1.
Medina of Tunis
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The medina of Tunis is the medina quarter of Tunis, capital of Tunisia. It has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1979, the Medina contains some 700 monuments, including palaces, mosques, mausoleums, madrasas and fountains dating from the Almohad and the Hafsid periods. Founded in 698 around the core of the Zitouna Mosque. Expansions to the north and south divided the main Medina into two north and south. The opening toward the sky as a symbol, climatic effect. With an area of 270 hectares and over 100,000 inhabitants, the Medina has one-tenth of the population of Tunis, the planning of the Medina of Tunis has the distinction of not obeying geometrical layouts nor formal compositions. The complex organization of the urban fabrics has fueled an entire colonial literature where the dangerous Medina, many publications have detailed the development of the Medina model and system of prioritization of public and private spaces, residential and commercial, sacred and profane. We can raise the axes north-south and East-West comparable to a Roman cardo and decumanus that intersect at the court of Zitouna mosque, house of prayer and we distinguish the main streets, the secondary streets and the deadlocks sometimes entire private spots reserved for women. The built environment is characterized by the juxtaposition of large plots. This idea is reinforced by the area of a shop and bedroom, in the case of domestic architecture, the most they set back from the shops, the more they value. The concept of withdrawal and privacy is paramount, the late introduction of the sewer system induces a flow of waste water through the streets of the Medina. Houses and noble places are located before or in the high district. The terraces of the Medina are also an important place of social life, the rituals and dating schedules provide an informal mix. Nowadays, every district retains its culture and rivalries can be strong, thus, the northern suburb supports the football club Espérance Sportive de Tunis while the southern side is the district of the rival Club Africain. Association pour la de la medina de Tunis UNESCO site on the Tunis Medina
2.
Art
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In their most general form these activities include the production of works of art, the criticism of art, the study of the history of art, and the aesthetic dissemination of art. The oldest documented forms of art are visual arts, which include creation of images or objects in fields including painting, sculpture, printmaking, photography, and other visual media. Music, theatre, film, dance, and other performing arts, as well as literature, until the 17th century, art referred to any skill or mastery and was not differentiated from crafts or sciences. Art may be characterized in terms of mimesis, expression, communication of emotion, during the Romantic period, art came to be seen as a special faculty of the human mind to be classified with religion and science. Though the definition of what art is disputed and has changed over time, general descriptions mention an idea of imaginative or technical skill stemming from human agency. The nature of art, and related such as creativity. One early sense of the definition of art is related to the older Latin meaning. English words derived from this meaning include artifact, artificial, artifice, medical arts, however, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its etymology. Several dialogues in Plato tackle questions about art, Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses, and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness in the Phaedrus, and yet in the Republic wants to outlaw Homers great poetic art, in Ion, Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the Republic. For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, the forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is an imitation of men worse than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation—through narrative or character, through change or no change, Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankinds advantages over animals. The second, and more recent, sense of the art as an abbreviation for creative art or fine art emerged in the early 17th century. The creative arts are a collection of disciplines which produce artworks that are compelled by a drive and convey a message, mood. Art is something that stimulates an individuals thoughts, emotions, beliefs, works of art can be explicitly made for this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or objects. Often, if the skill is being used in a common or practical way, likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way, it may be considered commercial art instead of fine art. On the other hand, crafts and design are considered applied art
3.
Mise en abyme
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Mise en abyme is a French term derived from heraldry, and literally means placed into abyss. The term has developed a number of senses in modern criticism since it was picked up from heraldry by the French author André Gide. A common sense of the phrase is the experience of standing between two mirrors, then seeing as a result an infinite reproduction of ones image. Another is the Droste effect, in which a picture appears within itself and that is named after the 1904 Droste cocoa package, which depicts a woman holding a tray bearing a Droste cocoa package, which bears a smaller version of her image. The phrase has other meanings, however, in the realms of the creative arts. In Western art history, mise en abyme is a technique in which an image contains a smaller copy of itself, in a sequence appearing to recur infinitely. In the terminology of heraldry, the abyme is the center of a coat of arms, the term mise en abyme then meant put in the center. It described a coat of arms appears as a smaller shield in the center of a larger one. A complex example of mise en abyme is seen in the coat of arms of the United Kingdom for the period 1816–1837, as used by King George III. The crown of Charlemagne is placed en abyme within the escutcheon of Hanover, which in turn is en abyme within the arms of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Another example is the eagle in the modern coat of arms of Russia. While art historians working on the period adopted this phrase and interpreted it as showing artistic self awareness. Many examples, however, can be found in the pre-modern era, to the left, Justinian I offers the Virgin Mary the Hagia Sophia, which contains the mosaic itself. To the right, Constantine I offers the city of Constantinople, an example of this self-referential gift-giving appears in the Stefaneschi Triptych in the Vatican Museum, which features Cardinal Giacomo Gaetani Stefaneschi as the giver of the altarpiece. The modern meaning of the phrase originates with the author André Gide who used it to describe self-reflexive embeddings in various art-forms and this use of the phrase mise en abyme was picked up by scholars and popularized in the 1977 book Le récit spéculaire. Essai sur la mise en abyme by Lucien Dällenbach, mise-en-abîme occurs within a text when there is a reduplication of images or concepts referring to the textual whole. Mise-en-abîme is a play of signifiers within a text, of sub-texts mirroring each other and this mirroring can get to the point where meaning may be rendered unstable and, in this respect, may be seen as part of the process of deconstruction. The film-within-a-film is an example of mise-en-abîme, the film being made within the film refers, through its mise en scène, to the real film being made
4.
Recursion
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Recursion occurs when a thing is defined in terms of itself or of its type. Recursion is used in a variety of disciplines ranging from linguistics to logic, the most common application of recursion is in mathematics and computer science, where a function being defined is applied within its own definition. While this apparently defines a number of instances, it is often done in such a way that no loop or infinite chain of references can occur. The ancestors of ones ancestors are also ones ancestors, the Fibonacci sequence is a classic example of recursion, Fib =0 as base case 1, Fib =1 as base case 2, For all integers n >1, Fib, = Fib + Fib. Many mathematical axioms are based upon recursive rules, for example, the formal definition of the natural numbers by the Peano axioms can be described as,0 is a natural number, and each natural number has a successor, which is also a natural number. By this base case and recursive rule, one can generate the set of all natural numbers, recursively defined mathematical objects include functions, sets, and especially fractals. There are various more tongue-in-cheek definitions of recursion, see recursive humor, Recursion is the process a procedure goes through when one of the steps of the procedure involves invoking the procedure itself. A procedure that goes through recursion is said to be recursive, to understand recursion, one must recognize the distinction between a procedure and the running of a procedure. A procedure is a set of steps based on a set of rules, the running of a procedure involves actually following the rules and performing the steps. An analogy, a procedure is like a recipe, running a procedure is like actually preparing the meal. Recursion is related to, but not the same as, a reference within the specification of a procedure to the execution of some other procedure. For instance, a recipe might refer to cooking vegetables, which is another procedure that in turn requires heating water, for this reason recursive definitions are very rare in everyday situations. An example could be the procedure to find a way through a maze. Proceed forward until reaching either an exit or a branching point, If the point reached is an exit, terminate. Otherwise try each branch in turn, using the procedure recursively, if every trial fails by reaching only dead ends, return on the path led to this branching point. Whether this actually defines a terminating procedure depends on the nature of the maze, in any case, executing the procedure requires carefully recording all currently explored branching points, and which of their branches have already been exhaustively tried. This can be understood in terms of a definition of a syntactic category. A sentence can have a structure in which what follows the verb is another sentence, Dorothy thinks witches are dangerous, so a sentence can be defined recursively as something with a structure that includes a noun phrase, a verb, and optionally another sentence
5.
Droste
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Droste B. V. is a Dutch chocolate manufacturer. Its headquarters and factory are located in the village of Vaassen, Droste operates as an independent business unit within Hosta, a German confectionery company. Droste was founded by Gerardus Johannes Droste in 1863 in the city of Haarlem, the company started as a confectionery business selling various types of candy, including the Droste chocolate pastilles that are still being sold today. Because of the reputation, the firm G. J. Droste opened its first factory in 1890, the entire chocolate making process took place in the same building as where the retail store was located. In 1891, the factory was relocated to the Spaarne river due to lack of room in the old building and this new location was favourable because the raw materials could now be delivered by boat. Likewise, the shipping of finished products was done on water, in 1897, the leadership of the Droste factory was handed over to the sons of Gerardus J. Droste. In the meantime, Drostes assortment had grown to numerous cocoa and chocolate products, the company had also been winning a significant market share in both the Netherlands and foreign countries, in spite of the competition from larger chocolate manufacturers. In 1898 Droste officially acquired the right to bear the coat of arms of queen dowager Emma, after the turn of the century the company had been exporting its products to Belgium, Germany and France, and in 1905 it entered the American market. The famous illustration of the woman in nurse clothes, holding a plate with a cup of milk and it is believed that this illustration was created by Jan Musset, being inspired by a pastel known as La Belle Chocolatière. The image would proclaim the wholesome effect of chocolate milk and became inseparable from the Droste brand, the illustration reappears on the cocoa package held by the nurse, inducing a recursive visual effect known today as the Droste effect. The effect was named after Droste for this illustration, during the First World War raw materials were hard to come by leading to serious production difficulties. When the war was over, the leadership of Gerardus Johannes Droste junior slowly saw the companys production and turnover improve. In 1920 the firm was turned into a limited company called Drostes Cacao- en Chocoladefabrieken N. V. At that time, a group of 25 salesmen was travelling through the Netherlands to promote Droste products to confectionery shops, from 1920 until 1940, Droste products were distributed across the world by ships and trains. In 1932, Droste was hit again by a setback, this due to a stock market crash. As a result, the company was forced to reduce the working week from 48 hours to 42.5 hours and it became worse during the Second World War, when Allied aircraft bombardment caused considerable damage to the companys cardboard department. This led to the decline of production and sales, which eventually stopped altogether
6.
Cocoa solids
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Cocoa solids are a mixture of many substances remaining after cocoa butter is extracted from cacao beans. When sold as an end product, it may also be called cocoa powder or cocoa, in contrast, the fatty component of chocolate is cocoa butter. Cocoa butter is 50% to 57% of the weight of cocoa beans, Cocoa liquor or cocoa mass is a paste of roasted cocoa beans with cocoa butter and solids in their natural proportions. Chocolate requires the addition of cocoa butter to cocoa liquor, leading to an excess of cocoa solids. Cocoa solids are one of the richest sources of flavanol antioxidants and they are a key ingredient of chocolate, chocolate syrup, and chocolate confections. Natural cocoa powder has a brown color and an extractable pH of 5.3 to 5.8. The processed cocoa powder is darker in color, ranging from red to nearly black. The alkalization process reduces bitterness and improves solubility, which is important for beverage product applications, all of these pH values are considered safe for food use. Cocoa powder contains several minerals including calcium, copper, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, all of these minerals are found in greater quantities in cocoa powder than either cocoa butter or cocoa liquor. Cocoa solids also contain 230 mg of caffeine and 2057 mg of theobromine per 100g, Cocoa powder is rich in flavonoids, a type of phenolic acid. The amount of flavonoids depends on the amount of processing and manufacturing the cocoa powder undergoes, however, its alkalization, also known as Dutch processing, causes its content of flavonoids to be substantially reduced. Cocoa and cacao powders may contain cadmium, a heavy metal. From January 12019, the European Union will impose a limit for cadmium in cocoa powders of 0.6 µg per gram of cocoa powder, and 0.8 µg per gram for chocolate with >= 50% total dry cocoa solids. In Canada, a serving of a natural health product must contain no more than 6 µg of cadmium for an individual weighing 150 pounds and 3 µg for a 75 lb individual. Baking chocolate Chocolate Cocoa butter Hamel, PJ
7.
