1.
Mobile computing
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Mobile computing is human–computer interaction by which a computer is expected to be transported during normal usage, which allows for transmission of data, voice and video. Mobile computing involves mobile communication, mobile hardware, and mobile software, communication issues include ad hoc networks and infrastructure networks as well as communication properties, protocols, data formats and concrete technologies. Hardware includes mobile devices or device components, Mobile software deals with the characteristics and requirements of mobile applications. Portability, Facilitates movement of device within the computing environment. Individuality, Adapting the technology to suit individual needs, or Portability, Devices/nodes connected within the mobile computing system should facilitate mobility. These devices may have limited device capabilities and limited power supply, connectivity, This defines the quality of service of the network connectivity. Interactivity, The nodes belonging to a computing system are connected with one another to communicate and collaborate through active transactions of data. Mobile phones including a key set primarily intended but not restricted to for vocal communications, as smartphones, cell phones, feature phones. The existence of these classes is expected to be long lasting and these networks are usually available within range of commercial cell phone towers. High speed network wireless LANs are inexpensive but have limited range. Security standards, When working mobile, one is dependent on public networks, security is a major concern while concerning the mobile computing standards on the fleet. One can easily attack the VPN through a number of networks interconnected through the line. Power consumption, When a power outlet or portable generator is not available, mobile computers must rely entirely on battery power, combined with the compact size of many mobile devices, this often means unusually expensive batteries must be used to obtain the necessary battery life. Transmission interferences, Weather, terrain, and the range from the nearest signal point can all interfere with signal reception, reception in tunnels, some buildings, and rural areas is often poor. Potential health hazards, People who use mobile devices while driving are often distracted from driving and are thus assumed more likely to be involved in traffic accidents, cell phones may interfere with sensitive medical devices. Questions concerning mobile phone radiation and health have been raised, human interface with device, Screens and keyboards tend to be small, which may make them hard to use. Alternate input methods such as speech or handwriting recognition require training, many commercial and government field forces deploy a rugged portable computer with their fleet of vehicles. This requires the units to be anchored to the vehicle for safety, device security
2.
E-book
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An electronic book is a book publication made available in digital form, consisting of text, images, or both, readable on the flat-panel display of computers or other electronic devices. Although sometimes defined as a version of a printed book. Commercially produced and sold e-books are usually intended to be read on dedicated e-reader devices, however, almost any sophisticated computer device that features a controllable viewing screen can also be used to read e-books, including desktop computers, laptops, tablets and smartphones. In the 2000s, there was a trend of print and e-book sales moving to the Internet, where readers buy traditional paper books and e-books on websites using e-commerce systems. With e-books, users can browse through online, and then when they select and order titles. At the start of 2012 in the U. S. more e-books were published online than were distributed in hardcover, the main reasons that people are buying e-books online are due to possibly lower prices, increased comfort and a larger selection of titles. With e-books, lectronic bookmarks make referencing easier, and e-book readers may allow the user to annotate pages, although fiction and non-fiction books come in e-book formats, technical material is especially suited for e-book delivery because it can be searched for keywords. In addition, for programming books, code examples can be copied, E-book reading is increasing in the U. S. by 2014, 28% of adults had read an e-book, compared to 23% in 2013. This is increasing, because by 2014 50% of American adults had an e-reader or a tablet, E-books are also referred to as ebooks, eBooks, e-Books, e-journals, e-editions or as digital books. The devices that are designed specifically for reading e-books are called e-readers, the idea of an e-reader that would enable a reader to view books on a screen came to Bob Brown after watching his first talkie. In 1930, he wrote a book on this idea and titled it The Readies, although Brown came up with the idea intellectually in the 1930s, early commercial e-readers did not follow his model. Schuessler relates it to a DJ spinning bits of old songs to create a beat or a new song as opposed to just a remix of a familiar song. The inventor of the first e-book is not widely agreed upon and her idea behind the device was to decrease the number of books that her pupils carried to school. The first e-book may be the Index Thomisticus, a heavily annotated electronic index to the works of Thomas Aquinas, prepared by Roberto Busa beginning in 1949, although originally stored on a single computer, a distributable CD-ROM version appeared in 1989. In 2005, the Index was published online, augment ran on specialized hardware, while FRESS ran on IBM mainframes. All these systems also provided extensive hyperlinking, graphics, and other capabilities, van Dam is generally thought to have coined the term electronic book, and it was established enough to use in an article title by 1985. FRESS was used for reading extensive primary texts online, as well as for annotation and online discussions in several courses, browns faculty made extensive use of FRESS, for example the philosopher Roderick Chisholm used it to produce several of his books. Thus in the Preface to Person and Object he writes The book would not have been completed without the epoch-making File Retrieval, despite the extensive earlier history, several publications report Michael S. Hart as the inventor of the e-book
3.
