely the drawing of pictures, it is also a language—a graphical language that communicates ideas, most especially, it communicates all needed information from the engineer, who designed a part, to the workers, who will make it. Engineering drawing and artistic drawing are both types of drawing, and either may be called simply drawing when the context is implicit, Engineering drawing shares some traits with artistic drawing in that both create pictures. But whereas the purpose of drawing is to convey emotion or artistic sensitivity in some way. Engineering drawing uses a set of conventions to convey information very precisely. Engineering drawing is a type of technique which is used to fully and clearly defined requirements for engineered items, Engineering drawing is one of the best ways to communicate one idea easily to other person. Persons employed in the trade of producing engineering drawings were called draftsmen in the past, although these terms are still in use, the non-gender-specific terms draftsperson and drafter are now more common. The various fields share many common conventions of drawing, while also having some field-specific conventions, each of these trades has some details that only specialists will have memorized. An engineering drawing is a document, because it communicates all the needed information about what is wanted to the people who will expend resources turning the idea into a reality. It is thus a part of a contract, the purchase order, thus, if the resulting product is wrong, the worker or manufacturer are protected from liability as long as they have faithfully executed the instructions conveyed by the drawing. If those instructions were wrong, it is the fault of the engineer and this is the biggest reason why the conventions of engineering drawing have evolved over the decades toward a very precise, unambiguous state. Engineering drawings specify requirements of a component or assembly which can be complicated, standards provide rules for their specification and interpretation. In 2011, a new revision of ISO8015 was published containing the Invocation Principle and this states that, Once a portion of the ISO geometric product specification system is invoked in a mechanical engineering product documentation, the entire ISO GPS system is invoked. It also goes on to state that marking a drawing Tolerancing ISO8015 is optional, the implication of this is that any drawing using ISO symbols can only be interpreted to ISO GPS rules. The only way not to invoke the ISO GPS system is to invoke a national or other standard, now in 2015 there is a new standardisation called BS8888, this is now used for all standard and technical drawings. Since there are two widely standardized definitions of size, there is only one real alternative to ISO GPS, i. e. ASME Y14.5. Standardization also aids internationalization, because people from different countries who speak different languages can read the same engineering drawing, to that end, drawings should be as free of notes and abbreviations as possible so that the meaning is conveyed graphically. The manufacturing of a technical drawing however is as difficult as the production of the design it describes
35.
Technical drawing
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Technical drawing, drafting or drawing, is the act and discipline of composing drawings that visually communicate how something functions or is constructed. Technical drawing is essential for communicating ideas in industry and engineering, to make the drawings easier to understand, people use familiar symbols, perspectives, units of measurement, notation systems, visual styles, and page layout. Together, such conventions constitute a language and help to ensure that the drawing is unambiguous. Many of the symbols and principles of drawing are codified in an international standard called ISO128. The need for communication in the preparation of a functional document distinguishes technical drawing from the expressive drawing of the visual arts. Artistic drawings are subjectively interpreted, their meanings are multiply determined, Technical drawings are understood to have one intended meaning. A drafter, draftsperson, or draughtsman is a person who makes a drawing, a professional drafter who makes technical drawings is sometimes called a drafting technician. Professional drafting is a desirable and necessary function in the design and manufacture of mechanical components. Professional draftspersons bridge the gap between engineers and manufacturers and contribute experience and technical expertise to the design process, the basic drafting procedure is to place a piece of paper on a smooth surface with right-angle corners and straight sides—typically a drawing board. A sliding straightedge known as a T-square is then placed on one of the sides, allowing it to be slid across the side of the table, parallel lines can be drawn simply by moving the T-square and running a pencil or technical pen along the T-squares edge. The T-square is used to other devices such as set squares or triangles. Modern drafting tables come equipped with a machine that is supported on both sides of the table to slide over a large piece of paper. Because it is secured on both sides, lines drawn along the edge are guaranteed to be parallel, in addition, the drafter uses several technical drawing tools to draw curves and circles. Primary among these are the compasses, used for drawing simple arcs and circles, a spline is a rubber coated articulated metal that can be manually bent to most curves. Drafting templates assist the drafter with creating recurring objects in a drawing without having to reproduce the object from scratch every time. Templates are sold commercially by a number of vendors, usually customized to a specific task and this basic drafting system requires an accurate table and constant attention to the positioning of the tools. A common error is to allow the triangles to push the top of the T-square down slightly, thereby throwing off all angles. Even tasks as simple as drawing two angled lines meeting at a point require a number of moves of the T-square and triangles and these machines often included the ability to change the angle, thereby removing the need for the triangles as well
36.
