1.
Drum memory
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Drum memory was a magnetic data storage device invented by Gustav Tauschek in 1932 in Austria. It was widely used in the 1950s and into the 1960s as computer memory, for many early computers, drum memory formed the main working memory of the computer. It was so common that these computers were often referred to as drum machines, some drum memories were also used as secondary storage. Drums were displaced as primary computer memory by magnetic core memory which was a balance of size, speed, cost, reliability. Similarly, drums were replaced by hard disk drives for secondary storage, the manufacture of drums ceased in the 1970s. A drum memory contained a metal cylinder, coated on the outside surface with a ferromagnetic recording material. It could be considered the precursor to the disk drive. In most designs, one or more rows of fixed read-write heads ran along the axis of the drum. The drums controller simply selected the head and waited for the data to appear under it as the drum turned. Not all drum units were designed with each track having its own head, some, such as the English Electric DEUCE drum and the Univac FASTRAND had multiple heads moving a short distance on the drum in contrast to modern HDDs, which have one head per platter surface. This method of timing-compensation, called the skip factor or interleaving, was used for years in storage memory controllers. Tauscheks original drum memory had a capacity of about 500,000 bits, the drum could be removed and connected to another output system, but this was not done often due the size and complications that could occur. One of the earliest functioning computers to employ drum memory was the Atanasoff–Berry computer, however, it employed capacitance rather than magnetism to store information. The outer surface of the drum was lined with electrical contacts leading to capacitors contained within, the first mass-produced computer, the IBM650, had about 8.5 kilobytes of drum memory. As late as 1980, PDP-11/45 machines using magnetic core main memory, Librascope LGP-30, The drum memory computer referenced in the above story, also referenced on Librascope LGP-30. Librascope RPC-4000, Another drum memory computer referenced in the above story Oral history interview with Dean Babcock
2.
Yamaha
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It is one of the constituents of Nikkei 225 and is the worlds largest piano manufacturing company. Yamaha was established in 1887 as a piano and reed organ manufacturer by Torakusu Yamaha as Nippon Gakki Company, Limited in Hamamatsu, the companys origins as a musical instrument manufacturer are still reflected today in the groups logo—a trio of interlocking tuning forks. The YA-1, of which 125 were built in the first year of production, was named in honour of the founder and it was a 125cc, single cylinder, two-stroke, street bike patterned after the German DKW RT125. In 1955, the success of the YA-1 resulted in the founding of Yamaha Motor Co. Ltd, in 1989, Yamaha shipped the worlds first CD recorder. Yamaha purchased Sequential Circuits in 1988 and it bought a majority stake of competitor Korg in 1987, which was bought out by Korg in 1993. In the late 1990s, Yamaha released a series a portable battery operated keyboards under the PSS, in 2002, Yamaha closed down its archery product business that was started in 1959. Six archers in five different Olympic Games won gold medals using their products and it acquired German audio software manufacturers Steinberg in January 2005, from Pinnacle Systems. K. Ltd, the UK piano sales & manufacturing arm was unaffected, on December 20,2007, Yamaha made an agreement with the Austrian Bank BAWAG P. S. K. Group BAWAG to purchase all the shares of Bösendorfer, intended to place in early 2008. Yamaha intends to continue manufacturing at the Bösendorfer facilities in Austria, the acquisition of Bösendorfer was announced after the NAMM Show in Los Angeles, on January 28,2008. As of February 1,2008, Bösendorfer Klavierfabrik GmbH operates as a subsidiary of Yamaha Corp, Yamaha Corporation is also widely known for their music teaching programme that began in the 1950s. Yamaha electronic have proven to be successful, popular, and respected products, for example, the Yamaha YPG-625 was given the award Keyboard of the Year and Product of the Year in 2007 from The Music and Sound Retailer magazine. Other noteworthy Yamaha electronics include the SHS-10 Keytar, a keytar which offered MIDI output features normally found on much more expensive keyboards. Other companies in the Yamaha group include, Bösendorfer Klavierfabrik GmbH, Vienna, Yamaha Motor Company Yamaha Fine Technologies Co. Ltd. Yamaha Golf Cart Company Yamaha Livingtec Corporation Yamaha Metanix Corporation Yamaha Music Communications Co. Ltd, Yamaha Pro Audio Kandō is a Japanese word used by Yamaha to describe their corporate mission. Kandō in translation describes the sensation of profound excitement and gratification derived from experiencing supreme quality, some reasonable English synonyms are emotionally touching or emotionally moving. The Yamaha Music Foundation is an established in 1966 by the authority of the Japanese Ministry of Education for the purpose of promoting music education. It continued a program of music classes begun by Yamaha Corporation in 1954, Yamaha expanded into many diverse businesses and product groups
3.
Electronic musical instrument
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An electronic musical instrument is a musical instrument that produces sound using electronics. Such an instrument sounds by outputting an electrical signal that ultimately drives a loudspeaker. An electronic instrument might include a user interface for controlling its sound, often by adjusting the pitch, frequency, all electronic musical instruments can be viewed as a subset of audio signal processing applications. Simple electronic musical instruments are called sound effects, the border between sound effects and actual musical instruments is often hazy. Electronic musical instruments are now used in most styles of music. Development of new musical instruments, controllers, and synthesizers continues to be a highly active. In the 18th-century, musicians and composers adapted a number of instruments to exploit the novelty of electricity. The former instrument consisted of an instrument of over 700 strings. The latter was an instrument with plectra activated electrically. However, neither instrument used electricity as a sound-source, the first electric synthesizer was invented in 1876 by Elisha Gray. The Musical Telegraph used steel reeds oscillated by electromagnets and transmitted over a telephone line, Gray also built a simple loudspeaker device into later models, which consisted of a diaphragm vibrating in a magnetic field. A significant invention, which later had an effect on electronic music, was the audion in 1906. This was the first thermionic valve, or vacuum tube and which led to the generation and amplification of signals, radio broadcasting. Other early synthesizers included the Telharmonium, the Theremin, Jörg Magers Spharophon and Partiturophone, Taubmanns similar Electronde, Maurice Martenots ondes Martenot, only two models of this latter were built and the only surviving example is currently stored at the Lomonosov University in Moscow. It has been used in many Russian movies—like Solaris—to produce unusual, Hugh Le Caine, John Hanert, Raymond Scott, composer Percy Grainger, and others built a variety of automated electronic-music controllers during the late 1940s and 1950s. In 1959 Daphne Oram produced a method of synthesis, her Oramics technique, driven by drawings on a 35 mm film strip. In 1897 Thaddeus Cahill patented an instrument called the Telharmonium, using tonewheels to generate musical sounds as electrical signals by additive synthesis, it was capable of producing any combination of notes and overtones, at any dynamic level. This technology was used to design the Hammond organ
4.
Sound
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In physics, sound is a vibration that propagates as a typically audible mechanical wave of pressure and displacement, through a transmission medium such as air or water. In physiology and psychology, sound is the reception of such waves, humans can hear sound waves with frequencies between about 20 Hz and 20 kHz. Sound above 20 kHz is ultrasound and below 20 Hz is infrasound, other animals have different hearing ranges. Acoustics is the science that deals with the study of mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids including vibration, sound, ultrasound. A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an acoustician, an audio engineer, on the other hand, is concerned with the recording, manipulation, mixing, and reproduction of sound. Auditory sensation evoked by the oscillation described in, sound can propagate through a medium such as air, water and solids as longitudinal waves and also as a transverse wave in solids. The sound waves are generated by a source, such as the vibrating diaphragm of a stereo speaker. The sound source creates vibrations in the surrounding medium, as the source continues to vibrate the medium, the vibrations propagate away from the source at the speed of sound, thus forming the sound wave. At a fixed distance from the source, the pressure, velocity, at an instant in time, the pressure, velocity, and displacement vary in space. Note that the particles of the medium do not travel with the sound wave and this is intuitively obvious for a solid, and the same is true for liquids and gases. During propagation, waves can be reflected, refracted, or attenuated by the medium, the behavior of sound propagation is generally affected by three things, A complex relationship between the density and pressure of the medium. This relationship, affected by temperature, determines the speed of sound within the medium, if the medium is moving, this movement may increase or decrease the absolute speed of the sound wave depending on the direction of the movement. For example, sound moving through wind will have its speed of propagation increased by the speed of the if the sound and wind are moving in the same direction. If the sound and wind are moving in opposite directions, the speed of the wave will be decreased by the speed of the wind. Medium viscosity determines the rate at which sound is attenuated, for many media, such as air or water, attenuation due to viscosity is negligible. When sound is moving through a medium that does not have constant physical properties, the mechanical vibrations that can be interpreted as sound can travel through all forms of matter, gases, liquids, solids, and plasmas. The matter that supports the sound is called the medium, sound cannot travel through a vacuum. Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and liquids as longitudinal waves and it requires a medium to propagate
5.
Drum kit
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A drum kit consists of a mix of drums and idiophones most significantly cymbals but also including the woodblock and cowbell. In the 2000s, some also include electronic instruments and both hybrid and entirely electronic kits are used. If some or all of them are replaced by electronic drums, the drum kit is usually played while seated on a drum stool or throne. The drum kit differs from instruments that can be used to produce pitched melodies or chords, even though drums are often placed musically alongside others that do, such as the piano or guitar. The drum kit is part of the rhythm section used in many types of popular and traditional music styles ranging from rock and pop to blues. Other standard instruments used in the section include the electric bass, electric guitar. Many drummers extend their kits from this pattern, adding more drums, more cymbals. Some performers, such as some rockabilly drummers, use small kits that omit elements from the basic setup, some drum kit players may have other roles in the band, such as providing backup vocals, or less commonly, lead vocals. Thus, in an early 1800s orchestra piece, if the called for bass drum, triangle and cymbals. In the 1840s, percussionists began to experiment with foot pedals as a way to them to play more than one instrument. In the 1860s, percussionists started combining multiple drums into a set, the bass drum, snare drum, cymbals, and other percussion instruments were all played using hand-held drum sticks. Double-drumming was developed to one person to play the bass and snare with sticks. With this approach, the drum was usually played on beats one. This resulted in a swing and dance feel. The drum set was referred to as a trap set. By the 1870s, drummers were using an overhang pedal, most drummers in the 1870s preferred to do double drumming without any pedal to play multiple drums, rather than use an overhang pedal. Companies patented their pedal systems such as Dee Dee Chandler of New Orleans 1904–05, liberating the hands for the first time, this evolution saw the bass drum played with the foot of a standing percussionist. The bass drum became the central piece around which every other percussion instrument would later revolve and it was the golden age of drum building for many famous drum companies, with Ludwig introducing
6.
Cymbal
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A cymbal is a common percussion instrument. Often used in pairs, cymbals consist of thin, normally round plates of various alloys, the majority of cymbals are of indefinite pitch, although small disc-shaped cymbals based on ancient designs sound a definite note. Cymbals are used in ensembles ranging from the orchestra, percussion ensembles, jazz bands, heavy metal bands. Drum kits usually incorporate at least a crash, ride or crash/ride, a player of cymbals is known as a cymbalist. The word cymbal is derived from the Latin cymbalum, which is the latinisation of the Greek word κύμβαλον kymbalon, cymbal, which in turn derives from κύμβη kymbē, cup, bowl. In orchestral scores, cymbals may be indicated by the French cymbales, German Becken, Schellbecken, Tellern, or Tschinellen, Italian piatti or cinelli, many of these derive from the word for plates. Cymbals have existed since ancient times, representations of cymbals may be found in reliefs and paintings from Hittite Anatolia, Larsa, Babylon, Assyria, ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and ancient Rome. References to cymbals also appear throughout the Bible, through many Psalms, cymbals may have been introduced to China from Central Asia in the 3rd or 4th century AD. Cymbals were employed by Turkish janissaries in the 14th century or earlier, by the 17th century, such cymbals were used in European music, and more commonly played in military bands and orchestras by the mid 18th century. Since the 19th century, some composers have called for larger roles for cymbals in musical works, and a variety of shapes, techniques. The anatomy of the plays a large part in the sound it creates. A hole is drilled in the center of the cymbal, which is used to mount the cymbal on a stand or for tying straps through. The bell, dome, or cup is the section immediately surrounding the hole. The bell produces a higher pinging pitch than the rest of the cymbal, the bow is the rest of the surface surrounding the bell. The bow is sometimes described in two areas, the ride and crash area, the ride area is the thicker section closer to the bell while the crash area is the thinner tapering section near the edge. The edge or rim is the circumference of the cymbal. Cymbals are measured by their diameter either in inches or centimeters, the size of the cymbal affects its sound, larger cymbals usually being louder and having longer sustain. The weight describes how thick the cymbal is, Cymbal weights are important to the sound they produce and how they play
7.
