1.
Monosodium glutamate
–
Monosodium glutamate is the sodium salt of glutamic acid, one of the most abundant naturally occurring non-essential amino acids. Monosodium glutamate is found naturally in tomatoes, cheese and other foods and it was first prepared in 1908 by Japanese biochemist Kikunae Ikeda, who was trying to isolate and duplicate the savory taste of kombu, an edible seaweed used as a base for many Japanese soups. MSG as a flavor enhancer balances, blends, and rounds the perception of other tastes, the U. S. Food and Drug Administration has given MSG its generally recognized as safe designation. The European Union classifies it as a food additive permitted in certain foods, MSG has the HS code 29224220 and the E number E621. Pure MSG is reported not to have a pleasant taste until it is combined with a savory aroma, the basic sensory function of MSG is attributed to its ability to enhance savory taste-active compounds when added in the proper concentration. The optimum concentration varies by food, in soup, the pleasure score rapidly falls with the addition of more than one gram of MSG per 100 mL. The sodium content of MSG, 12%, is about one-third of that in sodium chloride, although other salts of glutamate have been used in low-salt soups, they are less palatable than MSG. A popular belief is that MSG can cause headaches and other feelings of discomfort, MSG has been used for more than 100 years to season food, with a number of studies conducted on its safety. Consumption and manufacture of high-salt and high-glutamate foods, which contain sodium and glutamate, stretch back far longer, with evidence of cheese manufacture as early as 5,500 BC. International and national bodies governing food additives currently consider MSG safe for consumption as a flavor enhancer. Under normal conditions, humans can metabolize relatively large quantities of glutamate, the median lethal dose is between 15 and 18 g/kg body weight in rats and mice, respectively, five times greater than the LD50 of salt. The use of MSG as an additive and the natural level of glutamic acid in foods are not toxicological concerns in humans. According to the report, no support the role of glutamate in chronic disease. A controlled, double-blind, multiple-location clinical trial failed to demonstrate a relationship between the MSG symptom complex and actual MSG consumption, no statistical association has been demonstrated, and the few responses were inconsistent. No symptoms were observed when MSG was administered with food, adequately controlling for experimental bias includes a double-blind, placebo-controlled experimental design and administration by capsule, because of the unique aftertaste of glutamates. In a study by Tarasoff and Kelly,71 fasting participants were given 5 g of MSG, a study by Geha et al. tested the reaction of 130 subjects with a reported sensitivity to MSG. Multiple DBPC trials were performed, with subjects exhibiting at least two symptoms continuing, two people out of the 130 responded to all four challenges. Because of the low prevalence, the researchers concluded that a response to MSG was not reproducible, studies exploring MSGs role in obesity have yielded mixed results
Monosodium glutamate
Monosodium glutamate
2.
European Union
–
The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
European Union
–
In 1989, the
Iron Curtain fell, enabling the union to
expand further (
Berlin Wall pictured).
European Union
–
Flag
European Union
–
2009, the
Lisbon Treaty entered into force.
European Union
–
The 65,993 km (41,006 mi) coastline dominates the European climate (
Cyprus).
3.
Food label
–
The nutrition facts label is a label required on most packaged food in many countries. Most countries also release overall nutrition guides for general educational purposes, in some cases, the guides are based on different dietary targets for various nutrients than the labels on specific foods. Australia and New Zealand use an information panel of the following format, Other items are included as appropriate. In April 2013 the New Zealand government introduced rules around common claims made on food packaging, in Canada, a standardized Nutrition Facts label was introduced as part of regulations passed in 2003, and became mandatory for most prepackaged food products on December 12,2005. In accordance with food packaging laws in the country, all information, including the nutrition label, canadian regulation tightly controls the manner in which the nutrition fact table data are laid out. There is a variety of possible formats for use on a given food package. A selection hierarchy is used to select among the many formats and this results in standard formats being considered for use before horizontal and linear formats. The selection hierarchy also allows the NFT to occupy no more than 15% of the packages available display area. In practice, determining the ADS of a package, and selecting the appropriate NFT format, a new regulation is now in force. Nutritional labelling becomes mandatory for most pre-packaged foods as from December 2016, in the European Union, along the old rules, the information is most often labelled Nutrition Information. An example is shown on the right, the panel is optional, but if provided, the prescribed content and format must be followed. It will always give values for a set quantity —100 g or 100 ml of the product — and often also for a defined serving, first will come the energy values, in both kilocalories and kilojoules. Then will come a breakdown of constituent elements, usually most or all of protein, carbohydrate, starch, sugar, fat, fibre and sodium. The fat figure is likely to be broken down into saturated and unsaturated fat. With regards to health claims and nutrition claims, these are harmonised in the EU through Regulation 1924/2006, in November 2012, the European Commission published two new regulations, Regulation No. Certain nutrition claim groups as of Regulation No 1924/2006 had to be changed, moreover, the health claims associated to barley beta-gluten were amended. Within Regulation 1924, there are definitions of terms such as low fat, high fibre. All health claims have been harmonised in the European Union and they can be used if they have been approved by EFSA
Food label
–
The original FDA Nutrition Facts label, as of 2014
Food label
–
A sample nutrition facts label, with instructions from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
4.