Sketch (drawing)
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A sketch is a rapidly executed freehand drawing that is not usually intended as a finished work. Sketches can be made in any drawing medium, the term is most often applied to graphic work executed in a dry medium such as silverpoint, graphite, pencil, charcoal or pastel. But it may apply to drawings executed in pen and ink, ballpoint pen, water colour. The latter two are referred to as water colour sketches and oil sketches. A sculptor might model three-dimensional sketches in clay, plasticine or wax, sketching is generally a prescribed part of the studies of art students. This generally includes making sketches from a model whose pose changes every few minutes. Underdrawing is drawing underneath the work, which may sometimes still be visible. Most visual artists use, to a greater or lesser degree, the term sketchbook refers to a book of blank paper on which an artist can, drawn sketches. The book might be purchased bound or might comprise loose leaves of sketches assembled or bound together, the ability to quickly record impressions through sketching has found varied purposes in todays culture. Courtroom sketches record scenes and individuals in law courts, Sketches drawn to help authorities find or identify wanted people are called composite sketches. Street artists in popular tourist areas sketch portraits within minutes, doodle Multi-Sketch Etch A Sketch, a toy Urban Sketchers This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed. Media related to Sketches at Wikimedia Commons
37.
Drafter
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A drafter, draughtsman or draftsman, drafting technician is a person who makes detailed technical drawings or plans for machinery, buildings, electronics, infrastructure, sections, etc. Drafters use software and manual sketches to convert the designs, plans, drafters operate as the supporting developers and sketch engineering designs and drawings from preliminary design concepts. In the past, drafters sat at drawing boards and used pencils, pens, compasses, protractors, triangles, and other drafting devices to prepare a drawing by hand. From the 1980s through 1990s, board drawings were going out of style as the newly developed computer-aided design system was released and was able to produce technical drawings at a faster pace. Many modern drafters operate computer-assisted drafting equipment and software such as AutoCAD, Vectorworks, Revit, or Solidworks, consequently, drafters may also be casually referred to as CAD operators, engineering draftspersons, or engineering technicians. With CAD systems, drafters can create and store drawings electronically so that they can be viewed, printed, CAD systems also permit drafters to quickly prepare variations of a design. Although drafters use CAD extensively, it is only a tool, drafters still need knowledge of traditional drafting techniques, in addition to CAD skills. Despite the near global use of CAD systems, manual drafting and sketching are used in certain applications, drafters drawings provide visual guidelines and show how to construct a product or structure. Drawings include technical details and specify dimensions, materials, and procedures, drafters fill in technical details using drawings, rough sketches, specifications, and calculations made by engineers, surveyors, architects, or scientists. For example, drafters use their knowledge of standardized building techniques to draw in the details of a structure, drafters use technical handbooks, tables, calculators, and computers to complete their work. Drafting work has many such as, Aeronautical drafters prepare engineering drawings detailing plans and specifications used in the manufacture of aircraft, missiles. Architectural drafters draw architectural and structural features of buildings and other structures and these workers may specialize in a type of structure, such as residential or commercial, or in a kind of material used, such as reinforced concrete, masonry, steel, or timber. Electronics drafters draw wiring diagrams, circuit board assembly diagrams, schematics, and layout used in the manufacture, installation. Process piping or pipeline drafters prepare drawings used in the layout, construction, and operation of oil and gas fields, refineries, chemical plants, and process piping systems. Photovoltaic drafters prepare drawings showing inverter Pad location drawings and slab construction drawings, also prepare specific photovoltaic system assembly details and some wiring diagrams. Drafting technologists and technicians work as part of a broader multidisciplinary engineering team in support of engineers. The position of a drafter is one of an assistant to architects. Drafters usually work in offices, seated at adjustable drawing boards or drafting tables when doing manual drawings and they usually work in an office environment, but some may have to travel and spend time on manufacturing plants or construction sites
38.
