1.
Alan Kay
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Alan Curtis Kay is an American computer scientist. He has been elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and he is best known for his pioneering work on object-oriented programming and windowing graphical user interface design. He is the president of the Viewpoints Research Institute, and an Adjunct Professor of Computer Science at the University of California and he is also on the advisory board of TTI/Vanguard. Until mid-2005, he was a Senior Fellow at HP Labs, a Visiting Professor at Kyoto University, after 10 years at Xerox PARC, Kay became Ataris chief scientist for three years. Kay is also a professional jazz guitarist, composer, and theatrical designer. In an interview on education in America with the Davis Group Ltd, Alan Kay said, I had the fortune or misfortune to learn how to read fluently starting at the age of three. So I had read maybe 150 books by the time I hit 1st grade, and I already knew that the teachers were lying to me. Originally from Springfield, Massachusetts, Kay attended the University of Colorado at Boulder, earning a Bachelors degree in Mathematics, before and during this time, he worked as a professional jazz guitarist. In 1966, he began school at the University of Utah College of Engineering, earning a masters degree. His doctoral thesis was entitled FLEX, A Flexible Extendable Language, while at the University of Utah, he worked with Ivan Sutherland, who had done pioneering graphics programs including Sketchpad. This greatly inspired Kays evolving views on objects and programming, as he grew busier with ARPA research, he quit his career as a professional musician. In 1968, he met Seymour Papert and learned of the Logo programming language and this led him to learn of the work of Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, Lev Vygotsky, and of constructionist learning. In 1970, Kay joined Xerox Corporations Palo Alto Research Center, in the 1970s he was one of the key members there to develop prototypes of networked workstations using the programming language Smalltalk. These inventions were later commercialized by Apple Computer in their Lisa, Kay is one of the fathers of the idea of object-oriented programming, which he named, along with some colleagues at PARC. Some of the original object-oriented concepts, including the use of the words object, Kay conceived the Dynabook concept which defined the conceptual basics for laptop and tablet computers and E-books, and is the architect of the modern overlapping windowing graphical user interface. He wrote, As with Simulas leading to OOP, this encounter final hit me with what the destiny of personal computing really was going to be. Not a personal vehicle, as in Engelbart’s metaphor opposed to the IBM “railroads”, but something much more profound. With a vehicle one could wait until high school and give “drivers ed”, starting in 1984, Kay was an Apple Fellow at Apple Computer until the closing of the ATG, one of the companys R&D divisions
2.
Laptop
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Laptops are folded shut for transportation, and thus are suitable for mobile use. Although originally there was a distinction between laptops and notebooks, the former being bigger and heavier than the latter, as of 2014, there is often no longer any difference. Laptops are commonly used in a variety of settings, such as at work, in education, Internet surfing using sites such as YouTube and for personal multimedia, most 2016-era laptops also have integrated webcams and built-in microphones. Laptops can be powered either from a battery or by an external power supply from an AC adapter. Hardware specifications, such as the speed and memory capacity. Design elements, form factor, and construction can also vary significantly between models depending on intended use, as portable computers evolved into the modern laptop, they became widely used for a variety of purposes. The terms laptop and notebook are used interchangeably to describe a computer in English. Regardless of the etymology, by the late 1990s, the terms were interchangeable, as the personal computer became feasible in 1971, the idea of a portable personal computer soon followed. A personal, portable information manipulator was imagined by Alan Kay at Xerox PARC in 1968, the IBM Special Computer APL Machine Portable was demonstrated in 1973. This prototype was based on the IBM PALM processor, the IBM5100, the first commercially available portable computer, appeared in September 1975, and was based on the SCAMP prototype. As 8-bit CPU machines became widely accepted, the number of portables increased rapidly, the Osborne 1, released in 1981, used the Zilog Z80 and weighed 23.6 pounds. It had no battery, a 5 in CRT screen, in the same year the first laptop-sized portable computer, the Epson HX-20, was announced. The Epson had an LCD screen, a battery. Both Tandy/RadioShack and HP also produced portable computers of varying designs during this period, the first laptops using the flip form factor appeared in the early 1980s. The Dulmont Magnum was released in Australia in 1981–82, but was not marketed internationally until 1984–85, the US$8,150 GRiD Compass 1101, released in 1982, was used at NASA and by the military, among others. The Sharp PC-5000, Ampere and Gavilan SC released in 1983, the Gavilan SC was the first computer described as a laptop by its manufacturer, while the Ampere had a modern clamshell design. The Toshiba T1100 won acceptance not only among PC experts but the market as a way to have PC portability. From 1983 onward, several new techniques were developed and included in laptops, including the touchpad, the pointing stick
3.
Tablet computer
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Tablets often come equipped with sensors, including digital cameras, a microphone, and an accelerometer so images on screens are always displayed upright. The touchscreen display uses the recognition of finger or stylus gestures to replace the mouse, trackpad, tablets are typically larger than smartphones or personal digital assistants with screens 7 inches or larger, measured diagonally. However much of a tablets functionality resembles that of a modern smartphone, tablets can be classified according to the presence and physical appearance of keyboards. Slates and booklets do not have a keyboard, and usually accept text. Hybrids, convertibles, and 2-in-1s do have physical keyboards, yet they also make use of virtual keyboards. Some 2-in-1s have processors and operating systems like a full laptop, most tablets can use separate keyboards connected using Bluetooth. The format was conceptualized in the century and prototyped and developed in the last two decades of that century. In April 2010, Apple released the iPad, the first mass-market tablet to achieve widespread popularity, thereafter in the 2010s, tablets rapidly rose in ubiquity and became a large product category used for both personal and workplace applications. The tablet computer and its operating system began with the development of pen computing. Throughout the 20th century devices with these characteristics have been imagined and created whether as blueprints, prototypes, a device more powerful than todays tablets appeared briefly in Jerry Pournelle and Larry Nivens The Mote in Gods Eye. Adults could also use a Dynabook, but the audience was children. In 1992, Atari showed developers the Stylus, later renamed ST-Pad, the ST-Pad was based on the TOS/GEM Atari ST Platform and prototyped early handwriting recognition. Shiraz Shivjis company Momentus demonstrated in the time a failed x86 MS-DOS based Pen Computer with its own GUI. In 1994, the European Union initiated the NewsPad project, inspired by Clarke, Acorn Computers developed and delivered an ARM-based touch screen tablet computer for this program, branding it the NewsPad, the project ended in 1997. During the November 2000 COMDEX, Microsoft used the term Tablet PC to describe a prototype handheld device they were demonstrating, all three products were based on extended versions of the MS-DOS operating system. In 1992, IBM announced and shipped to developers the 2521 ThinkPad, also based on PenPoint was AT&Ts EO Personal Communicator from 1993, which ran on AT&Ts own hardware, including their own AT&T Hobbit CPU. Apple Computer launched the Apple Newton personal digital assistant in 1993 and it utilised Apples own new Newton OS, initially running on hardware manufactured by Motorola and incorporating an ARM CPU, that Apple had specifically co-developed with Acorn Computers. The operating system and platform design were later licensed to Sharp and Digital Ocean, in 1996, Palm, Inc. released the first of the Palm OS based PalmPilot touch and stylus based PDA, the touch based devices initially incorporating a Motorola Dragonball CPU
4.