European Food Safety Authority
–
The European Food Safety Authority is the agency of the European Union that provides independent scientific advice and communicates on existing and emerging risks associated with the food chain. EFSA was established in February 2002, is based in Parma, Italy, the work of EFSA covers all matters with a direct or indirect impact on food and feed safety, including animal health and welfare, plant protection and plant health and nutrition. EFSA also communicates to the public in an open and transparent way on all matters within its remit and they are appointed by the Management Board. The Advisory Forum advises the Executive Director, in particular in drafting a proposal for the EFSAs work programmes and it is composed of representatives of national bodies responsible for risk assessment in the Member States, with observers from Norway, Iceland, Switzerland and the European Commission. The Scientific Committee and its Scientific Panels provide scientific opinions and advice, each within their own sphere of competence, the number and names of the Scientific Panels are adapted in the light of technical and scientific development by the European Commission at EFSAs request. The independent scientific experts are appointed by the Management Board upon a proposal from the Executive Director for three-year terms, the scientific output of the European Food Safety Authority is published in the EFSA Journal, an open-access, online scientific journal. This concerns risk assessment in relation to food and feed and includes nutrition, animal health and welfare, plant health, EFSA has been criticised for their alleged overregulation, as well as allegations of frequent conflicts of interest. EFSA has also criticised by the NGO CHEM Trust for misrepresenting the results of their expert committees report on Bisphenol A in January 2015. EFSA claimed in the abstract, press release and briefing that Bisphenol A posed no risk to health, EFSA later modified the abstract to correct this error, though the press release remains unchanged. EFSA have argued that use of no concern in their press release and Bisphenol A briefing is to ensure these materials are accessible
European Food Safety Authority
–
European Food Safety Authority
5.
Food colouring
–
Food coloring, or color additive, is any dye, pigment or substance that imparts color when it is added to food or drink. They come in many forms consisting of liquids, powders, gels, Food coloring is used both in commercial food production and in domestic cooking. Food colorants are used in a variety of non-food applications including cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, home craft projects. People associate certain colors with certain flavors, and the color of food can influence the flavor in anything from candy to wine. During the Middle Ages, the economy in the European countries was based on agriculture, under feudalism, aesthetic aspects were not considered, at least not by the vast majority of the generally very poor population. This situation changed with urbanization at the beginning of the Modern Age, one of the very first food laws, created in Augsburg, Germany, in 1531, concerned spices or colorants and required saffron counterfeiters to be burned. With the onset of the revolution, people became dependent on foods produced by others. These new urban dwellers demanded food at low cost, analytical chemistry was still primitive and regulations few. Copper arsenite was used to recolor used tea leaves for resale and it also caused two deaths when used to color a dessert in 1860. Again his tea if mixed or green, he would not escape without the administration of a little Prussian blue. Many color additives had never tested for toxicity or other adverse effects. Historical records show that injuries, even deaths, resulted from tainted colorants, in 1851, about 200 people were poisoned in England,17 of them fatally, directly as a result of eating adulterated lozenges. Originally, these were dubbed coal-tar colors because the materials were obtained from bituminous coal. Many synthesized dyes were easier and less costly to produce and were superior in coloring properties when compared to naturally derived alternatives, some synthetic food colorants are diazo dyes. Diazo dyes are prepared by coupling of a compound with a second aromatic hydrocarbons. The resulting compounds contain conjugated systems that absorb light in the visible parts of the spectrum. The attractiveness of the synthetic dyes is that their color, lipophilicity, the color of the dyes can be controlled by selecting the number of azo-groups and various substituents. Yellow shades are often achieved by using acetoacetanilide, Red colors are often azo compounds
Food colouring
–
Food coloring spreading on a thin water film in the
International Space Station
Food colouring
–
Natural food colors can make a variety of different hues
6.
Codex Alimentarius
–
The Codex Alimentarius is a collection of internationally recognized standards, codes of practice, guidelines, and other recommendations relating to foods, food production, and food safety. Its name is derived from the Codex Alimentarius Austriacus, the Commissions main goals are to protect the health of consumers and ensure fair practices in the international food trade. The Codex Alimentarius is recognized by the World Trade Organization as a reference point for the resolution of disputes concerning food safety. As of 2012, there were 186 members of the Codex Alimentarius Commission,186 member countries and one member organization, there were 215 Codex observers,49 intergovernmental organizations,150 non-governmental organizations, and 16 United Nations organizations. The Codex Alimentarius covers all foods, whether processed, semi-processed or raw and it also contains guidelines for the management of official i. e. governmental import and export inspection and certification systems for foods. The Codex Alimentarius is published in the six languages of the United Nations, Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Spanish. Not all texts are available in all languages, the proposal was agreed, but protests halted its implementation. The 28th Session of the Codex Alimentarius Commission was subsequently held July 4–9,2005. be encouraged to select a balanced diet from food before considering any vitamin and mineral supplement. In cases where the intake from the diet is insufficient or where consumers consider their diet requires supplementation, vitamin and this text has been the subject of considerable controversy among proponents of dietary supplements. Many countries regulate such substances as therapeutic goods or pharmaceuticals or by some other category, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and World Health Organization will implement these criteria with labelling to stop consumers overdosing on vitamin and mineral food supplements. The Codex Alimentarius Commission has said that the Guidelines call for labelling that contains information on maximum consumption levels of vitamin, the WHO has also said that the Guidelines ensure that consumers receive beneficial health effects from vitamins and minerals. In 2004, similarities were noted between the EUs Food Supplements Directive and the Codex Alimentarius draft guidelines for vitamin and mineral supplements, published 13 July 2012 by the Food Inspection & Safety Service of the U. S. D. A
Codex Alimentarius
–
Food safety
7.
