1.
Mali Zvornik
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Mali Zvornik is a town and municipality located in the Mačva District of the western Serbia. In 2011, the population of the town is 4,132 and it lays opposite of the Drina river from the town of Zvornik, in Bosnia and Herzegovina. There are traces of life from Bronze Age in this area. Ancient Roman settlement Ad Drinum existed somewhere at this location, in the Middle Ages, Mali Zvornik was one of the main mining centres of the Serbian state. On Orlovine Hill near Mali Zvornik there are remains of the large Medieval fortress that was built in the first half of the 15th century. During the Ottoman rule, this area was part of the Pashaluk of Bosnia, until 1878 it was the only Bosnian municipality on the right side of river Drina, when it eventually became part of the independent Kingdom of Serbia. In the end of 19th and beginning of the 20th century, the municipality of Mali Zvornik was officially established in 1955. Ethnic groups in the Mali Zvornik town include, Serbs =4,095 Muslims by nationality =363 others, Časlav Klonimirović, Prince of the Serbs from c.927 until his death in c.960
2.
Serbia
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Serbia, officially the Republic of Serbia, is a sovereign state situated at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Pannonian Plain and the central Balkans. Relative to its territory, it is a diverse country distinguished by a transitional character, situated along cultural, geographic, climatic. Serbia numbers around 7 million residents, and its capital, Belgrade, following the Slavic migrations to the Balkans from the 6th century onwards, Serbs established several states in the early Middle Ages. The Serbian Kingdom obtained recognition by Rome and the Byzantine Empire in 1217, in the early 19th century, the Serbian Revolution established the nation-state as the regions first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory. During the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbia formed a union with Montenegro which dissolved peacefully in 2006, in 2008 the parliament of the province of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence, with mixed responses from the international community. Serbia is a member of organizations such as the UN, CoE, OSCE, PfP, BSEC. An EU membership candidate since 2012, Serbia has been negotiating its EU accession since January 2014, the country is acceding to the WTO and is a militarily neutral state. Serbia is an income economy with dominant service sector, followed by the industrial sector. The country ranks high on the Social Progress Index as well as the Global Peace Index, relatively high on the Human Development Index, located at the crossroads between Central and Southern Europe, Serbia is found in the Balkan peninsula and the Pannonian Plain. Serbia lies between latitudes 41° and 47° N, and longitudes 18° and 23° E. The country covers a total of 88,361 km2, which places it at 113th place in the world, with Kosovo excluded, the area is 77,474 km2. Its total border length amounts to 2,027 km, all of Kosovos border with Albania, Macedonia and Montenegro are under control of the Kosovo border police. The Pannonian Plain covers the third of the country while the easternmost tip of Serbia extends into the Wallachian Plain. The terrain of the part of the country, with the region of Šumadija at its heart. Mountains dominate the third of Serbia. Dinaric Alps stretch in the west and the southwest, following the flow of the rivers Drina, the Carpathian Mountains and Balkan Mountains stretch in a north–south direction in eastern Serbia. Ancient mountains in the southeast corner of the country belong to the Rilo-Rhodope Mountain system, elevation ranges from the Midžor peak of the Balkan Mountains at 2,169 metres to the lowest point of just 17 metres near the Danube river at Prahovo. The largest lake is Đerdap Lake and the longest river passing through Serbia is the Danube, the climate of Serbia is under the influences of the landmass of Eurasia and the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea
3.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes called Bosnia-Herzegovina, and, in short, often known informally as Bosnia, is a country in Southeastern Europe located on the Balkan Peninsula. Sarajevo is the capital and largest city, in the central and eastern interior of the country the geography is mountainous, in the northwest it is moderately hilly, and the northeast is predominantly flatland. The inland is a larger region and has a moderate continental climate, with hot summers and cold. The southern tip of the country has a Mediterranean climate and plain topography, Bosnia and Herzegovina is a region that traces permanent human settlement back to the Neolithic age, during and after which it was populated by several Illyrian and Celtic civilizations. Culturally, politically, and socially, the country has a rich history, the Ottomans brought Islam to the region, and altered much of the cultural and social outlook of the country. This was followed by annexation into the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, which lasted up until World War I. In the interwar period, Bosnia was part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and after World War II, following the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the country proclaimed independence in 1992, which was followed by the Bosnian War, lasting until late 1995. The country is home to three ethnic groups or, officially, constituent peoples, as specified in the constitution. Bosniaks are the largest group of the three, with Serbs second and Croats third, a native of Bosnia and Herzegovina, regardless of ethnicity, is identified in English as a Bosnian. The terms Herzegovinian and Bosnian are maintained as a rather than ethnic distinction. Moreover, the country was simply called Bosnia until the Austro-Hungarian occupation at the end of the 19th century, Bosnia and Herzegovina has a bicameral legislature and a three-member Presidency composed of a member of each major ethnic group. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is itself complex and consists of 10 cantons, additionally, the country has been a member of the Council of Europe since April 2002 and a founding member of the Mediterranean Union upon its establishment in July 2008. The name is believed to have derived from the hydronym of the river Bosna coursing through the Bosnian heartland. According to philologist Anton Mayer the name Bosna could be derived from Illyrian Bass-an-as which would be a diversion of the Proto-Indo-European root bos or bogh, meaning the running water. According to English medievalist William Miller the Slavic settlers in Bosnia adapted the Latin designation Basante, to their own idiom by calling the stream Bosna, the name Herzegovina originates from Bosnian magnate Stephen Vukčić Kosačas title, Herceg of Hum and the Coast. Hum, formerly Zahumlje, was a medieval principality that was conquered by the Bosnian Banate in the first half of the 14th century. Bosnia is located in the western Balkans, bordering Croatia to the north and west, Serbia to the east and it has a coastline about 20 kilometres long surrounding the city of Neum. It lies between latitudes 42° and 46° N, and longitudes 15° and 20° E, the countrys name comes from the two regions Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have a very vaguely defined border between them
4.
River mouth
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A river mouth is the part of a river where the river flows into a larger river, a lake, a reservoir or an ocean. The water from a river can enter the body in a variety of different ways. The motion of the river mainly depends on the density of the river compared to the receiving water and any ambient motion in the receiving water. If the river water is denser than the surface of the receiving water, the river water will then either form an underflow or an interflow within the lake. Alongside these advective transports, inflowing water will also diffuse, at the mouth of a river, the change in flow condition can cause the river to drop any sediment it is carrying. This sediment deposition can generate a variety of landforms, such as deltas, sand bars, spits, many places in England take their names from their positions at the mouths of rivers, for example Plymouth, Sidmouth and Great Yarmouth. Confluence River delta Estuary Liman Aber and Inver
5.