Maintenance, repair and operations
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Maintenance, repair, and operations involves fixing any sort of mechanical, plumbing, or electrical device should it become out of order or broken. In the former case it may be an operation within a larger organization or smaller operation. The former of these represents a closed loop supply chain and usually has the scope of maintenance, repair, the latter of the categorisations is an open loop supply chain and is typified by refurbishment and remanufacture. The main characteristic of the loop system is that the demand for a product is matched with the supply of a used product. Neglecting asset write-offs and exceptional activities the total population of the product between the customer and the service provider remains constant, for material – all action taken to retain material in a serviceable condition or to restore it to serviceability. It includes inspection, testing, servicing, classification as to serviceability, repair, rebuilding, for material – all supply and repair action taken to keep a force in condition to carry out its mission. For material – the routine recurring work required to keep a facility in such condition that it may be used, at its original or designed capacity. Manufacturers and industrial-supply companies often refer to MRO as opposed to original equipment manufacturer, OEM includes any activity related to the direct manufacture of goods, where MRO refers to any maintenance, repair or overhaul activity to keep a manufacturing plant or facility running. Maintenance is strictly connected to the stage of ideation, in which the concept of maintainability must be included, overhaul extends to the concept of improving performance over and above original design specification. Corrective maintenance where equipment is repaired or replaced after wear, malfunction or break down, preventive maintenance is maintenance performed with the intent of avoiding failures, safety violations, unnecessary production costs and losses, and to conserve original materials of fabrication. The effectiveness of a maintenance schedule depends on the RCM analysis which it was based on
5.
Documentation
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Documentation is a set of documents provided on paper, or online, or on digital or analog media, such as audio tape or CDs. Examples are user guides, white papers, on-line help, quick-reference guides and it is becoming less common to see paper documentation. Documentation is distributed via websites, software products, and other on-line applications, professionals educated in this field are termed documentalists. This field changed its name to information science in 1968, but some uses of the term documentation still exists, while associated ISO standards are not easily available publicly, a guide from other sources for this topic may serve the purpose. David Berger has provided several principles of document writing, regarding the terms used, procedure numbering and even lengths of sentences, etc. In general, these may involve document drafting, formatting, submitting, reviewing, approving, distributing, reposting and tracking and it could also involve creating content from scratch. Documentation should be easy to read and understand, if its too long and too wordy, it may be misunderstood or ignored. Clear, Short, Familiar words should be used to a maximum of 15 words to a sentence, only gender hyper neutral word should be used and cultural biases should be avoided. Procedures should be numbered when they are to be performed, Technical writers and corporate communicators are professionals whose field and work is documentation. Ideally, technical writers have a background in both the matter and also in writing and managing content. Corporate communications includes other types of documentation that is required for most companies. Marketing Communications, MarCom writers endeavor to convey the companys value proposition through a variety of print, electronic and this area of corporate writing is often engaged in responding to proposals. Technical Communication, Technical writers document a companys product or service, Technical publication include user guides, installation an configuration manuals, and troubleshooting/repair/replace procedures. Legal Writing, This type of documentation is often prepared by attorneys or paralegals who could be in practice or retained as corporate council. Compliance documentation, This type of documentation codifies Standard Operating Procedures, for any regulatory compliance needs, as for safety approval, taxation, financing, technical approval, there are many types of software and applications used to create documentation. SOFTWARE DOCUMENTATION FOLDER A common type of software document written by software engineers in the industry is the SDF. The document can be a page, MS word document or other environment. They should contain a section, an interface section to detail the communication interface of the software
6.
United States Department of Defense
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The Department is the largest employer in the world, with nearly 1.3 million active duty servicemen and women as of 2016. Adding to its employees are over 801,000 National Guardsmen and Reservists from the four services and it is headquartered at the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, just outside of Washington, D. C. The Department of Defense is headed by the Secretary of Defense, Military operations are managed by nine regional or functional Unified Combatant Commands. The Department of Defense also operates several joint services schools, including the National Defense University, the history of the defense of the United States started with the Continental Congress in 1775. The creation of the United States Army was enacted on 14 June 1775 and this coincides with the American holiday Flag Day. The Second Continental Congress would charter the United States Navy, on 13 October 1775, today, both the Navy and the Marine Corps are separate military services subordinate to the Department of the Navy. The Preamble of the United States Constitution gave the authority to federal government, to defend its citizens and this first Congress had a huge agenda, that of creating legislation to build a government for the ages. Legislation to create a military defense force stagnated, two separate times, President George Washington went to Congress to remind them of their duty to establish a military. In a special message to Congress on 19 December 1945, the President cited both wasteful military spending and inter-departmental conflicts, deliberations in Congress went on for months focusing heavily on the role of the military in society and the threat of granting too much military power to the executive. The act placed the National Military Establishment under the control of a single Secretary of Defense, the National Military Establishment formally began operations on 18 September, the day after the Senate confirmed James V. Forrestal as the first Secretary of Defense. The National Military Establishment was renamed the Department of Defense on 10 August 1949, under the Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1958, channels of authority within the department were streamlined, while still maintaining the authority of the Military Departments. Also provided in this legislation was a centralized authority, the Advanced Research Projects Agency. The Act moved decision-making authority from the Military Departments to the Joint Chiefs of Staff and it also strengthened the command channel of the military over U. S. forces from the President to the Secretary of Defense. Written and promoted by the Eisenhower administration, it was signed into law 6 August 1958, because the Constitution vests all military authority in Congress and the President, the statutory authority of the Secretary of Defense is derived from their constitutional authorities. Department of Defense Directive 5100.01 describes the relationships within the Department. The latest version, signed by former Secretary of Defense Robert Gates in December 2010, is the first major re-write since 1987, the Office of the Secretary of Defense is the Secretary and Deputy Secretarys civilian staff. S. Government departments and agencies, foreign governments, and international organizations, OSD also performs oversight and management of the Defense Agencies and Department of Defense Field Activities. OSD also supervises the following Defense Agencies, Several defense agencies are members of the United States Intelligence Community and these are national-level intelligence services that operate under the jurisdiction of the Department of Defense but simultaneously fall under the authorities of the Director of National Intelligence
7.