Percussion instrument
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A percussion instrument is a musical instrument that is sounded by being struck or scraped by a beater, struck, scraped or rubbed by hand, or struck against another similar instrument. The percussion family is believed to include the oldest musical instruments, the percussion section of an orchestra most commonly contains instruments such as timpani, snare drum, bass drum, cymbals, triangle and tambourine. However, the section can also contain non-percussive instruments, such as whistles and sirens, percussive techniques can also be applied to the human body, as in body percussion. On the other hand, keyboard instruments, such as the celesta, are not normally part of the percussion section, Percussion instruments may play not only rhythm, but also melody and harmony. Percussion is commonly referred to as the backbone or the heartbeat of an ensemble, often working in close collaboration with bass instruments. In jazz and other popular ensembles, the pianist, bassist, drummer. Most classical pieces written for full orchestra since the time of Haydn and Mozart are orchestrated to place emphasis on the strings, woodwinds, however, often at least one pair of timpani is included, though they rarely play continuously. Rather, they serve to provide additional accents when needed, in the 18th and 19th centuries, other percussion instruments have been used, again generally sparingly. The use of percussion instruments became more frequent in the 20th century classical music, in almost every style of music, percussion plays a pivotal role. In classic jazz, one almost immediately thinks of the rhythm of the hi-hats or the ride cymbal when the word swing is spoken. Because of the diversity of instruments, it is not uncommon to find large musical ensembles composed entirely of percussion. Rhythm, melody, and harmony are all represented in these ensembles, music for pitched percussion instruments can be notated on a staff with the same treble and bass clefs used by many non-percussive instruments. Music for percussive instruments without a pitch can be notated with a specialist rhythm or percussion-clef. The word percussion has evolved from Latin terms, percussio, as a noun in contemporary English it is described in Wiktionary as the collision of two bodies to produce a sound. Hornbostel–Sachs has no high-level section for percussion, Most percussion instruments are classified as idiophones and membranophones.1 Concussion idiophones or clappers, played in pairs and beaten against each other, such as zills and clapsticks. 111.2 Percussion idiophones, includes many percussion instruments played with the hand or by a mallet, such as the hang, gongs and the xylophone. 21 Struck drums, includes most types of drum, such as the timpani, snare drum, (Included in most drum sets or 412. Stringed instruments played with such as the hammered dulcimer
8.
Bassline
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It is also used sometimes in classical music. In solo music for piano and pipe organ, these instruments have an excellent lower register that can be used to play a deep bassline, on organs, the bass line is typically played using the pedal keyboard and massive 16 and 32 bass pipes. Basslines in popular music often use riffs or grooves, which are simple, appealing musical motifs or phrases that are repeated, with variation. The bass differs from other voices because of the role it plays in supporting and defining harmonic motion. It does so at levels ranging from immediate, chord-by-chord events to the harmonic organization of a entire work. Bassline riffs usually emphasize the chord tones of each chord, which helps to define a songs key, at the same time, basslines work along with the drum part and the other rhythm instruments to create a clear rhythmic pulse. The type of rhythmic pulse used in basslines varies widely in different types of music, in swing jazz and jump blues, basslines are often created from a continuous sequence of quarter notes in a mostly scalar, stepwise part called a walking bass line. In Latin, salsa music, jazz fusion, reggae, electronica, in bluegrass and traditional country music, basslines often emphasize the root and fifth of each chord. In classical music such as string quartets and symphonies, basslines play the same harmonic and rhythmic role, however, most popular musical ensembles include an instrument capable of playing bass notes. In the 1890s, a tuba was often used, from the 1920s to the 1940s, most popular music groups used the double bass as the bass instrument. Starting in the 1950s, the bass guitar began to replace the bass in most types of popular music, such as rock and roll, blues. By the 1970s and 1980s, the bass was used in most rock bands. The double bass was used in some types of popular music that recreated styles from the 1940s and 1950s such as jazz, traditional 1950s blues, jump blues, country. In some popular bands, keyboard instruments are used to play the bass line. In organ trios, for example, a Hammond organ player performs the basslines using the pedal keyboard. In some types of music, such as hip-hop or house music. Basslines are especially important in many forms of dance and electronic music, such as electro, drum and bass, dubstep, and most forms of house and trance. In these genres, basslines are almost always performed on synthesizers, either physical, such as the Minimoog, chinese orchestras use the zhōng ruǎn and dà ruǎn for creating basslines
9.
Electronic music
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In general, a distinction can be made between sound produced using electromechanical means and that produced using electronic technology. Examples of electromechanical sound producing devices include the telharmonium, Hammond organ, purely electronic sound production can be achieved using devices such as the theremin, sound synthesizer, and computer. During the 1920s and 1930s, electronic instruments were introduced and the first compositions for instruments were composed. Musique concrète, created in Paris in 1948, was based on editing together recorded fragments of natural and industrial sounds, Music produced solely from electronic generators was first produced in Germany in 1953. Electronic music was created in Japan and the United States beginning in the 1950s. An important new development was the advent of computers for the purpose of composing music, algorithmic composition was first demonstrated in Australia in 1951. In America and Europe, live electronics were pioneered in the early 1960s, during the 1970s to early 1980s, the monophonic Minimoog became once the most widely used synthesizer at that time in both popular and electronic art music. In the 1980s, electronic music became dominant in popular music, with a greater reliance on synthesizers, and the adoption of programmable drum machines. Electronically produced music became prevalent in the domain by the 1990s. Contemporary electronic music includes many varieties and ranges from art music to popular forms such as electronic dance music. Today, pop music is most recognizable in its 4/4 form. At the turn of the 20th century, experimentation with emerging electronics led to the first electronic musical instruments and these initial inventions were not sold, but were instead used in demonstrations and public performances. The audiences were presented with reproductions of existing music instead of new compositions for the instruments, while some were considered novelties and produced simple tones, the Telharmonium accurately synthesized the sound of orchestral instruments. It achieved viable public interest and made progress into streaming music through telephone networks. Critics of musical conventions at the time saw promise in these developments, ferruccio Busoni encouraged the composition of microtonal music allowed for by electronic instruments. He predicted the use of machines in future music, writing the influential Sketch of a New Esthetic of Music, futurists such as Francesco Balilla Pratella and Luigi Russolo began composing music with acoustic noise to evoke the sound of machinery. They predicted expansions in timbre allowed for by electronics in the influential manifesto The Art of Noises, developments of the vacuum tube led to electronic instruments that were smaller, amplified, and more practical for performance. In particular, the theremin, ondes Martenot and trautonium were commercially produced by the early 1930s, from the late 1920s, the increased practicality of electronic instruments influenced composers such as Joseph Schillinger to adopt them
10.
House music
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House music is a genre of electronic music created by club DJs and music producers in Chicago in the early 1980s. Early house music was characterized by repetitive 4/4 beats, rhythms mainly provided by drum machines, off-beat hi-hat cymbals. While house displayed several characteristics similar to music, it was more electronic and minimalistic. House music became popular in Chicago clubs in 1984 and it was pioneered by figures such as Frankie Knuckles, Phuture, Kym Mazelle, and Mr. Fingers, and was associated with African-American and gay subcultures. House music quickly spread to other American cities such as Detroit, New York City, Baltimore, in the mid-to-late 1980s, house music became popular in Europe as well as major cities in South America, and Australia. Since the early to mid-1990s, house music has been infused in mainstream pop, in the late 1980s, many local Chicago house music artists suddenly found themselves presented with major label deals. House music proved to be a successful genre and a more mainstream pop-based variation grew increasingly popular. House music has also fused with other genres creating fusion subgenres, such as euro house, tech house, electro house. After enjoying significant success in the early to mid-90s, house music grew even larger during the wave of progressive house. The genre has remained popular and fused into other subgenres, for example, ghetto house, deep house. As of 2016, house music popular in both clubs and in the mainstream pop scene while retaining a foothold on underground scenes across the globe. The song structure of music songs typically involves an intro, a chorus, various verse sections, a midsection. Some songs do not have a verse, taking a part from the chorus. The drum beat is one of the important elements within the genre and is almost always provided by an electronic drum machine rather than by a human drummer playing drumkit. The drum beats of house are four on the floor, with bass drums played on every beat, House music is often based on bass-heavy loops or basslines produced by a synthesizer and/or from samples of disco or funk songs. The tempo of most house songs is between 118 and 135 beats per minute, soul music and disco influenced house music. These artists produced longer, more repetitive, and percussive arrangements of existing disco recordings, early house producers such as Frankie Knuckles created similar compositions from scratch, using samplers, synthesizers, sequencers, and drum machines. Rachel Cain, co-founder of an influential Trax Records, was involved in the burgeoning punk scene and cites industrial
11.
Music sequencer
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This software also improved on the quality of the earlier sequencers which tended to be mechanical sounding and were only able to play back notes of exactly equal duration. Software-based sequencers allowed musicians to program performances that were more expressive and these new sequencers could also be used to control external synthesizers, especially rackmounted sound modules, and it was no longer necessary for each synthesizer to have its own devoted keyboard. As the technology matured, sequencers gained more features, such as the ability to record multitrack audio, Sequencers used for audio recording are called digital audio workstations. Many modern sequencers can be used to control virtual instruments implemented as software plug-ins and this allows musicians to replace expensive and cumbersome standalone synthesizers with their software equivalents. Today the term sequencer is used to describe software. Workstation keyboards have their own proprietary built-in MIDI sequencers, drum machines and some older synthesizers have their own step sequencer built in. There are still also standalone hardware MIDI sequencers, although the demand for those has diminished greatly due to the greater feature set of their software counterparts. Music sequencers are often categorized by handling data types, as following, or, the phrase samplers including Groove machines, etc. Also, music sequencer can be categorized by its construction and supporting modes, realtime sequencers record the musical notes in real-time as on audio recorders, and play back musical notes with designated tempo, quantizations, and pitch. For editing, usually punch in/punch out feature originated in the recording is provided. For detailed editing, possibly another visual editing modes under graphical user interface may be more suitable, anyway, this mode provides usability similar to the audio recorder already familiarized by musicians, and it is widely supported on software sequencer, DAW, and built-in hardware sequencers. Analog sequencers are typically implemented with analog electronics, and play the musical notes designated by a series of knobs or sliders corresponding to each musical note and it is designed for both composition and live performance, users can change the musical notes at any time without regarding recording mode. And also possibly, the time-interval between each note can be independently adjustable. Typically, analog sequencer is used to generate the repeated minimalistic phrases which is reminiscent of Tangerine Dream, on the bass machines, select a step note from a chromatic keypads, then select a step duration from a group of length-buttons, sequentially. In general, step mode, along with roughly quantized semi-realtime mode, is supported on the analog drum machines, bass machines. Software sequencer is a class of application software providing a functionality of music sequencer, the features provided as sequencers vary widely depending on the software, even an analog sequencer can be simulated. The user may control the software sequencer either by using the user interfaces or a specialized input devices. The early music sequencers were sound producing devices such as musical instruments, music boxes, mechanical organs, player pianos
12.
Synthesizer
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A synthesizer is an electronic musical instrument that generates electric signals that are converted to sound through instrument amplifiers and loudspeakers or headphones. Synthesizers may either imitate instruments like piano, Hammond organ, flute, vocals, natural sounds like ocean waves, etc. or generate new electronic timbres. Synthesizers without built-in controllers are called sound modules, and are controlled via USB, MIDI or CV/gate using a controller device. Synthesizers use various methods to generate electronic signals, synthesizers were first used in pop music in the 1960s. In the 1970s, synths were used in disco, especially in the late 1970s, in the 1980s, the invention of the relatively inexpensive, mass market Yamaha DX7 synth made synthesizers widely available. 1980s pop and dance music often made use of synthesizers. In the 2010s, synthesizers are used in genres of pop, rock. Contemporary classical music composers from the 20th and 21st century write compositions for synthesizer, the beginnings of the synthesizer are difficult to trace, as it is difficult to draw a distinction between synthesizers and some early electric or electronic musical instruments. One of the earliest electric musical instruments, the telegraph, was invented in 1876 by American electrical engineer Elisha Gray. He accidentally discovered the sound generation from a self-vibrating electromechanical circuit and this musical telegraph used steel reeds with oscillations created by electromagnets transmitted over a telegraph line. Gray also built a simple loudspeaker device into later models, consisting of a diaphragm in a magnetic field. This instrument was a remote electromechanical musical instrument that used telegraphy, though it lacked an arbitrary sound-synthesis function, some have erroneously called it the first synthesizer. In 1897, Thaddeus Cahill invented the Teleharmonium, which used dynamos, and was capable of additive synthesis like the Hammond organ, however, Cahills business was unsuccessful for various reasons, and similar but more compact instruments were subsequently developed, such as electronic and tonewheel organs. In 1906, American engineer, Lee De Forest ushered in the electronics age and he invented the first amplifying vacuum tube, called the Audion tube. This led to new entertainment technologies, including radio and sound films, ondes Martenot and Trautonium were continuously developed for several decades, finally developing qualities similar to later synthesizers. In the 1920s, Arseny Avraamov developed various systems of graphic sonic art, in 1938, USSR engineer Yevgeny Murzin designed a compositional tool called ANS, one of the earliest real-time additive synthesizers using optoelectronics. The earliest polyphonic synthesizers were developed in Germany and the United States, during the three years that Hammond manufactured this model,1,069 units were shipped, but production was discontinued at the start of World War II. Both instruments were the forerunners of the electronic organs and polyphonic synthesizers
13.