Amazon Kindle
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The Amazon Kindle is a series of e-readers designed and marketed by Amazon. com. Amazon Kindle devices enable users to browse, buy, download, all Kindle devices integrate with Kindle Store content and as of January 2017, the store has over five million e-books available in the US. Founder and CEO of Amazon. com Jeff Bezos commanded his deputies in 2004 to build the worlds best e-reader before Amazons competitors could, in reference to this e-reader, Amazon originally used the codename Fiona. The Kindle name was devised by branding consultants Michael Cronan and Karin Hibma, lab126 tasked them to name the product, so Cronan and Hibma suggested Kindle, meaning to light a fire. They felt this was an apt metaphor for reading and intellectual excitement, Kindle hardware has evolved from the original Kindle introduced in 2007 and the Kindle DX introduced in 2009. The range includes devices with a keyboard, devices with high resolution and contrast screens, a tablet with the Kindle app. Amazon has also introduced Kindle software for use on devices and platforms, including Microsoft Windows, iOS, BlackBerry, Mac OS X, Android, webOS. Amazon also has a reader to allow users to read. Content for the Kindle can be purchased online and downloaded wirelessly in some countries, through a service called Whispersync, customers can synchronize reading progress, bookmarks, and other information across Kindle hardware and other mobile devices. Amazon released the Kindle, its first e-reader, on November 19,2007 and it sold out in five and a half hours. The device remained out of stock for five months until late April 2008, the device features a 6 inches 4-level grayscale display, with 250 MB of internal storage, which can hold approximately 200 non-illustrated titles. It also has a speaker and a jack that allows the user to listen to audio files on Kindle. It is the only Kindle with expandable storage, via an SD card slot, the devices Whispernet feature was co-designed with Qualcomm, and Kindle was the first device to include free US-wide 3G access to download e-books from Amazons Kindle Store. Amazon did not sell the first generation Kindle outside the US, on February 10,2009, Amazon announced the Kindle 2, the second generation Kindle. It became available for purchase on February 23,2009, the Kindle 2 features a text-to-speech option to read the text aloud, and 2 GB of internal memory of which 1.4 GB is user-accessible. By Amazons estimates, the Kindle 2 can hold about 1,500 non-illustrated books, unlike the first generation Kindle, Kindle 2 does not have a slot for SD memory cards. It was slimmer than the original Kindle, the Kindle 2 features a Freescale 532 MHz, ARM-1190 nm processor,32 MB main memory,2 GB flash memory and a 3.7 V1,530 mAh lithium polymer battery. To promote the Kindle 2, in February 2009 author Stephen King made UR, his then-new novella, on July 8,2009, Amazon reduced price of the Kindle 2 from $359 to $299
4.