Curriculum
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In education, a curriculum is broadly defined as the totality of student experiences that occur in the educational process. The term often specifically to a planned sequence of instruction. Curriculum may incorporate the planned interaction of pupils with instructional content, materials, resources, Curriculum is split into several categories, the explicit, the implicit, the excluded and the extra-curricular. Curricula may be standardized, or may include a high level of instructor or learner autonomy. Many countries have national curricula in primary and secondary education, such as the United Kingdoms National Curriculum, uNESCOs International Bureau of Education has the primary mission of studying curricula and their implementation worldwide. The word curriculum began as a Latin word which means a race or the course of a race, the first known use in an educational context is in the Professio Regia, a work by University of Paris professor Petrus Ramus published posthumously in 1576. The term subsequently appears in University of Leiden records in 1582, the words origins appear closely linked to the Calvinist desire to bring greater order to education. By the seventeenth century, the University of Glasgow also referred to its course of study as a curriculum, by the nineteenth century, European universities routinely referred to their curriculum to describe both the complete course of study and particular courses and their content. There is no agreed upon definition of curriculum. Braslavsky states that curriculum is an agreement among communities, educational professionals, furthermore, the curriculum defines why, what, when, where, how, and with whom to learn. Outlines the skills, performances, attitudes, and values pupils are expected to learn from schooling and it includes statements of desired pupil outcomes, descriptions of materials, and the planned sequence that will be used to help pupils attain the outcomes. The total learning experience provided by a school and it includes the content of courses, the methods employed, and other aspects, like norms and values, which relate to the way the school is organized. The aggregate of courses of study given in a learning environment, the courses are arranged in a sequence to make learning a subject easier. In schools, a curriculum spans several grades, Curriculum can refer to the entire program provided by a classroom, school, district, state, or country. A classroom is assigned sections of the curriculum as defined by the school, implicit curriculum, lessons that arise from the culture of the school and the behaviors, attitudes, and expectations that characterize that culture, the unintended curriculum. The term itself is attributed to Philip W. Jackson and is not always meant to be a negative, hidden curriculum, if its potential is realized, could benefit students and learners in all educational systems. Also, it not just include the physical environment of the school. Excluded curriculum, topics or perspectives that are excluded from the curriculum
8.
Microsoft
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Its best known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, Microsoft Office office suite, and Internet Explorer and Edge web browsers. Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface tablet lineup, as of 2016, it was the worlds largest software maker by revenue, and one of the worlds most valuable companies. Microsoft was founded by Paul Allen and Bill Gates on April 4,1975, to develop and it rose to dominate the personal computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by Microsoft Windows. The companys 1986 initial public offering, and subsequent rise in its share price, since the 1990s, it has increasingly diversified from the operating system market and has made a number of corporate acquisitions. In May 2011, Microsoft acquired Skype Technologies for $8.5 billion, in June 2012, Microsoft entered the personal computer production market for the first time, with the launch of the Microsoft Surface, a line of tablet computers. The word Microsoft is a portmanteau of microcomputer and software, Paul Allen and Bill Gates, childhood friends with a passion for computer programming, sought to make a successful business utilizing their shared skills. In 1972 they founded their first company, named Traf-O-Data, which offered a computer that tracked and analyzed automobile traffic data. Allen went on to pursue a degree in science at Washington State University. The January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics featured Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systemss Altair 8800 microcomputer, Allen suggested that they could program a BASIC interpreter for the device, after a call from Gates claiming to have a working interpreter, MITS requested a demonstration. Since they didnt actually have one, Allen worked on a simulator for the Altair while Gates developed the interpreter and they officially established Microsoft on April 4,1975, with Gates as the CEO. Allen came up with the name of Micro-Soft, as recounted in a 1995 Fortune magazine article. In August 1977 the company formed an agreement with ASCII Magazine in Japan, resulting in its first international office, the company moved to a new home in Bellevue, Washington in January 1979. Microsoft entered the OS business in 1980 with its own version of Unix, however, it was MS-DOS that solidified the companys dominance. For this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, branding it as MS-DOS, following the release of the IBM PC in August 1981, Microsoft retained ownership of MS-DOS. Since IBM copyrighted the IBM PC BIOS, other companies had to engineer it in order for non-IBM hardware to run as IBM PC compatibles. Due to various factors, such as MS-DOSs available software selection, the company expanded into new markets with the release of the Microsoft Mouse in 1983, as well as with a publishing division named Microsoft Press. Paul Allen resigned from Microsoft in 1983 after developing Hodgkins disease, while jointly developing a new OS with IBM in 1984, OS/2, Microsoft released Microsoft Windows, a graphical extension for MS-DOS, on November 20,1985. Once Microsoft informed IBM of NT, the OS/2 partnership deteriorated, in 1990, Microsoft introduced its office suite, Microsoft Office
9.
Macintosh
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The Macintosh (/ˈmækᵻntɒʃ/ MAK-in-tosh, is a series of personal computers designed, developed, and marketed by Apple Inc. Steve Jobs introduced the original Macintosh computer on January 24,1984 and this was the companys first mass-market personal computer featuring an integral graphical user interface and mouse. This first model was renamed to Macintosh 128k for uniqueness amongst a populous family of subsequently updated models which are also based on Apples same proprietary architecture. Since 1998, Apple has largely phased out the Macintosh name in favor of Mac, Macintosh systems still found success in education and desktop publishing and kept Apple as the second-largest PC manufacturer for the next decade. In the 1990s, improvements in the rival Wintel platform, notably with the introduction of Windows 3.0, then Windows 95, gradually took market share from the more expensive Macintosh systems. The performance advantage of 68000-based Macintosh systems was eroded by Intels Pentium, even after a transition to the superior PowerPC-based Power Macintosh line in 1994, the falling prices of commodity PC components and the release of Windows 95 saw the Macintosh user base decline. In 1998, after the return of Steve Jobs, Apple consolidated its multiple consumer-level desktop models into the all-in-one iMac G3, since their transition to Intel processors in 2006, the complete lineup is entirely based on said processors and associated systems. Its current lineup comprises three desktops, and three laptops and its Xserve server was discontinued in 2011 in favor of the Mac Mini and Mac Pro. Apple also develops the operating system for the Mac, currently macOS version 10.12 Sierra, Macs are currently capable of running non-Apple operating systems such as Linux, OpenBSD, and Microsoft Windows with the aid of Boot Camp or third-party software. Apple does not license macOS for use on computers, though it did license previous versions of the classic Mac OS through their Macintosh clone program from 1995 to 1997. The Macintosh project was begun in 1979 by Jef Raskin, an Apple employee who envisioned an easy-to-use, in 1978 Apple began to organize the Apple Lisa project, aiming to build a next-generation machine similar to an advanced Apple III or the yet-to-be-introduced IBM PC. In 1979, Steve Jobs learned of the work on graphical user interfaces taking place at Xerox PARC. He arranged a deal in which Xerox received Apple stock options in return for which Apple would license their designs, the basic layout of the Lisa was largely complete by 1982, at which point Jobs continual suggestions for improvements led to him being kicked off the project. At the same time that the Lisa was becoming a GUI machine in 1979, the design at that time was for a low-cost, easy-to-use machine for the average consumer. Raskin was authorized to start hiring for the project in September 1979 and his initial team would eventually consist of himself, Howard, Joanna Hoffman, Burrell Smith, and Bud Tribble. Smiths design used fewer RAM chips than the Lisa, which production of the board significantly more cost-efficient. Though there were no memory slots, its RAM was expandable to 512 kB by means of soldering sixteen IC sockets to accept 256 kb RAM chips in place of the factory-installed chips. The final products screen was a 9-inch, 512x342 pixel monochrome display, burrels innovative design, combining the low production cost of an Apple II with the computing power of Lisas Motorola 68000 CPU, began to receive Jobs attentions
10.