Giotto
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Giotto di Bondone, known mononymously as Giotto and Latinized as Giottus, was an Italian painter and architect from Florence in the late Middle Ages. He is generally considered the first in a line of artists who contributed to the Renaissance. Giottos masterwork is the decoration of the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua, also known as the Arena Chapel and this fresco cycle depicts the Life of the Virgin and the Life of Christ. It is regarded as one of the masterpieces of the Early Renaissance. That Giotto painted the Arena Chapel and that he was chosen by the Commune of Florence in 1334 to design the new campanile of Florences Cathedral are among the few certainties of his biography. Tradition holds that Giotto was born in a farmhouse, perhaps at Colle di Romagnano or Romignano, since 1850, a tower house in nearby Colle Vespignano has borne a plaque claiming the honor of his birthplace, an assertion commercially publicized. However, recent research has suggested that he was born in Florence. His fathers name was Bondone, and he is described in surviving records as a person of good standing. Most authors accept that Giotto was his name, but it is likely to have been an abbreviation of Ambrogio or Angelo. The year of his birth is calculated from the fact that Antonio Pucci, however, the word seventy fits into the rhyme of the poem better than would have a longer and more complex age, so it is possible that Pucci used artistic license. In his Lives, Giorgio Vasari states that Giotto was a shepherd boy, the great Florentine painter Cimabue discovered Giotto drawing pictures of his sheep on a rock. They were so lifelike that Cimabue approached Giotto and asked if he could take him on as an apprentice, Cimabue was one of the two most highly renowned painters of Tuscany, the other being Duccio, who worked mainly in Siena. Vasari recounts a number of stories about Giottos skill as a young artist. He tells of one occasion when Cimabue was absent from the workshop, later when Cimabue returned, he tried in vain several times to brush the fly off. The messenger departed ill pleased, not doubting that he had made a fool of. The messenger brought other artists drawings back to the Pope in addition to Giottos, many scholars today are uncertain about Giottos training, and consider Vasaris account that he was Cimabues pupil as legend, citing earlier sources which suggest that Giotto was not Cimabues pupil. About 1290, Giotto married Ciuta, the daughter of Lapo del Pela of Florence, the marriage produced four daughters and four sons, one of whom became a painter. By 1301, Giotto owned a house in Florence, and when he was not traveling he would return there and live in comfort with his family
8.
Stefaneschi Triptych
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It is now at the Pinacoteca Vaticana, Rome. The altar was freestanding, and the altarpiece is painted on both sides so it could be seen by the congregation from the front and the canons of the church from the back. The central front panel represents St. Peter enthroned, flanked by saints, james and Paul are in the left panel and John the Evangelist and Andrew are in the right. 2 of the 3 predella panels are lost, but they all represented half-length figures of saints. The back main panel represents Christ enthroned flanked by angels with a kneeling Cardinal Stefaneschi at his right foot, in the left panel we see the crucifixion of Peter, and on the right is the beheading of St. Paul. The predella depicts the Virgin and Child flanked by angels in the center, the altarpiece stood before the apse of Old St. Peters, which in the 14th century contained a mosaic of Christ enthroned between Saints. Thus the iconography of the front of the painting paralleled the apse mosaic in form, the central panel of the back of the altarpiece duplicated the apse mosaic for those who could not see it, while the side panels introduced narratives. It was normal for double-sided altarpieces in this period to have an image on the front. Peter echoes Christs pose to emphasize the role of the pope as Christs representative on earth, Giotto represents the martyrdoms of Peter and Paul as taking place in recognizable locales, frequently visited by pilgrims to Rome. Peters crucifixion is placed between the Meta romuli and the obelisk that came from Neros Circus, while Pauls beheading is outside the city and these scenes could also be found in the medieval frescoes on the walls of the nave of Old St. Peters. ). Stefaneschi is dressed in ceremonial costume as a cardinal on the front. On the back, he is more modestly dressed as a canon, vasari cited portraiture as one of the greatest strengths of Giottos art. The characteristic of containing a version of itself provides one of the earliest known examples of the so-called Droste effect. Boskovits, Miklos, Giotto a Roma, Arte Cristiana,88 171-180, gardner, Julian, The Stefaneschi Altarpiece, A Reconsideration, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Vol.37, pp. 57-103. Gosebruch, M. Giottos Stefaneschi-Altarwerk aus Alt-St, Peter in Rom, Miscellanea Bibliotecae Hertzianae, Munich,1961, 101-130. Von den Haegen, Anne Mueller, Giotto di Bondone, trans, zum Program von Stefaneschi-Altar und Navicella, Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte,30 309-320. Kempers, Bram & Sible de Blauuw, kessler, Herbert L. Giotto e Roma, in Giotto e il Trecento, Il più Sovrano Maestro stato in dipintura, exh. cat. Ed. Alessandro Tomei, Milan,2009, 85-99, maginnis, Hayden B. J. Giottos World through Vasaris Eyes, Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte,56 Bd. H.3, pp. 385-408
9.
Mathematics and art
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Mathematics and art are related in a variety of ways. Mathematics has itself been described as an art motivated by beauty, Mathematics can be discerned in arts such as music, dance, painting, architecture, sculpture, and textiles. This article focuses, however, on mathematics in the visual arts, Mathematics and art have a long historical relationship. Artists have used mathematics since the 5th century BC when the Greek sculptor Polykleitos wrote his Canon, prescribing proportions based on the ratio 1, persistent popular claims have been made for the use of the golden ratio in ancient art and architecture, without reliable evidence. In the Italian Renaissance, Luca Pacioli wrote the influential treatise De Divina Proportione, illustrated with woodcuts by Leonardo da Vinci, another Italian painter, Piero della Francesca, developed Euclids ideas on perspective in treatises such as De Prospectiva Pingendi, and in his paintings. The engraver Albrecht Dürer made many references to mathematics in his work Melencolia I, in modern times, the graphic artist M. C. Mathematics has inspired textile arts such as quilting, knitting, cross-stitch, crochet, embroidery, weaving, Turkish and other carpet-making, as well as kilim. In Islamic art, symmetries are evident in forms as varied as Persian girih and Moroccan zellige tilework, Mughal jaali pierced stone screens, and widespread muqarnas vaulting. Mathematics has directly influenced art with conceptual tools such as perspective, the analysis of symmetry, and mathematical objects such as polyhedra. Magnus Wenninger creates colourful stellated polyhedra, originally as models for teaching, mathematical concepts such as recursion and logical paradox can be seen in paintings by Rene Magritte and in engravings by M. C. Computer art often makes use of including the Mandelbrot set. Polykleitos the elder was a Greek sculptor from the school of Argos, and his works and statues consisted mainly of bronze and were of athletes. While his sculptures may not be as famous as those of Phidias, Polykleitos uses the distal phalanx of the little finger as the basic module for determining the proportions of the human body. Next, he takes the length and multiplies that by √2 to get the length of the palm from the base of the finger to the ulna. This geometric series of measurements progresses until Polykleitos has formed the arm, chest, body, the influence of the Canon of Polykleitos is immense in Classical Greek, Roman, and Renaissance sculpture, many sculptors following Polykleitoss prescription. While none of Polykleitoss original works survive, Roman copies demonstrate his ideal of physical perfection, some scholars argue that Pythagorean thought influenced the Canon of Polykleitos. In classical times, rather than making distant figures smaller with linear perspective, painters sized objects, in the Middle Ages, some artists used reverse perspective for special emphasis. The Muslim mathematician Alhazen described a theory of optics in his Book of Optics in 1021, the Renaissance saw a rebirth of Classical Greek and Roman culture and ideas, among them the study of mathematics to understand nature and the arts
10.
Giacomo Gaetani Stefaneschi
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Giacomo Gaetani Stefaneschi was an Italian cardinal deacon. Born in Rome, he was the son of the senator Pietro Stefaneschi and his wife and he received his early education at Rome, and was sent to the University of Paris to pursue higher studies. He was highly esteemed by Pope Celestine V, who made him canon of St. Peters, Pope John XXII appointed him protector of the Minorites,23 July 1334. Stefaneschi is best known as the author of Opus Metricum, a life of Celestine V composed in dactylic hexameter, abstracting from a short autobiography left in his cell by Celestine when he became pope, the Opus Metricum is the earliest biography of the hermit-pontiff. It is composed of three parts, each complete in itself and written at a different time. In 1319 the author united these three separate poems into one work and sent it with an epistle to the prior and the monks of San Spirito at Sulmona. The first part contains in three books an account of the election, reign, and abdication of Celestine and it was written before Stefaneschi became cardinal. The second part describes in two books the election and coronation of Boniface VIII, and was five years later. The third part is composed of three books and describes the life of Celestine after he had abdicated, his canonization, the poem is preceded by an introduction in prose, which contains valuable data of the authors life and a synopsis of the whole work. Though of great value, the poem is devoid of all literary excellence. It was first edited by Papebroch, Acta Sanctorum, IV, May, georgii Martyris, a eulogy on St. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles
11.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
12.
Nursing
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Nursing is a profession within the health care sector focused on the care of individuals, families, and communities so they may attain, maintain, or recover optimal health and quality of life. Nurses may be differentiated from other health care providers by their approach to patient care, training, Nurses practice in many specialisms with differing levels of prescriber authority. Many nurses provide care within the scope of physicians. However, nurses are permitted by most jurisdictions to practice independently in a variety of settings depending on training level, Nurses may help coordinate the patient care performed by other members of an interdisciplinary health care team such as therapists, medical practitioners and dietitians. Nurses provide care both interdependently, for example, with physicians, and independently as nursing professionals, Nursing historians face the challenge of determining whether care provided to the sick or injured in antiquity was nursing care. In the fifth century BC, for example, the Hippocratic Collection in places describes skilled care and observation of patients by male attendants, who may have been early nurses. Hence, any one desirous of acquiring a knowledge of anatomy should prepare a dead body and carefully, observe, by dissecting it. Before the foundation of modern nursing, members of religious orders such as nuns, examples exist in Christian, Islamic and Buddhist traditions amongst others. Phoebe, mentioned in Romans 16 has been described in sources as the first visiting nurse. These traditions were influential in the development of the ethos of modern nursing, the religious roots of modern nursing remain in evidence today in many countries. One example in the United Kingdom is the use of the sister to refer to a senior nurse. During the Reformation of the 16th century, Protestant reformers shut down the monasteries and convents and those nuns who had been serving as nurses were given pensions or told to get married and stay home. Nursing care went to the inexperienced as traditional caretakers, rooted in the Roman Catholic Church, were removed from their positions, the nursing profession suffered a major setback for approximately 200 years. Florence Nightingale laid the foundations of professional nursing during the Crimean War and her Notes on Nursing became popular. Agnes Jones, who established a training regime at the Brownlow Hill infirmary, Liverpool. In turn, the modern movement began in Germany in 1836. Within a half century, there were over 5,000 deaconesses in Europe, formal use of nurses in the modern military began in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Nurses saw active duty in the First Boer War, the Egyptian Campaign, hospital-based training came to the fore in the early 1900s, with an emphasis on practical experience
13.