Tablet computer
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Tablets often come equipped with sensors, including digital cameras, a microphone, and an accelerometer so images on screens are always displayed upright. The touchscreen display uses the recognition of finger or stylus gestures to replace the mouse, trackpad, tablets are typically larger than smartphones or personal digital assistants with screens 7 inches or larger, measured diagonally. However much of a tablets functionality resembles that of a modern smartphone, tablets can be classified according to the presence and physical appearance of keyboards. Slates and booklets do not have a keyboard, and usually accept text. Hybrids, convertibles, and 2-in-1s do have physical keyboards, yet they also make use of virtual keyboards. Some 2-in-1s have processors and operating systems like a full laptop, most tablets can use separate keyboards connected using Bluetooth. The format was conceptualized in the century and prototyped and developed in the last two decades of that century. In April 2010, Apple released the iPad, the first mass-market tablet to achieve widespread popularity, thereafter in the 2010s, tablets rapidly rose in ubiquity and became a large product category used for both personal and workplace applications. The tablet computer and its operating system began with the development of pen computing. Throughout the 20th century devices with these characteristics have been imagined and created whether as blueprints, prototypes, a device more powerful than todays tablets appeared briefly in Jerry Pournelle and Larry Nivens The Mote in Gods Eye. Adults could also use a Dynabook, but the audience was children. In 1992, Atari showed developers the Stylus, later renamed ST-Pad, the ST-Pad was based on the TOS/GEM Atari ST Platform and prototyped early handwriting recognition. Shiraz Shivjis company Momentus demonstrated in the time a failed x86 MS-DOS based Pen Computer with its own GUI. In 1994, the European Union initiated the NewsPad project, inspired by Clarke, Acorn Computers developed and delivered an ARM-based touch screen tablet computer for this program, branding it the NewsPad, the project ended in 1997. During the November 2000 COMDEX, Microsoft used the term Tablet PC to describe a prototype handheld device they were demonstrating, all three products were based on extended versions of the MS-DOS operating system. In 1992, IBM announced and shipped to developers the 2521 ThinkPad, also based on PenPoint was AT&Ts EO Personal Communicator from 1993, which ran on AT&Ts own hardware, including their own AT&T Hobbit CPU. Apple Computer launched the Apple Newton personal digital assistant in 1993 and it utilised Apples own new Newton OS, initially running on hardware manufactured by Motorola and incorporating an ARM CPU, that Apple had specifically co-developed with Acorn Computers. The operating system and platform design were later licensed to Sharp and Digital Ocean, in 1996, Palm, Inc. released the first of the Palm OS based PalmPilot touch and stylus based PDA, the touch based devices initially incorporating a Motorola Dragonball CPU
5.
Laptop
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Laptops are folded shut for transportation, and thus are suitable for mobile use. Although originally there was a distinction between laptops and notebooks, the former being bigger and heavier than the latter, as of 2014, there is often no longer any difference. Laptops are commonly used in a variety of settings, such as at work, in education, Internet surfing using sites such as YouTube and for personal multimedia, most 2016-era laptops also have integrated webcams and built-in microphones. Laptops can be powered either from a battery or by an external power supply from an AC adapter. Hardware specifications, such as the speed and memory capacity. Design elements, form factor, and construction can also vary significantly between models depending on intended use, as portable computers evolved into the modern laptop, they became widely used for a variety of purposes. The terms laptop and notebook are used interchangeably to describe a computer in English. Regardless of the etymology, by the late 1990s, the terms were interchangeable, as the personal computer became feasible in 1971, the idea of a portable personal computer soon followed. A personal, portable information manipulator was imagined by Alan Kay at Xerox PARC in 1968, the IBM Special Computer APL Machine Portable was demonstrated in 1973. This prototype was based on the IBM PALM processor, the IBM5100, the first commercially available portable computer, appeared in September 1975, and was based on the SCAMP prototype. As 8-bit CPU machines became widely accepted, the number of portables increased rapidly, the Osborne 1, released in 1981, used the Zilog Z80 and weighed 23.6 pounds. It had no battery, a 5 in CRT screen, in the same year the first laptop-sized portable computer, the Epson HX-20, was announced. The Epson had an LCD screen, a battery. Both Tandy/RadioShack and HP also produced portable computers of varying designs during this period, the first laptops using the flip form factor appeared in the early 1980s. The Dulmont Magnum was released in Australia in 1981–82, but was not marketed internationally until 1984–85, the US$8,150 GRiD Compass 1101, released in 1982, was used at NASA and by the military, among others. The Sharp PC-5000, Ampere and Gavilan SC released in 1983, the Gavilan SC was the first computer described as a laptop by its manufacturer, while the Ampere had a modern clamshell design. The Toshiba T1100 won acceptance not only among PC experts but the market as a way to have PC portability. From 1983 onward, several new techniques were developed and included in laptops, including the touchpad, the pointing stick
6.