Galileo Galilei
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Galileo Galilei was an Italian polymath, astronomer, physicist, engineer, philosopher, and mathematician. He played a role in the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century. Galileo also worked in applied science and technology, inventing an improved military compass, Galileos championing of heliocentrism and Copernicanism was controversial during his lifetime, when most subscribed to either geocentrism or the Tychonic system. He met with opposition from astronomers, who doubted heliocentrism because of the absence of a stellar parallax. He was tried by the Inquisition, found vehemently suspect of heresy and he spent the rest of his life under house arrest. He has been called the father of observational astronomy, the father of modern physics, the father of scientific method, and the father of science. Galileo was born in Pisa, Italy, on 15 February 1564, the first of six children of Vincenzo Galilei, a famous lutenist, composer, and music theorist, and Giulia, three of Galileos five siblings survived infancy. The youngest, Michelangelo, also became a noted lutenist and composer although he contributed to financial burdens during Galileos young adulthood, Michelangelo was unable to contribute his fair share of their fathers promised dowries to their brothers-in-law, who would later attempt to seek legal remedies for payments due. Michelangelo would also occasionally have to borrow funds from Galileo to support his musical endeavours and these financial burdens may have contributed to Galileos early fire to develop inventions that would bring him additional income. When Galileo Galilei was eight, his family moved to Florence and he then was educated in the Vallombrosa Abbey, about 30 km southeast of Florence. Galileo Bonaiuti was buried in the church, the Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence. It was common for mid-sixteenth century Tuscan families to name the eldest son after the parents surname, hence, Galileo Galilei was not necessarily named after his ancestor Galileo Bonaiuti. The Italian male given name Galileo derives from the Latin Galilaeus, meaning of Galilee, the biblical roots of Galileos name and surname were to become the subject of a famous pun. In 1614, during the Galileo affair, one of Galileos opponents, in it he made a point of quoting Acts 1,11, Ye men of Galilee, why stand ye gazing up into heaven. Despite being a genuinely pious Roman Catholic, Galileo fathered three children out of wedlock with Marina Gamba and they had two daughters, Virginia and Livia, and a son, Vincenzo. Their only worthy alternative was the religious life, both girls were accepted by the convent of San Matteo in Arcetri and remained there for the rest of their lives. Virginia took the name Maria Celeste upon entering the convent and she died on 2 April 1634, and is buried with Galileo at the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence. Livia took the name Sister Arcangela and was ill for most of her life, Vincenzo was later legitimised as the legal heir of Galileo and married Sestilia Bocchineri
39.
Monochrome
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Monochrome describes paintings, drawings, design, or photographs in one color or values of one color. A monochromatic object or image reflects colors in shades of limited colors or hues, images using only shades of grey are called grayscale or black-and-white. However, scientifically speaking, monochromatic light refers to light of a narrow band of wavelengths. In computing, monochrome has two meanings, it may mean having only one color which is either on or off, a monochrome computer display is able to display only a single color, often green, amber, red or white, and often also shades of that color. In film photography, monochrome is typically the use of black-and-white film, originally, all photography was done in monochrome. Although color photography was possible even in the late 19th century, easily used color films, if the red channel is eliminated and the green and blue combined then the effect will be similar to that of orthochromatic film or the use of a cyan filter on panchromatic film. The selection of weighting thus allows a range of artistic expression in the final monochromatic image. For production of an image the original color stereogram source may first be reduced to monochrome in order to simplify the rendering of the image. This is sometimes required in cases where an image would render in a confusing manner given the colors and patterns present in the source image. In physics, monochromatic light is electromagnetic radiation of a single frequency, even very controlled sources such as lasers operate in a range of frequencies. In practice, filtered light, diffraction grating separated light and laser light are all referred to as monochromatic. Often light sources can be compared and one be labeled as “more monochromatic”
40.
Underdrawing
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Underdrawing is a preparatory drawing done on a painting ground before paint is applied, for example, an imprimatura or an underpainting. Underdrawing was used extensively by 15th century painters like Jan van Eyck and these artists underdrew with a brush, using hatching strokes for shading, using water-based black paint, before underpainting and overpainting with oils. Cennino DAndrea Cennini describes a different type of underdrawing, made with graded tones rather than hatching, infrared reflectography and spectroscopic analysis of paintings Drawsketches. How to Draw step by step How to Draw with steps
41.