Sava
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The Sava is a river in Central and Southeastern Europe, a right tributary of the Danube. It flows through Slovenia, Croatia, along the border of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Its central part is a border of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia. The Sava forms the border of the Balkan Peninsula. The Sava is 990 kilometres long, including the 45-kilometre Sava Dolinka headwater rising in Zelenci and it is the greatest tributary of the Danube by volume of water, and second-largest after Tisza in terms of catchment area and length. It drains a significant portion of the Dinaric Alps region, through the tributaries of Drina, Bosna, Kupa, Una, Vrbas, Lonja, Kolubara, Bosut. The Sava is one of the longest rivers in Europe and among a handful of European rivers of that length that do not drain directly into a sea. The population in the Sava River basin is estimated at 8,176,000, the Sava is navigable for larger vessels from the confluence of the Kupa River in Sisak, Croatia, approximately two-thirds of its length. The Sava River is formed from the Sava Dolinka and the Sava Bohinjka headwaters in northwest Slovenia, the Sava Dolinka rises at the Zelenci Pools near Kranjska Gora, Slovenia, in a valley separating the Julian Alps from the Karavanke mountain range. The spring is located near the Slovene-Italian border at 833 metres above sea level, the Sava Dolinka spring is fed by groundwater possibly exhibiting bifurcation of source karst aquifer to the Sava and Soča basins. Nadiža creek, a losing stream flowing nearby, is the source of Zelenci Pools water. The Sava Dolinka is considered the Savas initial, 45-kilometre segment, the Sava Bohinjka originates in Ribčev Laz, at the confluence of the Jezernica, a short watercourse flowing out from Lake Bohinj and the Mostnica River. The watercourse flows 41 kilometres —including the length of the Savica—east to Radovljica, downstream from the confluence, the river is referred to as the Sava. The Sava is located in Southeast Europe, flowing through Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia and its total length is 990 kilometres, including the 45-kilometre Sava Dolinka and the 945-kilometre Sava proper. As a right tributary of the Danube, the river belongs to the Black Sea drainage basin and it is also the largest tributary of the Danube by discharge. The river course is used to describe the northern boundary of the Balkans. Before the breakup of Yugoslavia in 1991, the river was located completely inside Yugoslav borders, downstream of Radovljica, the Sava proceeds southeast towards Kranj. Between Kranj and Medvode, its course comprises the Lake Trboje and the Lake Zbilje reservoirs, built for the Mavčiče, the Sava then flows through the capital of Slovenia, Ljubljana, where another reservoir is located on the river, adjacent to the Tacen Whitewater Course
6.
Serbian Cyrillic alphabet
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The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet is an adaptation of the Cyrillic script for the Serbian language, developed in 1818 by Serbian linguist Vuk Karadžić. It is one of the two used to write standard modern Serbian, Bosnian and Montenegrin, the other being Latin. During the same period, Croatian linguists led by Ljudevit Gaj adapted the Latin alphabet, in use in western South Slavic areas, using the same principles. As a result of this joint effort, Cyrillic and Latin alphabets for Serbo-Croatian have a complete one-to-one congruence, with the Latin digraphs Lj, Nj, and Dž counting as single letters. Vuks Cyrillic alphabet was adopted in Serbia in 1868, and was in exclusive use in the country up to the inter-war period. Both alphabets were co-official in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and later in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, in Serbia, Cyrillic is seen as being more traditional, and has the official status. It is also a script in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro, along with Latin. The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet was used as a basis for the Macedonian alphabet with the work of Krste Misirkov, Cyrillic is in official use in Serbia, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Serbian language in Croatia is officially recognized as a minority language, however, Cyrillic is an important symbol of Serbian identity. In Serbia, official documents are printed in Cyrillic only even though, according to a 2014 survey, Glagolitic appears to be older, predating the introduction of Christianity, only formalized by Cyril and expanded to cover non-Greek sounds. Cyrillic was created by the orders of Boris I of Bulgaria by Cyrils disciples, the earliest form of Cyrillic was the ustav, based on Greek uncial script, augmented by ligatures and letters from the Glagolitic alphabet for consonants not found in Greek. There was no distinction between capital and lowercase letters, the literary Slavic language was based on the Bulgarian dialect of Thessaloniki. Part of the Serbian literary heritage of the Middle Ages are works such as Vukan Gospels, St. Savas Nomocanon, Dušans Code, Munich Serbian Psalter, the first printed book in Serbian was the Cetinje Octoechos. Vuk Stefanović Karadžić fled Serbia during the Serbian Revolution in 1813, there he met Jernej Kopitar, a linguist with interest in slavistics. Kopitar and Sava Mrkalj helped Vuk to reform the Serbian language and he finalized the alphabet in 1818 with the Serbian Dictionary. Karadžić also translated the New Testament into Serbian, which was published in 1868 and he wrote several books, Mala prostonarodna slaveno-serbska pesnarica and Pismenica serbskoga jezika in 1814, and two more in 1815 and 1818, all with the alphabet still in progress. In his letters from 1815-1818 he used, Ю, я, Ы and Ѳ, in his 1815 song book he dropped the Ѣ. The alphabet was adopted in 1868, four years after his death
7.
Karst
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Karst topography is a landscape formed from the dissolution of soluble rocks such as limestone, dolomite, and gypsum. It is characterized by underground drainage systems with sinkholes and caves and it has also been documented for more weathering-resistant rocks, such as quartzite, given the right conditions. Subterranean drainage may limit surface water, with few to no rivers or lakes, the English word karst was borrowed from German Karst in the late 19th century. The German word came into use before the 19th century, according to the prevalent interpretation, the term is derived from the German name for the Karst region, a limestone plateau above the city of Trieste in the northern Adriatic. Scholars disagree, however, on whether the German word was borrowed from Slovene, the Slovene common noun kras was first attested in the 18th century, and the adjective form kraški in the 16th century. The Slovene words arose through metathesis from the reconstructed form *korsъ, ultimately, the word is of Mediterranean origin, believed to derive from some Romanized Illyrian base. It has been suggested that the word may derive from the Proto-Indo-European root karra- rock, the name may also be connected to the oronym Karsádios oros cited by Ptolemy, and perhaps also to Latin Carusardius. The development of karst occurs whenever acidic water starts to break down the surface of bedrock near its cracks, as the bedrock continues to degrade, its cracks tend to get bigger. As time goes on, these fractures will become wider, if this underground drainage system does form, it will speed up the development of karst formations there because more water will be able to flow through the region, giving it more erosive power. The carbonic acid that causes karstic features is formed as rain passes through the atmosphere picking up carbon dioxide, once the rain reaches the ground, it may pass through soil that can provide much more CO2 to form a weak carbonic acid solution, which dissolves calcium carbonate. The oxidation of sulfides leading to the formation of acid can also be one of the corrosion factors in karst formation. As oxygen -rich surface waters seep into deep anoxic karst systems, they bring oxygen, sulfuric acid then reacts with calcium carbonate, causing increased erosion within the limestone formation. This chain of reactions is, This reaction chain forms gypsum, the karstification of a landscape may result in a variety of large- or small-scale features both on the surface and beneath. On exposed surfaces, small features may include solution flutes, runnels, limestone pavement, medium-sized surface features may include sinkholes or cenotes, vertical shafts, foibe, disappearing streams, and reappearing springs. Large-scale features may include limestone pavements, poljes, and karst valleys, mature karst landscapes, where more bedrock has been removed than remains, may result in karst towers, or haystack/eggbox landscapes. Beneath the surface, complex underground systems and extensive caves. Some of the most dramatic of these formations can be seen in Thailands Phangnga Bay, calcium carbonate dissolved into water may precipitate out where the water discharges some of its dissolved carbon dioxide. Rivers which emerge from springs may produce tufa terraces, consisting of layers of calcite deposited over extended periods of time, in caves, a variety of features collectively called speleothems are formed by deposition of calcium carbonate and other dissolved minerals
8.