Timbre
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The physical characteristics of sound that determine the perception of timbre include spectrum and envelope. Singers and instrumental musicians can change the timbre of the music they are singing/playing by using different singing or playing techniques, for example, a violinist can use different bowing styles or play on different parts of the string to obtain different timbres. On electric guitar and electric piano, performers can change the timbre using effects units, in simple terms, timbre is what makes a particular musical sound have a different sound from another, even when they have the same pitch and loudness. For instance, it is the difference in sound between a guitar and a playing the same note at the same volume. Experienced musicians are able to distinguish between different instruments of the type based on their varied timbres, even if those instruments are playing notes at the same pitch. Tone quality and tone color are synonyms for timbre, as well as the attributed to a single instrument. However, the texture can also refer to the type of music, such as multiple. The sound of an instrument may be described with words such as bright, dark, warm, harsh. There are also colors of noise, such as pink and white, in visual representations of sound, timbre corresponds to the shape of the image. The Acoustical Society of America Acoustical Terminology definition 12, Timbre has been called. the psychoacousticians multidimensional waste-basket category for everything that cannot be labeled pitch or loudness. Many commentators have attempted to decompose timbre into component attributes, the richness of a sound or note a musical instrument produces is sometimes described in terms of a sum of a number of distinct frequencies. The lowest frequency is called the frequency, and the pitch it produces is used to name the note. The dominant frequency is the frequency that is most heard, for example, the dominant frequency for the transverse flute is double the fundamental frequency. Other significant frequencies are called overtones of the frequency, which may include harmonics. Harmonics are whole number multiples of the frequency, such as ×2, ×3, ×4. There are also sometimes subharmonics at whole number divisions of the fundamental frequency, most instruments produce harmonic sounds, but many instruments produce partials and inharmonic tones, such as cymbals and other indefinite-pitched instruments. When the tuning note in an orchestra or concert band is played, each instrument in the orchestra or concert band produces a different combination of these frequencies, as well as harmonics and overtones. The sound waves of the different frequencies overlap and combine, the timbre of a sound is also greatly affected by the following aspects of its envelope, attack time and characteristics, decay, sustain, release and transients
14.
Rhythmicon
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The Rhythmicon—also known as the Polyrhythmophone—was the worlds first electronic drum machine. In 1930, the avant-garde American composer and musical theorist Henry Cowell collaborated with Russian inventor Léon Theremin in designing and building the remarkably innovative Rhythmicon. Cowell wanted an instrument with which to play compositions involving multiple rhythmic patterns impossible for one person to perform simultaneously on acoustic keyboard or percussion instruments, using the devices keyboard, each of the sixteen rhythms can be produced individually or in any combination. A seventeenth key permits optional syncopation, Nicolas Slonimsky described its capabilities in 1933, The rhythmicon can play triplets against quintuplets, or any other combination up to 16 notes in a group. With the corresponding frequence of vibrations, sounded on the fifth harmonic, nonuplets on the ninth harmonic, and so forth. A complete chord of sixteen notes presents sixteen rhythmical figures in sixteen harmonics within the range of four octaves, all sixteen notes coincide, with the beginning of each period, thus producing a synthetic harmonic series of tones. Cowell had planned to exhibit the rhythmicon in Europe, composer Charles Ives, Cowells close friend, commissioned Theremin to build a second model of the Rhythmicon for use by Cowell and his associate, conductor Nicolas Slonimsky. The Rhythmicon was publicly premiered January 19,1932 by Cowell and fellow music educator, Schillinger had known Theremin since the early 1920s and had a lifelong interest in technology and music. The radically new instrument attracted considerable attention, and Cowell wrote a number of compositions for it, including Rhythmicana,1931, Slonimsky said that Cowells special piece Rhythmicana was completed too late to be used at the Paris concerts. On May 15,1932, a New Music Society concert in San Francisco included – along with the premiere of Xanadu, according to some sources, the concert premiered Cowells Rhythmicana, in four movements with orchestra, and Music for Violin and Rhythmicon. According to several others, the Rhythmicana concerto was not performed publicly until 1971, before long the shine wore off. In 1988, Slonimsky wrote, Like many a futuristic contraption and it was not until forty years later that an electronic instrument with similar specifications was constructed at Stanford University. It could do everything that Cowell and Theremin had wanted it to do and more and it sounded sterile, antiseptic, lifeless — like a robot with a synthetic voice. Cowell soon left the Rhythmicon behind to pursue other interests and it was all, one of the original instruments built by Theremin wound up at Stanford University, the other stayed with Slonimsky, from whom it later passed to Schillinger and then the Smithsonian Institution. This latter instrument is operational, its sound has been described as percussive, Theremin later built a third, more compact model after his return to the Soviet Union toward the end of the 1930s. This version of the instrument is operational and now resides at the Theremin Center in Moscow, more recently, composer Nick Didkovsky designed and programmed a virtual Rhythmicon using Java Music Specification Language and JSyn. Léon Theremin#Some of Theremins inventions Polyrhythm Hicks, Michael, urbana and Chicago, University of Illinois Press. The Music of Henry Cowell, A Descriptive Catalogue, brooklyn College Institute for Studies in American Music
15.
Joseph Schillinger
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Joseph Moiseyevich Schillinger was a composer, music theorist, and composition teacher who originated the Schillinger System of Musical Composition. He was born in Kharkiv, in the Kharkov Governorate of the Russian Empire, Schillinger came from this background, dedicated to creating truly professional musicians, having been a student of the St Petersburg Imperial Conservatory of Music. George Gershwin spent four years studying with Schillinger, during this period, he composed Porgy and Bess and consulted Schillinger on matters concerning the opera, particularly its orchestration. There has been disagreement about the nature of Schillingers influence on Gershwin. A third account of Gershwins musical relationship with his teacher was written by Gershwins close friend Vernon Duke, also a Schillinger student, Some of Gershwins notebooks from his studies with Joseph Schillinger can be found at the Library of Congress. In the field of music, Schillinger collaborated with Léon Theremin, the inventor of an early electronic musical instrument. Schillinger wrote his First Airphonic Suite for Léon Theremin, who played the instrument at the premiere in 1929 with the Cleveland Orchestra and his mathematical principles were applied to various fields other than music. For example, Schillinger collaborated with the film maker Mary Ellen Bute, Schillinger House opened in 1945 and later became the Berklee College of Music where the System survived in the curriculum until the 1960s. There has been debate surrounding how many teachers were certified by Schillinger himself, the numbers cited range from seven to twelve certified teachers. Yet, to date, only seven certified teachers of the Schillinger System have been substantiated, two certified teachers were Asher Zlotnik of Baltimore, Maryland, a student and personal friend of Lyle Dowling and Edwin Gerschefski. Schillinger System of musical composition Anderson, Ruth, jeremy, Keys to the Schillinger System, course B, Basic principles and foundations. “Joseph Schillinger, Music Science Promethean” American Music 21/1, 45-73, a Dictionary of American Composers, Garland,1984. Great Jews in Music, J. D. Publishers,1986, the New Grove Dictionary of American Music. Schillinger. J, The Schillinger System of Musical Composition, Rose Books 2005, ISBN 1-59386-028-5 Sitsky, Music of the repressed Russian avant-garde, 1900–1929, Greenwood Press,1994. A Brief Note on the Schillinger System, “The Schillinger Case, Fallacy of the Mechanistic Approach. ”“The Schillinger Case, Charting the Musical Range, ” Modern Music 23/3, 226-8 Cowell, Henry. “Joseph Schillinger as Composer, ” Music News 39/3, 5-6 Duke, “Gershwin, Schillinger, Dukelsky, Some Reminiscences, ” Musical Quarterly 33/1, 102-115 Human, Alfred. Schillinger Challenges Genius, Musical Digest 29/8, 12-14,16, “Schillinger’s Influence on Film Music, ” Music News 39/3, 39-40. “Schillinger of Russia and the World, ” Music News 39/3, New York, Greenberg,1949 Solomon, Seymour
16.
Henry Cowell
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Henry Dixon Cowell was an American composer, music theorist, pianist, teacher, publisher, and impresario. His experiments begun three decades ago in rhythm, in harmony, and in instrumental sonorities were considered then by many to be wild, today they are the Bible of the young and still, to the conservatives, advanced. No other composer of our time has produced a body of works so radical and so normal, so penetrating, add to this massive production his long and influential career as a pedagogue, and Henry Cowells achievement becomes impressive indeed. There is no other quite like it, to be both fecund and right is given to few. After his parents divorce in 1903, he was raised by his mother, Clarissa Dixon, author of the early feminist novel Janet and his father, with whom he maintained contact, introduced him to the Irish music that would be a touchstone for Cowell throughout his career. While receiving no formal education, he began to compose in his mid-teens. By the summer of 1914, Cowell was writing truly individualistic works and that fall, the largely self-taught Cowell was admitted to the University of California, Berkeley, as a protégé of Charles Seeger. There he studied harmony and other subjects under Seeger and Edward Griffith Stricklen, after two years at Berkeley, Cowell pursued further studies in New York where he encountered Leo Ornstein, the radically futurist composer-pianist. Still a teenager, Cowell wrote the piano piece Dynamic Motion and it requires the performer to use both forearms to play massive secundal chords and calls for keys to be held down without sounding to extend and intensify its dissonant cluster overtones. In later years, Cowell would claim that the piece had been composed around 1912 and it was on one of these tours that in 1923, his friend Richard Buhlig introduced Cowell to young pianist Grete Sultan in Berlin. They worked closely together—an aspect vital to Grete Sultans personal and artistic development, Cowell later made such an impression with his tone cluster technique that Béla Bartók requested his permission to adopt it. Cowells endeavors with string piano techniques were the inspiration for John Cages development of the prepared piano. Even the canon in the first movement of the Romantic has different note-lengths for each voice, in 1919, Cowell had begun writing New Musical Resources, which would finally be published after extensive revision in 1930. Focusing on the variety of rhythmic and harmonic concepts he used in his compositions. Conlon Nancarrow, for instance, would refer to it later as having the most influence of anything Ive ever read in music. Cowell wrote several compositions for the instrument, including an orchestrated concerto. Soon, however, the Rhythmicon would be forgotten, remaining so until the 1960s. A prolific composer of songs, Cowell returned in 1930–31 to Aeolian Harp, adapting it as the accompaniment to a setting of a poem by his father
17.
Rhythmic unit
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Rhythm generally means a movement marked by the regulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite or different conditions. In the performance arts, rhythm is the timing of events on a scale, of musical sounds and silences that occur over time, of the steps of a dance, or the meter of spoken language. In some performing arts, such as hip hop music, the delivery of the lyrics is one of the most important elements of the style. Rhythm may also refer to visual presentation, as timed movement through space, in recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by Maury Yeston, Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff, Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, Godfried Toussaint, William Rothstein, and Joel Lester. In Thinking and Destiny, Harold W. Percival defined rhythm as the character and meaning of thought expressed through the measure or movement in sound or form, or by written signs or words. In his television series How Music Works, Howard Goodall presents theories that human rhythm recalls the regularity with which we walk, other research suggests that it does not relate to the heartbeat directly, but rather the speed of emotional affect, which also influences heartbeat. Yet other researchers suggest that certain features of human music are widespread. The perception and abstraction of rhythmic measure is the foundation of human instinctive musical participation, Joseph Jordania recently suggested that the sense of rhythm was developed in the early stages of hominid evolution by the forces of natural selection. Plenty of animals walk rhythmically and hear the sounds of the heartbeat in the womb, some types of parrots can know rhythm. There is not a report of an animal being trained to tap, peck. For this reason, the fast-transient sounds of percussion instruments lend themselves to the definition of rhythm, Musical cultures that rely upon such instruments may develop multi-layered polyrhythm and simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature, called polymeter. Such are the cross-rhythms of Sub-Saharan Africa and the interlocking kotekan rhythms of the gamelan, for information on rhythm in Indian music see Tala. For other Asian approaches to rhythm see Rhythm in Persian music, Rhythm in Arabian music and Usul—Rhythm in Turkish music and this consists of a series of identical yet distinct periodic short-duration stimuli perceived as points in time. It is currently most often designated as a crotchet or quarter note in western notation, faster levels are division levels, and slower levels are multiple levels. Rhythms of recurrence arise from the interaction of two levels of motion, the faster providing the pulse and the slower organizing the beats into repetitive groups. Once a metric hierarchy has been established, we, as listeners, a durational pattern that synchronises with a pulse or pulses on the underlying metric level may be called a rhythmic unit. A rhythmic gesture is any pattern that, in contrast to the rhythmic unit
18.