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
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Toulouse-Lautrec is among the best-known painters of the Post-Impressionist period, with Cézanne, Van Gogh and Gauguin. In a 2005 auction at Christies auction house, La Blanchisseuse, his painting of a young laundress, sold for US$22.4 million. The last part of his name means he was a member of an aristocratic family and his younger brother was born in 1867, but died the following year. After the death of his brother, Henris parents separated and a nanny ended up taking care of him, at the age of eight, Henri went to live with his mother in Paris where he drew sketches and caricatures in his exercise workbooks. The family quickly realised that Henris talents lay in drawing and painting, a friend of his father, René Princeteau, visited sometimes to give informal lessons. Some of Henris early paintings are of horses, a speciality of Princeteau, in 1875, Toulouse-Lautrec returned to Albi because his mother had concerns about his health. He took thermal baths at Amélie-les-Bains and his mother consulted doctors in the hope of finding a way to improve her sons growth, Toulouse-Lautrecs parents, the Comte and Comtesse, were first cousins, and he suffered from congenital health conditions sometimes attributed to a family history of inbreeding. At age 13, Toulouse-Lautrec fractured his right femur, at age 14, he fractured his left. The breaks did not heal properly, modern physicians attribute this to an unknown genetic disorder, possibly pycnodysostosis, or a variant disorder along the lines of osteopetrosis, achondroplasia, or osteogenesis imperfecta. Rickets aggravated by praecox virilism has also been suggested, afterwards, his legs ceased to grow, so that as an adult he was extremely short. He developed an adult-sized torso, while retaining his child-sized legs, additionally, he is reported to have had hypertrophied genitals. Physically unable to participate in many activities enjoyed by males his age and he became an important Post-Impressionist painter, art nouveau illustrator, and lithographer, and, through his works, recorded many details of the late-19th-century bohemian lifestyle in Paris. Toulouse-Lautrec contributed a number of illustrations to the magazine Le Rire during the mid-1890s, after initially failing college entrance exams, he passed his second attempt and completed his studies. Toulouse-Lautrecs mother had high ambitions and, with the aim of her son becoming a fashionable and respected painter and he was drawn to Montmartre, the area of Paris famous for its bohemian lifestyle and the haunt of artists, writers, and philosophers. Studying with Bonnat placed Toulouse-Lautrec in the heart of Montmartre, an area he rarely left over the next 20 years. After Bonnat took a new job, Toulouse-Lautrec moved to the studio of Fernand Cormon in 1882 and studied for a five years. At this time he met Émile Bernard and Vincent van Gogh, Cormon, whose instruction was more relaxed than Bonnats, allowed his pupils to roam Paris, looking for subjects to paint. During this period, Toulouse-Lautrec had his first encounter with a prostitute, which led him to paint his first painting of a prostitute in Montmartre, a woman rumoured to be Marie-Charlet
42.
Figure drawing
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A figure drawing is a drawing of the human form in any of its various shapes and postures using any of the drawing media. The term can refer to the act of producing such a drawing. The degree of representation may range from detailed, anatomically correct renderings to loose. A life drawing is a drawing of the figure from observation of a live model. A figure drawing may be a work of art or a figure study done in preparation for a more finished work such as a painting. Figure drawing is arguably the most difficult subject an artist commonly encounters, the human figure is one of the most enduring themes in the visual arts, and the human figure can be the basis of portraiture, illustration, sculpture, medical illustration, and other fields. Artists take a variety of approaches to drawing the human figure and they may draw from live models or from photographs, from skeletal models, or from memory and imagination. Most instruction focuses on the use of models in life drawing courses, in developing the image, some artists focus on the shapes created by the interplay of light and dark values on the surfaces of the body. For those working without visual reference, proportions commonly recommended in figure drawing are and this can be illustrated to students in the classroom using paper plates to visually demonstrate the length of their bodies. An ideal figure, used for an impression of nobility or grace, is drawn at 8 heads tall, a heroic figure used in the depiction of gods and superheroes is eight-and-a-half heads tall. Most of the length comes from a bigger chest and longer legs. Note that these proportions are most useful for a standing model, poses which introduce foreshortening of various body parts will cause them to differ. The French Salon in the 19th century recommended the use of Conté crayons, erasure was not permitted, instead, the artist was expected to describe the figure in light strokes before making darker, more visible marks. A popular modern technique is the use of a stick, prepared from special vines. The charcoal adheres loosely to the paper, allowing very easy erasure, harder compressed charcoal can produce a more deliberate and precise effect, and graduated tones can be produced by smudging with the fingers or with a cylindrical paper tool called a stump. Graphite pencil is also used for figure drawing. For this purpose artists pencils are sold in formulations, ranging from 9B to 1B. Like charcoal, it can be erased and manipulated using a stump, the artist will often start with graphite pencil to sketch or outline the drawing, then the final line work is done with a pen or brush, with permanent ink