Cassandre (artist)
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Cassandre, pseudonym of Adolphe Jean-Marie Mouron was a French painter, commercial poster artist, and typeface designer. He was born Adolphe Jean-Marie Mouron in Kharkiv, Ukraine, to French parents, as a young man, Cassandre moved to Paris, where he studied at the École des Beaux-Arts and at the Académie Julian. The popularity of posters as advertising afforded him an opportunity to work for a Parisian printing house, Cassandre became successful enough that with the help of partners he was able to set up his own advertising agency called Alliance Graphique, serving a wide variety of clients during the 1930s. He is perhaps best known for his posters advertising travel, for such as the Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits. His creations for the Dubonnet wine company were among the first posters designed in a manner that allowed them to be seen by occupants in moving vehicles and his posters are memorable for their innovative graphic solutions and their frequent denotations to such painters as Max Ernst and Pablo Picasso. In addition, he taught design at the École des Arts Décoratifs. With typography an important part of design, the company created several new typeface styles. Cassandre developed Bifur in 1929, the sans serif Acier Noir in 1935, in 1936, his works were exhibited at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City which led to commissions from Harpers Bazaar to do cover designs. With the onset of World War II, Cassandre served in the French army until the fall of France and his business long gone, he survived by creating stage sets and costumes for the theatre, something he had dabbled in during the 1930s. After the war, he continued this line of work while returning to easel painting. He worked with several famous French fashion houses, designing playing cards and scarfs for Hermès, in his later years, Cassandre suffered from bouts of depression prior to his suicide in Paris in 1968. In 1985, Cassandres son told his fathers story in a book titled A. M. The book, published in English by Rizzoli, is out of print. These foundry types were produced by Deberny & Peignot from designs by Cassandre, Robert K. Brown, - New York, Dutton,1979 Henri Mouron, A. M. Cassandre, affiches, arts graph
14.
Image resolution
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Image resolution is the detail an image holds. The term applies to digital images, film images. Higher resolution means more image detail, image resolution can be measured in various ways. Resolution quantifies how close lines can be to other and still be visibly resolved. Resolution units can be tied to physical sizes, to the size of a picture. Line pairs are used instead of lines, a line pair comprises a dark line. A line is either a line or a light line. A resolution of 10 lines per millimeter means 5 dark lines alternating with 5 light lines, photographic lens and film resolution are most often quoted in line pairs per millimeter. The resolution of digital cameras can be described in different ways. Resolution is the capability of the sensor to observe or measure the smallest object clearly with distinct boundaries, there is a difference between the resolution and a pixel. A pixel is actually a unit of the digital Resolution depends upon the size of the pixel, usually, with any given lens setting, the smaller the size of the pixel, the higher the resolution will be and the clearer the object in the image will be. Images having smaller pixel sizes might consist of more pixels, the number of pixels correlates to the amount of information within the image. An image of N pixels height by M pixels wide can have any less than N lines per picture height. Other conventions include describing pixels per unit or pixels per area unit. None of these pixel resolutions are true resolutions, but they are referred to as such. Below is an illustration of how the image might appear at different pixel resolutions. An image that is 2048 pixels in width and 1536 pixels in height has a total of 2048×1536 =3,145,728 pixels or 3.1 megapixels, one could refer to it as 2048 by 1536 or a 3. 1-megapixel image. Or, you can think of it as a low quality image if printed at about 28.5 inches wide
15.
Geometric progression
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For example, the sequence 2,6,18,54. is a geometric progression with common ratio 3. Similarly 10,5,2.5,1.25. is a sequence with common ratio 1/2. Examples of a sequence are powers rk of a fixed number r, such as 2k. The general form of a sequence is a, a r, a r 2, a r 3, a r 4, … where r ≠0 is the common ratio. The n-th term of a sequence with initial value a. Such a geometric sequence also follows the relation a n = r a n −1 for every integer n ≥1. Generally, to whether a given sequence is geometric, one simply checks whether successive entries in the sequence all have the same ratio. The common ratio of a sequence may be negative, resulting in an alternating sequence, with numbers switching from positive to negative. For instance 1, −3,9, −27,81, the behaviour of a geometric sequence depends on the value of the common ratio. If the common ratio is, Positive, the terms will all be the sign as the initial term. Negative, the terms will alternate between positive and negative, greater than 1, there will be exponential growth towards positive or negative infinity. 1, the progression is a constant sequence, between −1 and 1 but not zero, there will be exponential decay towards zero. −1, the progression is an alternating sequence Less than −1, for the absolute values there is exponential growth towards infinity, due to the alternating sign. Geometric sequences show exponential growth or exponential decay, as opposed to the growth of an arithmetic progression such as 4,15,26,37,48. This result was taken by T. R. Malthus as the foundation of his Principle of Population. A geometric series is the sum of the numbers in a geometric progression, for example,2 +10 +50 +250 =2 +2 ×5 +2 ×52 +2 ×53. The formula works for any real numbers a and r. For example, −2 π +4 π2 −8 π3 = −2 π +2 +3 = −2 π1 − = −2 π1 +2 π ≈ −214.855
16.
Polyptych
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A polyptych is a painting which is divided into sections, or panels. Polyptychs typically display one central or main panel that is usually the largest of the attachments, while the panels are called side panels. Sometimes, as evident in the Ghent and Isenheim works, the panels can be varied in arrangement to show different views or openings in the piece. Polyptychs were most commonly created by early Renaissance painters, the majority of which designed their works to be altarpieces in churches, the polyptych form of art was also quite popular among ukiyo-e printmakers of Edo period Japan. Some medieval manuscripts are polyptychs, particularly Carolingian works, in which the columns on the page are framed with borders that resemble polyptych paintings, altar displays may also form polyptychs. Dominic Polyptych by Lorenzo Lotto Media related to polyptychs at Wikimedia Commons
17.
Cardinal (Catholicism)
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A cardinal is a senior ecclesiastical leader, considered a Prince of the Church, and usually an ordained bishop of the Roman Catholic Church. The cardinals of the Church are collectively known as the College of Cardinals, the duties of the cardinals include attending the meetings of the College and making themselves available individually or in groups to the Pope as requested. Most have additional duties, such as leading a diocese or archdiocese or managing a department of the Roman Curia, a cardinals primary duty is electing the pope when the see becomes vacant. During the sede vacante, the governance of the Holy See is in the hands of the College of Cardinals. The right to enter the conclave of cardinals where the pope is elected is limited to those who have not reached the age of 80 years by the day the vacancy occurs. In 1059, the right of electing the pope was reserved to the clergy of Rome. The term was applied in this sense as early as the century to the priests of the tituli of the diocese of Rome. The Church of England retains an instance of this origin of the title, which is held by the two senior members of the College of Minor Canons of St Pauls Cathedral. In Rome the first persons to be called cardinals were the deacons of the seven regions of the city at the beginning of the 6th century, when the word began to mean principal, eminent, or superior. The name was given to the senior priest in each of the title churches of Rome. By the 8th century the Roman cardinals constituted a class among the Roman clergy. They took part in the administration of the church of Rome, by decree of a synod of 769, only a cardinal was eligible to become pope. In 1059, during the pontificate of Nicholas II, cardinals were given the right to elect the pope under the Papal Bull In nomine Domini. For a time this power was assigned exclusively to the cardinal bishops, Cardinals were granted the privilege of wearing the red hat by Pope Innocent IV in 1244. In cities other than Rome, the name began to be applied to certain church men as a mark of honour. This meaning of the word spread rapidly, and from the 9th century various episcopal cities had a class among the clergy known as cardinals. The use of the title was reserved for the cardinals of Rome in 1567 by Pius V, in the year 1563 the influential Ecumenical Council of Trent, headed by Pope Pius IV, wrote about the importance of selecting good Cardinals. The earlier influence of temporal rulers, notably the French kings, in early modern times, cardinals often had important roles in secular affairs
18.
Saint Peter
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Saint Peter, also known as Simon Peter, Simeon, or Simōn pronunciation, according to the New Testament, was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ, leaders of the early Christian Great Church. Hippolytus of Rome, a 3rd-century theologian, gave him the title of Apostle of the Apostles, according to Catholic teaching, Peter was ordained by Jesus in the Rock of My Church dialogue in Matthew 16,18. He is traditionally counted as the first Bishop of Rome and by Eastern Christian tradition also as the first Patriarch of Antioch. The ancient Christian churches all venerate Peter as a saint and as founder of the Church of Antioch. The New Testament indicates that Peter was the son of John and was from the village of Bethsaida in the province of Galilee or Gaulanitis and his brother Andrew was also an apostle. According to New Testament accounts, Peter was one of twelve apostles chosen by Jesus from his first disciples, originally a fisherman, he played a leadership role and was with Jesus during events witnessed by only a few apostles, such as the Transfiguration. According to the gospels, Peter confessed Jesus as the Messiah, was part of Jesuss inner circle, thrice denied Jesus and wept bitterly once he realised his deed, according to Christian tradition, Peter was crucified in Rome under Emperor Nero Augustus Caesar. It is traditionally held that he was crucified upside down at his own request, Tradition holds that he was crucified at the site of the Clementine Chapel. His remains are said to be contained in the underground Confessio of St. Peters Basilica. According to Catholic doctrine, the direct successor to Saint Peter is the incumbent pope. Two general epistles in the New Testament are ascribed to Peter, the Gospel of Mark was traditionally thought to show the influence of Peters preaching and eyewitness memories. Peters original name was Shimon or Simeon and he was later given the name Peter, New Testament Greek Πέτρος derived from πέτρα, which means rock. In the Latin translation of the Bible this became Petrus, a form of the feminine petra. Another version of this name is Aramaic, , after his name in Hellenised Aramaic. The English, Dutch and German Peter, French Pierre, the Italian Pietro, the Spanish and Portuguese Pedro, the Syriac or Aramaic word for rock is kepa, which in Greek became Πέτρος, also meaning rock. He is also known as Simon Peter, Cephas and Kepha, both Cephas and Kepha also mean rock. In the New Testament, he is among the first of the disciples called during Jesus ministry, Peter became the first listed apostle ordained by Jesus in the early church. Peter was a fisherman in Bethsaida and he was named Simon, son of Jonah or John
19.