Electronic paper
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Electronic paper and e-paper are display devices that mimic the appearance of ordinary ink on paper. Unlike conventional backlit flat panel displays that light, electronic paper displays reflect light like paper. This may make them comfortable to read, and provide a wider viewing angle than most light-emitting displays. The contrast ratio in electronic displays available as of 2008 approaches newspaper, an ideal e-paper display can be read in direct sunlight without the image appearing to fade. Many electronic paper technologies hold static text and images indefinitely without electricity, flexible electronic paper uses plastic substrates and plastic electronics for the display backplane. There is ongoing competition among manufacturers to provide full-color ability, Electronic paper was first developed in the 1970s by Nick Sheridon at Xeroxs Palo Alto Research Center. The first electronic paper, called Gyricon, consisted of polyethylene spheres between 75 and 106 micrometers across, each sphere is a janus particle composed of negatively charged black plastic on one side and positively charged white plastic on the other. The spheres are embedded in a transparent silicone sheet, with each sphere suspended in a bubble of oil so that they can rotate freely. The polarity of the applied to each pair of electrodes then determines whether the white or black side is face-up. At the FPD2008 exhibition, Japanese company Soken demonstrated a wall with electronic wall-paper using this technology, in the simplest implementation of an electrophoretic display, titanium dioxide particles approximately one micrometer in diameter are dispersed in a hydrocarbon oil. A dark-colored dye is added to the oil, along with surfactants. This mixture is placed between two parallel, conductive plates separated by a gap of 10 to 100 micrometres, when a voltage is applied across the two plates, the particles migrate electrophoretically to the plate that bears the opposite charge from that on the particles. When the particles are located at the front side of the display, it appears white, when the particles are located at the rear side of the display, it appears dark, because the incident light is absorbed by the colored dye. Electrophoretic displays are considered examples of the electronic paper category, because of their paper-like appearance. These displays are constructed from an electrophoretic imaging film manufactured by E Ink Corporation, a mobile phone that used the technology is the Motorola Fone. Electrophoretic Display technology has also developed by Sipix and Bridgestone/Delta. SiPix is now part of E Ink, the Sipix design uses a flexible 0. 15mm Microcup architecture, instead of E Inks 0. 04mm diameter microcapsules. Bridgestone Corp. s Advanced Materials Division cooperated with Delta Optoelectronics Inc. in developing the Quick Response Liquid Powder Display technology, an electrophoretic display forms images by rearranging charged pigment particles with an applied electric field
7.