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Cartoonist
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A cartoonist is a visual artist who specializes in drawing cartoons. This work is created for entertainment, political commentary, or advertising. The English satirist and editorial cartoonist William Hogarth, who emerged In the 18th century, has credited with pioneering Western sequential art. His work ranged from realistic portraiture to comic series of pictures called modern moral subjects. Much of his work poked fun at politics and customs. Gillray explored the use of the medium for lampooning and caricature, calling the king, prime ministers and generals to account, while never a professional cartoonist, Benjamin Franklin is credited with having the first cartoon published in an American newspaper. In the 19th century, professional cartoonists such as Thomas Nast introduced other familiar American political symbols, during the 20th century, numerous magazines carried single-panel gag cartoons by such freelance cartoonists as Charles Addams, Irwin Caplan, Chon Day, Clyde Lamb, and John Norment. These were almost always published in black and white, although Colliers often carried cartoons in color, the debut of Playboy introduced full-page color cartoons by Jack Cole, Eldon Dedini, and others. Single-panel cartoonists syndicated to newspapers included Dave Breger, Hank Ketcham, George Lichty, Fred Neher, Irving Phillips, comic strips received widespread distribution to mainstream newspapers by syndicates such as the Universal Press Syndicate, United Media, or King Features. Sunday strips go to a company such as American Color before they are published. Some comic strip creators publish in the press or on the Internet. Comic strip artists may also work in book-length form, creating graphic novels. Both vintage and current strips receive reprints in book collections, the major comic book publishers utilize teams of cartoonists to produce the art. When a consistent artistic style is wanted among different cartoonists, character model sheets may be used as reference, animated cartooning is created for short films, advertising, feature films and television. It is also used in live-action films for dream sequences or opening titles. An animation artist is referred to as an animator rather than a cartoonist. They create motion pictures as well, Animation studios such as DreamWorks Animation, Pixar, Walt Disney Animation Studios, and Blue Sky Studios create CGI or computer-animated films that are more three-dimensional. There are many books of cartoons in both paperback and hardcover, such as the collections of cartoons from The New Yorker, prior to the 1960s, cartoons were mostly ignored by museums and art galleries
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Doodling
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A doodle is a drawing made while a persons attention is otherwise occupied. Despite this, it is not uncommon to see such behaviour with adults, in case it generally is done jovially. Typical examples of doodling are found in notebooks, often in the margins. Other common examples of doodling are produced during long telephone conversations if a pen, popular kinds of doodles include cartoon versions of teachers or companions in a school, famous TV or comic characters, invented fictional beings, landscapes, geometric shapes, patterns and textures. The word doodle first appeared in the early 17th century to mean a fool or simpleton and it may derive from the German Dudeltopf or Dudeldop, meaning simpleton or noodle. It is the origin of the eighteenth century verb to doodle. The modern meaning emerged in the 1930s either from this meaning or from the verb to dawdle, the meaning fool, simpleton is intended in the song title Yankee Doodle, originally sung by British colonial troops prior to the American Revolutionary War. Thus, it acts as a mediator between the spectrum of thinking too much or thinking too little and helps focus on the current situation, alexander Pushkins notebooks are celebrated for their superabundance of marginal doodles, which include sketches of friends profiles, hands, and feet. These notebooks are regarded as a work of art in their own right, full editions of Pushkins doodles have been undertaken on several occasions. Some of Pushkins doodles were animated by Andrei Khrzhanovsky and Yuriy Norshteyn in the 1987 film My Favorite Time, nobel laureate poet Rabindranath Tagore made huge number of doodles in his manuscript. Poet and physician John Keats doodled in the margins of his notes, other literary doodlers have included Samuel Beckett. Mathematician Stanislaw Ulam developed the Ulam spiral for visualization of prime numbers while doodling during a presentation at a mathematics conference. Many American Presidents have been known to doodle during meetings, some doodles and drawings can be found in notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci. Gombrich, E. H. Pleasures of Boredom, Four Centuries of Doodles, in E. H. Gombrich, The Uses of Images, 212-225. Try Doodling To Keep The Brain On Task, Doodling Your Way to a More Mindful Life