M. C. Escher
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Maurits Cornelis Escher, or commonly M. C. Escher, was a Dutch graphic artist who made mathematically inspired woodcuts, lithographs, early in his career, he drew inspiration from nature, making studies of insects, landscapes, and plants such as lichens, all of which he used as details in his artworks. Apart from being used in a variety of papers, his work has appeared on the covers of many books. He was one of the inspirations of Douglas Hofstadters 1979 book Gödel, Escher. Maurits Cornelis Escher was born on 17 June 1898 in Leeuwarden, Friesland and he was the youngest son of the civil engineer George Arnold Escher and his second wife, Sara Gleichman. In 1903, the moved to Arnhem, where he attended primary and secondary school until 1918. Known to his friends and family as Mauk, he was a sickly child, although he excelled at drawing, his grades were generally poor. He also took carpentry and piano lessons until he was thirteen years old, in 1918, he went to the Technical College of Delft. From 1919 to 1922, Escher attended the Haarlem School of Architecture and Decorative Arts, learning drawing and he briefly studied architecture, but he failed a number of subjects and switched to decorative arts, studying under the graphic artist Samuel Jessurun de Mesquita. In 1922, an important year of his life, Escher traveled through Italy, visiting Florence, San Gimignano, Volterra, Siena, in the same year he traveled through Spain, visiting Madrid, Toledo, and Granada. He was impressed by the Italian countryside, and in Granada by the Moorish architecture of the fourteenth-century Alhambra, Escher returned to Italy, and lived in Rome from 1923 to 1935. While in Italy, Escher met Jetta Umiker – a Swiss woman, the couple settled in Rome where their first son, Giorgio Arnaldo Escher, named after his grandfather, was born. Escher and Jetta later had two sons, Arthur and Jan. He travelled frequently, visiting Viterbo in 1926, the Abruzzi in 1927 and 1929, Corsica in 1928 and 1933, Calabria in 1930, the townscapes and landscapes of these places feature prominently in his artworks. In May and June 1936, Escher travelled back to Spain, revisiting the Alhambra, the sketches he made in the Alhambra formed a major source for his work from that time on. He also studied the architecture of the Mezquita, the Moorish mosque of Cordoba and this turned out to be the last of his long study journeys, after 1937, his artworks were created in his studio rather than in the field. All the same, even his work already shows his interest in the nature of space, the unusual, perspective. In 1935, the climate in Italy became unacceptable to Escher
20.
Print Gallery (M. C. Escher)
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Print Gallery is a lithograph printed in 1956 by the Dutch artist M. C. It depicts a man in a gallery viewing a print of a seaport, the lithograph has attracted discussion in both mathematical and artistic contexts. Escher as stating that he began Print Gallery from the idea that it must be possible to make an annular bulge, escher attempted to do this with straight lines, but intuitively switched to using curved lines which make the grid expand greatly as it rotates. Eschers signature is on a circular void in the center of the work. In 2003, two Dutch mathematicians, Bart de Smit and Hendrik Lenstra, reported a way of filling in the void by treating the work as drawn on a curve over the field of complex numbers. They deem an idealized version of Print Gallery to contain a copy of itself, rotated clockwise by about 157.63 degrees and their website further explores the mathematical structure of the picture. Print Gallery has been discussed in relation to post-modernism by a number of writers, including Silvio Gaggi, Barbara Freedman, Stephen Bretzius, artful Mathematics, The Heritage of M. C
21.
Hendrik Lenstra
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Hendrik Willem Lenstra Jr. is a Dutch mathematician. Lenstra received his doctorate from the University of Amsterdam in 1977, the Cohen-Lenstra heuristics, a set of precise conjectures about the structure of class groups of quadratic fields, is named after him. Three of his brothers, Arjen Lenstra, Andries Lenstra, Jan Karel Lenstra is the former director of the Netherlands Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica. Hendrik Lenstra was the Chairman of the Program Committee of the International Congress of Mathematicians in 2010, in 1984 Lenstra became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. He won the Fulkerson Prize in 1985 for his using the geometry of numbers to solve integer programs with few variables in time polynomial in the number of constraints. He was awarded the Spinoza Prize in 1998, and on 24 April 2009 he was made a Knight of the Order of the Netherlands Lion, in 2009, he was awarded a Gauss Lecture by the German Mathematical Society. In 2012 he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society, parts 1-3, Mathematical Intelligencer 1980 Factoring integers with elliptic curves. 126,1987, pp. 649–673 with A. K. Lenstra, pp. 673–716, In Jan van Leeuwen, Handbook of Theoretical Computer Science, Vol. A, Algorithms and Complexity. Elsevier and MIT Press 1990, ISBN 0-444-88071-2, ISBN 0-262-22038-5, with Stevenhagen, Artin reciprocity and Mersenne Primes. With Stevenhagen, Chebotarev and his density theorem, profinite Fibonacci Numbers, December 2005, PDF Prof. dr. H. W. Lenstra,1949 - at the University of Amsterdam Album Academicum website Crytocoinnews. com speculation that Lenstra might be Satoshi Nakamoto, home Page, Emeritus professor, Department of Mathematics, University of California, Berkeley. Homepage at the Leiden Mathematisch Instituut Hendrik Lenstra at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
22.
Photo manipulation
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Photo manipulation involves transforming or altering a photograph using various methods and techniques to achieve desired results. For example, Ansel Adams employed some of the common manipulations using darkroom exposure techniques. There are a number of applications available for digital image manipulation. Photo manipulation dates back to some of the earliest photographs captured on glass, the practice began not long after the creation of the first photograph by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce who developed heliography and made the first photographic print from a photoengraved printing plate. Negatives can be manipulated while still in the camera using double-exposure techniques, in the early 19th century, photography and the technology that made it possible was rather crude and cumbersome. While the equipment and technology progressed over time, it wasnt until the late 20th Century that photography evolved into the digital realm. At the onset, digital photography was considered by some to be a new approach. Close observation of the photograph raises questions and brings to light certain details in the photograph that simply do not add up, Photo manipulation has been used to deceive or persuade viewers or improve storytelling and self-expression. Often even subtle and discreet changes can have a impact on how we interpret or judge a photograph. As early as the American Civil War, photographs were published as engravings based on more than one negative, Joseph Stalin made use of photo retouching for propaganda purposes. On May 5,1920 his predecessor Vladimir Lenin held a speech for Soviet troops that Leon Trotsky attended, Stalin had Trotsky retouched out of a photograph showing Trotsky in attendance. In a well known case of damnatio memoriae image manipulation, NKVD leader Nikolai Yezhov, in the 1930s, artist John Heartfield used a type of photo manipulation known as the photomontage to critique Nazi propaganda. Some ethical theories have been applied to image manipulation, during a panel on the topic of ethics in image manipulation Aude Oliva theorized that categorical shifts are necessary in order for an edited image to be viewed as a manipulation. In Image Act Theory, Carson Reynolds extended speech act theory by applying it to photo editing, in How to Do Things with Pictures, William Mitchell details the long history of photo manipulation and discusses it critically. A notable incident of controversial photo manipulation occurred over a photograph that was altered to fit the vertical orientation of a 1982 National Geographic magazine cover, the altered image made two Egyptian pyramids appear closer together than they actually were in the original photograph. The incident triggered a debate about the appropriateness of falsifying an image and we regarded that afterwards as a mistake, and we wouldn’t repeat that mistake today. There are other incidents of questionable photo manipulation in journalism, one such incident arose in early 2005 after Martha Stewart was released from prison. Newsweek used a photograph of Stewarts face on the body of a much slimmer woman for their cover, staley also explained that Newsweek disclosed on page 3 that the cover image of Martha Stewart was a composite
23.
GIMP
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GIMP /ɡɪmp/ is a free and open-source raster graphics editor used for image retouching and editing, free-form drawing, converting between different image formats, and more specialized tasks. GIMP is released under GPLv3+ licenses and is available for Linux, macOS, GIMP was originally released as the General Image Manipulation Program. In 1995 Spencer Kimball and Peter Mattis began developing GIMP as a project at the University of California. In 1996 GIMP was released as the first publicly available release, in the following year Richard Stallman visited UC Berkeley where Spencer Kimball and Peter Mattis asked if they could change General to GNU. Richard Stallman approved and the definition of the acronym GIMP was changed to be the GNU Image Manipulation Program and this reflected its new existence as being developed as Free Software as a part of the GNU Project. The number of architectures and operating systems supported has expanded significantly since its first release. The first release supported UNIX systems, such as Linux, SGI IRIX, lillqvist in 1997 and was supported in the GIMP1.1 release. Following the first release GIMP was quickly adopted and a community of contributors formed, the community began developing tutorials, artwork and shared better work-flows and techniques. A GUI toolkit called GTK was developed to facilitate the development of GIMP, GTK was replaced by its successor GTK+ after being redesigned using object-oriented programming techniques. The development of GTK+ has been attributed to Peter Mattis becoming disenchanted with the Motif toolkit GIMP originally used, GIMP is primarily developed by volunteers as a free software project associated to both the GNU and GNOME Projects. Development takes place in a public git source code repository, on mailing lists. New features are held in public separate source code branches and merged into the branch when the GIMP team is sure they wont damage existing functions. Sometimes this means that features that appear complete do not get merged or take months or years before they become available in GIMP, GIMP itself is released as source code. After a source code release installers and packages are made for different operating systems by parties who might not be in contact with the maintainers of GIMP. The version number used in GIMP is expressed in a format, with each number carrying a specific meaning. Each year GIMP applies for several positions in the Google Summer of Code, from 2006 to 2009 there have been nine GSoC projects that have been listed as successful, although not all successful projects have been merged into GIMP yet. Several of the GSoC projects were completed in 2008, but have not been merged into a stable GIMP release, actual Development Version is 2.9.4 with many deep improvements. Next stable Version in Roadmap is 2.10, the user interface of GIMP is designed by a dedicated design and usability team
24.