Sony Reader
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The Sony Reader was a line of e-book readers manufactured by Sony, who invented the first commercial E Ink e-reader with the Sony Librie in 2004. It used an electronic paper display developed by E Ink Corporation, was viewable in direct sunlight, required no power to maintain a static image, and was usable in portrait or landscape orientation. Sony sold e-books for the Reader from the Sony eBook Library in the US, UK, Japan, Germany, Austria, Canada and was reported to be coming to France, Italy and Spain starting in early 2012. The Reader also could display Adobe PDFs, ePub format, RSS newsfeeds, JPEGs, some Readers could play MP3 and unencrypted AAC audio files. Compatibility with Adobe digital rights management protected PDF and ePub files allowed Sony Reader owners to borrow ebooks from lending libraries in many countries. The DRM rules of the Reader allowed any purchased e-book to be read on up to six devices, although the owner could not share purchased eBooks on others devices and accounts, the ability to register five Readers to a single account and share books accordingly was a possible workaround. On August 1,2014, Sony announced that it would not make another consumer e-reader, in late 2014, Sony released the Sony Digital Paper DPTS1 that is only aimed at professional business users that only view PDFs and it has a stylus for making notes. The PRS-500 was made available in the United States in September 2006, on 1 November 2006, Readers went on display and for sale at Borders bookstores throughout the US. Borders had a contract for the Reader until the end of 2006. From April 2007, Sony Reader has been sold in the US by multiple merchants, including Frys Electronics, Costco, Borders, the eBook Store from Sony is only available to US or Canadian residents or to customers who purchased a US-model reader with bundled eBook Store credit. On July 24,2007, Sony announced that the PRS-505 Reader would be available in the UK with a date of September 3,2008. Waterstones is the retail partner and the Reader is available at selected stores such as Argos, Sony Centres and Dixons. On October 2,2008 the PRS-700, with touch screen, on August 5,2009 Sony announced two new readers, the budget PRS-300 Pocket Edition and the more advanced PRS-600 Touch Edition. On August 25,2009 Sony announced the Reader PRS-900 Daily Edition and this features a 7 diagonal screen to compete with the Amazon Kindle DX. Its also the first to feature free 3G wireless through AT&T to access the Sony eBookstore without the need of a computer, the launch of the new models also represented the introduction of the Sony Reader into the Australian and New Zealand markets for the first time. On August 31,2011, Sony announced a new reader replacing all of their previous models, on August 16,2012, Sony announced the PRS-T1 successor, the PRS-T2. On September 4,2013, Sony announced the PRS-T2 successor, unlike previous Sony reader models, the T3 is not sold in the US, and Sony has abandoned the North American market due to competition from Amazon, B&N and Kobo. On February 6,2014, Sony announced that it was closing its North American, Europe, on August 1,2014, Sony announced that it would not release another ereader but would keep selling its remaining stock
8.
Internet
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The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
9.
Wi-Fi
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Wi-Fi or WiFi is a technology for wireless local area networking with devices based on the IEEE802.11 standards. Wi-Fi is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance, which restricts the use of the term Wi-Fi Certified to products that successfully complete interoperability certification testing. Devices that can use Wi-Fi technology include personal computers, video-game consoles, smartphones, digital cameras, tablet computers, digital audio players, Wi-Fi compatible devices can connect to the Internet via a WLAN network and a wireless access point. Such an access point has a range of about 20 meters indoors, hotspot coverage can be as small as a single room with walls that block radio waves, or as large as many square kilometres achieved by using multiple overlapping access points. Wi-Fi most commonly uses the 2.4 gigahertz UHF and 5 gigahertz SHF ISM radio bands, having no physical connections, it is more vulnerable to attack than wired connections, such as Ethernet. In 1971, ALOHAnet connected the Hawaiian Islands with a UHF wireless packet network, ALOHAnet and the ALOHA protocol were early forerunners to Ethernet, and later the IEEE802.11 protocols, respectively. A1985 ruling by the U. S. Federal Communications Commission released the ISM band for unlicensed use and these frequency bands are the same ones used by equipment such as microwave ovens and are subject to interference. In 1991, NCR Corporation with AT&T Corporation invented the precursor to 802.11, the first wireless products were under the name WaveLAN. They are the credited with inventing Wi-Fi. In 1992 and 1996, CSIRO obtained patents for a method used in Wi-Fi to unsmear the signal. The first version of the 802.11 protocol was released in 1997 and this was updated in 1999 with 802. 11b to permit 11 Mbit/s link speeds, and this proved to be popular. In 1999, the Wi-Fi Alliance formed as an association to hold the Wi-Fi trademark under which most products are sold. Wi-Fi uses a number of patents held by many different organizations. In April 2009,14 technology companies agreed to pay CSIRO $1 billion for infringements on CSIRO patents and this led to Australia labeling Wi-Fi as an Australian invention, though this has been the subject of some controversy. In 2016, the local area network Test Bed was chosen as Australias contribution to the exhibition A History of the World in 100 Objects held in the National Museum of Australia. The name Wi-Fi, commercially used at least as early as August 1999, was coined by the brand-consulting firm Interbrand, the Wi-Fi Alliance had hired Interbrand to create a name that was a little catchier than IEEE802. 11b Direct Sequence. Phil Belanger, a member of the Wi-Fi Alliance who presided over the selection of the name Wi-Fi, has stated that Interbrand invented Wi-Fi as a pun upon the word hi-fi. Interbrand also created the Wi-Fi logo, the yin-yang Wi-Fi logo indicates the certification of a product for interoperability
10.