Dinaric Alps
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The Dinaric Alps or Dinarides is a mountain chain which spans from Italy in the northwest, over Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania to Kosovo in the southeast. They extend for 645 kilometres along the coast of the Adriatic Sea, from the Julian Alps in the northwest down to the Šar-Korab massif, where the mountain direction changes to north-south. The highest mountain of the Dinaric Alps is Mount Triglav, a located in Julian Alps in north west Slovenia. The Dinaric Alps are the fifth most rugged and extensively mountainous area of Europe after the Caucasus Mountains, Alps, Pyrenees and Scandinavian Mountains. They are formed largely of Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks of dolomite, limestone, sand and conglomerates formed by seas and lakes that had once covered the area. During the Alpine earth movements that occurred 50–100 million years ago, immense lateral pressures folded, the Dinarides are named after Mount Dinara, a prominent peak in the center of the mountain range on the border of Croatia and Bosnia. The Mesozoic limestone forms a distinctive region of the Balkans, notable for features such as the Karst. The Quaternary ice ages had relatively little direct influence on the Balkans. No permanent ice caps existed, and there is evidence of extensive glaciation. Only the highest summits of Durmitor, Orjen and Prenj have glacial valleys, however, in the Prokletije, a range on the northern Albanian border that runs east to west, there is evidence of major glaciation. One geological feature of great importance to the landscape of the Dinarides must be considered in more detail. They are hard and slow to erode, and often persist as steep jagged escarpments, through which steep-sided gorges, the partially submerged western Dinaric Alps form the numerous islands and harbors along the Croatian coast. The most extensive example of limestone mountains in Europe are those of the Karst of the Dinaric Alps, here, all the characteristic features are encountered again and again as one travels through this wild and underpopulated country. Limestone is a porous rock, yet very hard and resistant to erosion. Water is the most important corrosive force, dissolving the limestone by chemical action of its natural acidity, as it percolates down through cracks in the limestone it opens up fissures and channels, often of considerable depth, so that whole systems of underground drainage develop. During subsequent millennia these work deeper, leaving in their wake enormous waterless caverns, sinkholes and grottoes and forming underground labyrinths of channels, the roofs of some of these caverns may eventually fall in, to produce great perpendicular-sided gorges, exposing the water to the surface once more. The Dinaric rivers carved many canyons characteristic for Dinaric Alps, only along the Dinaric gorges is communication possible across the Karst, and roads and railways tunnel through precipitous cliffs and traverse narrow ledges above roaring torrents. A number of springs and rivers rise in the Dinaric range, at the same time, the purity of these rocks is such that the rivers are crystal clear, and there is little soil-making residue
9.
Danube
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The Danube is Europes second-longest river, after the Volga River, and also the longest river in the European Union region. It is located in Central and Eastern Europe, the Danube was once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire, and today flows through 10 countries, more than any other river in the world. Its drainage basin extends into nine more countries, the Latin name Dānuvius is one of a number of Old European river names derived from a Proto-Indo-European *dānu. Other river names from the root include the Dunajec, Dzvina/Daugava, Don, Donets, Dnieper, Dniestr. In Rigvedic Sanskrit, dānu means fluid, drop, in Avestan, in the Rigveda, Dānu once appears as the mother of Vrtra. Known to the ancient Greeks as the Istros a borrowing from a Daco-Thracian name meaning strong, in Latin, the Danube was variously known as Danubius, Danuvius or as Ister. The Dacian/Thracian name was Donaris for the upper Danube and Istros for the lower Danube, the Thraco-Phrygian name was Matoas, the bringer of luck. The Latin name is masculine, as are all its Slavic names, the German Donau is feminine, as it has been re-interpreted as containing the suffix -ouwe wetland. Classified as a waterway, it originates in the town of Donaueschingen, in the Black Forest of Germany, at the confluence of the rivers Brigach. The Danube then flows southeast for about 2,800 km, passing through four capital cities before emptying into the Black Sea via the Danube Delta in Romania and its drainage basin extends into nine more. The highest point of the basin is the summit of Piz Bernina at the Italy–Switzerland border. The land drained by the Danube extends into other countries. Many Danubian tributaries are important rivers in their own right, navigable by barges, from its source to its outlet into the Black Sea, its main tributaries are, The Danube flows through many cities, including four national capitals, more than any other river in the world. Danube remains a mountain river until Passau, with average bottom gradient 0. 0012%. Middle Section, From Devín Gate to Iron Gate, at the border of Serbia and Romania, the riverbed widens and the average bottom gradient becomes only 0. 00006%. Lower Section, From Iron Gate to Sulina, with average gradient as little as 0. 00003%, about 60 of its tributaries are also navigable. In 1994 the Danube was declared one of ten Pan-European transport corridors, routes in Central, the amount of goods transported on the Danube increased to about 100 million tons in 1987. In 1999, transport on the river was difficult by the NATO bombing of three bridges in Serbia during the Kosovo War
10.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
11.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
12.
Ancient Greek
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Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek
13.
Tara (river)
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The Tara is a river in Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina. It emerges from the confluence of the Opasnica and Veruša Rivers in the Komovi Mountains, part of Dinaric Alps of Montenegro. The total length is 144 km, of which 104 km are in Montenegro, while the final 40 km are in Bosnia and Herzegovina, it also forms the border between the two countries in several places. The Tara flows from south to north - north-west and converges with the Piva at the Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro border between the villages of Šćepan Polje and Hum to form the Drina river. The Tara River cuts the Tara River Canyon, the longest canyon in Montenegro and Europe and second longest in the world after Grand Canyon, the canyon is protected as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and is a part of Durmitor National Park. Rafting is very popular on Tara River and it is also one of the most popular things to do in Montenegro. Among the attractions of the area is Đurđevića Tara Bridge, on the crossroads between Mojkovac, Žabljak and Pljevlja, Rafting starts at Splavista from where you start the adventure 100 km long in the most beautiful and exciting part of canyon. Funjički bukovi and Bijele ploče will make you realise how calm, nisovo vrelo is the deepest part of canyon of 1100 metres high. Further is the bottom of the top, Curevac, that rises above Tara as its eternal guardian. Then you end up at the waterfalls of Draga and then pass through the Radovan luka, then you pass through the Canyon of Susica, Tepački bukovi, Brstanovički bukovi and Bailovica sige. Rafting will end at Sćepan Polje, in 2005, the European Championships in Rafting were held on the Vrbas and the Tara rivers in Bosnia and Herzegovina. According to the International Rafting Federation, the event was hugely successful, in May 2009 the World Rafting Championships were held again in Bosnia and Herzegovina on the Vrbas and Tara rivers. The governments of Montenegro and Republika Srpska had plans to flood the Tara River Gorge, with the construction of a dam in the Drina. However, it abandoned this plan in April,2005 after several protests of advocates for the preservation of the canyon. Also, plans of constructing dams in Bosnia and Herzegovina on the Drina river, some 15 kilometers downstream of confluence of the Tara with the Piva river, are still alive
14.
Piva (river)
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The Piva is a river in Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina, shorter headwater of the Drina river, which it forms with the Tara river on the border with Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Piva springs from the Sinjac spring on Golija mountain, near the Piva Monastery, before the artificial Lake Piva was formed, the water from the well rushed into the river Komarnica thus creating the Piva river for the next 34 km. However, Komarnica is part of an 86 km long system, so measured from the source of the Tušina river. The Tušina originates from the mountain Sinjajevina in the Uskoci region of central Montenegro, just few kilometers away from the source of another important Montenegrin river, Morača. The river flows to the west, between the Sinjajevina and Lola mountains, next to the villages of Krnja Jela, Bare, Boan and it receives from the north the Bukovica river, and continues further under this name. After the river passes the center of Šavnik and the villages of Gradac and Pridvorica in the region of Drobnjaci. The Vrbnica river flows from the left into the lake, after the dam, the Piva continues straight to the north, meets the Tara at Šćepan Polje on the border with Bosnia and Herzegovina and creates the Drina. The Piva belongs to the Black Sea drainage basin with its own area of 1.270 km² and is not navigable. Pivska površ, is a limestone plateau in the drainage area of Piva. The plateau is 55 km long,30 km wide with an altitude of 1.200 m. The flow of Komarnica-Piva divides it in two regions, western one, Pivska Župa and eastern one, Pivska planina, area is characterized by many limestone features, like cavities deep pits and excavations, and extremely sparsely populated. Stock breeding is developed though, especially sheep, Tara Drina Mala Prosvetina Enciklopedija, Third edition, Prosveta, ISBN 86-07-00001-2 Jovan Đ. Marković, Enciklopedijski geografski leksikon Jugoslavije, Svjetlost-Sarajevo, ISBN 86-01-02651-6
15.