Vitamin C
–
Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid and L-ascorbic acid, is a vitamin found in food and used as a dietary supplement. As a supplement it is used to treat and prevent scurvy, evidence does not support use in the general population for the prevention of the common cold. It may be taken by mouth or by injection, large doses may cause gastrointestinal discomfort, headache, trouble sleeping, and flushing of the skin. Normal doses are safe during pregnancy, Vitamin C is an essential nutrient involved in the repair of tissue. Foods that contain vitamin C include citrus fruit, tomatoes, Vitamin C was discovered in 1912, isolated in 1928, and first made in 1933. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, Vitamin C is available as a generic medication and over the counter. In 2015, the wholesale cost in the world was about 0.003 to 0.007 USD per tablet. In some countries, ascorbic acid may be added to such as breakfast cereal. A2012 Cochrane review found no effect of vitamin C supplementation on overall mortality, although rare in modern times, scurvy and its associated destabilization of collagen, connective tissue, and bone can be prevented by adequate vitamin C intake. A2014 review found that, Currently, the use of high-dose IV vitamin C cannot be recommended outside of a clinical trial, a 2013 Cochrane review found no evidence that vitamin C supplementation reduces the risk of lung cancer in healthy or high risk people. A2014 meta-analysis found that vitamin C intake might protect against lung cancer risk, a second meta-analysis found no effect on the risk of prostate cancer. Two meta-analyses evaluated the effect of vitamin C supplementation on the risk of colorectal cancer, one found a weak association between vitamin C consumption and reduced risk, and the other found no effect of supplementation. A2013 meta-analysis found no evidence that vitamin C supplementation reduces the risk of myocardial infarction, stroke, cardiovascular mortality, however, a second analysis found an inverse relationship between circulating vitamin C levels or dietary vitamin C and the risk of stroke. A meta-analysis of 44 clinical trials has shown a significant positive effect of vitamin C on endothelial function when taken at doses greater than 500 mg per day. The researchers noted that the effect of vitamin C supplementation appeared to be dependent on health status, a 2010 review found no role for vitamin C supplementation in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Studies examining the effects of vitamin C intake on the risk of Alzheimers disease have reached conflicting conclusions, maintaining a healthy dietary intake is probably more important than supplementation for achieving any potential benefit. Vitamin C supplementation above the RDA has been used in trials to study a potential effect on preventing and slowing the progression of age-related cataract, however, no significant effects were found from the research. Vitamin Cs effect on the cold has been extensively researched
Vitamin C
–
Rose hips are a particularly rich source of vitamin C
Vitamin C
–
Vitamin C
Vitamin C
–
Goats, like almost all animals, make their own vitamin C. An adult goat, weighing approx. 70 kg, will manufacture more than 13,000 mg of vitamin C per day in normal health, and levels manyfold higher when faced with stress.
Vitamin C
–
James Lind, a British Royal Navy surgeon who, in 1747, identified that a quality in fruit prevented the disease of scurvy in what was the first
recorded controlled experiment.
8.
Ascorbic acid
–
Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid and L-ascorbic acid, is a vitamin found in food and used as a dietary supplement. As a supplement it is used to treat and prevent scurvy, evidence does not support use in the general population for the prevention of the common cold. It may be taken by mouth or by injection, large doses may cause gastrointestinal discomfort, headache, trouble sleeping, and flushing of the skin. Normal doses are safe during pregnancy, Vitamin C is an essential nutrient involved in the repair of tissue. Foods that contain vitamin C include citrus fruit, tomatoes, Vitamin C was discovered in 1912, isolated in 1928, and first made in 1933. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, Vitamin C is available as a generic medication and over the counter. In 2015, the wholesale cost in the world was about 0.003 to 0.007 USD per tablet. In some countries, ascorbic acid may be added to such as breakfast cereal. A2012 Cochrane review found no effect of vitamin C supplementation on overall mortality, although rare in modern times, scurvy and its associated destabilization of collagen, connective tissue, and bone can be prevented by adequate vitamin C intake. A2014 review found that, Currently, the use of high-dose IV vitamin C cannot be recommended outside of a clinical trial, a 2013 Cochrane review found no evidence that vitamin C supplementation reduces the risk of lung cancer in healthy or high risk people. A2014 meta-analysis found that vitamin C intake might protect against lung cancer risk, a second meta-analysis found no effect on the risk of prostate cancer. Two meta-analyses evaluated the effect of vitamin C supplementation on the risk of colorectal cancer, one found a weak association between vitamin C consumption and reduced risk, and the other found no effect of supplementation. A2013 meta-analysis found no evidence that vitamin C supplementation reduces the risk of myocardial infarction, stroke, cardiovascular mortality, however, a second analysis found an inverse relationship between circulating vitamin C levels or dietary vitamin C and the risk of stroke. A meta-analysis of 44 clinical trials has shown a significant positive effect of vitamin C on endothelial function when taken at doses greater than 500 mg per day. The researchers noted that the effect of vitamin C supplementation appeared to be dependent on health status, a 2010 review found no role for vitamin C supplementation in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Studies examining the effects of vitamin C intake on the risk of Alzheimers disease have reached conflicting conclusions, maintaining a healthy dietary intake is probably more important than supplementation for achieving any potential benefit. Vitamin C supplementation above the RDA has been used in trials to study a potential effect on preventing and slowing the progression of age-related cataract, however, no significant effects were found from the research. Vitamin Cs effect on the cold has been extensively researched
Ascorbic acid
–
L -Ascorbic acid
9.