Harmonic series (music)
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A harmonic series is the sequence of sounds where the base frequency of each sound is an integer multiple of the lowest base frequency. Pitched musical instruments are based on an approximate harmonic oscillator such as a string or a column of air. At these resonant frequencies, waves travel in both directions along the string or air column, reinforcing and canceling each other to form standing waves, interaction with the surrounding air causes audible sound waves, which travel away from the instrument. Because of the spacing of the resonances, these frequencies are mostly limited to integer multiples, or harmonics, of the lowest frequency. The musical timbre of a tone from such an instrument is determined by the relative strengths of each harmonic. A complex tone can be described as a combination of many simple periodic waves or partials, each with its own frequency of vibration, amplitude, a partial is any of the sine waves of which a complex tone is composed. A harmonic is any member of the series, an ideal set of frequencies that are positive integer multiples of a common fundamental frequency. The fundamental is also considered a harmonic because it is 1 times itself, a harmonic partial is any real partial component of a complex tone that matches an ideal harmonic. An inharmonic partial is any partial that does not match an ideal harmonic, Inharmonicity is a measure of the deviation of a partial from the closest ideal harmonic, typically measured in cents for each partial. Unpitched, or indefinite-pitched instruments, such as cymbals, gongs, or tam-tams make sounds that are rich in inharmonic partials, an overtone is any partial except the lowest partial. The term overtone does not imply harmonicity or inharmonicity and has no special meaning other than to exclude the fundamental. It is the relative strengths of the different overtones that gives an instrument its particular timbre, some electronic instruments, such as synthesizers, can play a pure frequency with no overtones. Synthesizers can also combine pure frequencies into more complex tones, such as to other instruments. Certain flutes and ocarinas are very nearly without overtones, in most pitched musical instruments, the fundamental is accompanied by other, higher-frequency harmonics. Thus shorter-wavelength, higher-frequency waves occur with varying prominence and give each instrument its characteristic tone quality, the fact that a string is fixed at each end means that the longest allowed wavelength on the string is twice the length of the string. Other allowed wavelengths are 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5, 1/6, theoretically, these shorter wavelengths correspond to vibrations at frequencies that are 2,3,4,5,6, etc. times the fundamental frequency. Physical characteristics of the vibrating medium and/or the resonator it vibrates against often alter these frequencies, the harmonic series is an arithmetic series. In terms of frequency, the difference between consecutive harmonics is therefore constant and equal to the fundamental, but because human ears respond to sound nonlinearly, higher harmonics are perceived as closer together than lower ones
19.
Pitch (music)
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Pitch can be determined only in sounds that have a frequency that is clear and stable enough to distinguish from noise. Pitch is a major attribute of musical tones, along with duration, loudness. Pitch may be quantified as a frequency, but pitch is not a purely objective physical property, Pitch is an auditory sensation in which a listener assigns musical tones to relative positions on a musical scale based primarily on their perception of the frequency of vibration. Pitch is closely related to frequency, but the two are not equivalent, frequency is an objective, scientific attribute that can be measured. Pitch is each persons subjective perception of a wave, which cannot be directly measured. However, this not necessarily mean that most people wont agree on which notes are higher and lower. Sound waves themselves do not have pitch, but their oscillations can be measured to obtain a frequency and it takes a sentient mind to map the internal quality of pitch. However, pitches are usually associated with, and thus quantified as frequencies in cycles per second, or hertz, by comparing sounds with pure tones, Complex and aperiodic sound waves can often be assigned a pitch by this method. According to the American National Standards Institute, pitch is the attribute of sound according to which sounds can be ordered on a scale from low to high. That is, high pitch means very rapid oscillation, and low pitch corresponds to slower oscillation, despite that, the idiom relating vertical height to sound pitch is shared by most languages. At least in English, it is just one of many deep conceptual metaphors that involve up/down, the exact etymological history of the musical sense of high and low pitch is still unclear. There is evidence that humans do actually perceive that the source of a sound is slightly higher or lower in vertical space when the frequency is increased or reduced. The pitch of tones can be ambiguous, meaning that two or more different pitches can be perceived, depending upon the observer. In a situation like this, the percept at 200 Hz is commonly referred to as the missing fundamental, Pitch depends to a lesser degree on the sound pressure level of the tone, especially at frequencies below 1,000 Hz and above 2,000 Hz. The pitch of lower tones gets lower as sound pressure increases, for instance, a tone of 200 Hz that is very loud seems one semitone lower in pitch than if it is just barely audible. Above 2,000 Hz, the pitch gets higher as the sound gets louder, theories of pitch perception try to explain how the physical sound and specific physiology of the auditory system work together to yield the experience of pitch. In general, pitch perception theories can be divided into place coding, place theory holds that the perception of pitch is determined by the place of maximum excitation on the basilar membrane. However, a purely place-based theory cannot account for the accuracy of pitch perception in the low, temporal theories offer an alternative that appeals to the temporal structure of action potentials, mostly the phase-locking and mode-locking of action potentials to frequencies in a stimulus
20.
Tango (dance)
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Tango is a partner dance that originated in the 1880s along the River Plate, the natural border between Argentina and Uruguay, and soon spread to the rest of the world. Early tango was known as tango criollo, today, there are many forms of tango extant. Popularly and among tango dancing circles, the tango is considered to be the one closest to the form originally danced in Argentina. On August 31,2009, UNESCO approved a joint proposal by Argentina, Tango is a dance that has influences from African and European culture. Dances from the ceremonies of former slave peoples helped shape the modern day Tango. The dance originated in lower-class districts of Buenos Aires and Montevideo, the music derived from the fusion of various forms of music from Europe. Towards the end of 1913 it hit New York City in the US, in the US, around 1911, the word tango was often applied to dances in a 24 or 44 rhythm such as the one-step. The term was fashionable and did not indicate that tango steps would be used in the dance, Tango music was sometimes played, but at a rather fast tempo. Instructors of the period would sometimes refer to this as a North American tango, by 1914, more authentic tango stylings were soon developed, along with some variations like Albert Newmans Minuet tango. In Argentina, the onset in 1929 of the Great Depression and its fortunes were reversed as tango became widely fashionable and a matter of national pride under the government of Juan Perón. That, indirectly, boosted the popularity of rock and roll because, unlike Tango, in 2009, the tango was added to the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists. The tango consists of a variety of styles developed in different regions. The dance developed in response to many elements, such as the crowding of the venue. It is based on the petitero or caquero style of the crowded downtown clubs of the 50s, in contrast, the tango that originated in the family clubs of the suburban neighborhoods emphasizes long elegant steps, and complex figures. In this case the embrace may be allowed to open briefly, the complex figures of this style became the basis for a theatrical performance style of tango seen in the touring stage shows. For stage purposes, the embrace is often open, and the complex footwork is augmented with gymnastic lifts, kicks. A newer style sometimes called tango nuevo or new tango, has been popularized in recent years by a generation of dancers. The embrace is often open and very elastic, permitting the leader to lead a large variety of very complex figures
21.
Bossa nova
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Bossa nova is a genre of Brazilian music, which developed and was popularized in the 1950s and 1960s and is today one of the best-known Brazilian music genres abroad. The phrase bossa nova means literally new trend, a lyrical fusion of samba and jazz, bossa nova acquired a large following in the 1960s, initially among young musicians and college students. In Brazil, the word bossa is a slang for something that is done with particular charm. As early as 1932, Noel Rosa used the word in a samba, O samba, the exact origin of the term bossa nova remained unclear for many decades, according to some authors. Within the artistic culture of the late 1950s in Rio de Janeiro. In his book Bossa Nova, Brazilian author Ruy Castro asserts that bossa was already in use in the 1950s by musicians as a word to characterize someones knack for playing or singing idiosyncratically. Castro claims that the term bossa nova might have first been used in public for a given in 1957 by the Grupo Universitário Hebraico do Brasil. The authorship of the bossa nova is attributed to the then-young journalist Moyses Fuks. That group consisted of Sylvia Telles, Carlos Lyra, Nara Leão, Luizinho Eça, Roberto Menescal, mr. Fukss description, fully supported by most of the bossa nova members, simply read HOJE. SYLVIA TELLES E UM GRUPO BOSSA NOVA, since Sylvia Telles was the most famous musician in the group at that time, in 1959, Nara Leão also participated in more than one embryonic display of bossa nova. These include the 1st Festival de Samba Session, conducted by the student union of Pontifícia Universidade Católica and this session was chaired by Carlos Diegues, latter a prominent Cinema Novo film director, a law student whom Leão ultimately married. Bossa nova is most commonly performed on the classical guitar. Its purest form could be considered unaccompanied guitar with vocals, as created, pioneered, even in larger, jazz-like arrangements for groups, there is almost always a guitar that plays the underlying rhythm. Gilberto basically took one of the several rhythmic layers from an ensemble, specifically the tamborim. As in samba, the plays a ostinato figure on the downbeat of beat one, the ah of beat one. The clave pattern sounds very similar to the two-three or three-two son clave of Cuban styles such as mambo but is dissimilar in that the two side of the clave is pushed by an eighth note. Also important in the section for bossa nova is the cabasa. These parts are easily adaptable to the set, which makes bossa nova a rather popular Brazilian style for drummers
22.
Chamberlin
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The Chamberlin is an electro-mechanical keyboard instrument that was a precursor to the Mellotron. It was developed and patented by Wisconsin inventor Harry Chamberlin from 1949 to 1956, various models and versions of these Chamberlin music instruments exist. While most are keyboard-based instruments, there were also early drum machines produced, some of these drum patterns feature Harry Chamberlins son Richard on them. Harry Chamberlins idea for inventing the instrument came from his recording himself playing an organ and he formed the idea of playback music coming from an organ as a source of entertainment. He soon set about designing the first Chamberlin instruments as early as 1949, the intention was for the instrument to function as a home entertainment device for family sing-alongs, playing the Big Band standards of the day. The Chamberlins use as an instrument in rock music was never given consideration, as Harry Chamberlin generally resented rock music. The basic Chamberlin has a piano-style keyboard, underneath each key is an individual tape-playing mechanism. Each tape is prerecorded with various instruments or special effects. When the player presses down a key, a pressure pad pushes the tape on to a tape head, as this occurs the sound of the tape is heard through an amplified speaker. When the player releases the key, the stops. Each tape is only a few seconds long, Harry Chamberlin spent considerable time experimenting with sound and had converted a walk-in closet as his first home studio. After obtaining the right acoustics in the room and changing the acoustics of other rooms in his house, all Chamberlin recordings were contracted and performed by members of the Lawrence Welk Orchestra in the late 1940s and throughout the 1950s. Welk was impressed with the idea of a tape playback instrument, Chamberlin used Neumann U47 microphones to record the sounds. The sounds are characterized by a very clean output and heavy vibrato, the Chamberlin sounds have little compression and possess dynamics true to the instruments recorded on the tapes. The Chamberlin instruments were designed to replicate the sound of the instrument recorded on the tape. They were also meant to be set in one place. Because of this, there was less attention paid to making the instrument robust, as Chamberlin refined the build of his instruments, he began to bring them to music trade shows and competitors such as Hammond and Lowrey were often curious about the origin of Chamberlin sounds. In an effort to compete, these companies were forced to create drum rhythms and these tabs would generate tones that simulated the sound of the instrument selected
23.
Bongo drum
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Bongos are an Afro-Cuban percussion instrument consisting of a pair of small open bottomed drums of different sizes. In Spanish the larger drum is called the hembra and the smaller the macho, the origin of the bongo is largely unclear. Most sources on Afro-Cuban cultural history argue that the bongo derives from Central African drum models, also a Santería influence from Yoruba culture in the symbolic twin drum is assumed. The strong historical presence of Africans from the Congo/Angola region in Eastern Cuba makes such an influence probable, moreover, Central African/Congo influences are also documented in the Cuban son music genre, including changüí, and initially the development of the bongo drum went parallel with these genres. From such conceptual African drum models, the bongo developed further in Cuba itself, and some historians state that the attaching of the two drums was a later invention that took place in Cuba. Although the bongos are defined as African in concept, but Cuban in invention - e. g. by author Ned Sublette - some Moorish or European aspects may also have shaped the bongos over time. Etymologically, Sublette traces the origin of the bongo to a multi-purpose word of Bantu origin. The bongo came to western Cuba at the turn of the 20th century, as son inspired Cuban big band music gained international popularity, the Cuban bongo was exported all over the world. It is today one of the most common hand drums, bongo drums produce relatively high-pitched sounds compared to conga drums, and should be held behind the knees with the larger drum on the right when right-handed. It is most often played by hand and is associated in Cuban music with a steady pattern or ostinato of eighth-notes known as the martillo or hammer. They are traditionally played by striking the edge of the drumheads with the fingers, the glissando used with bongó de monte is done by rubbing the third finger, supported by the thumb, across the head of the drum. The finger is sometimes moistened with saliva, or sweat before rubbing it across the head, when used in art music compositions they are usually struck with drum sticks. These drums can also be played on a stand, as is the case with concert orchestras, bongo drummers are known as bongoseros. The following drummers are important figures in the history of the instrument
24.