Memory card
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A memory card, flash card or memory cartridge is an electronic flash memory data storage device used for storing digital information. PC Cards were the first commercial memory card formats to come out, since 1994, a number of memory card formats smaller than the PC Card arrived, the first one was CompactFlash later SmartMedia and Miniature Card. The desire for smaller cards for cell-phones, PDAs, and compact digital cameras drove a trend that left the previous generation of compact cards looking big, in digital cameras SmartMedia and CompactFlash had been very successful. In 2001, SM alone captured 50% of the camera market. By 2005 however, SD/MMC had nearly taken over SmartMedias spot, though not to the level and with stiff competition coming from Memory Stick variants. In industrial and embedded fields, even the venerable PC card memory cards still manage to maintain a niche, while in mobile phones and PDAs, since 2010, new products of Sony and Olympus have been offered with an additional SD-Card slot. Effectively the format war has turned in SD-Cards favor, PCMCIA ATA Type I Card PCMCIA Type II, Type III cards CompactFlash Card, CompactFlash High-Speed CompactFlash Type II, CF+, CF3. MU-Flash C-Flash SIM card Smart card UFC FISH Universal Transportable Memory Card Standard Intelligent Stick SxS memory card, SxS complies to the ExpressCard industry standard. Nexflash Winbond Serial Flash Module cards, size range 1 mb,2 mb and 4 mb, many older video game consoles used memory cards to hold saved game data. Cartridge-based systems primarily used battery-backed volatile RAM within each individual cartridge to hold saves for that game, cartridges without this RAM may have used a password system, or wouldnt save progress at all. The Neo Geo AES, released in 1990 by SNK, was the first video game console able to use a memory card, AES memory cards were also compatible with Neo-Geo MVS arcade cabinets, allowing players to migrate saves between home and arcade systems and vice versa. Memory cards became commonplace when home consoles moved to read-only optical discs for storing the game program, until the sixth generation of video game consoles, memory cards were based on proprietary formats, later systems have used established industry hardware formats for memory cards, such as FAT32. Comparison of memory cards Hot swapping
11.
Microform
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Microforms are any forms, either films or paper, containing microreproductions of documents for transmission, storage, reading, and printing. Microform images are commonly reduced to about one twenty-fifth of the original document size, for special purposes, greater optical reductions may be used. All microform images may be provided as positives or negatives, more often the latter, three formats are common, microfilm, aperture cards and microfiche. Microcards, a no longer produced, were similar to microfiche. Using the daguerreotype process, John Benjamin Dancer was one of the first to produce microphotographs and he achieved a reduction ratio of 160,1. The idea that microphotography could be no more than a novelty was an opinion shared by the 1858 Dictionary of Photography, microphotography was first suggested as a document preservation method in 1851 by James Glaisher, an astronomer, and in 1853 by John Herschel. Both men attended the 1851 Great Exhibition in London, where the exhibit on photography greatly influenced Glaisher and he called it the most remarkable discovery of modern times, and argued in his official report for using microphotography to preserve documents. The developments in microphotography continued through the decades, but it was not until the turn of the century that its potential for practical usage was seized by a wider audience. In 1896, Canadian engineer Reginald A. Fessenden suggested microforms were a solution to engineers unwieldy. He proposed that up to 150,000,000 words could be made to fit in an inch. In 1906, Paul Otlet and Robert Goldschmidt proposed the livre microphotographique as a way to alleviate the cost, in 1925, the team spoke of a massive library where each volume existed as master negatives and positives, and where items were printed on demand for interested patrons. In the 1920s microfilm began to be used in a commercial setting, New York City banker George McCarthy was issued a patent in 1925 for his Checkograph machine, designed to make micrographic copies of cancelled