Toshiba
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Toshiba Corporation, commonly known as Toshiba and stylized as TOSHIBA, is a Japanese multinational conglomerate headquartered in Tokyo, Japan. Toshiba was founded in 1938 as Tokyo Shibaura Electric K. K. through the merger of Shibaura Seisaku-sho, the company name was officially changed to Toshiba Corporation in 1978. Toshiba is organized into four groupings, the Digital Products Group, the Electronic Devices Group, the Home Appliances Group and the Social Infrastructure Group. It is listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange, where it is a constituent of the Nikkei 225 and TOPIX indices, the Osaka Securities Exchange, Toshiba is the seventh largest semiconductor manufacturer in the world. Toshiba was founded in 1939 by the merger of Shibaura Seisakusho, Shibaura Seisakusho had been founded as Tanaka Seisakusho by Tanaka Hisashige in July 1875 as Japans first manufacturer of telegraph equipment. In 1904, it was renamed Shibaura Seisakusho, Tokyo Denki was founded as Hakunetsusha in 1890 and had been Japans first producer of incandescent electric lamps. It later diversified into the manufacture of consumer products and in 1899 had been renamed Tokyo Denki. The merger of Shibaura and Tokyo Denki created a new company called Tokyo Shibaura Denki and it was soon nicknamed Toshiba, but it was not until 1978 that the company was officially renamed Toshiba Corporation. The group expanded rapidly, driven by a combination of growth and by acquisitions, buying heavy engineering. In 1977, Toshiba acquired the Brazilian company Semp, subsequently forming Semp Toshiba through the combination of the two companies South American operations, the Toshiba-Kongsberg scandal involved a subsidiary of Toshiba and the Norwegian company Kongsberg Vaapenfabrikk. Senator John Heinz of Pennsylvania said What Toshiba and Kongsberg did was ransom the security of the United States for $517 million, the contract ended in 2008, ending seven years of OEM production with Orion. In December 2004, Toshiba quietly announced it would discontinue manufacturing traditional in-house cathode ray tube televisions, in 2006, Toshiba terminated production of in-house plasma TVs. To ensure its competitiveness in the flat-panel digital television and display market. Before World War II, Toshiba was a member of the Mitsui Group zaibatsu, today Toshiba is a member of the Mitsui keiretsu, and still has preferential arrangements with Mitsui Bank and the other members of the keiretsu. Membership in a keiretsu has traditionally meant loyalty, both corporate and private, to members of the keiretsu or allied keiretsu. This loyalty can extend as far as the beer the employees consume, in July 2005, BNFL confirmed it planned to sell Westinghouse Electric Company, then estimated to be worth $1.8 billion. In late 2007, Toshiba took over from Discover Card as the sponsor of the top-most screen of One Times Square in New York City and it displays the iconic 60-second New Years countdown on its screen, as well as messages, greetings, and advertisements for the company. In January 2009, Toshiba acquired the HDD business of Fujitsu, Toshiba announced on 16 May 2011, that it had agreed to acquire all of the shares of the Swiss-based advanced-power-meter maker Landis+Gyr for $2.3 billion
11.
Subnotebook
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A subnotebook is a class of laptop computers that are smaller and lighter than a typical notebook. These computers are sometimes confused with the ultra-mobile PC category, which is the name of a platform of small form-factor tablet PCs, subnotebooks are also sometimes confused with netbooks which are a different category of devices that branched off from mini notebooks in general. Netbooks are most often less expensive than subnotebooks, as they are optimized for use as portable Internet capable devices. Netbooks typically have 9W TDP CPUs, sacrificing performance for power efficiency, subnotebooks are smaller than full sized laptops but larger than handheld computers. They often have smaller-sized screens, less than 14 inches, and weigh less than typical laptops, the savings in size and weight are usually achieved partly by omitting ports and optical disc drives. Many can be paired with docking stations to compensate. The Compaq was followed in October 1992 by the very popular IBM ThinkPad, portables with noticeably smaller form factors thus became known as subnotebooks. The term was applied to the NEC UltraLite, unveiled in 1988 — although its dimensions were very similar to the Compaq LTE. Smaller DOS-based PCs such as the Poqet PC and the Atari Portfolio—both released in 1989—were called either pocket PCs or handhelds. One early subnotebook was the PowerBook 100 released in 1991 by Apple Inc. measuring 8. 5″ deep by 11″ wide by 1. 8″ high and weighing 5.1 lbs. Apple followed-up with PowerBook Duo series in October 1992, which reduced their subnotebook line to 8. 5″ deep by 10. 9″ wide by 1. Another early subnotebook was the Hewlett-Packard OmniBook 300, which was launched as a superportable in 1993. It measured 1.4 ×6.4 ×11.1 inches, the version with an 8. 4″ monochrome screen measured just 1.7 ×7.9 ×9.8 inches and weighed 1.8 kg. Toshiba also introduced the T3400CT at this time which was the first subnotebook with a color screen, then Toshiba really put the subnotebook PC format on the map in 1995 with the Libretto 20. This featured a 6. 1″ screen and 270 MB hard disk, cNet reported about the Libretto 50CT that is the first full-fledged Windows 95 notebook in the United States weighing less than two pounds. In 1997, Apple launched the relatively light-weight but short-lived PowerBook 2400c and this was co-designed by IBM and made for Apple by IBM Japan to replace the aging PowerBook Duo line. However, it measured 1.9 ×8.5 ×10.5 inches, IBM had sold thin and light models in its ThinkPad range, such as the ThinkPad 560 ultraportable and best-selling ThinkPad 600. It finally entered the market in 1999 with the 1.3 kg ThinkPad 240
12.
Jerome Bruner
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Jerome Seymour Bruner was an American psychologist who made significant contributions to human cognitive psychology and cognitive learning theory in educational psychology. Bruner was a research fellow at the New York University School of Law. He received a B. A. in 1937 from Duke University, a Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Bruner as the 28th most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Bruner was born blind on October 1,1915 in New York City, to Herman and Rose Bruner, an operation at age 2 restored his vision. He received a degree in psychology, in 1937 from Duke. In 1939, Bruner published his first psychological article on the effect of thymus extract on the behavior of the female rat. In 1945 Bruner returned to Harvard as a professor and was heavily involved in research relating to cognitive psychology. In 1970 Bruner left Harvard to teach at the University of Oxford in the United Kingdom and he returned to the United States in 1980 to continue his research in developmental psychology. In 1991 Bruner joined the faculty at New York University, as an adjunct professor at NYU School of Law, Bruner studied how psychology affects legal practice. He turned 100 in October 2015 and died on June 5,2016, Bruner is one of the pioneers of cognitive psychology in the United States, which began through his own early research on sensation and perception as being active, rather than passive processes. Similarly, another study conducted by Bruner and Leo Postman showed slower reaction times, after these experiments on perception, Bruner turned his attention to the actual cognitions that he had indirectly studied in his perception studies. In 1956 Bruner published the book A Study of Thinking, which initiated the study of cognitive psychology. Soon afterwards Bruner helped found the Harvard Center of Cognitive Studies, after a time, Bruner began to research other topics in psychology, but in 1990 he returned to the subject and gave a series of lectures, later compiled into the book Acts of Meaning. In these lectures, Bruner refuted the computer model for studying the mind, advocating a holistic understanding of the mind. Beginning around 1967 Bruner turned his attention to the subject of developmental psychology and he coined the term scaffolding to describe the way children often build on the information they have already mastered. In his research on the development of children Bruner proposed three modes of representation, enactive representation, iconic representation, and symbolic representation, rather than neatly delineated stages, the modes of representation are integrated and only loosely sequential as they translate into each other. Symbolic representation remains the ultimate mode, for it is clearly the most mysterious of the three, Bruners theory suggests it is efficacious, when faced with new material, to follow a progression from enactive to iconic to symbolic representation, this holds true even for adult learners. Like Blooms Taxonomy, Bruner suggests a system of coding in which form a hierarchical arrangement of related categories
13.