Clave (rhythm)
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The clave is a rhythmic pattern used as a tool for temporal organization in Afro-Cuban music. It is present in a variety of such as Abakuá music, rumba, conga, son, mambo, salsa, songo, timba. The five-stroke clave pattern represents the core of many Afro-Cuban rhythms. The clave pattern originated in sub-Saharan African music traditions, where it essentially the same function as it does in Cuba. In ethnomusicology, clave is known as a key pattern, guide pattern, phrasing referent, timeline. The clave pattern is used in North American popular music as a motif or simply a form of rhythmic decoration. Clave is also the name of the played on claves. Just as a keystone holds an arch in place, the clave pattern holds the rhythm together in Afro-Cuban music, the two main clave patterns used in Afro-Cuban music are known in North America as son clave and the rumba clave. Both are used as bell patterns across much of Africa, son and rumba clave can be played in either a triple-pulse or duple-pulse structure. The contemporary Cuban practice is to write the duple-pulse clave in a measure of 44. It is also written in a measure in ethnomusicological writings about African music. Although they subdivide the beats differently, the 128 and 44 versions of each share the same pulse names. The correlation between the triple-pulse and duple-pulse forms of clave, as well as patterns, is an important dynamic of sub-Saharan-based rhythm. Every triple-pulse pattern has its duple-pulse correlative, son clave has strokes on,1, 1a, 2&, 3&,4. || Both clave patterns are used in rumba, what we now call son clave used to be the key pattern played in Havana-style yambú and guaguancó. Some Havana-based rumba groups still use son clave for yambú, the musical genre known as son probably adopted the clave pattern from rumba when it migrated from eastern Cuba to Havana at the beginning of the 20th century. During the nineteenth century, African music and European music sensibilities were blended together in original Cuban hybrids, Cuban popular music became the conduit through which sub-Saharan rhythmic elements were first codified within the context of European music theory. The first written music based on clave was the Cuban danzón
25.
Castanets
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Castanets are a percussion instrument, used in Kalo, Moorish, Ottoman, ancient Roman, Italian, Spanish, Sephardic, Swiss, and Portuguese music. The instrument consists of a pair of concave shells joined on one edge by a string and they are held in the hand and used to produce clicks for rhythmic accents or a ripping or rattling sound consisting of a rapid series of clicks. They are traditionally made of hardwood, although fibreglass is becoming increasingly popular, in practice a player usually uses two pairs of castanets. One pair is held in hand, with the string hooked over the thumb. Each pair will make a sound of a different pitch. The origins of the instrument are not known, the practice of clicking hand-held sticks together to accompany dancing is ancient, and was practiced by both the Greeks and the Egyptians. In more modern times, the bones and spoons used in Minstrel show, during the baroque period, castanets were featured prominently in dances. Composers like Jean-Baptiste Lully scored them for the music of dances which included Spaniards, Egyptians, Ethiopians, in addition, they are often scored for dances involving less pleasant characters such as demons and nightmares. Their association with African dances is even stated in the ballet Flore by Lully, Les Africains inventeurs des danses de Castagnettes entrent dun air plus gai. A rare occasion where the accompanying instrument is given concertant solo status is Leonardo Baladas Concertino for Castanets. The Conciertino für Kastagnetten und Orchester by the German composer Helmut M. Timpelan, in cooperation with the castanet virtuoso, see also the tocatta festiva for castanets by Allan Stephenson. Sonia Amelio has also performed her castanet arrangements as a concert soloist, also referred to as clackers in the United States. Castanets are often played by singers or dancers, contrary to popular belief, castanets are not commonly used in the flamenco dance, except for two specific forms, zambra and siguiriyas. In fact, Spanish folk dance Sevillanas is the style typically performed using castanet, escuela bolera, a balletic dance form, is also accompanied by castanets. The name is derived from the form of castaña, the Spanish word for chestnut. In Andalusia they are referred to as palillos instead. Castanets were used to evoke a Spanish atmosphere in Georges Bizets opera and they are also found in the Dance of the Seven Veils from Richard Strauss opera Salome and in Richard Wagners Tannhäuser. An unusual variation on the standard castanets can be found in Darius Milhauds Les Choëphores, other uses include Rimsky-Korsakovs Capriccio espagnol, Ravels Rapsodie espagnole, Francis Poulencs Concerto for Two Pianos and Orchestra in D minor and Karl Jenkinss Tangollen
26.
Wurlitzer
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The Rudolph Wurlitzer Company, usually referred to as simply Wurlitzer, is an American company started in Cincinnati, Ohio in 1853 by German immigrant Rudolph Wurlitzer. In 1880 the company began manufacturing pianos, over time, Wurlitzer acquired a number of other companies which made a variety of loosely related products including kitchen appliances, carnival rides, player piano rolls, and radios. Wurlitzer also operated a chain of stores where the companys products were sold. Wurlitzers jukebox operations were sold and moved to Germany in 1973, the Wurlitzer piano and organ brands and U. S. manufacturing facilities were acquired by the Baldwin Piano & Organ Co. in 1988 and most piano manufacturing was moved overseas. The Baldwin Co. including its Wurlitzer assets, was acquired by the Gibson Guitar Corporation in about 1996. Baldwin ceased making Wurlitzer-brand pianos in 2009, Vending machines are still manufactured in Germany using the Wurlitzer name under Gibson ownership. The company ceased manufacturing jukeboxes in 2013, but still sells replacement parts, Wurlitzers rare and historic stringed instrument department was independently directed by Rudolph Wurlitzers grandson, Rembert Wurlitzer, from 1948 until his death in 1963. Remberts shop on 42d Street in New York City was an international center for rare. Wurlitzer was founded in Cincinnati in 1853 by German Franz Rudolph Wurlitzer from Schöneck and it was directed successively by his sons Howard, Rudolph, and Farny. In 1880 Wurlitzer started manufacturing its own pianos which the company sold through its retail outlets in Chicago, in 1896 Wurlitzer manufactured its first coin-operated pianos. In the late 1800s, fairs were very popular and, as crowds grew and mechanical rides began to appear, Eugene DeKleist of North Tonawanda, NY was an early builder of such organs for use in carousels. Wurlitzer bought into DeKleists North Tonawanda Barrel Organ Factory in 1897, eventually Wurlitzer bought out the entire operation and moved all Wurlitzer manufacturing operations from Ohio to New York. In 1909 the company began making innovative harps that were far more durable than European prototypes, the Mighty Wurlitzer theatre organ was introduced in late 1910 and became Wurlitzers most famous product. Wurlitzer theatre organs are installed all over the world in a variety of theatres, museums, churches, Wurlitzer also took over production of Lyric brand radios from the All American Mohawk Radio Company in Chicago. Lyric radios were a very high-end console radio which retailed for as much as $425 in 1929, in addition to business acquisitions, Wurlitzer also entered into several joint ventures with James Armitage, George Herschell, and other businessmen from the area. Amusement rides, particularly carousels, were assembled at the facility. Starting in about 1933, the Wurlitzer name gradually became more and more associated with jukeboxes than with actual musical instruments. In 1942, organ production at the North Tonawanda factory ceased, after the war, normal production efforts resumed but with more focus on radios, jukeboxes, and small electronic organs for private homes
27.
Wurlitzer organ
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The Rudolph Wurlitzer Company, usually referred to as simply Wurlitzer, is an American company started in Cincinnati, Ohio in 1853 by German immigrant Rudolph Wurlitzer. In 1880 the company began manufacturing pianos, over time, Wurlitzer acquired a number of other companies which made a variety of loosely related products including kitchen appliances, carnival rides, player piano rolls, and radios. Wurlitzer also operated a chain of stores where the companys products were sold. Wurlitzers jukebox operations were sold and moved to Germany in 1973, the Wurlitzer piano and organ brands and U. S. manufacturing facilities were acquired by the Baldwin Piano & Organ Co. in 1988 and most piano manufacturing was moved overseas. The Baldwin Co. including its Wurlitzer assets, was acquired by the Gibson Guitar Corporation in about 1996. Baldwin ceased making Wurlitzer-brand pianos in 2009, Vending machines are still manufactured in Germany using the Wurlitzer name under Gibson ownership. The company ceased manufacturing jukeboxes in 2013, but still sells replacement parts, Wurlitzers rare and historic stringed instrument department was independently directed by Rudolph Wurlitzers grandson, Rembert Wurlitzer, from 1948 until his death in 1963. Remberts shop on 42d Street in New York City was an international center for rare. Wurlitzer was founded in Cincinnati in 1853 by German Franz Rudolph Wurlitzer from Schöneck and it was directed successively by his sons Howard, Rudolph, and Farny. In 1880 Wurlitzer started manufacturing its own pianos which the company sold through its retail outlets in Chicago, in 1896 Wurlitzer manufactured its first coin-operated pianos. In the late 1800s, fairs were very popular and, as crowds grew and mechanical rides began to appear, Eugene DeKleist of North Tonawanda, NY was an early builder of such organs for use in carousels. Wurlitzer bought into DeKleists North Tonawanda Barrel Organ Factory in 1897, eventually Wurlitzer bought out the entire operation and moved all Wurlitzer manufacturing operations from Ohio to New York. In 1909 the company began making innovative harps that were far more durable than European prototypes, the Mighty Wurlitzer theatre organ was introduced in late 1910 and became Wurlitzers most famous product. Wurlitzer theatre organs are installed all over the world in a variety of theatres, museums, churches, Wurlitzer also took over production of Lyric brand radios from the All American Mohawk Radio Company in Chicago. Lyric radios were a very high-end console radio which retailed for as much as $425 in 1929, in addition to business acquisitions, Wurlitzer also entered into several joint ventures with James Armitage, George Herschell, and other businessmen from the area. Amusement rides, particularly carousels, were assembled at the facility. Starting in about 1933, the Wurlitzer name gradually became more and more associated with jukeboxes than with actual musical instruments. In 1942, organ production at the North Tonawanda factory ceased, after the war, normal production efforts resumed but with more focus on radios, jukeboxes, and small electronic organs for private homes
28.
Raymond Scott
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Raymond Scott was an American composer, band leader, pianist, engineer, recording studio maverick, and electronic instrument inventor. Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies animated shorts, Scotts melodies may also be heard in contemporary shows like Ren and Stimpy, The Simpsons, Duckman, Animaniacs, The Oblongs, and Batfink. The only music Scott actually composed to accompany animation were three 20-second electronic commercial jingles for County Fair Bread in 1962, Scott was born in Brooklyn, New York to Russian Jewish immigrants, Joseph and Sarah Warnow. His older brother, Mark Warnow, a conductor, violinist, a 1931 graduate of the Juilliard School of Music, where he studied piano, theory and composition, Scott, under his birth name, began his professional career as a pianist for the CBS Radio house band. His older brother Mark conducted the orchestra, Harry reportedly adopted the pseudonym Raymond Scott to spare his brother charges of nepotism when the orchestra began performing the pianists idiosyncratic compositions. In 1935 he married Pearl Zimney, in late 1936, Scott recruited a band from among his CBS colleagues, calling it the Raymond Scott Quintette. It was a group, but the puckish Scott thought Quintette sounded crisper. The original sidemen were Pete Pumiglio, Bunny Berigan, Louis Shoobe, Dave Harris and they made their first recordings in New York on February 20,1937, for the Master Records label, owned by music publisher/impresario Irving Mills. The Quintette represented Scotts attempt to revitalize Swing music through tight, busy arrangements and reduced reliance on improvisation. He called this musical style descriptive jazz, and gave his works unusual titles like New Years Eve in a Haunted House, Dinner Music for a Pack of Hungry Cannibals, while popular with the public, jazz critics disdained it as novelty music. Scott believed strongly in composing and playing by ear and he composed not on paper, but on his band — by humming phrases to his sidemen, or by demonstrating riffs and rhythms on the keyboard and instructing players to interpret his cues. It was all done by ear, with no written scores, Scott, who was also a savvy sound engineer, recorded the bands rehearsals on discs and used the recordings as references to develop his compositions. He reworked, resequenced, or deleted passages, or added themes from other discs to construct finished works. Although Scott rigidly controlled the bands repertoire and style, he took piano solos, preferring to direct the band from the keyboard and leaving solos. He also had a penchant for adapting classical motifs in his compositions, the public, who bought his records by the millions, seemed indifferent to any controversy. One of Scotts best-known compositions is The Toy Trumpet, a cheerful pop confection that is recognizable to many people who cannot name the title or composer. In the 1938 film Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm, Shirley Temple sings a version of the song with lyrics, trumpeter Al Hirts 1964 rendition with Arthur Fiedler and The Boston Pops has become a standard. Another oft-recorded Scott classic, In An Eighteenth-Century Drawing Room, is a pop adaptation of the theme from Mozarts Piano Sonata in C, K.545
29.