checks for permanent storage by financial institutions. In 1928, the Eastman Kodak Company bought McCarthys invention and began marketing check microfilming devices under its Recordak division, binkley, which looked closely at microform’s potential to serve small print runs of academic or technical materials. In 1935, Kodaks Recordak division began filming and publishing The New York Times on reels of 35 millimeter microfilm and this method of information storage received the sanction of the American Library Association at its annual meeting in 1936, when it officially endorsed microforms. Roll microfilm proved far more satisfactory as a medium than earlier methods of film information storage, such as the Photoscope, the Film-O-Graph, the Fiske-O-Scope. The year 1938 also saw another major event in the history of microfilm when University Microfilms International was established by Eugene Power, for the next half century, UMI would dominate the field, filming and distributing microfilm editions of current and past publications and academic dissertations. After another short-lived name change, UMI was made a part of ProQuest Information, systems that mount microfilm images in punched cards have been widely used for archival storage of engineering information. This permits automated reproduction, as well as permitting mechanical card-sorting equipment to sort, aperture card mounted microfilm is roughly 3% of the size and space of conventional paper or vellum engineering drawings
12.
Amazon (company)
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Amazon. com, also called Amazon, is an American electronic commerce and cloud computing company that was founded on July 5,1994, by Jeff Bezos and is based in Seattle, Washington. It is the largest Internet-based retailer in the world by total sales, the company also produces consumer electronics—notably, Kindle e-readers, Fire tablets, Fire TV, and Echo—and is the worlds largest provider of cloud infrastructure services. Amazon also sells certain low-end products like USB cables under its in-house brand AmazonBasics. Amazon has separate retail websites for the United States, the United Kingdom, Ireland, France, Canada, Germany, Italy, Spain, Netherlands, Australia, Brazil, Japan, China, India, and Mexico. Amazon also offers international shipping to other countries for some of its products. In 2016, Dutch, Polish, and Turkish language versions of the German Amazon website were launched. In 2015, Amazon surpassed Walmart as the most valuable retailer in the United States by market capitalization, in 1994, Bezos left his employment as vice-president of D. E. Shaw & Co. a Wall Street firm and moved to Seattle. He began to work on a plan for what would eventually become Amazon. com. Bezos incorporated the company as Cadabra on July 5,1994, Bezos changed the name to Amazon a year later after a lawyer misheard its original name as cadaver. In September 1994, Bezos purchased the URL Relentless. com and briefly considered naming his online store Relentless, the domain is still owned by Bezos and still redirects to the retailer. The company went online as Amazon. com in 1995, Bezos placed a premium on his head start in building a brand, telling a reporter, Theres nothing about our model that cant be copied over time. But you know, McDonalds got copied, and it still built a huge, multibillion-dollar company. A lot of it comes down to the brand name, brand names are more important online than they are in the physical world. Additionally, a beginning with A was preferential due to the probability it would occur at the top of any list that was alphabetized. Since June 19,2000, Amazons logotype has featured a curved arrow leading from A to Z, representing that the company carries every product from A to Z, with the arrow shaped like a smile. After reading a report about the future of the Internet that projected annual Web commerce growth at 2, 300% and he narrowed the list to what he felt were the five most promising products, which included, compact discs, computer hardware, computer software, videos and books. Amazon was founded in the garage of Bezos home in Bellevue, the company began as an online bookstore, an idea spurred off with discussion with John Ingram of Ingram Book, along with Keyur Patel who still holds a stake in Amazon. Amazon was able to access books at wholesale from Ingram, in the first two months of business, Amazon sold to all 50 states and over 45 countries
Media related to E-book readers at Wikimedia Commons