Seymour Papert
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Seymour Aubrey Papert was a South African-born American mathematician, computer scientist, and educator, who spent most of his career teaching and researching at MIT. He was one of the pioneers of artificial intelligence, and of the constructionist movement in education and he was co-inventor, with Wally Feurzeig and Cynthia Solomon, of the Logo programming language. Papert attended the University of the Witwatersrand, receiving a Bachelor of Arts degree in philosophy in 1949 followed by a PhD in mathematics in 1952 and he then went on to receive a second doctorate, also in mathematics, at the University of Cambridge, supervised by Frank Smithies. At MIT, Papert went on to create the Epistemology and Learning Research Group at the MIT Architecture Machine Group which later became the MIT Media Lab. Here, he was the developer of a theory on learning called constructionism, Papert had worked with Piaget at the University of Geneva from 1958 to 1963 and was one of Piagets protégés, Piaget himself once said that no one understands my ideas as well as Papert. Papert has rethought how schools should work, based on theories of learning. Papert used Piagets work in his development of the Logo programming language while at MIT and he created Logo as a tool to improve the way children think and solve problems. A small mobile robot called the Logo Turtle was developed, a main purpose of the Logo Foundation research group is to strengthen the ability to learn knowledge. Papert insisted a simple language or program that children can learn—like Logo—can also have advanced functionality for expert users. Counter-free automata,1971, ISBN 0-262-13076-9 Perceptrons, MIT Press,1969, ISBN 0-262-63111-3 Mindstorms, Children, Computers, Constructionism, research reports and essays 1985 -1990 by the Epistemology and Learning Research Group, the Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Ablex Pub. He was one of the principals for the One Laptop Per Child initiative to manufacture, Papert also collaborated with the construction toy manufacturer Lego on their Logo-programmable Lego Mindstorms robotics kits, which were named after his groundbreaking 1980 book. He was a figure in the revolutionary socialist circle around Socialist Review while living in London in the 1950s. Papert was also a prominent activist against South African apartheid policies during his university education, Papert was married to Dona Strauss, and later to Androula Christofides Henriques. Paperts third wife was MIT professor Sherry Turkle, and together wrote the influential paper Epistemological Pluralism. In his final 24 years, Papert was married to Suzanne Massie and he was moved to a hospital closer to his home in January 2007, but then contracted septicemia which damaged a heart valve, which was later replaced. By 2008 he had returned home, could think and communicate clearly and walk almost unaided and his rehabilitation team used some of the very principles of experiential, hands-on learning that he had pioneered. Papert died at his home in Blue Hill, Maine, on July 31,2016, paperts work has been used by other researchers in the fields of education and computer science. In 1981, Papert along with others in the Logo group at MIT
14.
Jean Piaget
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Jean Piaget was a Swiss clinical psychologist known for his pioneering work in child development. Piagets theory of development and epistemological view are together called genetic epistemology. Piaget placed great importance on the education of children, as the Director of the International Bureau of Education, he declared in 1934 that only education is capable of saving our societies from possible collapse, whether violent, or gradual. Piagets theory and research influenced several people and his theory of child development is studied in pre-service education programs. Educators continue to incorporate constructionist-based strategies, Piaget created the International Center for Genetic Epistemology in Geneva in 1955 while on the faculty of the University of Geneva and directed the Center until his death in 1980. The number of collaborations that its founding made possible, and their impact, according to Ernst von Glasersfeld, Jean Piaget was the great pioneer of the constructivist theory of knowing. However, his ideas did not become widely popularized until the 1960s and this then led to the emergence of the study of development as a major sub-discipline in psychology. By the end of the 20th century, Piaget was second only to B. F. Skinner as the most cited psychologist of that era, Piaget was born in Neuchâtel, in the Francophone region of Switzerland. He was the oldest son of Arthur Piaget, a professor of literature at the University of Neuchâtel. Piaget was a child who developed an interest in biology. His early interest in zoology earned him a reputation among those in the field after he had published articles on mollusks by the age of 15. He was educated at the University of Neuchâtel, and studied briefly at the University of Zürich, during this time, he published two philosophical papers that showed the direction of his thinking at the time, but which he later dismissed as adolescent thought. His interest in psychoanalysis, at the time a burgeoning strain of psychology, Piaget moved from Switzerland to Paris, France after his graduation and he taught at the Grange-Aux-Belles Street School for Boys. The school was run by Alfred Binet, the developer of the Binet intelligence Test and it was while he was helping to mark some of these tests that Piaget noticed that young children consistently gave wrong answers to certain questions. Piaget did not focus so much on the fact of the answers being wrong. This led him to the theory that young childrens cognitive processes are different from those of adults. Ultimately, he was to propose a theory of cognitive developmental stages in which individuals exhibit certain common patterns of cognition in each period of development. In 1921, Piaget returned to Switzerland as director of the Rousseau Institute in Geneva, at this time, the institute was directed by Édouard Claparède
15.
PARC (company)
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PARC, formerly Xerox PARC, is a research and development company in Palo Alto, California, with a distinguished reputation for its contributions to information technology and hardware systems. Xerox formed Palo Alto Research Center Incorporated as an owned subsidiary in 2002. Pake selected Palo Alto, California, as the site of what was to become known as PARC. S, the integration of Ethernet prompted the development of the PARC Universal Packet architecture, much like todays Internet. Xerox has been criticized for failing to properly commercialize and profitably exploit PARCs innovations. A favorite example is the user interface, initially developed at PARC for the Alto. Although very significant in terms of its influence on future system design, a small group from PARC led by David Liddle and Charles Irby formed Metaphor Computer Systems. They extended the Star desktop concept into a graphic and communicating office-automation model. Among PARCs distinguished researchers were three Turing Award winners, Butler W. Lampson, Alan Kay, and Charles P. Thacker. The Association for Computing Machinery Software System Award recognized the Alto system in 1984, Smalltalk in 1987, InterLisp in 1992, and the remote procedure call in 1994. Lampson, Kay, Bob Taylor, and Charles P. Thacker received the National Academy of Engineerings prestigious Charles Stark Draper Prize in 2004 for their work on the Alto, PARCs developments in information technology served for a long time as standards for much of the computing industry. Many advances were not equalled or surpassed for two decades, enormous timespans in the fast-paced high-tech world, a number of GUI engineers left to join Apple Computer. Work at PARC since the early 1980s includes advances in computing, aspect-oriented programming. Xerox Daybreak GlobalView Michael A. Hiltzik, Dealers of Lightning, Xerox PARC, alexander, Fumbling the Future, How Xerox Invented, Then Ignored, the First Personal Computer ISBN 1-58348-266-0 M. Mitchell Waldrop, The Dream Machine, J. C. R. Strassmann Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis Oral history interview with William Crowther Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis
16.