Land O'Lakes
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Land OLakes, Inc. is a member-owned agricultural cooperative based in the Minneapolis-St. Paul suburb of Arden Hills, Minnesota, focusing on the dairy industry. It is ranked third on the National Cooperative Bank Co-op 100 list of mutuals, the co-op is one of the largest producers of butter and cheese in the United States. Land OLakes was founded on July 8,1921 in Saint Paul, Minnesota and this organization aimed to improve marketing and quality of butter, and thus increase the profitability of dairying. The Association developed and implemented the systematic inspection, grading and certification of butter from member creameries, the improved quality and uniformity, and the reliability of its grading system, were touted in advertising materials. In 1924, the uniformly graded sweet cream butter was given the name Land OLakes after a contest, the co-op was often accused of unfair competition and false advertising in its early years, and compelled to defend its inspection and certification processes. Eventually, however, the sweet butter marketing strategy drove competitors either to match the quality of butter produced under the Land OLakes name or see their sales decline. Many competitors in the dairy products business copied the Land OLakes approach, the Land OLakes co-op has grown through numerous acquisitions, and now has a large business in farm supply in addition to dairy. In 2001, it paid $360 million - and assumed $130 million in debt - to take over animal feed producer Purina Mills, Purina Mills new owner planned to merge the company with its Land OLakes Farmland Feed division but would keep the Purina name and logo. In 1978, Land OLakes got into the business with the purchase of Spencer Beef. It sold Spencer Beef in 1983 to Excel, now Cargill Meat Solutions, a federal court in 2002 ordered Land OLakes to pay $3 million for patent infringement to Dr William Pordy, the inventor of a type of dairy creamer. An appeal court overturned that ruling. Land OLakes took a stake in egg producer MoArk in 1999. In August 2012, Land OLakes purchased refrigerated desserts manufacturer Kozy Shack Enterprises for an undisclosed sum. Users of the platform can see, at the field level. Geosys offers additional products and services globally, in June 2016 Land OLakes acquired the Thousand Oaks, California-based biofuels firm Ceres, Inc. The companys headquarters is in Arden Hills, Minnesota in suburban Minneapolis-St. Paul and it also has offices in the adjoining suburb of Shoreview, Minnesota. The core businesses of the co-op are, Dairy Foods, Animal Feed, Seed/Crop Protection Products, Business Development Services and Layers/Eggs. The firm manages its own fleet of nearly 200 tanker trucks, a contract fleet of an additional 600 trucks
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Butter
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Butter is a dairy product containing up to 80% butterfat which is solid when chilled and at room temperature in some regions and liquid when warmed. It is made by churning fresh or fermented cream or milk to separate the butterfat from the buttermilk. It is generally used as a spread on plain or toasted bread products and a condiment on cooked vegetables, as well as in cooking, such as baking, sauce making, Butter consists of butterfat, milk proteins and water, and in some types, added salt. Butter may also be sold with added flavourings, such as garlic butter, most frequently made from cows milk, butter can also be manufactured from the milk of other mammals, including sheep, goats, buffalo, and yaks. Salt such as salt, flavorings and preservatives are sometimes added to butter. Rendering butter produces clarified butter or ghee, which is almost entirely butterfat, Butter is a water-in-oil emulsion resulting from an inversion of the cream, in a water-in-oil emulsion, the milk proteins are the emulsifiers. Butter remains a solid when refrigerated, but softens to a spreadable consistency at room temperature, the density of butter is 911 g/L. It generally has a yellow color, but varies from deep yellow to nearly white. Its unmodified color is dependent on the feed and genetics but is commonly manipulated with food colorings in the commercial manufacturing process. The word butter derives from the Latin butyrum, which is the latinisation of the Greek βούτυρον and this may have been a construction meaning cow-cheese, from βοῦς, ox, cow + τυρός, cheese. Nevertheless, the earliest attested form of the stem, turos, is the Mycenaean Greek tu-ro. The root word persists in the name butyric acid, a found in rancid butter. In general use, the term refers to the spread dairy product when unqualified by other descriptors. The word commonly is used to describe puréed vegetable or seed and nut products such as peanut butter and it is often applied to spread fruit products such as apple butter. Fats such as butter and shea butter that remain solid at room temperature are also known as butters. Unhomogenized milk and cream contain butterfat in microscopic globules and these globules are surrounded by membranes made of phospholipids and proteins, which prevent the fat in milk from pooling together into a single mass. Butter is produced by agitating cream, which damages these membranes and allows the milk fats to conjoin, variations in the production method will create butters with different consistencies, mostly due to the butterfat composition in the finished product. Butter contains fat in three forms, free butterfat, butterfat crystals, and undamaged fat globules
26.
Native Americans in the United States
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In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
27.
Morton Salt
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Morton Salt is an American food company producing salt for food, water conditioning, industrial, agricultural, and road/highway use. Based in Chicago, the business is North Americas leading producer and marketer of salt and it is a subsidiary of the German mining company K+S. The company began in Chicago, Illinois, in 1848 as a sales agency. Wheeler, started by the Onondaga salt companies to sell their salt to the Midwest, in 1910, the business, which had by that time become both a manufacturer and a merchant of salt, was incorporated as the Morton Salt Company. It was named after the owner and founder, Joy Morton, Joy Morton starting working for E. I. Wheeler in 1880, buying into the company for $10,000, with which he bought a fleet of lake boats to move salt west. In 1982, the business was purchased by Thiokol Corporation, producing Morton Thiokol Incorporated, Morton Thiokol divested itself of Morton in 1989, following the 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster, which was blamed on Morton Thiokol products. Morton received the companys consumer products divisions, while Thiokol retained only the space propulsion systems concern. In 1999 Morton Salt was acquired by the Philadelphia-based Rohm and Haas Company, Inc. on 2 April 2009, it was reported that Morton Salt was being acquired by German fertilizer and salt company K+S for a total enterprise value of US$1. 7bn. The sale, completed by October 2009, was in conjunction with the Dow Chemical Companys takeover of Rohm and Haas. In or about 1919, Morton acquired Bevis Rock Salt Company, a family business run by A. Bevis Longstreth. Longstreth had designed and invented a container for Bevis Salt that included both a spout for pouring and a grill for shaking and it depicted a little girl holding the container over a bird and pouring salt on its tail. Longstreth went on to found Thiokol Chemical Corporation, which in 1982 acquired Morton Salt, the Morton Salt Companys current headquarters office is in the River Point building at 444 West Lake Street in Chicago, becoming its first tenant in December 2016. Its previous headquarters was at 123 North Wacker Drive, also in 2014, the Morton Salt Girl was voted into the Advertising Week Walk of Fame on Madison Avenue in New York City, it is the first girl icon to be inducted. Morton Salt is the sponsor of the Morton Arboretum, a 1, 700-acre botanical garden in Lisle and it was established by Joy Morton, the companys founder, in 1922 to encourage the display and study of shrubs, trees, and vines. About 300,000 visitors a year hike on miles of trails, the worlds largest salt plant, owned by Morton, is located in Manistee, Michigan, USA. Morton Salt is one of three official endorsements by Ron Swanson on Parks and Recreation, as part of their 2016 Walk Her Walk campaign, Morton Salt funded the development of the music video The One Moment by the band OK Go, released on November 23,2016. History of salt Iodized salt Sodium chloride Morton Salt – Official site
28.
Ummagumma
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Ummagumma is the fourth album by the English rock band Pink Floyd. It is a album and was released on 25 October 1969 by Harvest Records in the UK. The artwork was designed by regular Floyd collaborators Hipgnosis and features a number of pictures of the combined to give a Droste effect. Nevertheless, the album has been reissued on CD several times, the albums title supposedly comes from Cambridge slang for sex, commonly used by Pink Floyd friend and occasional roadie, Iain Emo Moore, who would say Im going back to the house for some ummagumma. According to Moore, he made up the term himself, wrights contribution, Sysyphus, was named after a character in Greek mythology, usually spelled Sisyphus, and contained a combination of various keyboards, including piano and mellotron. Although initially enthusiastic about making a contribution, Wright later described it as pretentious. Waters other contribution Grantchester Meadows was a more pastoral acoustic offering and was played as an opening to concerts over 1969. Gilmour said he just bullshitted through the piece and he asked Waters to write some lyrics for his compositions, but he refused to do so. Masons three-part The Grand Viziers Garden Party featured his wife, Lindy, playing flute. The album was the first album by the released on the Harvest label. The cover artwork shows a Droste effect featuring the group, with a hanging on the wall showing the same scene. The cover of the original LP varies between the British, American/Canadian and Australian releases, the British version has the album Gigi leaning against the wall immediately above the Pink Floyd letters. On the Australian edition, the Gigi cover is completely airbrushed, the house used as the location for the front cover of the album is located in Great Shelford, near Cambridge. On the rear cover, roadies Alan Styles and Peter Watts are shown with the bands equipment laid out on a taxiway at Biggin Hill Airport. This concept was proposed by Mason, with the intention of replicating the exploded drawings of aircraft and their payloads. These subtitles only appeared on American and Canadian editions of this album, the inner gatefold art shows separate black-and-white photos of the band members. Gilmour is seen standing in front of the Elfin Oak, original vinyl editions showed Waters with his first wife, Judy Trim, but she has been cropped out of the picture on most CD editions. The uncropped picture was restored for the inclusion in the box set Oh
29.
Pink Floyd
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Pink Floyd were an English rock band formed in London. They achieved international acclaim with their progressive and psychedelic music, Pink Floyd were founded in 1965 by students Syd Barrett on guitar and lead vocals, Nick Mason on drums, Roger Waters on bass and vocals, and Richard Wright on keyboards and vocals. Guitarist David Gilmour joined in December 1967, Barrett left in April 1968 due to deteriorating mental health. Waters became the primary lyricist and conceptual leader, devising the concepts behind their albums The Dark Side of the Moon, Wish You Were Here, Animals, The Wall. The Dark Side of the Moon and The Wall became two of the albums of all time. Following creative tensions, Wright left Pink Floyd in 1979, followed by Waters in 1985, Gilmour and Mason continued as Pink Floyd, Wright rejoined them as a session musician and, later, a band member. The three produced two more albums—A Momentary Lapse of Reason and The Division Bell —and toured through 1994, Barrett died in 2006, and Wright in 2008. The final Pink Floyd studio album, The Endless River, was recorded without Waters, Pink Floyd were inducted into the American Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996 and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005. By 2013, the band had more than 250 million records worldwide. Roger Waters met Nick Mason while they were both studying architecture at the London Polytechnic at Regent Street and they first played music together in a group formed by Keith Noble and Clive Metcalfe with Nobles sister Sheilagh. Richard Wright, an architecture student, joined later that year. Waters played lead guitar, Mason drums, and Wright rhythm guitar, the band performed at private functions and rehearsed in a tearoom in the basement of the Regent Street Polytechnic. They performed songs by the Searchers and material written by their manager and songwriter, Mason moved out after the 1964 academic year, and guitarist Bob Klose moved in during September 1964, prompting Waters switch to bass. Sigma 6 went through several names, including the Meggadeaths, the Abdabs and the Screaming Abdabs, Leonards Lodgers, in 1964, as Metcalfe and Noble left to form their own band, guitarist Syd Barrett joined Klose and Waters at Stanhope Gardens. Barrett, two younger, had moved to London in 1962 to study at the Camberwell College of Arts. Waters and Barrett were childhood friends, Waters had often visited Barrett, Noble and Metcalfe left the Tea Set in late 1963, and Klose introduced the band to singer Chris Dennis, a technician with the Royal Air Force. In December 1964, they secured their first recording time, at a studio in West Hampstead, through one of Wrights friends, Wright, who was taking a break from his studies, did not participate in the session. When the RAF assigned Dennis a post in Bahrain in early 1965, later that year, they became the resident band at the Countdown Club near Kensington High Street in London, where from late night until early morning they played three sets of 90 minutes each
30.