Soothing Sounds for Baby
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Soothing Sounds for Baby is a three-volume set of ambient electronic music by American composer, musician, and inventor Raymond Scott. The music gets more complex with each volume, Scott created much of the music on the albums with instruments he created, such as the Electronium and the Clavivox. Particularly on Soothing Sounds for Baby, Scott proved to be one of the first composers to merge the Brave New World of electronic sounds with a pop sensibility. Basta Music of Holland reissued the albums as 3 individual CDs, Soothing Sounds for Baby at raymondscott. com archive
30.
Seeburg Corporation
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Seeburg was an American design and manufacturing company of automated musical equipment, such as orchestrions, jukeboxes, and vending equipment. The company went out of business in 1980, automated musical equipment, such as coin-operated phonographs and orchestrions, were manufactured under the J. P. Seeburg and Company name for most of its early years. Until 1956, the company was family-owned, the company was founded by Justus P. Sjöberg from Gothenburg, Sweden. He moved to the United States after graduating from Chalmers University of Technology, in the late 1940s, Seeburg manufactured its popular and distinctive trashcan-shaped series of jukeboxes. When they began to make jukeboxes, the 78 rpm record was standard and this changed with the Seeburg model M100A, which could play 50 records front and back for a total of 100 selections, an immense variety at the time. In 1950, Seeburg introduced the first commercial jukebox designed to play the then-new 45 rpm records and they later increased the number of records from 50 to 80, then 100 per machine. The classic M100C is featured early in the opening of the Happy Days TV series, the Seeburg Select-O-Matic record mechanism stores the records in a linear horizontal rack and plays them vertically clamped between two rotating cylinders. The selected record is pushed forward from behind, then clamped in the rotating cylinders, the tone arm is likewise oriented vertically and has a stylus on each side. The stylus is selected depending on which side of the record is being played, the earliest 45 RPM mechanism, the Select-O-Matic 100, held 50 records or 100 songs. Later models held 80 or 10045 RPM records, in machines manufactured during the 1950s, the entire mechanism was visible to the user. Later machines concealed the actual player in favor of musical graphics and lights, Seeburg also manufactured background music players, such as the Seeburg 1000, which used special 9-inch, 16⅔ rpm records. During the 1960s, Seeburg bought many other companies, including Williams, in 1965, the Seeburg Corporation announced that it was establishing a new music performance rights organisation to compete with ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC. The society was called Coin-Operated Phonograph Performance Society, the plan was for Seeburg to make recordings solely for play in jukeboxes. During the 1970s Seeburg was faced with debt and a market for their music products. The corporation headed into bankruptcy in 1979 and was broken up by 1980 and their jukebox production was re-organized into the Seeburg Phonograph Division, which the court closed in September,1979. The remaining production assets were acquired by Stern Electronics, who began producing Stern/Seeburg jukeboxes and this only lasted a few years, as Stern/Seeburg also was forced to close. The parts department stock was purchased by Los Angeles-based Jukeboxes Unlimited in September 1980, a few other attempts were made to use the Seeburg name, but all failed. A final effort was made to revive the company in March 1984 and this effort was called The Seeburg Phonograph Company and was composed of some of the original Seeburg employees
31.
Gulbransen
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Gulbransen Company was a musical instrument manufacturer of player pianos and home organs in the United States. It was originally established in 1904 by Axel Gulbransen as Gulbransen Piano Company, in the history of musical instruments, Gulbransen is notable for several innovations. In its early years, Gulbransen made the first upright piano with a piano mechanism in the same case. In the 1920s, thousands of pianos were manufactured by the firm under the Gulbransen. Also in the 1960s, Gulbransen released one of the earliest transistorized rhythm machines Seeburg/Gulbransen Select-A-Rhythm, note that Seeburg invented a fully transistorized rhythm machine in 1964, which was patented in 1967. On the other hand, the owner of Gulbransen has changed several times since the 1950s, around 1950, it was sold to CBS, then in 1964, merged with Seeburg Corporation, and production was once ceased in 1969. In 1985, Mission Bay Investments acquired the brand and produced Elka organs under the Gulbransen name, in 2002 or 2003, QRS Music Technologies acquired the brand and pianos were made by Samick. Electronic organ Drum machine Seeburg Corporation www. qrsmusic. com — Gulbransen history at QRS Music Technologies, Inc
32.
Transistor
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A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material usually with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit, a voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistors terminals controls the current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled power can be higher than the controlling power, today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits. The transistor is the building block of modern electronic devices. Julius Edgar Lilienfeld patented a field-effect transistor in 1926 but it was not possible to construct a working device at that time. The first practically implemented device was a point-contact transistor invented in 1947 by American physicists John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, the transistor revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and cheaper radios, calculators, and computers, among other things. The transistor is on the list of IEEE milestones in electronics, and Bardeen, Brattain, the thermionic triode, a vacuum tube invented in 1907, enabled amplified radio technology and long-distance telephony. The triode, however, was a device that consumed a substantial amount of power. Physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld filed a patent for a transistor in Canada in 1925. Lilienfeld also filed patents in the United States in 1926 and 1928. However, Lilienfeld did not publish any research articles about his devices nor did his patents cite any examples of a working prototype. In 1934, German inventor Oskar Heil patented a device in Europe. Solid State Physics Group leader William Shockley saw the potential in this, the term transistor was coined by John R. Pierce as a contraction of the term transresistance. Instead, what Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley invented in 1947 was the first point-contact transistor, Mataré had previous experience in developing crystal rectifiers from silicon and germanium in the German radar effort during World War II. Using this knowledge, he began researching the phenomenon of interference in 1947, realizing that Bell Labs scientists had already invented the transistor before them, the company rushed to get its transistron into production for amplified use in Frances telephone network. The first bipolar junction transistors were invented by Bell labs William Shockley, on April 12,1950, Bell Labs chemists Gordon Teal and Morgan Sparks had successfully produced a working bipolar NPN junction amplifying germanium transistor. Bell Labs had made this new sandwich transistor discovery announcement, in a release on July 4,1951. The first high-frequency transistor was the surface-barrier germanium transistor developed by Philco in 1953 and these were made by etching depressions into an N-type germanium base from both sides with jets of Indium sulfate until it was a few ten-thousandths of an inch thick
33.
Vacuum tube
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In electronics, a vacuum tube, an electron tube, or just a tube, or valve, is a device that controls electric current between electrodes in an evacuated container. Vacuum tubes mostly rely on thermionic emission of electrons from a hot filament or a cathode heated by the filament and this type is called a thermionic tube or thermionic valve. A phototube, however, achieves electron emission through the photoelectric effect, the simplest vacuum tube, the diode, contains only a heater, a heated electron-emitting cathode, and a plate. Current can only flow in one direction through the device between the two electrodes, as electrons emitted by the travel through the tube and are collected by the anode. Adding one or more control grids within the tube allows the current between the cathode and anode to be controlled by the voltage on the grid or grids, Tubes with grids can be used for many purposes, including amplification, rectification, switching, oscillation, and display. In the 1940s the invention of devices made it possible to produce solid-state devices, which are smaller, more efficient, more reliable, more durable. Hence, from the mid-1950s solid-state devices such as transistors gradually replaced tubes, the cathode-ray tube remained the basis for televisions and video monitors until superseded in the 21st century. However, there are still a few applications for which tubes are preferred to semiconductors, for example, the used in microwave ovens. One classification of vacuum tubes is by the number of active electrodes, a device with two active elements is a diode, usually used for rectification. Devices with three elements are used for amplification and switching. Additional electrodes create tetrodes, pentodes, and so forth, which have additional functions made possible by the additional controllable electrodes. X-ray tubes are vacuum tubes. Phototubes and photomultipliers rely on electron flow through a vacuum, though in those cases electron emission from the cathode depends on energy from photons rather than thermionic emission, since these sorts of vacuum tubes have functions other than electronic amplification and rectification they are described in their own articles. A vacuum tube consists of two or more electrodes in a vacuum inside an airtight enclosure, most tubes have glass envelopes, though ceramic and metal envelopes have been used. The electrodes are attached to leads which pass through the envelope via an airtight seal, Tubes were a frequent cause of failure in electronic equipment, and consumers were expected to be able to replace tubes themselves. In addition to the terminals, some tubes had an electrode terminating at a top cap. The principal reason for doing this was to avoid leakage resistance through the tube base, the bases were commonly made with phenolic insulation which performs poorly as an insulator in humid conditions. There was even a design that had two top cap connections
34.
Fender Musical Instruments Corporation
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Fender Musical Instruments Corporation, commonly referred to simply as Fender, is an American manufacturer of stringed instruments and amplifiers. It is known for its electric guitars and bass guitars, such as the Stratocaster, Telecaster, Precision Bass. Its headquarters are in Scottsdale, Arizona, the company, previously named the Fender Electric Instrument Manufacturing Company, was founded in Fullerton, California, by Clarence Leonidas Leo Fender in 1946. The company is a privately held corporation with Andy Mooney serving as the Chief Executive Officer, the company filed for an initial public offering in March 2012, but this was withdrawn five months later. In addition to its Scottsdale headquarters, Fender has manufacturing facilities in Corona, California and Ensenada, Baja California. The company also makes and / or distributes acoustic guitars, electric basses, mandolins, banjos, and electric violins, as well as amplifiers, bass amplifiers. Other Fender brands include Squier, Jackson, Charvel, EVH guitars and amplifiers in collaboration with Eddie Van Halen, in 1950, Fender introduced the first mass-produced solid-body Spanish-style electric guitar, the Telecaster. Following its success, Fender created the first mass-produced electric bass, in 1954, Fender unveiled the Stratocaster guitar. With the Telecaster and Precision Bass on the market for some time, the Strats comfortable contoured edges and in-built vibrato system led to its soaring popularity. The solid wood bodies of Fenders instruments allowed for minimal feedback with high-gain amplification, the Fender guitars were popular with musicians in a variety of genres and are now revered for their build quality and tonal excellence. The company began as Fenders Radio Service in late 1938 in Fullerton and it got its name from the surname of its founder Leo Fender. All designs were based on research developed and released to the domain by Western Electric in the 1930s. The business also sidelined in carrying records for sale and the in rental of company-designed PA systems, Leo became intrigued by design flaws in contemporary musical instrument amplifiers and began building amplifiers based on his own designs or modifications to designs. Production began in 1945 with Hawaiian lap steel guitars and amplifiers sold as sets, by the end of the year Fender became convinced that manufacturing was more profitable than repair and he decided to concentrate on that business instead. Kauffman remained, however, unconvinced and he and Fender amicably parted ways by early 1946, at that point Leo renamed the company the Fender Electric Instrument Company. The service shop remained open until 1951, although Leo Fender did not personally supervise it after 1947, a custom lap steel guitar made in 1946 for his friend Noel Boggs was probably the very first product of the new company, already sporting the familiar Big F logo. In the late 1940s, Leo Fender began to experiment with more conventional guitar designs, as early as 1949, the familiar shape of the Telecaster can be made out in some of Fenders prototypes. Early Telecasters were plagued with issues, Leo Fender boasted the strength of the Telecasters one-piece pine neck while early adopters lamented its tendency to bow in humid weather
35.