Xerox Alto
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The Xerox Alto was the first computer designed from its inception to support an operating system based on a graphical user interface, later using the desktop metaphor. The first machines were introduced on 1 March 1973, a decade before mass market GUI machines arose, the Alto uses a custom multi-chip central processing unit filling a small cabinet, and each machine cost tens of thousands of dollars despite its status as a personal computer. Only small numbers were initially, but by the late 1970s about 1,000 were in use at various Xerox labs. Total production was about 2,000 systems, the Alto became well known in Silicon Valley and its GUI was increasingly seen as the future of computing. In 1979, Steve Jobs arranged a deal in which Apple Computer would license the concepts from Xerox in exchange for Xerox being able to stock options in Apple. After two famous visits to see the Alto, Apple engineers used the concepts to introduce the Apple Lisa and Macintosh systems, Xerox eventually commercialized a heavily modified version of the Alto concepts as the Xerox Star, first introduced in 1981. A complete office system including several workstations, storage and a laser printer cost as much as $100,000, and like the Alto, the Star had little direct impact on the market. The Alto was conceived in 1972 in a written by Butler Lampson, inspired by the oN-Line System developed by Douglas Engelbart. It was designed mostly by Charles P. Thacker, due to the success of the pilot run, the team went on to produce approximately 2,000 units over the next ten years. Several Xerox Alto chassis are now on display at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California, for his pioneering design and realization of the Alto, Charles P. Thacker was awarded the 2009 Turing Award of the Association for Computing Machinery on March 9,2010. The 2004 Charles Stark Draper Prize was awarded to Thacker, Alan C, Kay, Butler Lampson, and Robert W. Taylor for their work on Alto. The following description is based mostly on the August 1976 Alto Hardware Manual by Xerox PARC, Alto uses a microcoded design but, unlike many computers, the microcode engine is not hidden from the programmer in a layered design. Applications such as Pinball take advantage of this to accelerate performance, mass storage is provided by a hard disk drive that uses a removable 2.5 MB one-platter cartridge similar to those used by the IBM2310. The base machine and one disk are housed in a cabinet about the size of a small refrigerator, Alto both blurred and ignored the lines between functional elements. The microcode machine supports up to 16 cooperative tasks, each with fixed priority, the emulator task executes the normal instruction set to which most applications are written. Others tasks serve the display, memory refresh, disk, network, ethernet is likewise supported by minimal hardware, with a shift register that acts bidirectionally to serialize output words and deserialize input words. Its speed was designed to be 3 Mbit/s because the engine could not go faster and continue to support the video display, disk activity. Unlike most minicomputers of the era, Alto does not support a serial terminal for user interface and its input devices are a custom detachable keyboard, a three-button mouse, and an optional 5-key chorded keyboard
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Graphical user interface
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GUIs were introduced in reaction to the perceived steep learning curve of command-line interfaces, which require commands to be typed on a computer keyboard. The actions in a GUI are usually performed through direct manipulation of the graphical elements, beyond computers, GUIs are used in many handheld mobile devices such as MP3 players, portable media players, gaming devices, smartphones and smaller household, office and industrial controls. Designing the visual composition and temporal behavior of a GUI is an important part of application programming in the area of human–computer interaction. Its goal is to enhance the efficiency and ease of use for the logical design of a stored program. Methods of user-centered design are used to ensure that the language introduced in the design is well-tailored to the tasks. The visible graphical interface features of an application are sometimes referred to as chrome or GUI, typically, users interact with information by manipulating visual widgets that allow for interactions appropriate to the kind of data they hold. The widgets of an interface are selected to support the actions necessary to achieve the goals of users. A model–view–controller allows a structure in which the interface is independent from and indirectly linked to application functions. This allows users to select or design a different skin at will, good user interface design relates to users more, and to system architecture less. Large widgets, such as windows, usually provide a frame or container for the main presentation content such as a web page, smaller ones usually act as a user-input tool. A GUI may be designed for the requirements of a market as application-specific graphical user interfaces. By the 1990s, cell phones and handheld game systems also employed application specific touchscreen GUIs, newer automobiles use GUIs in their navigation systems and multimedia centers, or navigation multimedia center combinations. Sample graphical desktop environments A GUI uses a combination of technologies and devices to provide a platform that users can interact with, a series of elements conforming a visual language have evolved to represent information stored in computers. This makes it easier for people with few computer skills to work with, the most common combination of such elements in GUIs is the windows, icons, menus, pointer paradigm, especially in personal computers. The WIMP style of interaction uses a virtual device to represent the position of a pointing device, most often a mouse. Available commands are compiled together in menus, and actions are performed making gestures with the pointing device, a window manager facilitates the interactions between windows, applications, and the windowing system. The windowing system handles hardware devices such as pointing devices, graphics hardware, window managers and other software combine to simulate the desktop environment with varying degrees of realism. Smaller mobile devices such as personal assistants and smartphones typically use the WIMP elements with different unifying metaphors, due to constraints in space
18.