Montenegro
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Montenegro is a sovereign state in Southeastern Europe. Its capital and largest city is Podgorica, while Cetinje is designated as the Old Royal Capital. In the 9th century, three Slavic principalities were in the territory of Montenegro, Duklja, roughly corresponding to the half, Travunia, the west, and Rascia. In 1042, archon Stefan Vojislav led a revolt that resulted in the independence of Duklja, Duklja reached its zenith under Vojislavs son, Mihailo, and his grandson Bodin. By the 13th century, Zeta had replaced Duklja when referring to the realm. In the late 14th century, southern Montenegro came under the rule of the Balšić noble family, then the Crnojević noble family, large portions fell under the control of the Ottoman Empire from 1496 to 1878. Parts were controlled by Venice and the First French Empire and Austria-Hungary, from 1515 until 1851, the prince-bishops of Cetinje were the rulers. The House of Petrović-Njegoš ruled the country from 1697 to 1918, from 1918, it was a part of Kingdom of Yugoslavia, which was succeeded by SFR Yugoslavia in 1945, FR Yugoslavia in 1992, and subsequently by the state union of Serbia and Montenegro in 2003. On the basis of a referendum held on 21 May 2006. Montenegro is also a candidate negotiating to join the European Union, on 2 December 2015, Montenegro received an official invitation to join NATO, whereby it would be the 29th member country. This invitation was meant to start accession talks. The countrys name in most Western European languages reflects an adaptation of the Venetian Montenegro, many other languages, particularly nearby ones, use their own direct translation of the term black mountain. Examples are the Albanian name for the country, Mali i Zi, the Greek name Μαυροβούνιο, the Chinese name 黑山, all Slavic languages use slight variations on the Montenegrin name Crna Gora, examples include the Czech Černá Hora and the Polish Czarnogóra. Chechen and Ingush people call the country Ӏаьржаламанчоь, the name Crna Gora came to denote the majority of contemporary Montenegro only in the 15th century. The aforementioned region became known as Old Montenegro by the 19th century to distinguish it from the acquired territory of Brda. Its borders have changed little since then, losing Metohija and gaining the Bay of Kotor, the ISO Alpha-2 code for Montenegro is ME and the Alpha-3 Code is MNE. By 1000 BC, a common Illyrian language and culture had spread across much of the Balkans, interaction amongst groups was not always friendly – hill forts were the most common form of settlement – but distinctive Illyrian art forms such as amber and bronze jewellery evolved. In time, the Illyrians established a federation of tribes centred in what is now Macedonia
16.
Zachlumia
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Zahumlje, also Hum, was a medieval principality located in the modern-day regions of Herzegovina and southern Dalmatia. Zachlumia is a derivative of Hum, from Proto-Slavic *xŭlmŭ, borrowed from a Germanic language, South Slavic Zahumlje is named after the mountain of Hum, above Bona, at the mouth of the Buna. The principality is named Zahumlje or Hum in Serbo-Croatian and it is Zachlumia in Latin, Хлъмъ in Old Church Slavonic, and Ζαχλούμων χώρα in Greek. The names Chelmania, Chulmia and terra de Chelmo appear in later Latin, the Zachloumoi that now live there are Serbs, originating from the time of the prince who fled to emperor Heraclius. The main settlements in Zachlumia were Ston, Ošlje, Dobar, the Principality sprang from Dalmatia to the northwest and Pagania to the west, to the mountain of Kalinovik and the Field of Gatak, where it bordered Travunia. Zachlumia was split on 9 zhupanates, Ston, Popovo, Dubrava, Luka, Dabar, Žapska, Gorička, Zahumlje had access to the Adriatic Sea with the Pelješac peninsula and faced Serbia northwards. In its later periods, Zahumlje was split into two Duchies, Upper Zahumlje in the west and Lower Zahumlje in the east. As the toponym Pagania disappeared by the turn of the 11th century and this territory was at the time controlled by local magnates called Radivojevići, Jurjevići or Vlatkovići. Slavs invaded Balkans during Justinian I, when eventually up to 100,000 Slavs raided Thessalonica, the Western Balkans was settled with Sclaveni, the east with Antes. The Sklavenoi plunder Thrace in 545, and again the next year, in 551, the Slavs crossed Niš initially headed for Thessalonica, but ended up in Dalmatia. In 577 some 100,000 Slavs poured into Thrace and Illyricum, pillaging cities, some of the Slavs and Avars might have permanently settled in the occupied areas. They attacked Constantinople in 626 but were defeated by the Byzantines, around 630, during the reign of Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, Serbs and Croats led by their respective aristocracies entered the western Balkans from the north, which was approved by the emperor. They inhabited areas that had been devastated by the Avars, where Byzantium had generally been reduced to only nominal rule, Zahumlje was one of the regions settled by the Serbs. Much of Dalmatia was some time earlier settled by the Croats, Charlemagne, King of the Franks from 768 until his death in 814, expanded the Frankish kingdom into an empire that incorporated much of western and central Europe. He brought the Frankish state face to face with the Slavs to the northeast, Dalmatia which was southeast of the Frankish empire, was chiefly in the hands of Slavic tribes. North of Dubrovnik these came to be under Croatian Župans and eventually came to consider themselves Croatians, despite Frankish overlordship, the Franks had almost no role in Dalmatia in the period from the 820s through 840s. In 866, a major Arab raid along Dalmatia struck Budva and Kotor, the city of Dubrovnik appealed to Byzantine Emperor Basil the Macedonian, who responded by sending over one hundred ships. After this successful intervention, the Byzantine navy sailed along the coast collecting promises of loyalty to the empire from the Dalmatian cities, at this moment the local Slavic tribes, who had aided the intervention, also accepted Byzantine suzerainty
17.
River source
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The source or headwaters of a river or stream is the furthest place in that river or stream from its estuary or confluence with another river, as measured along the course of the river. As an example of the definition above, the USGS at times considers the Missouri River as a tributary of the Mississippi River. But it also follows the first definition above in using the combined Missouri - lower Mississippi length figure in lists of lengths of rivers around the world. This definition, from geographer Andrew Johnston of the Smithsonian Institution, is used by the National Geographic Society when pinpointing the source of rivers such as the Amazon or Nile. A definition given by the state of Montana agrees, stating that a source is never a confluence but is in a location that is the farthest, along water miles. Under this definition neither a lake nor a confluence of tributaries can be a river source. Likewise, the source of the Amazon River has been determined this way, when not listing river lengths, however, alternative definitions may be used. In the case of the Missouri River, Lewis and Clark would have had to travel to the east. to reach the source. Sometimes the source of the most remote tributary may be in an area that is more marsh-like, for example, the source of the River Tees is marshland. The furthest stream is often called the headstream. Headwaters are often small streams with cool waters because of shade and they may also be glacial headwaters, waters formed by the melting of glacial ice. Headwater areas are the areas of a watershed, as opposed to the outflow or discharge of a watershed. The river source is often but not always on or quite near the edge of the watershed, for example, the source of the Colorado River is at the Continental Divide separating the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean watersheds of North America. A river is considered a geographic feature, with only one mouth. For an example, note how the Mississippi River and Missouri River sources are officially defined, U. S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System, Mississippi River, Length,2,340 miles, Source, 47°14′22″N 95°12′29″W U. S. For example, The River Thames rises in Gloucestershire, the White Nile rises in the Great Lakes region of central Africa. The word source, when applied to lakes rather than rivers or streams, refers to the lakes inflow
18.