A Saucerful of Secrets
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The album was recorded before and after Syd Barretts departure from the group. With Barretts behaviour becoming increasingly unpredictable, he was forced to leave the band, Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun was the only song all five members appeared on together. The bands drummer Nick Mason has declared A Saucerful of Secrets to be his favourite Pink Floyd album. From mid to late 1967, Syd Barretts erratic behaviour became more apparent, the audience, used to the bands experimental performances, seemed to enjoy such antics, and were unaware of the rest of the bands increasing consternation. Interviewed on Pat Boones show during this tour, Barretts reply to Boones questions was a blank and totally mute stare, Barrett exhibited behaviour in a similar style during the bands first appearance on Dick Clarks popular TV show American Bandstand. Barrett mimed fairly well for the performance of Apples and Oranges, the album was recorded at EMI Studios in London. The first songs recorded for the album were Roger Waters Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun, the two tracks were arranged to be released as a single on 8 September, before it was vetoed by the bands record company, EMI. A few days later, the band recorded the B-side, Paint Box, in November, Apples and Oranges was released as a single but failed to chart at all. The band eventually went back to De Lane Lea and recorded the unreleased track Vegetable Man, sometime around Christmas, David Gilmour was asked to join the band as a second lead guitarist to cover for Barrett when his erratic behaviour prevented him from performing. Upon leaving Pink Floyd, Barrett said to Melody Maker, I suppose it was really just a matter of being a little offhand about things, when Gilmour joined the band, Pink Floyd performed briefly as a five-man piece, from 12 January till the 20th. For a handful of shows Gilmour played and sang while Barrett wandered around on stage, in between these five-piece gigs, the group rehearsed a few Waters-penned songs on 15 and 16 January. During the next session on 18 January, the band, joined by Smith, jammed on rhythm tracks, on 24 and 25 January, the band recorded a song, logged as The Most Boring Song Ive Ever Heard Bar 2 at Abbey Road. The four-piece band struggled to come up with new material for an album, throughout April, the band was taking stock of the songs recorded up to that point. With not enough material to fill the albums last 12 minutes, Mason and Waters planned the track out as if it were an architectural design, including peaks and troughs. Producer Smith didnt like the song, stating to them that they just cant do this and you have to write three-minute songs. Like The Piper at the Gates of Dawn before it, the album contains space rock, however, unlike Piper, which was dominated by Barretts compositions, A Saucerful of Secrets contains only one Barrett original, Jugband Blues. AllMusic described that with A Saucerful of Secrets, the begin to map out the dark. With Barrett seemingly detached from proceedings, it came down to Waters, the opening, Let There Be More Light, penned by Waters, continues the space rock approach established by Barrett
31.
The Laughing Cow
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The Laughing Cow is a brand of processed cheese products made by Fromageries Bel since 1865, and in particular refers to the brands most popular product, the spreadable wedge. The cheese is a blend of cream, milk and fresh and aged cheeses, particularly comté, versatile and portable because of its pasteurization process, Laughing Cow can remain unrefrigerated for a limited length of time. The archetypal Laughing Cow cheese comes wrapped in the individual serving-sized foiled wedges, consumers have to pull a little red thread around the box to open it, and the foil packaging also features a red tab for opening. The company was founded in 1921, discontinued formats of The Laughing Cow include, Giggles/Blop processed cheese pods for younger children Squeezy bottles Big Cheez Dipper Cheez Double Dippers. The Laughing Cow USA introduced a TV commercial in 2009 where the company introduced a new slogan, in 2010 they updated the brands website to include cheese recipes. Laughing Cow cheese is available in its flavor, a light version with 7% fat. In addition, flavored versions of the cheese are available in various markets worldwide. The Laughing Cow is red and white and jovial, and is almost always depicted wearing earrings that look like the round boxes the cheese comes in, on April 16,1921, Léon Bel trademarked his brand, called La Vache qui rit, in France. In the trademark, the cow is said to have a hilarious expression, Bel had made the original drawing himself, after seeing a travelling meat wagon during World War I called La Wachkyrie, a play on the word for Valkyrie. In the beginning she wasnt laughing, she wasnt red and she didnt wear earrings and this patent was the very first branded cheese product registered in France. In 1924, Benjamin Rabier, an illustrator, edited the drawing into something more like the image that prevails today. The blue and white stripes around the box date from 1955, since 1976 both earring-boxes have been shown with the top-side visible. Before that year consumers were shown a top and bottom side, the current logo uses a Droste effect. It has long been popular in the United Kingdom and Canada as a childrens snack, the cheese has also been a constant, but hardly popular, product in the United States for a number of years. However, demand for the triangular wedges has skyrocketed recently, since the version of the product was suggested as a viable menu item to followers of the South Beach Diet. The question asked by the French, Pourquoi La Vache Qui Rit rit. has become synonymous with the product, groupe Bel announced on October 2,2005, that they plan to open a 13 million euro factory in Syria. This was the first such direct investment in that nation by a French food company. The product name and indicia were adopted by the crew of World War II German submarine U-69 by accident, La Vache qui Rit is the name of an EP by late 1980s Washington, D. C. punk band Rain with connection to Dischord Records
32.
The Mouse and His Child
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The Mouse and His Child is a novel by Russell Hoban first published in 1967. It has been described as a classic of literature and is the book for which Hoban is best known. It was adapted into a film in 1977. A new edition with new illustrations by David Small was released in 2001, the mouse and child of the title are a pair of toy mice, joined by the hands and operated by clockwork. The story tells of their beginning in a toy store, their purchase and eventual discarding, their pursuit by a malicious rat, the story shares commonalities with E. B. Whites Charlottes Web by contrasting with a part of childrens literature in the sense of occasional use of advanced vocabulary, a willingness to include adult themes. A Toys Life and a Boys Life, the New York Times, November 18,2001
33.
Audio feedback
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Audio feedback is a special kind of positive feedback which occurs when a sound loop exists between an audio input and an audio output. In this example, a received by the microphone is amplified and passed out of the loudspeaker. The sound from the loudspeaker can then be received by the microphone again, amplified further, for small PA systems the sound is readily recognized as a loud squeal or screech. Feedback is almost always considered undesirable when it occurs with a singers or public speakers microphone at an event using a reinforcement system or PA system. The sound of guitar feedback is considered to be desirable musical effect in metal music, hardcore punk. Jimi Hendrix was an innovator in the use of guitar feedback in his guitar solos to create unique sound effects not possible with more traditional playing techniques. The principles of audio feedback were first discovered by Danish scientist Søren Absalon Larsen, if the small signal gain is greater than 1 for some frequency then the system will start to oscillate at that frequency because noise at that frequency will be amplified. Sound will be produced without anyone actually playing, the sound level will increase until the output starts clipping, reducing the loop gain to exactly unity. This is the principle upon which electronic oscillators are based, although in case the feedback loop is purely electronic. Early academic work on acoustical feedback was done by Dr. C. Paul Boner, Boner reasoned that when feedback happened, it did so at one precise frequency. He also reasoned that it could be stopped by inserting a very narrow notch filter at that frequency in the signal chain. He worked with Gifford White, founder of White Instruments to hand craft notch filters for specific feedback frequencies in specific rooms, Boner was responsible for establishing basic theories of acoustic feedback, room-ring modes, and room-sound system equalizing techniques. To maximize gain before feedback, the amount of energy that is fed back to the microphones must be reduced as much as is practical. As well, microphones should not be positioned in front of speakers, additionally, the loudspeakers and microphones should have non-uniform directivity and should stay out of the maximum sensitivity of each other, ideally at a direction of cancellation. Public address speakers often achieve directivity in the mid and treble region via horn systems, sometimes the woofers have a cardioid characteristic. This allows independent control of the pressure levels for the audience. If monitors are oriented at 180 degrees to the microphones that are their sources, almost all microphones for sound reinforcement are directional. Almost always, the frequency responses of sound reinforcement systems is not ideally flat
34.
Matryoshka doll
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A matryoshka doll, also known as a Russian nesting doll, or Russian doll, is a set of wooden dolls of decreasing size placed one inside another. The name matryoshka, literally little matron, is a form of Russian female first name Matryona or Matriosha. A set of matryoshkas consists of a figure which separates, top from bottom, to reveal a smaller figure of the same sort inside, which has, in turn, another figure inside of it. The first Russian nested doll set was made in 1890 by Vasily Zvyozdochkin from a design by Sergey Malyutin, traditionally the outer layer is a woman, dressed in a sarafan, a long and shapeless traditional Russian peasant jumper dress. The figures inside may be of either gender, the smallest, innermost doll is typically a baby turned from a piece of wood. Much of the artistry is in the painting of each doll, the dolls often follow a theme, the themes may vary, from fairy tale characters to Soviet leaders. Matryoshka dolls are referred to as babushka dolls, babushka meaning grandmother or elderly woman. The first Russian nested doll set was carved in 1890 by Vasily Zvyozdochkin, a Russian industrialist and patron of arts. The doll set was painted by Malyutin, malyutins doll set consisted of eight dolls—the outermost was a girl in a traditional dress holding a rooster. The inner dolls were girls and a boy, and the innermost a baby, Zvyozdochkin and Malyutin were inspired by a doll from Honshu, the main island of Japan. Sources differ in descriptions of the doll, describing it as either a round, hollow daruma doll, portraying a bald old Buddhist monk, Savva Mamontovs wife presented the dolls at the Exposition Universelle in Paris, where the toy earned a bronze medal. Soon after, matryoshka dolls were being made in places in Russia. Matryoshka dolls are designed to follow a particular theme, for instance. Modern artists create new styles of nesting dolls. Common themes include floral, Christmas, Easter, religious, animal collections, portraits and caricatures of politicians, musicians, athletes, astronauts, robots. Matryoshka dolls that featured communist leaders of Russia became very popular among Russian people in the early 1990s, today, some Russian artists specialize in painting themed matryoshka dolls that feature specific categories of subjects, people or nature. Areas with notable matryoshka styles include Sergiyev Posad, Semionovo, Polkhovsky Maidan, during Perestroika, the leaders of the Soviet Union became a common theme of matryoshkas. The largest, outside figure was that of Mikhail Gorbachev, followed by Leonid Brezhnev, Nikita Khrushchev, Joseph Stalin and finally the smallest, newer versions start with Vladimir Putin and then follow with Dmitry Medvedev, Boris Yeltsin, Mikhail Gorbachev, Joseph Stalin and Vladimir Lenin
35.
Quine (computing)
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A quine is a non-empty computer program which takes no input and produces a copy of its own source code as its only output. The standard terms for these programs in the computability theory and computer science literature are self-replicating programs, self-reproducing programs, a quine is a fixed point of an execution environment, when the execution environment is viewed as a function. Quines are possible in any Turing complete programming language, as a consequence of Kleenes recursion theorem. For amusement, programmers sometimes attempt to develop the shortest possible quine in any programming language. In some languages, particularly scripting languages, an empty file is a fixed point of the language. Such an empty program, submitted as the worlds smallest self reproducing program, the idea of self-reproducing automata came from the dawn of computing, if not before. John von Neumann himself theorized about them, later, Paul Bratley and Jean Millos article Computer Recreations, Self-Reproducing Automata discussed them in 1972. This program appears below, %BEGIN. THIS IS A SELF-REPRODUCING PROGRAM %ROUTINESPEC R R PRINT SYMBOL R PRINT SYMBOL NEWLINE %CAPTION %END~ %CAPTION %ENDOFPROGRAM~ %ROUTINE R %PRINTTEXT %BEGIN, the following Java code demonstrates the basic structure of a quine. The source code contains an array of itself, which is output twice, once inside quotation marks. The following example is in Javascool, for example, this Ruby quine, Quines, per definition, cannot receive any form of input, including reading a file, which means a quine is considered to be cheating if it looks at its own source code. Ignoring the restriction that quines be non-empty, there are examples of programming languages where an empty program is valid. Such programs generally do nothing, in effect, reproducing the program, the quine concept can be extended to multiple levels or recursion, originating what has been called ouroboros programs, or quine-relays. This should not be confused with Multiquines and this Java program outputs the source for a C++ program that outputs the original Java code. A multiquine consisting of 2 languages would be a program which, when supplied with a user-defined command line argument, would print a second program in language Y. Given the second program in language Y, when run normally, given the second program in language Y, and supplied with a user-defined command line argument, would produce the original program in language X. A biquine could then be seen as a set of two programs, both of which are able to print either of the two, depending on the command line argument supplied. Theoretically, there is no limit on the number of languages in a multiquine, a 5-part multiquine has been produced with Python, Perl, C, NewLISP, and F# and there is also a 25-language multiquine. A radiation-hardened quine is a quine that can have any single character removed and still produce the original program with no missing character
36.