Smalltalk
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Smalltalk is an object-oriented, dynamically typed, reflective programming language. Smalltalk was created as the language to underpin the new world of computing exemplified by human–computer symbiosis, the language was first generally released as Smalltalk-80. Smalltalk-like languages are in continuing development and have gathered loyal communities of users around them. ANSI Smalltalk was ratified in 1998 and represents the version of Smalltalk. There are a number of Smalltalk variants. The unqualified word Smalltalk is often used to indicate the Smalltalk-80 language, Smalltalk was the product of research led by Alan Kay at Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, Alan Kay designed most of the early Smalltalk versions, which Dan Ingalls implemented. A later variant actually used for work is now known as Smalltalk-72. Its syntax and execution model were very different from modern Smalltalk variants, after significant revisions which froze some aspects of execution semantics to gain performance, Smalltalk-76 was created. This system had a development environment featuring most of the now familiar tools, later a general availability implementation, known as Smalltalk-80 Version 2, was released as an image and a virtual machine specification. ANSI Smalltalk has been the standard language reference since 1998, two of the currently popular Smalltalk implementation variants are descendants of those original Smalltalk-80 images. Squeak is an open source implementation derived from Smalltalk-80 Version 1 by way of Apple Smalltalk, VisualWorks is derived from Smalltalk-80 version 2 by way of Smalltalk-802.5 and ObjectWorks. As an interesting link between generations, in 2001 Vassili Bykov implemented Hobbes, a machine running Smalltalk-80 inside VisualWorks. During the late 1980s to mid-1990s, Smalltalk environments—including support, training, ParcPlace Systems tended to focus on the Unix/Sun microsystems market, while Digitalk focused on Intel-based PCs running Microsoft Windows or IBMs OS/2. IBM initially supported the Digitalk product, but then entered the market with a Smalltalk product in 1995 called VisualAge/Smalltalk, easel introduced Enfin at this time on Windows and OS/2. Enfin became far more popular in Europe, as IBM introduced it into IT shops before their development of IBM Smalltalk, Enfin was later acquired by Cincom Systems, and is now sold under the name ObjectStudio, and is part of the Cincom Smalltalk product suite. In 1995, ParcPlace and Digitalk merged into ParcPlace-Digitalk and then rebranded in 1997 as ObjectShare, located in Irvine, ObjectShare was traded publicly until 1999, when it was delisted and dissolved. The merged firm never managed to find a response to Java as to market positioning. VisualWorks was sold to Cincom and is now part of Cincom Smalltalk, Cincom has backed Smalltalk strongly, releasing multiple new versions of VisualWorks and ObjectStudio each year since 1999
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Adele Goldberg (computer scientist)
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Goldberg was born in Cleveland, Ohio, and grew up in Chicago, Illinois. She received her bachelors degree in mathematics at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, and she received her PhD in information science from the University of Chicago in 1973. She completed her dissertation, Computer-Assisted Instruction, The Application of Theorem-proving to Adaptive Response Analysis and she also served as a visiting researcher at Stanford University. Not only was Smalltalks innovative format simpler to use, it was also customizable, Goldberg and Kay also were involved in the development of design templates, forerunners of the design patterns commonly used in software design. This paper outlined the vision for the Dynabook and she also received PC Magazines Lifetime Achievement Award in 1996. In 1994 she was inducted as a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery, many of the concepts developed by Goldberg and her team at PARC became the basis for graphically based user interfaces, replacing the earlier command line based systems. According to Goldberg, Steve Jobs demanded a demonstration of the Smalltalk System and her superiors eventually ordered her to, at which point she complied, satisfied that the decision to give away the kitchen sink to Jobs and his team was then their responsibility. Apple eventually used many of the ideas in the Alto and their implementations as the basis for their Apple Macintosh desktop environment, in 1988, Goldberg left PARC to co-found ParcPlace Systems, a company that created development tools for Smalltalk-based applications. She served as ParcPlace Systemss chairwoman and CEO until its 1995 merger with Digitalk and she cofounded, and is currently working at Neometron, Inc. an Internet support provider in 1999, of Palo Alto, California. At the same time, she continues to pursue her interest in education, formulating computer science courses at community colleges in the United States, in the same vein, she is a board member and adviser at Cognito Learning Media, a provider of multimedia software for science education. The Computer History Museum houses a collection of Goldbergs working documents, reports, publications and videotapes related to her work on the development of Smalltalk
20.
Squeak
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The Squeak programming language is a dialect of Smalltalk. It is object-oriented, class-based, and reflective and it was derived directly from Smalltalk-80 by a group at Apple Computer that included some of the original Smalltalk-80 developers. Its development was continued by the group at Walt Disney Imagineering. Later on the group moved on to be supported by HP labs, SAP Labs, programs produced on one platform run bit-identical on all other platforms, and versions are available for many platforms including the obvious Windows/macOS/linux versions. The Squeak system includes code for generating a new version of the machine on which it runs. It also includes a VM simulator written in Squeak, for these reasons, it is easily ported. Dan Ingalls, an important contributor to the Squeak project, wrote the paper upon which Squeak is built, Squeak incorporates many of the elements Alan Kay proposed in the Dynabook concept, which he formulated in the 1960s. Kay is an important contributor to the Squeak project, Squeak includes four user interface frameworks, An implementation of Morphic, Selfs graphical direct manipulation interface framework. Tile-based, limited visual programming scripting in Etoys, based on Morphic, a novel, experimental interface called Tweak. In 2001 it became clear that the Etoy architecture in Squeak had reached its limits in what the Morphic interface infrastructure could do, hewlett-Packard researcher Andreas Raab proposed defining a script process and providing a default scheduling-mechanism that avoids several more general problems. This resulted in a new interface, proposed to replace the Squeak Morphic user interface in the future. Tweak added mechanisms of islands, asynchronous messaging, players and costumes, language extensions, projects and its underlying object system is class-based, but to users, during programming, it acts like it is prototype-based. Tweak objects are created and run in Tweak project windows, a model–view–controller interface was the primary UI in Squeak versions 3.8 and earlier. It derived from the original Smalltalk-80 user interface framework which first introduced and popularized the MVC architectural pattern, MVC takes its name from the three core classes of the framework. Thus, the term MVC in the context of Squeak refers to one of the available user interface frameworks and the pattern the framework follows. MVC is still provided for programmers who wished to use this type of interface. Many Squeak contributors collaborate on Open Cobalt, a free and open source virtual world browser, Squeak is also used in the Nintendo ES operating system and for implementing the Scratch programming language for beginning programmers. In May 2011 the OpenQwaq virtual conferencing and collaboration system based on Squeak, originally, Apple actually released Squeak under a license called the Squeak License
21.
Open-source model
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Open-source software may be developed in a collaborative public manner. According to scientists who studied it, open-source software is a prominent example of open collaboration, a 2008 report by the Standish Group states that adoption of open-source software models has resulted in savings of about $60 billion per year to consumers. In the early days of computing, programmers and developers shared software in order to learn from each other, eventually the open source notion moved to the way side of commercialization of software in the years 1970-1980. In 1997, Eric Raymond published The Cathedral and the Bazaar and this source code subsequently became the basis behind SeaMonkey, Mozilla Firefox, Thunderbird and KompoZer. Netscapes act prompted Raymond and others to look into how to bring the Free Software Foundations free software ideas, the new term they chose was open source, which was soon adopted by Bruce Perens, publisher Tim OReilly, Linus Torvalds, and others. The Open Source Initiative was founded in February 1998 to encourage use of the new term, a Microsoft executive publicly stated in 2001 that open source is an intellectual property destroyer. I cant imagine something that could be worse than this for the software business, IBM, Oracle, Google and State Farm are just a few of the companies with a serious public stake in todays competitive open-source market. There has been a significant shift in the corporate philosophy concerning the development of FOSS, the free software movement was launched in 1983. In 1998, a group of individuals advocated that the free software should be replaced by open-source software as an expression which is less ambiguous. Software developers may want to publish their software with an open-source license, the Open Source Definition, notably, presents an open-source philosophy, and further defines the terms of usage, modification and redistribution of open-source software. Software licenses grant rights to users which would otherwise be reserved by law to the copyright holder. Several open-source software licenses have qualified within the boundaries of the Open Source Definition, the open source label came out of a strategy session held on April 7,1998 in Palo Alto in reaction to Netscapes January 1998 announcement of a source code release for Navigator. They used the opportunity before the release of Navigators source code to clarify a potential confusion caused by the ambiguity of the free in English. Many people claimed that the birth of the Internet, since 1969, started the open source movement, the Free Software Foundation, started in 1985, intended the word free to mean freedom to distribute and not freedom from cost. Since a great deal of free software already was free of charge, such software became associated with zero cost. The Open Source Initiative was formed in February 1998 by Eric Raymond and they sought to bring a higher profile to the practical benefits of freely available source code, and they wanted to bring major software businesses and other high-tech industries into open source. Perens attempted to open source as a service mark for the OSI. The Open Source Initiatives definition is recognized by governments internationally as the standard or de facto definition, OSI uses The Open Source Definition to determine whether it considers a software license open source
22.