Kayaking
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Kayaking is the use of a kayak for moving across water. It is distinguished from canoeing by the position of the paddler. A kayak is a low-to-the-water, canoe-like boat in which the paddler sits facing forward, legs in front, using a paddle to pull front-to-back on one side. Most kayaks have closed decks, although sit-on-top and inflatable kayaks are growing in popularity as well, kayaks were created thousands of years ago by the Inuit, formerly known as Eskimos, of the northern Arctic regions. They used driftwood and sometimes the skeleton of whale, to construct the frame of the kayak, the main purpose for creating the kayak, which literally translates to hunters boat was for hunting and fishing. The kayaks stealth capabilities, allowed for the hunter to sneak up behind animals on the shoreline, by the mid-1800s the kayak became increasingly popular and the Europeans became interested. German and French men began kayaking for sport, in 1931, a man named Adolf Anderle became the first person to kayak down the Salzachofen Gorge, this is where the birthplace of modern-day white-water kayaking is believed to have begun. Kayak races were introduced in the Berlin Olympic Games in 1936, in the 1950s fiberglass kayaks were developed and commonly used, until 1980s when polyethylene plastic kayaks came about. Kayaking progressed as a sport in the U. S. until the 1970s. Now, more than 10 white water kayaking events are featured in the Olympics, kayaks can also be classified by their design and the materials from which they are made. Each design has its specific advantage, including performance, manoeuvrability, stability, kayaks can be made of metal, fibreglass, wood, plastic, fabrics, and inflatable fabrics such as PVC or rubber, and more recently expensive but feather light carbon fiber. Each material also has its specific advantage, including strength, durability, portability, flexibility, resistance to ultraviolet, for example, wooden kayaks can be created from kits or built by hand. Stitch and glue, plywood kayaks can be lighter than any other material except skin-on frame, inflatable kayaks, made from lightweight fabric, can be deflated and easily transported and stored, and considered to be remarkably tough and durable compared to some hard-sided boats. There are many types of kayaks used in water and white water kayaking. The sizes and shapes vary drastically depending on type of water to be paddled on. The second set of essentials for kayaking is an off-set paddle where the blades are tilted to help reduce wind resistance while the other blade is being used in the water. These vary in length and also depending on the intended use, height of the paddler and often. Proper clothing such as a dry suit, wet suit or spray top also help protect kayakers from cold water or air temperatures, sit on top kayaks place the paddler in an open, shallowly-concave deck above the water level
19.
Rafting
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Rafting and white water rafting are recreational outdoor activities which use an inflatable raft to navigate a river or other body of water. This is often done on whitewater or different degrees of rough water, dealing with risk and the need for teamwork is often a part of the experience. It is considered a sport, and can be fatal. The International Rafting Federation, often referred to as the IRF, is the body which oversees all aspects of the sport. Otherwise known as the International Scale of River Difficulty, below are the six grades of difficulty in white water rafting and they range from simple to very dangerous and potential death or serious injuries. Class 1, Very small rough areas, might require slight maneuvering, Class 2, Some rough water, maybe some rocks, might require some maneuvering. Class 3, Small waves, maybe a small drop, Class 6, Class 6 rapids are considered to be so dangerous that they are effectively unnavigable on a reliably safe basis. Traversing a Class 6 rapid has an increased likelihood of ending in serious injury or death compared to lesser classes. Rafts in white water are very different vehicles than canoes or kayaks and have their own techniques to maneuver through whitewater obstacles. Punching – Rafts carry great momentum, and on rivers hydraulics that are dodged by canoes and this involves the rafting crew paddling the raft to give it enough speed to push through the hydraulic without getting stopped. High siding – If a raft is caught in a hydraulic it will quickly go sideways. In this position the rafters may be able to use the draw stroke to pull the raft out of the head, low siding- more of a professional maneuver sometimes used at LOW water to slide through a channel less than the size of your craft. Dump truck – Rafts are inherently stable craft because of their size and low center of mass, in the industry, if a raft dumps some or all of its passengers but remains upright, it is said to have dump-trucked. Left over right or right over left – Rafts almost always flip side over side, If the left tube rises over the right tube, the raft is said to have flipped left over right and vice versa. Taco – If a raft is soft, or under-inflated, it may taco, Rafts are said to have tacoed if the middle of the raft buckles and the front of the raft touches or nearly touches the back of the raft. This is often a result of surfing in a hydraulic, a reverse taco is when the nose or stern of the raft is pulled down under water and buckles to touch the middle, back or nose of the raft. End over end – Occasionally rafts will flip end over end and this is usually after the raft has dump-trucked to lighten the load, allowing the water to overcome the weight of the boat, flipping it vertically before it lands upside down. Rafts will more often taco and turn sideways, making an end-over-end flip very rare in most rafts, downstream flip – A raft capsizes after encountering an obstacle, such as a rock, a feature like a hydraulic, or even another raft
20.
Dugout canoe
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A dugout canoe or simply dugout is a boat made from a hollowed tree trunk. Other names for this type of boat are logboat and monoxylon, monoxylon is Greek -- mono- + ξύλον xylon -- and is mostly used in classic Greek texts. In Germany they are called einbaum, some, but not all, pirogues are also constructed in this manner. Dugouts are the oldest boats archaeologists have found, dating back about 8,000 years to the Neolithic Stone Age and this is probably because they are made of massive pieces of wood, which tend to preserve better than, e. g. bark canoes. Along with bark canoe and hide kayak, dugout boats were used by indigenous peoples of the Americas. Construction of a dugout begins with the selection of a log of suitable dimensions, sufficient wood needed to be removed to make the vessel relatively light in weight and buoyant, yet still strong enough to support the crew and cargo. Specific types of wood were often preferred based on their strength, durability, the shape of the boat is then fashioned to minimize drag, with sharp ends at the bow and stern. First the bark is removed from the exterior, before the appearance of metal tools, dugouts were hollowed out using controlled fires. The burnt wood was removed using an adze. Another method using tools is to chop out parallel notches across the span of the wood, then split out. Once hollowed out, the interior was dressed and smoothed out with a knife or adze, more primitive designs keep the trees original dimensions, with a round bottom. However, it is possible to carefully steam the sides of the hollow log until they are pliable, for travel in the rougher waters of the ocean, dugouts can be fitted with outriggers. One or two smaller logs are mounted parallel to the hull by long poles. In the case of two outriggers, one is mounted on either side of the hull, the Dufuna canoe from Nigeria is an 8000-year-old dugout, the oldest boat discovered in Africa, and the third-oldest worldwide. African Teak is the timber favoured for their construction, though this comprises a number of different species, dugouts are called pirogues in Francophone areas of Africa. A 8000-year-old dugout canoe was found by archaeologists in Kuahuqiao, Zhejiang Province and this is the earliest canoe found in Asia. The Moken, an group that lives in Myanmars Mergui Archipelago. It is now on display in front of the Municipal Town Hall, here many dugouts were made from linden wood, for several reasons
21.