Guitar amp
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The input of modern guitar amplifiers is a 1/4 jack, which is fed a signal from an electro-magnetic pickup or a piezoelectric pickup using a patch cord, or a wireless transmitter. For electric guitar players, their choice of guitar amp and the settings they use on the amplifier are a key part of their signature tone or sound, some guitar players are longtime users of a specific amp brand or model. Many electric guitar players use external effects pedals to alter the sound of their tone before the signal reaches the guitar amp, such as the wah wah pedal and this article focuses on electric guitar amps. For information on amps for guitar, a lower-pitched, similar instrument. More expensive amplifiers typically have controls for other frequency ranges. Some guitar amplifiers have a graphic equalizer, which uses vertical fader controls which can control many frequency bands, the first amplifier stage is a preamplifier stage, which amplifies the guitar signal to a level that can drive the power stage. The power amplifier or output stage produces a current signal to drive a loudspeaker to produce sound that the guitarist. Amplifiers may use vacuum tubes, solid-state devices, or both, a wide range of speaker configurations are available in guitar cabinets, ranging from cabinets with a single speaker or multiple speakers. Guitar amplifiers have a range in price and quality. Music equipment companies import small, low-powered practice amplifiers for students, other companies produce expensive custom-made amplifiers for professional musicians, which can cost thousands of dollars. Most combo amplifiers have a handle, and many combo amplifiers. Control knobs are typically mounted on the front of the cabinet or chassis, though in some cases, the most basic amps only have a few knobs, which typically control volume, bass and treble. More expensive amps may have a number of knobs that control pre-amp volume, distortion or overdrive, volume, bass, mid and treble, some older amps have a knob that controls a vibrato effect. The 1/4 input jack is typically mounted on the front of the amplifier, in the simplest, least expensive amplifiers, this 1/4 jack is the only jack on the amplifier. Some amps have a 1/4 jack for connecting a pedal to turn the amps onboard overdrive and reverb on, the cone speaker, widely used in 2000s-era amp cabinets, was not offered for sale until 1925. The first amplifiers and speakers could only be powered with large batteries, when engineers developed the first AC mains-powered amplifiers, they were soon used to make musical instruments louder. Engineers invented the first loud, powerful amplifier and speaker systems for public address systems and these large PA systems and movie theatre sound systems were very large and very expensive, and so they could not be used by most touring musicians. During the late 1920s to mid-1930s, small portable PA systems, in 1928, the Stromberg-Voisinet firm was the first company to sell an electric stringed instrument and amplifier package
36.
Diode
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In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts primarily in one direction, it has low resistance to the current in one direction, and high resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode, the most common today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p–n junction connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode has two electrodes, a plate and a heated cathode, semiconductor diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery of crystals rectifying abilities was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874, the first semiconductor diodes, called cats whisker diodes, developed around 1906, were made of mineral crystals such as galena. Today, most diodes are made of silicon, but other such as selenium and germanium are sometimes used. The most common function of a diode is to allow a current to pass in one direction. Thus, the diode can be viewed as a version of a check valve. However, diodes can have complicated behavior than this simple on–off action. Semiconductor diodes begin conducting electricity only if a threshold voltage or cut-in voltage is present in the forward direction. The voltage drop across a forward-biased diode varies only a little with the current, and is a function of temperature, a semiconductor diodes current–voltage characteristic can be tailored by selecting the semiconductor materials and the doping impurities introduced into the materials during manufacture. These techniques are used to create special-purpose diodes that perform different functions. Tunnel, Gunn and IMPATT diodes exhibit negative resistance, which is useful in microwave, Diodes, both vacuum and semiconductor, can be used as shot-noise generators. Thermionic diodes and solid state diodes were developed separately, at approximately the time, in the early 1900s. Until the 1950s vacuum tube diodes were used frequently in radios because the early point-contact type semiconductor diodes were less stable. In 1873, Frederick Guthrie discovered the principle of operation of thermionic diodes. Guthrie discovered that a positively charged electroscope could be discharged by bringing a piece of white-hot metal close to it. The same did not apply to a negatively charged electroscope, indicating that the current flow was possible in one direction. Thomas Edison independently rediscovered the principle on February 13,1880, at the time, Edison was investigating why the filaments of his carbon-filament light bulbs nearly always burned out at the positive-connected end
37.
Korg
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Korg Inc. is a Japanese multinational corporation that manufactures electronic musical instruments, audio processors and guitar pedals, recording equipment, and electronic tuners. Under the Vox brand name, they also manufacture guitar amplifiers, Korg was founded in 1962 in Japan by Tsutomu Katoh and Tadashi Osanai as Keio Gijutsu Kenkyujo Ltd. It later became Keio Electronic Laboratories because its fledgling offices were located near the Keio train line in Tokyo and Keio can be formed by combining the first letters of Katoh, before founding the company, Katoh ran a nightclub. Osanai, a Tokyo University graduate and noted accordionist, regularly performed at Katohs club accompanied by a Wurlitzer Sideman rhythm machine, unsatisfied with the rhythm machine, Osanai convinced Katoh to finance his efforts to build a better one. The companys first product, released in 1963, was an electro-mechanical rhythm device called the Disc Rotary Electric Auto Rhythm machine Donca matic DA-20, the name Donca was an onomatopoeic reference to the sound the rhythm machine made. Buoyed by the success of the DA-20, Keio released a version of the Rhythm machine. In 1967, Katoh was approached by Fumio Mieda, an engineer who wanted to build keyboards, impressed with Miedas enthusiasm, Katoh asked him to build a prototype and 18 months later Mieda returned with a programmable organ. Keio sold the organ under the name KORG, created by using the first letter of each founders name plus RG from their planned emphasis on products targeted for the organ market, keios first synthesizer, the miniKORG, was thus released in 1973. During the 1970s, Korgs synthesizer line was divided into instruments for the hobbyist, in the early 80s, Korg branched out into the digital piano category. Korg is credited with a number of innovations and landmark products, the key transpose function was Katohs idea after a singer at his club needed her accompaniment played in a lower key, which the accompanist wasnt accomplished enough to do. Korg was the first company to feature effects on a synthesizer, the M1 workstation, released in 1988, sold over 250,000 units, making it the bestselling synthesizer ever at that time. In 1989, Korg recruited the team from Sequential Circuits just as they were relieved of their duties by then-Sequential owner Yamaha. Yamaha Corporation has always been a partner of Korg, supplying them with circuitry. In 1987, shortly before the release of the M1 Music Workstation, the takeover of the company was amicable, with Katoh drawing up the terms, and the two companies continued to independently develop their product lines and compete in the marketplace. After 5 very successful years, Katoh had enough money to rebuy most of the Yamaha share back in 1993, Korg has since diversified into digital effects, tuners, recording equipment, electronic hand percussion, and software instruments. In 1992, Korg acquired Vox, then primarily a manufacturer of guitar amplifiers, Korg was also the exclusive distributor of Marshall Amplification product in the United States for decades, with this distribution arrangement ending in 2010. Tsutomo Katoh died of cancer on March 15,2011, category, Korg synthesizers Electronic tuner Korg Museum. Audio interview with Mitch Colby - EVP / CMO of Korg USA Korg - Review NAMM Oral History Interview Tsutomu Katoh discusses his favorite of his many musical products, the tuner
38.
Nippon Columbia
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Nippon Columbia Co. Ltd. often pronounced Korombia, TYO,6791, is a Japanese record label founded in 1910 as Nipponophone Co. Ltd. It affiliated itself with the Columbia Graphophone Company of the United Kingdom, the company changed its name to Nippon Columbia Co. Ltd. in 1946. It used the Nippon Columbia name until October 1,2002, on October 1,2010, the company returned to its current name. Outside Japan, the company operates as the Savoy Label Group which releases recordings on the SLG, Savoy Jazz and it also manufactured electronic products under the Denon brand name until 2001. was a part, which operated in Japan as Toshiba-EMI. The label is notable, however, for continuing to use the historical Magic Notes logo, Japanese Peoples Honour Award-winning singer Hibari Misora belonged to the label. This label is known for dropping Ayumi Hamasaki, the best-selling solo artist in Japanese Oricon history. It happened after her first single Nothing from Nothing and album of the same name flopped and she subsequently met her current producer, Max Matsuura, who is now President of Avex. In 2007, Ritter hired Ejovi Nuwere into CME, and together they began building a Japanese-based, competition-oriented promotional platform for new artists called Otorevo, the premise of the project was to prove a more cost- and time-efficient model for discovering viable artists to join the label. Despite the measurable successes of Otorevo, the CME board of directors voted to terminate all R&D projects in March 2008. A number of talented artist were discovered on the OtoRevo platform, two artist received debuts but all were released after the shut down of the R&D division, the most well-known is the group CREAM who were originally named IYSE. They are currently one of the top selling new artist in Japan with more than 3M channel views on YouTube, major investors include Faith K. K. Daiichi Kosho Company, Japan Securities Finance Co. Ltd. Sumitomo Trust and Banking, Nomura Securities, Rakuten Securities and Fukoku Mutual Life Insurance Company, list of record labels Official website Official Centennial Website Nippon Columbias channel on YouTube
39.
Ace Tone
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Ace Electronic Industries Inc. or Ace Tone was a manufacturer of musical instruments, including electronic organs and analogue drum machines, and effects pedals. Founded in 1960 by Ikutaro Kakehashi with an investment by Sakata Shokai, Ace Tone can be considered an incarnation of the Roland Corporation. Ace Tone began manufacturing amplifiers in 1963, canary S-2 — Vacuum tube clavioline, exhibited on 1964 Summer NAMM, but not released. X-3/X-3W — although model name evokes Hammond X series, it was shipped under Ace Tone brand, Ace 3000 has built-in cassette recorder on the lower right. National SX-601 Hammond VS-300 Cadette — although early Cadettes was built in Japan by Yamaha/Nippon Gakki, later models in the United Kingdom was built by Ace Tone/Nihon Hammond. Hammond F1000 /2000 /3000 — these models built in England in the 1970s, were variations of Ace 1000 /2000 /3000 designed & built in Japan, Ace Tone model also shipped from Hammond. Ace Tone FR-2L ⇒ Hammond Auto Ace Tone FR-3 ⇒ Hammond Rhythm 2 Hammond shipped far improved model based on Rolands improved model, Ace Tone FR-7L ⇒ Roland Rhythm 77 ⇒ Hammond Auto-Vari 64 Hammond models manufactured by Nihon Hammond. In the 1970s, possibly several models were distributed under Multivox brand by Sorkin Music. On the other hand, late-1970s models such as Multivox FR-3 seem to share similarities with Korg Minipops. Multivox models Also shipped from Multivox In the mid-1970s, “ACE TONE” brand was taken over by Sakata/Nihon Hammond, Sakata/Nihhon Hammond models Also shipped from Sakata/Nihhon Hammond. In 1972, Kakehashi left Ace Electronics and established Roland Corporation, Ace Tone Professional Amplifiers Catalog 1971. Ace Tone Guitar Amplifiers Catalog 1976, for example, production years of early product/prototype, and the later mass-production models are mysteriously confused. Archived from the original on 2008-06-30, — List of products and some corporate history. — Profiles of organs and corporate history, harmony Central, Ace Tone, Reviews — Reviews of Ace Tone products. Orgel Wiki, Ace Tone — more pictures of organ models, vintageSynth. hu, Ace — more pictures of products. Ace-tone lh-100 stereo phasor - LH-100 Stereo Phasor photo and audio examples, effectsdatabase. com, Ace Tone WM-1 Wah Master. The Dave Howard Singers PAGE - A band that popularized the sound of the Acetone Top 5, the Dave Howard Singers Wikipedia PAGE
40.
University of Tokyo
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The University of Tokyo, abbreviated as Todai, is a research university located in Bunkyo, Tokyo, Japan. The university has 10 faculties with a total of around 30,000 students,2,100 of whom are foreign and its five campuses are in Hongō, Komaba, Kashiwa, Shirokane and Nakano. It is the first of Japans National Seven Universities, the university was chartered by the Meiji government in 1877 under its current name by amalgamating older government schools for medicine and Western learning. It was renamed the Imperial University in 1886, and then Tokyo Imperial University in 1897 when the Imperial University system was created, in September 1923, an earthquake and the following fires destroyed about 700,000 volumes of the Imperial University Library. The books lost included the Hoshino Library, a collection of about 10,000 books, the books were the former possessions of Hoshino Hisashi before becoming part of the library of the university and were mainly about Chinese philosophy and history. In 1947, after Japans defeat in World War II, it re-assumed its original name, although the university was founded during the Meiji period, it has earlier roots in the Astronomy Agency, Shoheizaka Study Office, and the Western Books Translation Agency. These institutions were government offices established by the 徳川幕府 Tokugawa shogunate, kikuchi Dairoku, an important figure in Japanese education, served as president of Tokyo Imperial University. For the 1964 Summer Olympics, the university hosted the running portion of the pentathlon event. On 20 January 2012, Todai announced that it would shift the beginning of its academic year from April to September to align its calendar with the international standard, the shift would be phased in over five years. But this unilateral announcement by the president was received badly and the university abandoned the plans, according to the Japan Times, the university had 1,282 professors in February 2012. In 2014, the School of Science at the University of Tokyo introduced an undergraduate transfer program called Global Science Course. Academic Ranking of World Universities ranked the University of Tokyo 1st in Asia, Times Higher Education World University Rankings ranked the University of Tokyo 27th in the world in 2013 and 1st in the Asia University ranking in 2013. In 2015, Times Higher Education World University Rankings ranked the institution 23rd in the world and it ranks 12th in the world according to the Times Higher Education World Reputation Rankings 2016. QS World University Rankings in 2011 ranked the University of Tokyo 25th in the world, in the 2011 QS Asian University Rankings, which employs a different methodology, the University of Tokyo came 4th. Currently, University of Tokyo holds ranks 9th & 11th respectively for Natural Sciences & Engineering, Times Higher Education World Reputation Rankings ranked the University of Tokyo 12th in the world also 1st in Asia in 2016. Global University Ranking ranked the University of Tokyo 3rd in the world, Human Resources & Labor Review, a human competitiveness index & analysis published in Chasecareer Network, ranked the university 21st internationally and 1st in Asia in 2010. Mines ParisTech, Professional Ranking World Universities ranked the University of Tokyo 2nd in the world on the basis of the number of alumni listed among CEOs in the 500 largest worldwide companies, nature Publishing Index ranked the University of Tokyo 5th in the world in 2011. The main Hongo campus occupies the estate of the Maeda family
41.