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Shading
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Shading refers to depicting depth perception in 3D models or illustrations by varying levels of darkness. There are various techniques of shading including cross hatching where perpendicular lines of varying closeness are drawn in a pattern to shade an area. The closer the lines are together, the darker the area appears, likewise, the farther apart the lines are, the lighter the area appears. Light patterns, such as objects having light and shaded areas, powder shading is a sketching shading method. In this style, the powder and paper stumps are used to draw a picture. The stumping powder is smooth and doesnt have any shiny particles, the paper to be used should have small grains on it so that the powder remains on the paper. Shading is performed during the process by a program called a shader. Shading alters the colors of faces in a 3D model based on the angle of the surface to a source or light sources. The first image below has the faces of the box rendered, edge lines have been rendered here as well which makes the image easier to see. The second image is the same model rendered without edge lines and it is difficult to tell where one face of the box ends and the next begins. The third image has shading enabled, which makes the image more realistic, Shading is also dependent on the lighting used. Usually, upon rendering a scene a number of different lighting techniques will be used to make the look more realistic. Different types of sources are used to give different effects. An ambient light source represents an omni-directional, fixed-intensity and fixed-color light source that affects all objects in the scene equally, upon rendering, all objects in the scene are brightened with the specified intensity and color. This type of source is mainly used to provide the scene with a basic view of the different objects in it. This is the simplest type of lighting to implement and models how light can be scattered or reflected many times producing a uniform effect. Ambient lighting can be combined with ambient occlusion to represent how exposed each point of the scene is and this produces diffuse, non-directional lighting throughout the scene, casting no clear shadows, but with enclosed and sheltered areas darkened. The result is usually similar to an overcast day
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Surrealist techniques
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Surrealism in art, poetry, and literature uses numerous techniques and games to provide inspiration. Many of these are said to free imagination by producing a creative process free of conscious control, the importance of the unconscious as a source of inspiration is central to the nature of surrealism. The Surrealist movement has been a fractious one since its inception, the value and role of the various techniques has been one of many subjects of disagreement. Some Surrealists consider automatism and games to be sources of inspiration only, others consider the items created through automatism to be finished works themselves, needing no further refinement. Aerography is a technique in which a 3-dimensional object is used as a stencil with spraypainting, Automatic drawing Automatic painting Automatic writing Automatic poetry is poetry written using the automatic method. It has probably been the chief surrealist method from the founding of surrealism to the present day, one of the oddest uses of automatic writing by a great writer was that of W. B. His wife, a spiritualist, practised it, and Yeats put large chunks of it into his work, A Vision. Yeats, however, was not a surrealist, Automatic poetry generators exist online, but they do not actually generate automatic poetry in this sense. The Czech writer Bohumil Hrabal used the method of text in his famous book I Served the King of England. One chapter in the book is written as a single sentence, bulletism is shooting ink at a blank piece of paper. The artist can then develop images based on what is seen, a calligramme is a text or poem of a type developed by Guillaume Apollinaire in which the words or letters make up a shape, particularly a shape connected to the subject of the text or poem. Collage is the assemblage of different forms creating a new whole, for example, an artistic collage work may include newspaper clippings, ribbons, bits of colored or hand-made papers, photographs, etc. glued to a solid support or canvas. A coulage is a kind of automatic or involuntary sculpture made by pouring a molten material into cold water. As the material cools it takes on what appears to be a random form, the artist may use a variety of techniques to affect the outcome. This technique is used in the divination process known as ceromancy. Cubomania is a method of making collages in which a picture or image is cut into squares, the technique was first used by the Romanian surrealist Gherasim Luca. Cut-up technique is a form or method in which a text is cut up at random. Decalcomania is a process of spreading thick paint upon a canvas then—while it is still wet—covering it with material such as paper or aluminium foil
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Tracing paper