One Laptop per Child
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Its primary goal continues to be to transform education, by enabling children in low-income countries to have access to content, media and computer-programming environments. This became the OLPC XO Laptop, a low-cost and low-power laptop computer, the project was originally funded by member organizations such as AMD, eBay, Google, Marvell Technology Group, News Corporation, Nortel. Chi Mei Corporation, Red Hat, and Quanta provided in-kind support, the OLPC project has been the subject of extensive praise and criticism. It has received criticism both specific to its mission, and criticism that is typical of such systems, such as support, ease-of-use, security, content-filtering. Officials in some countries have criticized the project for its appropriateness in terms of price, cultural emphasis and priority as compared to other basic needs of people in third-world settings. The OLPC program has its roots in the pedagogy of Seymour Papert, a known as constructionism. Papert, along with Nicholas Negroponte, were at the MIT Media Lab from its inception, Papert compared the old practice of putting computers in a computer lab to books chained to the walls in old libraries. Negroponte likened shared computers to shared pencils, however, this pattern seemed to be inevitable, given the then-high prices of computers. In 2005, Negroponte spoke at the World Economic Forum, in Davos and he brought a mock-up and was described as prowling the halls and corridors of Davos to whip up support. Despite the reported skepticism of Bill Gates and others, Negroponte left Davos with committed interest from AMD, News Corp, from the outset, it was clear that Negroponte thought that the key to reducing the cost of the laptop was to reduce the cost of the display. Convinced that the project was now possible, Negroponte led the creation of the first corporation for this, at the 2006 World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, the United Nations Development Program announced it would back the laptop. UNDP released a statement saying they would work with OLPC to deliver technology, in the first years of the project, the Association managed development and logistics, and the Foundation managed fundraising such as the Give One Get One campaign. Intel was a member of the association for a period in 2007. It resigned its membership on January 3,2008, citing disagreements with requests from OLPCs founder, Nicholas Negroponte, microsofts Windows XP, however, is not seen by some as a sustainable operating system. Microsoft announced that they would sell them Windows XP for $3 per XO and it would be offered as an option on XO-1 laptops and possibly be able to dual boot alongside Linux. No significant deployments elected to purchase Windows licenses, charles Kane became the new President and Chief Operating Officer of the OLPC Association on May 2,2008. In late 2008, the NYC Department of Education purchased some XO computers for use by New York schoolchildren, advertisements for OLPC began streaming on the video streaming website Hulu and others in 2008. One such ad has John Lennon advertising for OLPC, with a voice actor redubbing over Lennons voice
23.
Newsweek
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Newsweek is an American weekly news magazine founded in 1933. It was published in four English language editions and 12 global editions written in the language of the circulation region, between 2008 and 2012, Newsweek underwent internal and external contractions designed to shift the magazines focus and audience while improving its finances. Instead, losses accelerated, revenue dropped 38 percent from 2007 to 2009, in November 2010, Newsweek merged with the news and opinion website The Daily Beast, forming The Newsweek Daily Beast Company, after negotiations between the owners of the two publications. Tina Brown, The Daily Beasts editor-in-chief, served as the editor of both publications, Newsweek was jointly owned by the estate of the late Harman and the diversified American media and Internet company IAC. Newsweek ceased print publication with the December 31,2012, issue and transitioned to an all-digital format, IBT Media relaunched a print edition of Newsweek on March 7,2014. In 2003, worldwide circulation was more than 4 million, including 2.7 million in the U. S, Newsweek publishes editions in Japanese, Korean, Polish, Spanish, Rioplatense Spanish, Arabic, and Turkish, as well as an English language Newsweek International. Russian Newsweek, published since 2004, was shut in October 2010, the Bulletin incorporated an international news section from Newsweek. Based in New York City, the magazine claimed 22 bureaus in 2011, New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago/Detroit, Dallas, Miami, Washington, D. C. Boston and San Francisco, and others overseas in London, Paris, Berlin, Moscow, Jerusalem, Baghdad, Tokyo, Hong Kong, Beijing, South Asia, Cape Town, Mexico City and Buenos Aires. News-Week was launched in 1933 by Thomas J. C. Martyn and he obtained financial backing from a group of U. S. stockholders which included Ward Cheney, of the Cheney silk family, John Hay Whitney, and Paul Mellon, son of Andrew W. Mellon. Paul Mellons ownership in Newsweek apparently represented the first attempt of the Mellon family to function journalistically on a national scale, the group of original owners invested around $2.5 million. Other large stockholders prior to 1946 were public utilities investment banker Stanley Childs, journalist Samuel T. Williamson served as the first editor-in-chief of Newsweek. The first issue of the magazine was dated 17 February 1933, seven photographs from the weeks news were printed on the first issues cover. In 1937 News-Week merged with the weekly journal Today, which had founded in 1932 by future New York Governor and diplomat W. Averell Harriman. In 1937 Malcolm Muir took over as president and editor-in-chief and he changed the name to Newsweek, emphasized interpretive stories, introduced signed columns, and launched international editions. Over time the magazine developed a spectrum of material, from breaking stories and analysis to reviews. The magazine was purchased by The Washington Post Company in 1961, osborn Elliott was named editor of Newsweek in 1961 and became the editor in chief in 1969. The women won, and Newsweek agreed to allow women to be reporters, edward Kosner became editor from 1975 to 1979 after directing the magazine’s extensive coverage of the Watergate scandal that led to the resignation of President Richard Nixon in 1974
24.
Tom's Hardware
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Toms Hardware is an online publication owned by Purch Group and focused on technology. It was founded in 1996 by Thomas Pabst and it provides articles, news, price comparisons, videos and reviews on computer hardware and high technology. The site features coverage on CPUs, motherboards, RAM, graphics and displays, storage, Toms Hardware has a forum and featured blogs. A unique aspect of Toms Hardware is the Build Your Own section where readers can learn how to build their own computers and it is published in several languages. April 1996 – Website founded in the United States by the German medical doctor Thomas Pabst, august 1998 – The company publishes a hardware book in cooperation with Macmillan Publishers. March 1999 – Establishes testing lab in Pleasanton, California, United States, october 1999 – Set up of Toms Guides Publishing AG in Germany. June 2003 – Italian website goes live, april 2007 – TG Publishing, parent company of Toms Hardware, is acquired by the French company Bestofmedia Group. May 2007 – Toms Hardware and iRobot launch a contest for aspiring roboticists, september 2007 – Company rebrands TwitchGuru to Toms Games and Gear Digest to Toms Guide. February 2008 – Presence-PC become the French version of Toms Hardware, november 2008 – Toms Hardware launches first worldwide overclocking championship. August 2010 – AfterDawn launch Toms Hardware in Finland, july 2013 - Bestofmedia Group, the parent company of Toms Hardware, is acquired by TechMediaNetwork, Inc. April 2014 - TechMediaNetwork, the parent company of Toms Hardware, anandtech CNET The Tech Report List of Internet forums Official website
25.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
26.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
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