Lycopene
–
Although lycopene is chemically a carotene, it has no vitamin A activity. Foods that are not red may also contain lycopene, such as asparagus, like all carotenoids, lycopene is a polyunsaturated hydrocarbon, i. e. an unsubstituted alkene. Structurally, lycopene is a tetraterpene and assembled from eight isoprene units that are composed entirely of carbon, lycopenes eleven conjugated double bonds give its deep red color and its antioxidant activity. Owing to the color, lycopene is a useful food coloring and is approved for usage in the USA, Australia and New Zealand. Lycopene is not a nutrient for humans, but is commonly found in the diet mainly from dishes prepared from tomatoes. Lycopene is a symmetrical tetraterpene assembled from eight isoprene units and it is a member of the carotenoid family of compounds, and because it consists entirely of carbon and hydrogen, is also a carotene. Isolation procedures for lycopene were first reported in 1910, and the structure of the molecule was determined by 1931, in its natural, all-trans form, the molecule is long and straight, constrained by its system of eleven conjugated double bonds. Lycopene absorbs all but the longest wavelengths of light, so it appears red. Plants and photosynthetic bacteria naturally produce all-trans lycopene, but a total of 72 geometric isomers of the molecule are sterically possible, when exposed to light or heat, lycopene can undergo isomerization to any of a number of these cis-isomers, which have a bent rather than linear shape. Different isomers were shown to have different stabilities due to their molecular energy, in the human bloodstream, various cis-isomers constitute more than 60% of the total lycopene concentration, but the biological effects of individual isomers have not been investigated. Lycopene, the pigment in tomato-containing sauces, turns plastic cookware orange and is insoluble in water and it can be dissolved only in organic solvents and oils. Because of its non-polarity, lycopene in food preparations will stain any sufficiently porous material, to remove this staining, the plastics can be soaked in a solution containing a small amount of household bleach. Carotenoids like lycopene are important pigments found in photosynthetic pigment-protein complexes in plants, photosynthetic bacteria, fungi and they are responsible for the bright colors of fruits and vegetables, perform various functions in photosynthesis, and protect photosynthetic organisms from excessive light damage. Lycopene is a key intermediate in the biosynthesis of many important carotenoids, such as beta-carotene, the unconditioned biosynthesis of lycopene in eukaryotic plants and in prokaryotic cyanobacteria is similar, as are the enzymes involved. Synthesis begins with mevalonic acid, which is converted into dimethylallyl pyrophosphate and this is then condensed with three molecules of isopentenyl pyrophosphate, to give the twenty-carbon geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate. Two molecules of this product are then condensed in a configuration to give the forty-carbon phytoene. Through several desaturation steps, phytoene is converted into lycopene, the two terminal isoprene groups of lycopene can be cyclized to produce beta-carotene, which can then be transformed into a wide variety of xanthophylls. Fruits and vegetables that are high in lycopene include autumn olive, gac, tomatoes, watermelon, pink grapefruit, pink guava, papaya, seabuckthorn, wolfberry, the lycopene content of tomatoes depends on species and increases as the fruit ripens
Lycopene
–
Lycopene
Lycopene
–
Test tube containing a dichloromethane solution of lycopene
10.
E160d
–
Although lycopene is chemically a carotene, it has no vitamin A activity. Foods that are not red may also contain lycopene, such as asparagus, like all carotenoids, lycopene is a polyunsaturated hydrocarbon, i. e. an unsubstituted alkene. Structurally, lycopene is a tetraterpene and assembled from eight isoprene units that are composed entirely of carbon, lycopenes eleven conjugated double bonds give its deep red color and its antioxidant activity. Owing to the color, lycopene is a useful food coloring and is approved for usage in the USA, Australia and New Zealand. Lycopene is not a nutrient for humans, but is commonly found in the diet mainly from dishes prepared from tomatoes. Lycopene is a symmetrical tetraterpene assembled from eight isoprene units and it is a member of the carotenoid family of compounds, and because it consists entirely of carbon and hydrogen, is also a carotene. Isolation procedures for lycopene were first reported in 1910, and the structure of the molecule was determined by 1931, in its natural, all-trans form, the molecule is long and straight, constrained by its system of eleven conjugated double bonds. Lycopene absorbs all but the longest wavelengths of light, so it appears red. Plants and photosynthetic bacteria naturally produce all-trans lycopene, but a total of 72 geometric isomers of the molecule are sterically possible, when exposed to light or heat, lycopene can undergo isomerization to any of a number of these cis-isomers, which have a bent rather than linear shape. Different isomers were shown to have different stabilities due to their molecular energy, in the human bloodstream, various cis-isomers constitute more than 60% of the total lycopene concentration, but the biological effects of individual isomers have not been investigated. Lycopene, the pigment in tomato-containing sauces, turns plastic cookware orange and is insoluble in water and it can be dissolved only in organic solvents and oils. Because of its non-polarity, lycopene in food preparations will stain any sufficiently porous material, to remove this staining, the plastics can be soaked in a solution containing a small amount of household bleach. Carotenoids like lycopene are important pigments found in photosynthetic pigment-protein complexes in plants, photosynthetic bacteria, fungi and they are responsible for the bright colors of fruits and vegetables, perform various functions in photosynthesis, and protect photosynthetic organisms from excessive light damage. Lycopene is a key intermediate in the biosynthesis of many important carotenoids, such as beta-carotene, the unconditioned biosynthesis of lycopene in eukaryotic plants and in prokaryotic cyanobacteria is similar, as are the enzymes involved. Synthesis begins with mevalonic acid, which is converted into dimethylallyl pyrophosphate and this is then condensed with three molecules of isopentenyl pyrophosphate, to give the twenty-carbon geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate. Two molecules of this product are then condensed in a configuration to give the forty-carbon phytoene. Through several desaturation steps, phytoene is converted into lycopene, the two terminal isoprene groups of lycopene can be cyclized to produce beta-carotene, which can then be transformed into a wide variety of xanthophylls. Fruits and vegetables that are high in lycopene include autumn olive, gac, tomatoes, watermelon, pink grapefruit, pink guava, papaya, seabuckthorn, wolfberry, the lycopene content of tomatoes depends on species and increases as the fruit ripens
E160d
–
Lycopene
E160d
–
Test tube containing a dichloromethane solution of lycopene
11.