Zvornik
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Zvornik is a city on the Drina river in north-eastern, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Zvornik is located south of Bijeljina, the town Mali Zvornik lies directly across the river in Serbia. Zvornik is first mentioned in 1410, although it was known as Zvonik at that time, the towns geographic location has made it an important trade link between Bosnia and the east. For instance, the road connecting Sarajevo and Belgrade runs through the city. The medieval fort known as Kula grad was built in the early 7th century, during the Ottoman period, Zvornik was the capital of the Sanjak of Zvornik within the Eyalet of Bosnia. This was primarily the case because of the crucial role in the economy. The Sanjak of Zvornik was one of six Ottoman sanjaks with most developed shipbuilding, in 1806, Zvornik was home to Mehmed-beg Kulenović. Ustasha troops of the fascist Independent State of Croatia occupied Zvornik, along with most of Bosnia, the town was liberated in July 1943 by the 1st Proletarian Brigade during the Battle of Zvornik. During the Bosnian War Zvorniks Bosniak population was expelled, the military attack of paramilitary groups that came from Serbia on Zvornik Bosniaks commenced on 8 April 1992. During April 1992, many European news stations daily reported Serb armed attacks and mass killings of the Bosniak population of Zvornik, on 19 May 1992, combined JNA, Serb paramilitary and Arkans Tigers occupied Zvornik and Mali Zvornik. The suburbs of Karakaj and Čelopek were places of prisons where hundreds of local Bosniaks were killed, the remaining Bosniaks and non-Serbs were relegated to concentration camps and detention facilities throughout the area. During the war Serb forces destroyed mosques in and around the city, Kula Grad, a village that is part of Zvornik municipality, is home to a Middle Age fort, Zvornik fortress, built in the 12th century. The Cultural Summer of Zvornik usually takes place in August, its objective is to become a traditional cultural event which will open the doors of Zvornik for the recognized cultural values. The local football club, FK Drina Zvornik, plays in the Premier League of Bosnia, census, Zavod za statistiku Bosne i Hercegovine - Bilten no.234, Sarajevo 1991. Official website Drinariver. com Zvornik Travel Guide - android aplikacija
22.
Belgrade
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Belgrade is the capital and largest city of Serbia. It is located at the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers and its name translates to White city. The urban area of the City of Belgrade has a population of 1.34 million, one of the most important prehistoric cultures of Europe, the Vinča culture, evolved within the Belgrade area in the 6th millennium BC. In antiquity, Thraco-Dacians inhabited the region, and after 279 BC Celts conquered the city and it was conquered by the Romans during the reign of Augustus, and awarded city rights in the mid-2nd century. In 1521, Belgrade was conquered by the Ottoman Empire and became the seat of the Sanjak of Smederevo and it frequently passed from Ottoman to Habsburg rule, which saw the destruction of most of the city during the Austro-Ottoman wars. Belgrade was again named the capital of Serbia in 1841, northern Belgrade remained the southernmost Habsburg post until 1918, when the city was reunited. As a strategic location, the city was battled over in 115 wars, Belgrade was the capital of Yugoslavia from its creation in 1918, to its final dissolution in 2006. Belgrade has an administrative status within Serbia and it is one of five statistical regions of Serbia. Its metropolitan territory is divided into 17 municipalities, each with its own local council, City of Belgrade covers 3. 6% of Serbias territory, and 22. 5% of the countrys population lives within its administrative limits. It is classified as a Beta- global city, chipped stone tools found at Zemun show that the area around Belgrade was inhabited by nomadic foragers in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic eras. Some of these belong to the Mousterian industry, which are associated with Neanderthals rather than modern humans. Aurignacian and Gravettian tools have also discovered there, indicating occupation between 50,000 and 20,000 years ago. The first farming people to settle in the region are associated with the Neolithic Starčevo culture, there are several Starčevo sites in and around Belgrade, including the eponymous site of Starčevo. The Starčevo culture was succeeded by the Vinča culture, a more sophisticated farming culture that grew out of the earlier Starčevo settlements which is named for a site in the Belgrade region. Evidence of early knowledge about Belgrades geographical location comes from ancient myths, the rock overlooking the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers has been identified as one of the place in the story of Jason and the Argonauts. The Paleo-Balkan tribes of Thracians and Dacians ruled this area prior to the Roman conquest, Belgrade was inhabited by a Thraco-Dacian tribe Singi, after the Celtic invasion in 279 BC, the Scordisci took the city, naming it Singidūn. In 34–33 BC the Roman army led by Silanus reached Belgrade, jovian reestablished Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire, ending the brief revival of traditional Roman religions under his predecessor Julian the Apostate. In 395 AD, the passed to the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire
23.
Loznica
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Loznica is a city located in the Mačva District of the western Serbia. It lies on the bank of the Drina river. In 2011 the city had a population of 19,572. Its name stems from the word loza, originally, its name was Lozica, but it later became Loznica. The city is located in western Serbia, in the Mačva District, near the border with Bosnia and it lies on the right bank of the Drina river. The oldest settlements on the territory of Jadar and Loznica can be traced to the Neolithic period when the Starčevo culture flourished from 4500–3000 BC, the most important settlement in Jadar was Genzis, located near Lešnica, while the Roman settlement in present-day Loznica was called Ad Drinum. Legend tells that Loznica was named after the vines that were grown in this region. The first reference to the town as Loznica dates back to the reign of Serbian King Stefan Milutin, when Catherine, Loznica received little notice for the next two hundred years. In 1600, Loznica became an officially Muslim settlement with 55 houses, in this period Loznica and Jadar were part of the region administered from Zvornik. The Zvornik region itself was ruled by the pasha in Bosnia, striving toward liberation from Ottoman rule, the population of Loznica was actively involved in the common fight of the Serbian people, beginning with the First Serbian Uprising of 1804. During the whole period of the First Uprising, numerous and heavy battles against the Ottomans were fought in Loznica, in 1813 the Serbs managed to drive the Ottomans across the river Drina, at which time the Ottomans reoccupied Loznica. In November 1833, Loznica and Jadar officially became part of the Principality of Serbia, during the rule of Miloš Obrenović and this resulted in the abolition of Ottoman ownership over the land and it was declared a free peasant state, which meant that the feudal system was revoked. Jadar became part of the Podrinje region, while Loznica became the seat of the region, remaining in this role until the end of the 19th century, when the capital was moved to Šabac. During the thirties of the 19th century, Loznica had 295 houses with 1203 people and became the centre of the administrative, the education system started to develop and a hospital was set up, construction of industrial buildings started, craftsmen, trade and banking started to develop. Construction of the railway between Šabac, Loznica and Banja Koviljaca started by the beginning of the 20th century, the First Balkan War and First World War halted economic development and significantly reduced the number of people in Loznica and vicinity. Upon completion of the First World War, Loznica remained a centre with about 5000 people. There was a period of reconstruction and economic development, followed by the Great Depression. By the mid-1930s, craft and trade shops had been established, later, the antimony mines were acquired by German industrialists which further strengthened the economy
24.