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Tracing paper is paper made to have low opacity, allowing light to pass through. It was originally developed for architects and design engineers to create drawings which could be copied using the diazo copy process. The original use for drawing and tracing was largely superseded by technologies which do not require copying or manual copying of drawings. The transparency of the paper is achieved by selection of the raw materials. Cellulose fibre forms the basis of the paper, usually from wood species, often, paper contains other filler materials to enhance opacity and print quality. For tracing or translucent paper it is necessary to any material which obstructs the transmission of light. This method produces a translucent and even looking paper over a range of grammages from 42 to over 280 gsm. By making a ‘normal’ sheet of paper and then filling the spaces between the fibres with a material that has the same refractive index as the cellulose and this was a common process adopted in the USA. The product was frequently called Vellum, although this terminology can refer to a range of special papers. Due to the high cost, this method of manufacture has largely disappeared. As with 2, by making a normal sheet of paper, the acid converts some of the cellulose into amyloid form having a gelatinous and impermeable character. When the treated paper is thoroughly washed and dried, the resultant product is stronger than the original paper. Tracing paper is resistant to oil, grease and to a large extent impervious to water, tracing paper is named as such for its ability for an image to be traced onto it. When tracing paper is placed onto a picture, the picture is viewable through the tracing paper. Thus, it easy to find edges in the picture. Pure cellulose fiber is translucent, and it is the air trapped between fibers, that makes paper opaque and looks white, if the fibers are refined and beaten until all the air is taken out, then the resulting sheet will be translucent. Translucent papers are dense and contain up to 10% moisture at 50% humidity and this type of paper is roughly 25% lighter than regular paper. The sizing in production will determine whether it is for laser printer or inkjet/offset printing, tracing paper may be uncoated or coated
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Cave painting
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Cave paintings are painted drawings on cave walls or ceilings, mainly of prehistoric origin, to some 40,000 years ago in Eurasia. The exact purpose of the Paleolithic cave paintings is not known, evidence suggests that they were not merely decorations of living areas since the caves in which they have been found do not have signs of ongoing habitation. They are also located in areas of caves that are not easily accessible. Some theories hold that cave paintings may have been a way of communicating with others, the paintings are remarkably similar around the world, with animals being common subjects that give the most impressive images. Humans mainly appear as images of hands, mostly hand stencils made by blowing pigment on a hand held to the wall. The earliest known cave paintings/drawings of animals are at least 35,000 years old and are found in Pettakere cave on the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia, previously it was believed that the earliest paintings were in Europe. The earliest non-figurative rock art dates back to approximately 40,000 years ago, nearly 340 caves have now been discovered in France and Spain that contain art from prehistoric times. But subsequent technology has made it possible to date the paintings by sampling the pigment itself, the choice of subject matter can also indicate chronology. For instance, the reindeer depicted in the Spanish cave of Cueva de las Monedas places the drawings in the last Ice Age. The oldest date given to a cave painting is now a pig that has a minimum age of 35,400 years old at Pettakere cave in Sulawesi. Indonesian and Australian scientists have dated other non-figurative paintings on the walls to be approximately 40,000 years old, the method they used to confirm this was dating the age of the stalactites that formed over the top of the paintings. The art is similar in style and method to that of the Indonesian caves as there were also hand stencils and this date coincides with the earliest known evidence for Homo sapiens in Europe. Because of the cave arts age, some scientists have conjectured that the paintings may have made by Neanderthals. The earliest known European figurative cave paintings are those of Chauvet Cave in France and these paintings date to earlier than 30,000 BCE according to radiocarbon dating. Some researchers believe the drawings are too advanced for this era, the radiocarbon dates from these samples show that there were two periods of creation in Chauvet,35,000 years ago and 30,000 years ago. In 2009, cavers discovered drawings in Coliboaia Cave in Romania, an initial dating puts the age of an image in the same range as Chauvet, about 32,000 years old. Some caves probably continued to be painted over a period of thousands of years. This was created roughly between 10,000 and 5,500 years ago, and painted in rock shelters under cliffs or shallow caves, though individual figures are less naturalistic, they are grouped in coherent grouped compositions to a much greater degree
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