Food coloring
–
Food coloring, or color additive, is any dye, pigment or substance that imparts color when it is added to food or drink. They come in many forms consisting of liquids, powders, gels, Food coloring is used both in commercial food production and in domestic cooking. Food colorants are used in a variety of non-food applications including cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, home craft projects. People associate certain colors with certain flavors, and the color of food can influence the flavor in anything from candy to wine. During the Middle Ages, the economy in the European countries was based on agriculture, under feudalism, aesthetic aspects were not considered, at least not by the vast majority of the generally very poor population. This situation changed with urbanization at the beginning of the Modern Age, one of the very first food laws, created in Augsburg, Germany, in 1531, concerned spices or colorants and required saffron counterfeiters to be burned. With the onset of the revolution, people became dependent on foods produced by others. These new urban dwellers demanded food at low cost, analytical chemistry was still primitive and regulations few. Copper arsenite was used to recolor used tea leaves for resale and it also caused two deaths when used to color a dessert in 1860. Again his tea if mixed or green, he would not escape without the administration of a little Prussian blue. Many color additives had never tested for toxicity or other adverse effects. Historical records show that injuries, even deaths, resulted from tainted colorants, in 1851, about 200 people were poisoned in England,17 of them fatally, directly as a result of eating adulterated lozenges. Originally, these were dubbed coal-tar colors because the materials were obtained from bituminous coal. Many synthesized dyes were easier and less costly to produce and were superior in coloring properties when compared to naturally derived alternatives, some synthetic food colorants are diazo dyes. Diazo dyes are prepared by coupling of a compound with a second aromatic hydrocarbons. The resulting compounds contain conjugated systems that absorb light in the visible parts of the spectrum. The attractiveness of the synthetic dyes is that their color, lipophilicity, the color of the dyes can be controlled by selecting the number of azo-groups and various substituents. Yellow shades are often achieved by using acetoacetanilide, Red colors are often azo compounds
Food coloring
–
Food coloring spreading on a thin water film in the
International Space Station
Food coloring
–
Natural food colors can make a variety of different hues
12.
Gold (colour)
–
Gold, also called golden, is one of a variety of yellow-orange color blends used to give the impression of the color of the element gold. The web color gold is sometimes referred to as golden to distinguish it from the metallic gold. The use of gold as a term in traditional usage is more often applied to the color metallic gold. The first recorded use of golden as a name in English was in 1300 to refer to the element gold. Metallic gold, such as in paint, is often called goldtone or gold-tone, in heraldry, the French word or is used. In model building, the gold is different from brass. A shiny or metallic silvertone object can be painted with transparent yellow to obtain goldtone, at right is displayed a representation of the color metallic gold which is a simulation of the color of the actual metallic element gold itself—gold shade. The American Heritage Dictionary defines the color metallic gold as A light olive-brown to dark yellow, or a moderate, of course, the visual sensation usually associated with the metal gold is its metallic shine. This cannot be reproduced by a solid color, because the shiny effect is due to the materials reflective brightness varying with the surfaces angle to the light source. Especially in sacral art in Christian churches, real gold was used for rendering gold in paintings, Gold can also be woven into sheets of silk to give an East Asian traditional look. Old gold is a yellow, which varies from heavy olive or olive brown to deep or strong yellow. The widely accepted color old gold is on the rather than the lighter side of this range. The first recorded use of old gold as a name in English was in the early 19th century. The Delta Sigma Pi fraternity, founded in November 7,1907, official colors are designated royal purple, the Pi Kappa Alpha fraternitys colors are garnet and old gold. Old gold is one of two colors of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity, maroon and old gold are the colors of Texas State Universitys intercollegiate sports teams. Old Gold and black are the colors of Purdue University Boilermakers intercollegiate sports teams. The Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets wear white and old gold, the Wake Forest Demon Deacons, UCF Knights, and Vanderbilt Commodores wear old gold and black. The New Orleans Saints list their official team colors as black, old gold, Golden yellow is the color halfway between amber and yellow on the RGB color wheel
Gold (colour)
–
Gold (golden)
Gold (colour)
–
Gold
Gold (colour)
–
The mask of
Tutankhamun is made of gold.
Gold (colour)
–
Golden
Dome in
Al-Kadhimiya Mosque
13.