Oak
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An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 600 extant species of oaks, the common name oak also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus, as well as in those of unrelated species such as Grevillea robusta and the Casuarinaceae. North America contains the largest number of oak species, with approximately 90 occurring in the United States, the second greatest center of oak diversity is China, which contains approximately 100 species. Oaks have spirally arranged leaves, with lobate margins in many species, also, the acorns contain tannic acid, as do the leaves, which helps to guard from fungi and insects. Many deciduous species are marcescent, not dropping dead leaves until spring, in spring, a single oak tree produces both male flowers and small female flowers. The fruit is a nut called an acorn, borne in a structure known as a cupule, each acorn contains one seed and takes 6–18 months to mature. The live oaks are distinguished for being evergreen, but are not actually a distinct group, the oak tree is a flowering plant. Oaks may be divided into two genera and a number of sections, The genus Quercus is divided into the following sections, Quercus, the white oaks of Europe, Asia and North America. Styles are short, acorns mature in 6 months and taste sweet or slightly bitter, the leaves mostly lack a bristle on their lobe tips, which are usually rounded. The type species is Quercus robur, Mesobalanus, Hungarian oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia. Styles long, acorns mature in about 6 months and taste bitter, the section Mesobalanus is closely related to section Quercus and sometimes included in it. Cerris, the Turkey oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia, styles long, acorn mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the shell is hairless. Its leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Protobalanus, the live oak and its relatives, in southwest United States. Styles short, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter, the inside of the acorn shell appears woolly. Leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Lobatae, the red oaks of North America, Central America, styles long, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter
25.
Bulk cargo
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Bulk cargo is commodity cargo that is transported unpackaged in large quantities. It refers to material in liquid or granular, particulate form, as a mass of relatively small solids, such as petroleum/crude oil, grain, coal. This cargo is usually dropped or poured, with a spout or shovel bucket, into a bulk carrier ships hold, railroad car/railway wagon, smaller quantities can be boxed and palletised. Bulk cargo is classified as liquid or dry, the Baltic Exchange is based in London and provides a range of indices benchmarking the cost of moving bulk commodities, dry and wet, along popular routes around the seas. Some of these indices are used to settle Freight Futures. The most famous of the Baltic indices is the Baltic Dry Indices and this is a derived function of the Baltic Capesize index, Baltic Panamax index, Baltic Supramax index and the Baltic Handysize index. The BDI has been used as a bellwether for the economy as it can be interpreted as an indicator of an increase or decrease in the amount of raw commodities countries are importing/exporting. Bauxite Bulk minerals Cements Chemicals Coals and cokes Agricultural products such as dry edibles Grains Iron, Bulk Cargoes, A Guide to Good Practice. UK, The North of England P&I Association, stability and Trim for the Ships Officer. Keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. New York and Geneva, United Nations, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. New York and Geneva, United Nations
26.
Oar
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An oar is an implement used for water-borne propulsion. Oars have a blade at one end. Rowers grasp the oar at the other end, the difference between oars and paddles are that paddles are held by the paddler, and are not connected with the vessel. Oars generally are connected to the vessel by means of rowlocks or tholes which transmit the force to the boat. In this system the water is the fulcrum, rowers generally face the stern of the vessel, reach towards the stern, and insert the blade of their oar in the water. As they lean back, towards the bow, the blade of their oars sweeps the water towards the stern. For thousands of vessels were powered either by sails, or the mechanical work of rowers. Some ancient vessels were propelled by oars or sail, depending on the speed. Rowing oars have been used since the early Neolithic period, wooden oars, with canoe-shaped pottery, dating from 5000–4500 BC have been discovered in a Hemudu culture site at Yuyao, Zhejiang, in modern China. In 1999, an oar measuring 63.4 cm in length, dating from 4000 BC, was unearthed at Ishikawa Prefecture, oars have traditionally been made of wood. The form is a shaft with a flat blade on the end. Where the oar connects to the boat there is a collar which stops the oar slipping past the rowlock, oars usually have a handle about 150mm long, which may be a material sleeve or alternatively an ovoid shape carved to fit the hands. This is a normal, usually wooden oar to which weight has been added at the end so that the blade end is noticeably lighter and easier for a rower to operate without fatigue. For a 7-foot oar the balance point is about 12 inches outboard of the rowlock, often surplus wood is removed from the blades width and thickness and at the neck between the blade and the shaft to further reduce outboard weight. This type of oar is much better for long-range rowing, the oars used for transportation come in a variety of sizes. The oars used in small dinghies or rafts can be less than 2 metres long, in classical times warships were propelled by very long oars that might have several oarsmen per oar. These oars could be more than a dozen metres long, the oars used in competitive rowing are long poles with one flat end about 50 cm long and 25 cm wide, called the blade. The part of the oar the oarsman holds while rowing is called the handle, while rowing, the oars are supported by metal frames attached to the side of the boat called outriggers
27.
Jahorina
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Jahorina is a mountain in Bosnia and Herzegovina, located near Pale in the Dinaric Alps. It borders Mount Trebević, another Olympic mountain, jahorinas highest peak, Ogorjelica, has a summit elevation of 1,916 metres, making it the second-highest of Sarajevos mountains, after Bjelašnica at 2,067 m. Mount Jahorina hosted the alpine skiing events of the 1984 Winter Olympics. Jahorina is located 15 km from Pale and 30 km from Sarajevo, the international airport in Sarajevo is located 33 km from Jahorina, connected with the ski resort by a new motorway. Jahorina Olympic Ski Resort is the biggest and most popular ski resort in Bosnia and Herzegovina and offers a variety of outdoor sports and it is primarily a destination for alpine skiing, snowboarding, hiking, and sledding, with over 40 km of ski slopes and modern facilities. The average snow depth on ski runs during February is 106 cm, the Jahorina ski lift system was upgraded in 2012 and 2013 with new Leitner chairlifts. Together with a lift, Jahorina has one of the most modern lift systems in the region. An 8-passenger gondola will connect the town of Pale and the ski resort, Jahorina is well-connected with the main transport routes in Bosnia and the region. Ski resort is 15 km away from the town of Pale and 30 km away from the capital Sarajevo an International airport Sarajevo. Jahorina is reached by a 4 to 6 hour drive from all cities in the region, Belgrade, Zagreb, Split, Podgorica. Jahorina was an area of strategic importance during the Bosnian war. Some parts areas of the mountain, including areas near the resort, extensive de-mining activities have taken place after the war. Skiing in borders of Jahorina ski resort is safe from mines, some off-course slopes were mined during the war and many remain risky. On October 30,2011 a Slovenian paraglider was critically injured on Mount Jahorina when he landed in a minefield by mistake, tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina Media related to Jahorina at Wikimedia Commons Official website
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Tisno
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Tisno is a town and a municipality in Šibenik-Knin County, Dalmatia, Croatia. Tisno was named after the Croatian ikavian word tisno which means strait, the municipality extends both to several other villages on the island as well as several nearby villages inland. 67% of the population were Croats. Tisno was first mentioned in 1474 during the Turkish invasion and during the war against the Venetians when numerous refugees fled to Tisno to seek shelter. Tisno has a dedicated to Croatian civilians killed and dropped into a local pit in the aftermath of World War II by the communist Yugoslav regime. Estimates of the number of killed are in the range of a couple hundred. Tisno was referred to as Tijesno up to the census of 1981, many historical sites tell us about the settlement of this area. The remnants of a Roman villa in Ivinj date back to the 1st AD, the site was awarded the status of a protected cultural monument. The parish church of St. Spirits from 1548 was renewed in style in 1640. The church tower was built in 1684 by the local architects, the church of Our Lady of Caravaggio is a votive church of the Italian family of Gelpis built at the beginning of the 18th century. Each year on 26 May, thousands of pilgrims come from all over the world, official site official website of Taxi in Tisno Accommodation in Tisno
29.