List of Korg products
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A timeline of products made by Korg. Some of the listed are no longer in production. 1963 - Donca-Matic DA-20, rhythm machine, a first product,1966 - Donca-Matic DE-20, Fully electronic rhythm machine. It earned especially high marks for its simulation of the B-3s Leslie rotating speaker. An updated model called the New CX-3 was released in 2000, both incarnations of the instrument feature a double-manual version called the BX-3. The first-generation models also included an output for the instrument to hook up to a real Leslie speaker,1980 – Korg Trident, At the time of its release, the Trident was the flagship of Korgs lineup. It was divided into three distinct sections – polysynth, brass and strings – and featured an on-board flanger, a rarity for any synth at the time, the Trident was capable of eight notes of polyphony, and featured a 16-program memory. 1981 – The Korg Polysix is a 61-key, six-voice programmable synthesizer and it was released to compete with Rolands Juno-6 synth, and both keyboards shared similar features, such as a built-in chorus unit and an arpeggiator. However, the Polysix offered memory for storage, and its chorus unit was a fully-fledged analog delay unit capable of phaser. The instrument was recreated in a version, the PolysixEX for Korgs Legacy Collection. It is also one of the included synth engines with the Kronos line of synths,1981 - Korg Mono/Poly 1982 – Korg KPR-77, Analog drum machine. 1982 – Korg Poly-61, The successor of the Polysix with digitally controlled analog oscillators, shortly before it was discontinued, a MIDI version known as the Poly-61M was released. The second-generation Mk II model added a digital delay section, was also released in a module version, the EX-800. 1983 - The Korg SAS-20 was Korg’s first arranger keyboard, a built-in computer analyzed the melody played on the keyboard, and generated a complex accompaniment. This was the world’s first auto-accompaniment function of this added to a keyboard. Also, a more traditional chord recognition system was included,1984 - Korg RK-100, MIDI remote keyboard/keytar 1985 - Korg DW-6000, Eight-voice polyphonic, user selected two digital waveforms out of 8 total. 1985 - Korg DW-8000, Eight-voice polyphonic, user selected two digital waveforms out of 16 total, was also released in a rack-mount version, the EX-8000. 1985 - Korg DDM-110 SuperDrums and Korg DDM-220 SuperPercussion, Low-cost digital drum machines 1986 - Korg DS-8 and this synthesizer were powered by Yamahas second-generation 4-operator FM engine 1986 - Korg DSS-1, Korgs first sampling keyboard with two oscillators per voice and superb filters
42.
Yamaha Electone
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Electone is the trademark used for electronic organs produced by Yamaha. With the exception of the top end models, most Electones are based on the design on the spinet electronic organ. Current models are completely digital and contain a variety of sounds, effects, after Hammond pioneered the electronic organ in the 1930s, other manufacturers began to market their own versions of the instrument. The Yamaha Electone series debuted in 1959 with the D-1, a home instrument, by 1980, with the market waning sharply, and some manufacturers ceasing production, the Electone line embraced digital technology. This allowed Electone’s survival as the traditional home electronic organ market dried up, Electones were to be found not only in homes, especially in Japan and elsewhere in the East Asia, but also in bands and other solo and group public performances. Yamaha began exporting Electones to the United States, starting with the D-2B in 1967,1968 — EX-21 prototype Different from prior Electones, it was expressly designed for stage performances. 1970 — EX-42 This became Yamahas first commercially available stage model Electone and it was also the first to use integrated circuits, although it was still based on analogue technology. 1974 — Designing of Electones around synthesisers, instead of organs 1974 — CSY-1 Based on the SY-1 synthesizer,1975 — GX-1 The first polyphonic synthesizer in Electone form, bridging the gap between synthesizer and organ. It utilised velocity-sensitive keyboards and the keyboard was even after-touch sensitive. Some notable users of the GX-1 include Richard D. James, Stevie Wonder, Keith Emerson, John Paul Jones of Led Zeppelin,1977 — E-70 One of the first home based organs to feature Yamahas PASS in a console cabinet. 1983 to 1986 — FC/FE/FS/FX series Featured FM tone generators and the FX series featured the companys first digitally sampled sounds for the onboard percussion/rhythm units. The F series Electones were the first to allow users to digitally save registrations via pistons and then save them to RAM packs or a disk drive unit. 1987 — HS/HX series Electones became more digital here and it used more integrated circuit technology to make components smaller, and hence allowed for a sleeker design. The HX/HS series was the first to use AWM sampling technology for both voices and rhythms, and also featured 16-operator FM voices, AWM Voice expansion is also possible via sound packs. The EL series introduced new synthesisers, filtering, and expression technologies that made instrument voices on the Electone even more realistic, Voice technology continued to be based on AWM and FM technologies. 1996 — AR series The AR100, and its model the AR80, were designed for the US and European market. Using purely AWM voices, the most distinctive feature of the series is its 384 preset registrations, a huge increase compared to only 5 presets on the EL series. 1998 — EL900 Visually similar to the EL90 model from 1991, but with more voices, rhythms and effects and these voices, or preset sounds, do not use sampling technology but is instead based on modeling
43.
Univox
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Univox also distributed the guitars by Matsumoku, effects units by Shin-Ei Companion, and synthesizers by Crumar and Korg. In 1985, Unicord Corporation was purchased by Korg, and Univox brand was discontinued due to a fire at the Matsumoku factory in 1987, in the early 1960s the Unicord Corporation, a manufacturer of electric transformers, purchased the Amplifier Corporation of America of Westbury, New York. They began marketing a line of amplifiers under the name of Univox, the company was purchased by Gulf+Western in 1967. Guitar making operations moved to Japan in 1975 where they continued making guitars until 1982, production under the Univox name was halted after a fire at the Matsumoku factory. After this time instruments were made in Korea under the name Westbury, the Unicord Corporation was purchased by Korg in 1985, effectively ending the line for good. Univox was best known for making copies of instruments from better-known companies such as Mosrite, Fender, Gibson, Rickenbacker, Ampeg/Dan Armstrong, Epiphone and others. The Univox Hi-Flier was based on the distinctive Mosrite reverse swept shape, it was popularized in the early 1990s by Kurt Cobain, however, Univox used time-proven electronic circuits and quality components. To avoid this market perception, Unicord developed the Stage brand, Unicord was also the U. S. distributor for both Marshall amplifiers and Korg synthesizers. Per Rick Reinckens, who worked as a test technician at Unicord including testing Marshall amps coming in from England for sale in the United States, however, per Frank Kozinski, those could barely reach the rated output wattage. So Unicord would replace the tubes with KT-88 tubes before shipping them to U. S. vendors, Kozinski also told Reinckens that Unicord had started out as a manufacturer of electrical transformers. When the original Marshalls came to the U. S. Unicords engineers were concerned that the output transformers could not reliably handle the full output. Unicord redesigned the output transformers and told Marshall to use the Unicord design in all units shipped to the U. S. Marshall did adopt the Unicord design for all their tube amps. When the first production came into Unicord from Marshall, Frank told Reinckens he was the one who had come up with that design. A number of tube and solid state amplifiers were produced by Univox over the years and these ranged from small practice combo amps to powerful heads with separate cabinets. Some models had built-in spring reverb and tremolo effects, in 1971 Univox introduced the B Group amplifiers, covered in two-toned blue or gray Tolex with distinctive ovalesque cosmetics. These amps were used by The Jeff Beck Group and Led Zeppelin, around 1967, Unicord merged with Merson, an importer of various headstock-brand guitars such as Tempo, Giannini and Hagström. This new company was called Merson Musical Products, A Division of Unicord Incorporated, around 1968 they started producing the Univox guitars. In 1975 Unicord and Merson split, however, Unicord continued to make Univox guitars until around 1978, even adding some newer models
44.
Roland Corporation
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The Roland Corporation is a Japanese manufacturer of electronic musical instruments, electronic equipment and software. It was founded by Ikutaro Kakehashi in Osaka on April 18,1972, in 2005, Rolands headquarters relocated to Hamamatsu in Shizuoka Prefecture. Today it has factories in Italy, Taiwan, Japan, as of March 31,2010, it employed 2,699 employees. It has existed in different forms since 1960, making it relatively old among still-operating manufacturers of musical electronics, known for hundreds of popular synthesizers, drum machines, and other instruments, Roland has been one of the top names in professional music equipment since the late 1970s. In 2014, Roland Corporation was subject to a management buyout by Rolands CEO Junichi Miki, Kakehashi founded Ace Electronic Industries in 1960, a manufacturer of numerous combo organs, guitar amplifiers, and effects pedals. He was also contracted by Hammond to produce machines for the companys line of home organs. In 1973, Kakehashi cut ties with companies to found Roland. As with many Japanese start-ups of the period, the name Roland was selected for export purposes as Kakehashi was interested in a name that was easy to pronounce for his worldwide target markets. Rumour has long circulated that he named his company after the French epic poem La Chanson de Roland, in reality, the name Roland was found in a telephone directory. Kakehashi opted for it as he was satisfied with the simple two-syllable word, the letter R was chosen because it was not used by many other music equipment companies, and would therefore stand out in trade show directories and industry listings. Kakehashi did not learn of The Song Of Roland until later, Roland markets products under a number of brand names, each of which are used on products geared toward a different niche. The Roland brand is used on a range of products including synthesizers, digital pianos, electronic drum systems, dance/DJ gear, guitar synthesizers, amplifiers. BOSS is a used for products geared toward guitar players and is used for guitar pedals, effects units, rhythm and accompaniment machines. Edirol was a line of professional video-editing and video-presentation systems, as well as digital audio recorders. Edirol also had Desktop Media products, more production-oriented, and included computer audio interfaces, mixers, Roland Systems Group is a line of professional commercial audio and video products. Rodgers was founded in 1958 as a company and survives today as a subsidiary of Roland, still manufacturing high-quality electric, electronic. Cakewalk music software company is a partner of Roland’s. In January 2008, Roland announced the purchase of controlling interest in the company, in 2013, ownership of Cakewalk passed from Roland to Gibson Guitar Corporation
45.
Claves
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Claves are a percussion instrument, consisting of a pair of short (about 20–30 cm, thick dowels. Traditionally they are made of wood, typically rosewood, ebony or grenadilla, in modern times they are also made of fibreglass or plastics. When struck they produce a clicking noise. Claves are sometimes hollow and carved in the middle to amplify the sound, the basic principle when playing claves is to allow at least one of them to resonate. The usual technique is to hold one lightly with the thumb and fingertips of the non-dominant hand and this forms the hand into a resonating chamber for the clave. Holding the clave on top of finger nails makes the sound more clear, the other is held by the dominant hand at one end with a firmer grip, much like how one normally holds a drumstick. With the end of this clave, the player strikes the resting clave in the center, traditionally, the striking clave is called el macho and the resting clave is called la hembra. This terminology is used even when the claves are identical, a roll can be achieved on the claves by holding one clave between the thumb and first two fingers, and then alternating pressure between the two fingers to move the clave back and forth. This clave is then placed against the resonating clave to produce a roll, claves are very important in Cuban music, such as the son and guaguancó. They are often used to play a rhythmic figure throughout a piece, known as clave. Among the better known rock recordings featuring claves are the Beatles recording And I Love Her, most notably, claves are heard in the interstitial spaces of the Night Court theme song. The Cuban Overture of George Gershwin includes claves, steve Reichs Music for Pieces of Wood is written for five pairs of claves. Palitos Clapsticks F. Ortiz, La Clave, Editorial Letras Cubanas, La Habana, D. Peñalosa, The Clave Matrix – Afro-Cuban Rhythm, Its Principles and African Origins, Bembe Books, Redway California, U. S. A. O. A. Rodríguez, From Afro-Cuban Music to Salsa, Piranha, E. Uribe, The Essence of Afro-Cuban Percussion and Drum Set, Warner Brothers Publications, Miami, Florida,1996
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