Preservative
–
In general, preservation is implemented in two modes, chemical and physical. Chemical preservation entails adding chemical compounds to the product, physical preservation entails processes such as refrigeration or drying. Preservative food additives reduce the risk of infections, decrease microbial spoilage. Some physical techniques for preservation include dehydration, UV-C radiation, freeze-drying. Chemical preservation and physical preservation techniques are sometimes combined, antimicrobial preservatives prevent degradation by bacteria. This method is the most traditional and ancient type of preserving—ancient methods such as pickling and adding honey prevent microorganism growth by modifying the pH level, the most commonly used antimicrobial preservative is lactic acid. Common antimicrobial preservatives are presented in the table, nitrates and nitrites are also antimicrobial. The detailed mechanism of chemical compounds range from inhibiting growth of the bacteria to the inhibition of specific enzymes. The oxidation process spoils most food, especially those with a fat content. Fats quickly turn rancid when exposed to oxygen, antioxidants prevent or inhibit the oxidation process. The most common antioxidant additives are ascorbic acid and ascorbates, thus, antioxidants are commonly added to oils, cheese, and chips. Other antioxidants include the phenol derivatives BHA, BHT, TBHQ and these agents suppress the formation of hydroperoxides. Other preservatives include ethanol and methylchloroisothiazolinone, a variety of agents are added to sequester metal ions that otherwise catalyze the oxidation of fats. Common sequestering agents are disodium EDTA, citric acid, tartaric acid, citric and ascorbic acids target enzymes that degrade fruits and vegetables, e. g. phenolase which turns surfaces of cut apples and potatoes brown. Ascorbic acid and tocopherol, which are vitamins, are common preservatives, smoking entails exposing food to a variety of phenols, which are antioxidants. Natural preservatives include rosemary extract, hops, salt, sugar, vinegar, alcohol, diatomaceous earth, traditional preservatives, such as sodium benzoate have raised health concerns in the past. Benzoate was shown in a study to cause hypersensitivity in some asthma sufferers and this has caused reexamination of natural preservatives which occur in vegetables. Preservatives have been used since prehistoric times, smoked meat for example has phenols and other chemicals that retard spoilage
Preservative
–
The
free radical pathway for the first phase of the oxidative rancidification of fats. This process is slowed by antioxidants.
14.
Sorbate
–
Sorbic acid, or 2, 4-hexadienoic acid, is a natural organic compound used as a food preservative. It has the chemical formula C6H8O2 and it is a colourless solid that is slightly soluble in water and sublimes readily. It was first isolated from the berries of the rowan tree. The traditional route to sorbic acid involves condensation of malonic acid and it can also be prepared from isomeric hexadienoic acids, which are available via a nickel-catalyzed reaction of allyl chloride, acetylene, and carbon monoxide. The route used commercially, however, is from crotonaldehyde and ketene, an estimated 30,000 tons are produced annually. Sorbic acid was isolated in 1859 by distillation of oil by A. W. von Hofmann. This affords the lactone of sorbic acid, which he converted to sorbic acid by hydrolysis and its antimicrobial activities were discovered in the late 1930s and 1940s, and it became commercially available in the late 1940s and 1950s. Beginning in the 1980s, sorbic acid and its salts were used as inhibitors of Clostridium botulinum in meat products to replace the use of nitrites, with a pKa of 4.76, it is about as acidic as acetic acid. In general the salts are preferred over the form because they are more soluble in water. The optimal pH for the activity is below pH6.5. Sorbates are generally used at concentrations of 0. 025% to 0. 10%, adding sorbate salts to food will, however, raise the pH of the food slightly so the pH may need to be adjusted to assure safety. It is found in other foods, such as cheeses. The pentadiene manifests as an odor of kerosene or petroleum. Other detoxification reactions include reduction to 4-hexenol and 4-hexenoic acid, Sorbic acid can also be used as an additive for cold rubber, and as an intermediate in the manufacture of some plasticizers and lubricants. The LD50 value of sorbic acid is estimated to be between 7.4 and 10 g/kg, which is quite high, the compound is relatively unstable and is rapidly degraded in soil, hence it is often considered environmentally friendly. Sorbitol Polysorbate Acids in wine Sorbic inchem. org
Sorbate
–
Sorbic acid
15.
Sulphite
–
Sulfites or sulphites are compounds that contain the sulfite ion, SO2−3. The sulfite ion is the base of bisulfite. Although its acid is elusive, its salts are widely used, Sulfites are substances that naturally occur in some foods and the human body. They are also used as regulated food additives, the structure of the sulfite anion can be described with three equivalent resonance structures. There is also a lone pair on the sulfur, so the structure predicted by VSEPR theory is trigonal pyramidal. In the hybrid resonance structure, the S-O bonds are equivalently of bond order one, evidence from 17O NMR spectroscopic data suggests that protonation of the sulfite ion gives a mixture of isomers, Sulfites are used as a food preservative or enhancer. Sulfites are commonly introduced to arrest fermentation at a desired time, sulfur dioxide protects wine from not only oxidation, but also from bacteria. Without sulfites, grape juice would turn to vinegar. Organic wines are not necessarily sulfite-free, but generally have lower amounts, in general, white wines contain more sulfites than red wines and sweeter wines contain more sulfites than drier ones. In the United States, wines bottled after mid-1987 must have a label stating that they contain sulfites if they contain more than 10 parts per million, in the European Union an equivalent regulation came into force in November 2005. In 2012, a new regulation for organic wines came into force, Sulfites are often used as preservatives in dried fruits, preserved radish, and dried potato products. Most beers no longer contain sulfites, although some alcoholic ciders contain them, although shrimp are sometimes treated with sulfites on fishing vessels, the chemical may not appear on the label. In 1986, the Food and Drug Administration in the United States banned the addition of sulfites to all fresh fruit, E numbers for sulfites as food additives are, Sulfites are counted among the top nine food allergens, but a reaction to sulfite is not a true allergy. Some people have positive skin allergy tests to sulfites indicating true allergy and it may cause breathing difficulty within minutes after eating a food containing it. Asthmatics and possibly people with sensitivity are at an elevated risk for reaction to sulfites. Anaphylaxis and life-threatening reactions are rare, other potential symptoms include sneezing, swelling of the throat, hives, and migraine. In 1986, the U. S. Food and Drug Administration banned the use of sulfites as preservatives on foods intended to be eaten fresh and this has contributed to the increased use of erythorbic acid and its salts as preservatives. In the U. S. Sulfites used in food processing, the products most likely to contain sulfites do not require ingredients labels, so the presence of sulfites usually is undisclosed
Sulphite
–
A
space-filling model of the sulfite
anion.