Rzav (Drina)
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The Rzav is a river in western Serbia and eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina. The 72 km long tributary to the Drina river, it originates from two headstreams, the Crni Rzav and the Beli Rzav. The river is referred to as the Veliki Rzav or the Zlatiborski Rzav. The Beli Rzav is the Rzavs shorter headstream and it originates from the eastern slopes of the Zvijezda mountain, close to the Bosnian border. After it passes the hills of Batura, it turns southward to the Tara mountain, at the monastery and village of Zaovine, the Beli Rzav is dammed and the artificial Zaovine Lake is created. After crossing the village of Mokra Gora, the river turns west, enters Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Crni Rzav, is the Rzavs longer headstream. It originates from the mountain, eastern section of the Zlatibor mountain. After the lake, the river turns west and soon gets followed by the parallel stream of the Jablanica river. The Rzav continues as the extension of the Beli Rzav, but since the Black Rzav is longer. The Rzav drains an area of 605 km², belongs to the Black Sea drainage area, mala Prosvetina Enciklopedija, Third edition, Prosveta, ISBN 86-07-00001-2 Jovan Đ. Marković, Enciklopedijski geografski leksikon Jugoslavije, Svjetlost-Sarajevo, ISBN 86-01-02651-6
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Tara (mountain)
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Tara is a mountain located in western Serbia. It is part of Dinaric Alps and stands at 1, 000-1,500 metres above sea level. The mountains slopes are clad in dense forests with numerous high-altitude clearings and meadows, steep cliffs, deep ravines carved by the nearby Drina River and many karst, the mountain is a popular tourist centre. Taras national park encompasses a part of the mountain. The highest peak is Zborište, at 1,544 m, taras national park was established in 1981 and it encompasses Tara and Zvijezda mountains, in a large bend of the Drina River. The size of the park is about 220 square km with altitudes varying from 250 to 1,500 metres above sea level, the parks management office is located in nearby Bajina Bašta. The national park consists of a group of peaks with deep picturesque gorges between them. The most striking of these gorges is the Drina Gorge, with its sheer drops from 1000–250 metres and extensive views of western Serbia, the area is also characterised by karst caves, pits, springs, and breathtaking vista points. Forests account for three quarters of this national parks area, some of them being the best preserved and well-kept in Europe, Tara also boasts a rare endemic Tertiary species, the Picea omorika, or Serbian Spruce, which is now protected in a small area of the park. Because of its rarity and scientific importance, it has placed under national protection. Locally, Tara is home to different species of wildlife, including brown bears, chamois, roe deer, lynxes, otters, wolves. The main tourist points are Kaluđerske Bare on the north, close to Bajina Bašta, hotels Beli Bor and Omorika, as well as several smaller ones, are located on Kaluđerske Bare, while Mitrovac hosts eponymous childrens recreation hotel. The National Park can be reached from Bajina Bašta directly, from Perućac via Bajina Bašta, the Drina gorge, which is an integral part of the park, can be toured by boat. Interesting locally made items are woolen handcrafts, various products, juniper and plum spirits and honey
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Fish pond
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In the medieval European era it was typical for monasteries and castles to have a fish pond. Records of fish ponds being used can be found from the period of the middle ages. As the middle ages progressed, fish became a more common feature of urbanizing environments. This meant the people who had access to fish ponds were able to access a food supply in a controlled environment not unlike pastures for cattle. However fish ponds were a difficult environment to maintain and they were a marker of power and authority, since only rich nobles and institutions such as monasterys could afford to maintain them. During the winter, supplying food for a castle garrison was a constant struggle. Nobles had access to meat from deer parks, but this didnt supply the needs of whole households, though fish ponds required maintenance by the community to keep them healthy, they were an elegant way of giving monasteries and noble houses access to fresh fish. Some of the popular species of fish farmed in fish ponds were carp. From the 14th century onward these fish proved to be a feature of artificial fish ponds. Fish ponds are used today in aquaculture and they are common in, Canada Europe, especially in the Czech Republic, where common carp may be kept. The Philippines where milkfish, tilapia, crabs, lobsters, tiger shrimp, snails, east Asia, especially in Japan with koi, trout, and white crucian carp. Fish ponds are also being promoted in developing countries and they provide a source of food and income from the sale of fish for small farmers and can also supply irrigation needs and water for livestock. “Economic Development and Aquatic Ecosystems in Medieval Europe. ”Aston M Medieval fish, fisheries, chattopadhyay GN Chemical Analysis of Fish Pond Soil and Water Daya Publishing House. Compton LV Techniques of fishpond management U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, delincé G The ecology of the fish pond ecosystem Kluwer Academic Publishers. Farber JM Ancient Hawaiian fishponds, can succeed on Molokaʻi. Gopalakrishnan V and Coche AG Handbook on small-scale freshwater fish farming Training Series No, hoare J A treatise on fishponds, addressed to the nobility and gentry of Sussex Wyman & sons, original from Harvard University. IUCN Fishing for a living, the ecology and economics of fishponds in Central Europe ISBN 978-2-8317-0386-2, FAO Simple methods for aquaculture, Management for freshwater fish culture, Ponds and water practices Training Series No. FAO Simple methods for aquaculture, Pond Construction for Freshwater Fish Culture, FAO Simple methods for aquaculture, Pond Construction for Freshwater Fish Culture, Pond-Farm Structures and Layouts FAO Training Series No
32.
Rainbow trout
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The rainbow trout is a trout and species of salmonid native to cold-water tributaries of the Pacific Ocean in Asia and North America. The steelhead is a form of the coastal rainbow trout or Columbia River redband trout that usually returns to fresh water to spawn after living two to three years in the ocean. Freshwater forms that have been introduced into the Great Lakes and migrate into tributaries to spawn are also called steelhead, adult freshwater stream rainbow trout average between 1 and 5 lb, while lake-dwelling and anadromous forms may reach 20 lb. Coloration varies widely based on subspecies, forms and habitat, adult fish are distinguished by a broad reddish stripe along the lateral line, from gills to the tail, which is most vivid in breeding males. Wild-caught and hatchery-reared forms of species have been transplanted and introduced for food or sport in at least 45 countries. Introductions to locations outside their range in the United States, Southern Europe, Australia, New Zealand. Some local populations of subspecies, or in the case of steelhead. The steelhead is the state fish of Washington. The scientific name of the trout is Oncorhynchus mykiss. The species was named by German naturalist and taxonomist Johann Julius Walbaum in 1792 based on type specimens from the Kamchatka Peninsula in Siberia. Walbaums original species name, mykiss, was derived from the local Kamchatkan name used for the fish, the name of the genus is from the Greek onkos and rynchos, in reference to the hooked jaws of males in the mating season. In 1855, William P. Gibbons, the curator of Geology and Mineralogy at the California Academy of Sciences, found a population and named it Salmo iridia and these names faded once it was determined that Walbaums description of type specimens was conspecific and therefore had precedence. Thus, in 1989, taxonomic authorities moved the rainbow, cutthroat, Walbaums name had precedence, so the species name Oncorhynchus mykiss became the scientific name of the rainbow trout. The previous species names irideus and gairdneri were adopted as subspecies names for the rainbow and Columbia River redband trout. Anadromous forms of the rainbow trout or redband trout are commonly known as steelhead. Subspecies of Oncorhynchus mykiss are listed below as described by fisheries biologist Robert J. Behnke, resident freshwater rainbow trout adults average between 1 and 5 lb in riverine environments, while lake-dwelling and anadromous forms may reach 20 lb. Coloration varies widely between regions and subspecies, adult freshwater forms are generally blue-green or olive green with heavy black spotting over the length of the body. Adult fish have a reddish stripe along the lateral line, from gills to the tail