Self-similarity
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In mathematics, a self-similar object is exactly or approximately similar to a part of itself. Many objects in the world, such as coastlines, are statistically self-similar. Self-similarity is a property of fractals. Scale invariance is a form of self-similarity where at any magnification there is a smaller piece of the object that is similar to the whole. For instance, a side of the Koch snowflake is both symmetrical and scale-invariant, it can be continually magnified 3x without changing shape, the non-trivial similarity evident in fractals is distinguished by their fine structure, or detail on arbitrarily small scales. As a counterexample, whereas any portion of a line may resemble the whole. It happens if the quantity f exhibits dynamic scaling, the idea is just an extension of the idea of similarity of two triangles. Note that two triangles are similar if the values of their sides are different however the corresponding dimensionless quantities, such as their angles. In mathematics, self-affinity is a feature of a fractal whose pieces are scaled by different amounts in the x- and this means that to appreciate the self similarity of these fractal objects, they have to be rescaled using an anisotropic affine transformation. We call L = a self-similar structure, the homeomorphisms may be iterated, resulting in an iterated function system. The composition of functions creates the algebraic structure of a monoid, when the set S has only two elements, the monoid is known as the dyadic monoid. The dyadic monoid can be visualized as a binary tree, more generally, if the set S has p elements. The automorphisms of the monoid is the modular group, the automorphisms can be pictured as hyperbolic rotations of the binary tree. A more general notion than self-similarity is Self-affinity, the Mandelbrot set is also self-similar around Misiurewicz points. Self-similarity has important consequences for the design of networks, as typical network traffic has self-similar properties. For example, in engineering, packet switched data traffic patterns seem to be statistically self-similar. This property means that simple models using a Poisson distribution are inaccurate, andrew Lo describes stock market log return self-similarity in econometrics. Finite subdivision rules are a technique for building self-similar sets, including the Cantor set
37.
Video feedback
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Video feedback is the process that starts and continues when a video camera is pointed at its playback video monitor. The loop delay from camera to display back to camera is at least one video frame time, due to the input and output scanning processes, it can be more if there is more processing in the loop. First discovered shortly after Charlie Ginsburg invented the first video recorder for Ampex in 1956, video feedback was considered a nuisance and it could also cause screen burn-in on a playback TV and/or monitors of the time as well, by generating static brightly illuminated display patterns. In the 1960s early examples of art become introduced into the psychedelic art scene in New York City. Nam June Paik is often cited as the first video artist, although this is disputed, early videofeedback works were created by media artist/experimenters on the East and West Coasts in the late 1960s and early 70s. David Sohn mentions video feedback in his 1970 book Film, the Creative Eye, several students in this class participated regularly in the making and recording of videofeedback. During the 1980s and into the 1990s video technology became enhanced and evolved into high quality, in the 1990s the rave scene and a social return to art of a more psychedelic nature brought back displays of videofeedback on large disco dance floor video screens around the world. There are filters for Adobe Photoshop and non linear video editors that often have videofeedback as the filter description and these filter types either mimic or directly utilize videofeedback for its result effect and can be recognized by its vortex, phantasmagoric manipulation of the original recorded image. Many artists have used optical feedback, an example is Queens music video for Bohemian Rhapsody. The effect can be compared to looking at oneself between two mirrors, the next title sequence for the show, which debuted in 1973, abandoned this technique in favour of slit-scan photography. The optical feedback discussed so far—video feedback, created by a camera pointing at its own monitor—is actually just one example of optical feedback. Perhaps the most obvious example of feedback in science is the optical cavity found in almost every laser. In the late 1990s it was found that so-called unstable-cavity lasers produce light beams whose cross-section present a fractal pattern, optical feedback in science is often closely related to video feedback, so an understanding of video feedback can be useful for other applications of optical feedback. Video feedback has been used to explain the essence of fractal structure of unstable-cavity laser beams, the page discovery of fractal lasers gives an account of laser fractals, the developments of this work, links to further reading, and relates the laser context with video feedback systems. Video feedback is also useful as an experimental-mathematics tool, examples of its use include the creation of Fractal patterns using multiple monitors or multiple images created using mirrors. The page video feedback in science provides an overview, softologys Video Feedback page provides links and information about real and simulated video feedback. Optical feedback is found in the image intensifier tube and its variants. Here the feedback is usually an undesirable phenomenon, where the light generated by the phosphor screen feeds back to the photocathode, causing the tube to oscillate, and ruining the image
38.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
39.
Courtauld Institute of Art
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The Courtauld Institute of Art, commonly referred to as The Courtauld, is a self-governing college of the University of London specialising in the study of the history of art and conservation. It is among the most prestigious institutions in the world for these disciplines and is known for the disproportionate number of directors of major museums drawn from its small body of alumni. The art collection of the Institute is known particularly for its French Impressionist and Post-Impressionist paintings and is housed in the Courtauld Gallery, the Institute and the Gallery are both in Somerset House, in the Strand in London. Originally the Courtauld Institute was based in Home House, a Robert Adam-designed townhouse in Londons Portman Square, the Strand block of Somerset House, designed by William Chambers from 1775–1780, has housed the Courtauld Institute since 1989. The Courtauld celebrated its 75th anniversary during the 2007–08 academic year, the Courtauld Institute of Art is the major centre for the study of the history and conservation of art and architecture in the United Kingdom. It offers undergraduate and postgraduate teaching to around 400 students each year, degrees are awarded by the University of London. The Independent has called it probably the most prestigious specialist college for the study of the history of art in the world, the Courtauld was ranked, again, first in the United Kingdom for History and History of Art in The Guardian’s 2017 University Guide. The only undergraduate course offered by the Courtauld is a BA in the History of Art and this is a full-time course designed to introduce students to all aspects of the study of western art. Students in the history of art masters programme have to choose a specialisation ranging from antiquity to modern to global contemporary artwork. Special options are taught in class sizes of 5–10 students. In 2009, it was decided that the Witt Library would not continue to add new material to the collection, the book library is one of the UKs largest archives of art history books, periodicals and exhibition catalogues. There is a library which also covers films, and an IT suite. Two other websites and sell high resolution digital files to scholars, publishers and broadcasters, the Courtauld uses a virtual learning environment to deliver course material to its students. Since 2004, the Courtauld has published a research journal, immediations. Each cover of the journal has been commissioned by a contemporary artist. The art collection of the Institute is housed in the Courtauld Gallery, the collection was begun by the founder of the Institute, Samuel Courtauld, who presented an extensive collection of mainly French Impressionist and Post-Impressionist paintings in 1932. It was enhanced by further gifts in the 1930s and a bequest in 1948, the Gallery contains some 530 paintings and over 26,000 drawings and prints. The Courtauld Gallery is open to the public, since 1989 it has been housed in the Strand block of Somerset House, which was the first home of the Royal Academy, founded in 1768
40.
Notices of the American Mathematical Society
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Notices of the American Mathematical Society is the membership journal of the American Mathematical Society, published monthly except for the combined June/July issue. The first volume appeared in 1953, each issue of the magazine since January 1995 is available in its entirety on the journal web site. Articles are peer-reviewed by a board of mathematical experts. Since 2016, the editor-in-chief is Frank Morgan, the cover regularly features mathematical visualizations. The Notices is the worlds most widely read mathematical journal, as the membership journal of the American Mathematical Society, the Notices is sent to the approximately 30,000 AMS members worldwide, one-third of whom reside outside the United States. By publishing high-level exposition, the Notices provides opportunities for mathematicians to find out what is going on in the field, each issue contains one or two such expository articles that describe current developments in mathematical research, written by professional mathematicians. The Notices also carries articles on the history of mathematics, mathematics education, American Mathematical Monthly, another most widely read mathematics journal in the world Official website
41.
Wolfram Demonstrations Project
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It is hosted by Wolfram Research, whose stated goal is to bring computational exploration to the widest possible audience. At its launch, it contained 1300 demonstrations but has grown to over 10,000, the site won a Parents Choice Award in 2008. Each Demonstration also has a description of the concept. Demonstrations are now easily embeddable into any website or blog, each Demonstration page includes a snippet of JavaScript code in the Share section of the sidebar. The website is organized by topic, for example, science, mathematics, computer science, art, biology and they cover a variety of levels, from elementary school mathematics to much more advanced topics such as quantum mechanics and models of biological organisms. The site is aimed at educators and students, as well as researchers who wish to present their ideas to the broadest possible audience. Wolfram Researchs staff organizes and edits the Demonstrations, which may be created by any user of Mathematica, then freely published, the Demonstrations are open-source, which means that they not only demonstrate the concept itself but also show how to implement it. The use of the web to transmit small interactive programs is reminiscent of Suns Java applets, Adobes Flash, however, those creating Demonstrations have access to the algorithmic and visualization capabilities of Mathematica making it more suitable for technical demonstrations. The Demonstrations Project also has similarities to user-generated content websites like Wikipedia and its business model is similar to Adobes Acrobat and Flash strategy of charging for development tools but providing a free reader
42.