16.
Phenol
–
Phenol, also known as carbolic acid, is an aromatic organic compound with the molecular formula C6H5OH. It is a crystalline solid that is volatile. The molecule consists of a phenyl group bonded to a hydroxyl group and it is mildly acidic and requires careful handling due to its propensity to cause chemical burns. Phenol was first extracted from tar, but today is produced on a large scale from petroleum. It is an important industrial commodity as a precursor to many materials and it is primarily used to synthesize plastics and related materials. Phenol and its derivatives are essential for production of polycarbonates, epoxies, Bakelite, nylon, detergents, herbicides such as phenoxy herbicides. Phenol is appreciably soluble in water, with about 84.2 g dissolving in 1000 mL, homogeneous mixtures of phenol and water at phenol to water mass ratios of ~2.6 and higher are possible. The sodium salt of phenol, sodium phenoxide, is far more water-soluble and it reacts completely with aqueous NaOH to lose H+, whereas most alcohols react only partially. One explanation for the increased acidity over alcohols is resonance stabilization of the anion by the aromatic ring. In this way, the charge on oxygen is delocalized on to the ortho. In another explanation, increased acidity is the result of orbital overlap between the lone pairs and the aromatic system. The pKa of the enol of acetone is 10.9, the acidities of phenol and acetone enol diverge in the gas phase owing to the effects of solvation. About 1⁄3 of the acidity of phenol is attributable to inductive effects. Phenolate esters are more stable toward hydrolysis than acid anhydrides and acyl halides but are sufficiently reactive under mild conditions to facilitate the formation of amide bonds, Phenol exhibits keto-enol tautomerism with its unstable keto tautomer cyclohexadienone, but only a tiny fraction of phenol exists as the keto form. The equilibrium constant for enolisation is approximately 10−13, meaning only one in every ten trillion molecules is in the keto form at any moment. The small amount of stabilisation gained by exchanging a C=C bond for a C=O bond is more than offset by the large destabilisation resulting from the loss of aromaticity, Phenol therefore exists essentially entirely in the enol form. Phenoxides are enolates stabilised by aromaticity, under normal circumstances, phenoxide is more reactive at the oxygen position, but the oxygen position is a hard nucleophile whereas the alpha-carbon positions tend to be soft. Phenol is highly reactive toward electrophilic aromatic substitution as the oxygen atoms pi electrons donate electron density into the ring, by this general approach, many groups can be appended to the ring, via halogenation, acylation, sulfonation, and other processes
Phenol
–
Phenol
17.
Formate
–
Formate is the anion derived from formic acid. Its formula is represented in various equivalent ways, CHOO− or HCOO− or HCO2− and it is the product of deprotonation of formic acid. It is the simplest carboxylate anion, a formate is a salt or ester of formic acid. Formate is produced in large amounts in the mitochondria of embryonic cells. Formate is reversibly oxidized by the enzyme formate dehydrogenase from Desulfovibrio gigas, many form spontaneously when alcohols dissolve in formic acid. Formate salts have the formula M, such salts are prone to decarboxylation
Formate
–
Structure of formate
18.
Nitrate
–
Nitrate is a polyatomic ion with the molecular formula NO−3 and a molecular mass of 62.0049 g/mol. Nitrates also describe the functional group RONO2. These nitrate esters are a class of explosives. The anion is the base of nitric acid, consisting of one central nitrogen atom surrounded by three identically bonded oxygen atoms in a trigonal planar arrangement. The nitrate ion carries a charge of −1. This arrangement is used as an example of resonance. Like the isoelectronic carbonate ion, the ion can be represented by resonance structures. A common example of a nitrate salt is potassium nitrate. A rich source of nitrate in the human body comes from diets rich in leafy green foods, such as spinach. NO3- is the active component within beetroot juice and other vegetables. Nitrite and water are converted in the body to nitric oxide, nitrate salts are found naturally on earth as large deposits, particularly of nitratine, a major source of sodium nitrate. Nitrates are found in man-made fertilizers, as a byproduct of lightning strikes in earths nitrogen-oxygen rich atmosphere, nitric acid is produced when nitrogen dioxide reacts with water vapor. Nitrates are mainly produced for use as fertilizers in agriculture because of their solubility and biodegradability. The main nitrate fertilizers are ammonium, sodium, potassium, several million kilograms are produced annually for this purpose. The second major application of nitrates is as oxidizing agents, most notably in explosives where the oxidation of carbon compounds liberates large volumes of gases. Sodium nitrate is used to air bubbles from molten glass. Mixtures of the salt are used to harden some metals. Explosives and table tennis balls are made from celluloid, although nitrites are the nitrogen compound chiefly used in meat curing, nitrates are used in certain specialty curing processes where a long release of nitrite from parent nitrate stores is needed
Nitrate
–
Table tennis balls are made from celluloid, an organic nitrate.