Algorithm
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In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm is a self-contained sequence of actions to be performed. Algorithms can perform calculation, data processing and automated reasoning tasks, an algorithm is an effective method that can be expressed within a finite amount of space and time and in a well-defined formal language for calculating a function. The transition from one state to the next is not necessarily deterministic, some algorithms, known as randomized algorithms, giving a formal definition of algorithms, corresponding to the intuitive notion, remains a challenging problem. In English, it was first used in about 1230 and then by Chaucer in 1391, English adopted the French term, but it wasnt until the late 19th century that algorithm took on the meaning that it has in modern English. Another early use of the word is from 1240, in a manual titled Carmen de Algorismo composed by Alexandre de Villedieu and it begins thus, Haec algorismus ars praesens dicitur, in qua / Talibus Indorum fruimur bis quinque figuris. Which translates as, Algorism is the art by which at present we use those Indian figures, the poem is a few hundred lines long and summarizes the art of calculating with the new style of Indian dice, or Talibus Indorum, or Hindu numerals. An informal definition could be a set of rules that precisely defines a sequence of operations, which would include all computer programs, including programs that do not perform numeric calculations. Generally, a program is only an algorithm if it stops eventually, but humans can do something equally useful, in the case of certain enumerably infinite sets, They can give explicit instructions for determining the nth member of the set, for arbitrary finite n. An enumerably infinite set is one whose elements can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the integers, the concept of algorithm is also used to define the notion of decidability. That notion is central for explaining how formal systems come into being starting from a set of axioms. In logic, the time that an algorithm requires to complete cannot be measured, from such uncertainties, that characterize ongoing work, stems the unavailability of a definition of algorithm that suits both concrete and abstract usage of the term. Algorithms are essential to the way computers process data, thus, an algorithm can be considered to be any sequence of operations that can be simulated by a Turing-complete system. Although this may seem extreme, the arguments, in its favor are hard to refute. Gurevich. Turings informal argument in favor of his thesis justifies a stronger thesis, according to Savage, an algorithm is a computational process defined by a Turing machine. Typically, when an algorithm is associated with processing information, data can be read from a source, written to an output device. Stored data are regarded as part of the state of the entity performing the algorithm. In practice, the state is stored in one or more data structures, for some such computational process, the algorithm must be rigorously defined, specified in the way it applies in all possible circumstances that could arise. That is, any conditional steps must be dealt with, case-by-case
43.
Catenary
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In physics and geometry, a catenary is the curve that an idealized hanging chain or cable assumes under its own weight when supported only at its ends. The curve has a U-like shape, superficially similar in appearance to a parabola, the curve appears in the design of certain types of arches and as a cross section of the catenoid—the shape assumed by a soap film bounded by two parallel circular rings. The catenary is also called the alysoid, chainette, or, particularly in the materials sciences, mathematically, the catenary curve is the graph of the hyperbolic cosine function. The surface of revolution of the curve, the catenoid, is a minimal surface. The mathematical properties of the curve were first studied by Robert Hooke in the 1670s. Catenaries and related curves are used in architecture and engineering, in the design of bridges and arches, in the offshore oil and gas industry, catenary refers to a steel catenary riser, a pipeline suspended between a production platform and the seabed that adopts an approximate catenary shape. The word catenary is derived from the Latin word catēna, which means chain and it appears to be a very scientifical work. I have not yet had time to engage in it, but I find that the conclusions of his demonstrations are and it is often said that Galileo thought the curve of a hanging chain was parabolic. That the curve followed by a chain is not a parabola was proven by Joachim Jungius, some much older arches approximate catenaries, an example of which is the Arch of Taq-i Kisra in Ctesiphon. David Gregory wrote a treatise on the catenary in 1697 in which he provided an incorrect derivation of the differential equation. Euler proved in 1744 that the catenary is the curve which, nicolas Fuss gave equations describing the equilibrium of a chain under any force in 1796. Catenary arches are used in the construction of kilns. To create the desired curve, the shape of a chain of the desired dimensions is transferred to a form which is then used as a guide for the placement of bricks or other building material. The Gateway Arch in St. Louis, Missouri, United States is sometimes said to be an catenary and it is close to a more general curve called a flattened catenary, with equation y = A cosh, which is a catenary if AB =1. While a catenary is the shape for a freestanding arch of constant thickness. According to the U. S. National Historic Landmark nomination for the arch and its shape corresponds to the shape that a weighted chain, having lighter links in the middle, would form. In free-hanging chains, the force exerted is uniform with respect to length of the chain, the same is true of a simple suspension bridge or catenary bridge, where the roadway follows the cable. A stressed ribbon bridge is a sophisticated structure with the same catenary shape
44.
Fractal
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A fractal is a mathematical set that exhibits a repeating pattern displayed at every scale. It is also known as expanding symmetry or evolving symmetry, if the replication is exactly the same at every scale, it is called a self-similar pattern. An example of this is the Menger Sponge, Fractals can also be nearly the same at different levels. This latter pattern is illustrated in small magnifications of the Mandelbrot set, Fractals also include the idea of a detailed pattern that repeats itself. Fractals are different from other geometric figures because of the way in which they scale, doubling the edge lengths of a polygon multiplies its area by four, which is two raised to the power of two. Likewise, if the radius of a sphere is doubled, its volume scales by eight, but if a fractals one-dimensional lengths are all doubled, the spatial content of the fractal scales by a power that is not necessarily an integer. This power is called the dimension of the fractal. As mathematical equations, fractals are usually nowhere differentiable, the term fractal was first used by mathematician Benoît Mandelbrot in 1975. Mandelbrot based it on the Latin frāctus meaning broken or fractured, there is some disagreement amongst authorities about how the concept of a fractal should be formally defined. Mandelbrot himself summarized it as beautiful, damn hard, increasingly useful, Fractals are not limited to geometric patterns, but can also describe processes in time. Fractal patterns with various degrees of self-similarity have been rendered or studied in images, structures and sounds and found in nature, technology, art, Fractals are of particular relevance in the field of chaos theory, since the graphs of most chaotic processes are fractal. The word fractal often has different connotations for laypeople than for mathematicians, the mathematical concept is difficult to define formally even for mathematicians, but key features can be understood with little mathematical background. If this is done on fractals, however, no new detail appears, nothing changes, self-similarity itself is not necessarily counter-intuitive. The difference for fractals is that the pattern reproduced must be detailed, a regular line, for instance, is conventionally understood to be 1-dimensional, if such a curve is divided into pieces each 1/3 the length of the original, there are always 3 equal pieces. In contrast, consider the Koch snowflake and it is also 1-dimensional for the same reason as the ordinary line, but it has, in addition, a fractal dimension greater than 1 because of how its detail can be measured. This also leads to understanding a third feature, that fractals as mathematical equations are nowhere differentiable, in a concrete sense, this means fractals cannot be measured in traditional ways. The history of fractals traces a path from chiefly theoretical studies to modern applications in computer graphics, according to Pickover, the mathematics behind fractals began to take shape in the 17th century when the mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Leibniz pondered recursive self-similarity. In his writings, Leibniz used the term fractional exponents, also in the last part of that century, Felix Klein and Henri Poincaré introduced a category of fractal that has come to be called self-inverse fractals
45.
Golden ratio
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In mathematics, two quantities are in the golden ratio if their ratio is the same as the ratio of their sum to the larger of the two quantities. The figure on the right illustrates the geometric relationship, expressed algebraically, for quantities a and b with a > b >0, a + b a = a b = def φ, where the Greek letter phi represents the golden ratio. Its value is, φ =1 +52 =1.6180339887 …, A001622 The golden ratio is also called the golden mean or golden section. Other names include extreme and mean ratio, medial section, divine proportion, divine section, golden proportion, golden cut, the golden ratio appears in some patterns in nature, including the spiral arrangement of leaves and other plant parts. The golden ratio has also used to analyze the proportions of natural objects as well as man-made systems such as financial markets. Two quantities a and b are said to be in the golden ratio φ if a + b a = a b = φ, one method for finding the value of φ is to start with the left fraction. Through simplifying the fraction and substituting in b/a = 1/φ, a + b a =1 + b a =1 +1 φ, multiplying by φ gives φ +1 = φ2 which can be rearranged to φ2 − φ −1 =0. First, the line segment A B ¯ is about doubled and then the semicircle with the radius A S ¯ around the point S is drawn, now the semicircle is drawn with the radius A B ¯ around the point B. The arising intersection point E corresponds 2 φ, next up, the perpendicular on the line segment A E ¯ from the point D will be establish. The subsequent parallel F S ¯ to the line segment C M ¯, produces, as it were and it is well recognizable, this triangle and the triangle M S C are similar to each other. The hypotenuse F S ¯ has due to the cathetuses S D ¯ =1 and D F ¯ =2 according the Pythagorean theorem, finally, the circle arc is drawn with the radius 5 around the point F. The golden ratio has been claimed to have held a fascination for at least 2,400 years. But the fascination with the Golden Ratio is not confined just to mathematicians, biologists, artists, musicians, historians, architects, psychologists, and even mystics have pondered and debated the basis of its ubiquity and appeal. In fact, it is fair to say that the Golden Ratio has inspired thinkers of all disciplines like no other number in the history of mathematics. Ancient Greek mathematicians first studied what we now call the golden ratio because of its frequent appearance in geometry, the division of a line into extreme and mean ratio is important in the geometry of regular pentagrams and pentagons. Euclid explains a construction for cutting a line in extreme and mean ratio, throughout the Elements, several propositions and their proofs employ the golden ratio. The golden ratio is explored in Luca Paciolis book De divina proportione, since the 20th century, the golden ratio has been represented by the Greek letter φ or less commonly by τ. Timeline according to Priya Hemenway, Phidias made the Parthenon statues that seem to embody the golden ratio, plato, in his Timaeus, describes five possible regular solids, some of which are related to the golden ratio
46.
Hyperboloid structure
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Hyperboloid structures are architectural structures designed using a hyperboloid in one sheet. The first hyperboloid structures were built by Russian engineer Vladimir Shukhov, the worlds first hyperboloid tower is located in Polibino, Dankovsky District, Lipetsk Oblast, Russia. Hyperbolic structures have a negative Gaussian curvature, meaning they curve inward rather than outward or being straight. As doubly ruled surfaces, they can be made with a lattice of beams, hence are easier to build than curved surfaces that do not have a ruling. With cooling towers, a structure is preferred. At the bottom, the widening of the tower provides an area for installation of fill to promote thin film evaporative cooling of the circulated water. In the 1880s, Shukhov began to work on the problem of the design of systems to use a minimum of materials, time. His calculations were most likely derived from mathematician Pafnuty Chebyshevs work on the theory of best approximations of functions, Shukhovs mathematical explorations of efficient roof structures led to his invention of a new system that was innovative both structurally and spatially. The steel gridshells of the pavilions of the 1896 All-Russian Industrial. Two pavilions of this type were built for the Nizhni Novgorod exposition, one oval in plan, the roofs of these pavilions were doubly curved gridshells formed entirely of a lattice of straight angle-iron and flat iron bars. Shukhov himself called them azhurnaia bashnia, the patent of this system, for which Shukhov applied in 1895, was awarded in 1899. Shukhov also turned his attention to the development of an efficient and his solution was inspired by observing the action of a woven basket holding up a heavy weight. Again, it took the form of a curved surface constructed of a light network of straight iron bars. Over the next twenty years, he designed and built close to two hundred of these towers, no two alike, most with heights in the range of 12m to 68m. At least as early as 1911, Shukhov began experimenting with the concept of forming a tower out of stacked sections of hyperboloids. Stacking the sections permitted the form of the tower to taper more at the top, increasing the number of sections would increase the tapering of the overall form, to the point that it began to resemble a cone. By 1918 Shukhov had developed this concept into the design of a nine-section stacked hyperboloid radio transmission tower for Moscow, Shukhov designed a 350m tower, which would have surpassed the Eiffel Tower in height by 50m, while using less than a quarter of the amount of material. In July 1919, Lenin decreed that the tower should be built to a height of 150m, construction of the smaller tower with six stacked hyperboloids began within a few months, and Shukhov Tower was completed by March 1922