Nitrate
–
Nitrate
19.
Acetate
–
An acetate /ˈæsᵻteɪt/ is a salt formed by the combination of acetic acid with an alkaline, earthy, or metallic base. Acetate also describes the base or ion typically found in aqueous solution. The neutral molecules formed by the combination of the acetate ion, the simplest of these is hydrogen acetate with corresponding salts, esters, and the polyatomic anion CH3CO2−, or CH3COO−. Most of the approximately 5 billion kilograms of acid produced annually in industry is used in the production of acetates. In nature, acetate is the most common building block for biosynthesis, for example, the fatty acids are produced by connecting the two carbon atoms from acetate to a growing fatty acid. When part of a salt, the formula of the ion is written as CH3CO2−, C2H3O2−. Chemists abbreviate acetate as OAc− or, less commonly, AcO−, thus, HOAc is the abbreviation for acetic acid, NaOAc for sodium acetate, and EtOAc for ethyl acetate. The abbreviation Ac is also encountered in chemical formulas to indicate the acetate ion. This abbreviation is not to be confused with the symbol of actinium, for example, the formula for sodium acetate might be abbreviated as NaAc, rather than NaC2H3O2. Although its systematic name is ethanoate, the common acetate remains the preferred IUPAC name, the acetate anion, −, is one of the carboxylate family. It is the base of acetic acid. Above a pH of 5.5, acetic acid converts to acetate, CH3COOH ⇌ CH3COO− + H+ Many acetate salts are ionic, examples of acetate complexes include chromium acetate and basic zinc acetate. Commercially important acetate salts are aluminium acetate, used in dyeing, ammonium acetate, a precursor to acetamide, all three salts are colourless and highly soluble in water. Acetate esters have the general formula CH3CO2R, where R is an organyl group, the esters are the dominant forms of acetate in the marketplace. Unlike the acetate salts, acetate esters are often liquids, lipophilic and they are popular because they have inoffensive, often sweet odors, they are inexpensive, and they are usually of low toxicity. Almost half of acetic acid production is consumed in the production of acetate, precursor to polyvinyl alcohol. The second largest use of acid is consumed in the production of cellulose acetate. In fact, acetate is jargon for cellulose acetate, which is used in the production of fibres or diverse products, Cellulose acetate can be found in many household products
Acetate
–
Acetate
20.
Lactic acid
–
Lactic acid is an organic compound with the formula CH3CHCO2H. In its solid state, it is white and water-soluble, in its liquid state, it is clear. It is produced naturally and synthetically. With a hydroxyl group adjacent to the group, lactic acid is classified as an alpha-hydroxy acid. In the form of its base called lactate, it plays a role in several biochemical processes. In solution, it can ionize a proton from the carboxyl group, compared to acetic acid, its pKa is 1 unit less, meaning lactic acid deprotonates ten times more easily than acetic acid does. This higher acidity is the consequence of the hydrogen bonding between the α-hydroxyl and the carboxylate group. Lactic acid is chiral, consisting of two optical isomers, one is known as L--lactic acid or -lactic acid and the other, its mirror image, is D--lactic acid or -lactic acid. A mixture of the two in equal amounts is called DL-lactic acid, or racemic lactic acid, DL-lactic acid is miscible with water and with ethanol above its melting point which is around 17 or 18 °C. D-lactic acid and L-lactic acid have a melting point. In animals, L-lactate is constantly produced from pyruvate via the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase in a process of fermentation during normal metabolism and exercise. The concentration of lactate is usually 1–2 mmol/L at rest. In industry, lactic acid fermentation is performed by lactic acid bacteria and these bacteria can also grow in the mouth, the acid they produce is responsible for the tooth decay known as caries. In medicine, lactate is one of the components of lactated Ringers solution. These intravenous fluids consist of sodium and potassium cations along with lactate and chloride anions in solution with distilled water and it is most commonly used for fluid resuscitation after blood loss due to trauma, surgery, or burns. Lactic acid was isolated for the first time by the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1780 from sour milk, the name reflects the lact- combining form derived from the Latin word for milk. In 1808, Jöns Jacob Berzelius discovered that lactic acid also is produced in muscles during exertion and its structure was established by Johannes Wislicenus in 1873. In 1856, Louis Pasteur discovered Lactobacillus and its role in the making of lactic acid, lactic acid started to be produced commercially by the German pharmacy Boehringer Ingelheim in 1895
Lactic acid
–
DL -Lactic acid
Lactic acid
21.
Propionate
–
The propionate or propanoate ion is C2H5COO−. A propionic or propanoic compound is a salt or ester of propionic acid. In these compounds, propionate is often written in shorthand, as CH3CH2CO2 or simply EtCO2, propionates should not be confused with propenoates, the ions/salts/esters of propenoic acid. Sodium propionate, NaC2H5CO2 Methyl propionate, Calcium propionate, Ca2 Potassium propionate, KC2H5CO2 Fluticasone propionate, C25H31F3O5S
Propionate
–
Propionate
22.
Antioxidant
–
An antioxidant is a molecule that inhibits the oxidation of other molecules. Oxidation is a reaction that can produce free radicals, leading to chain reactions that may damage cells. Antioxidants such as thiols or ascorbic acid terminate these chain reactions, supplementation with selenium or vitamin E does not reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Oxidative stress can be considered as either a cause or consequence of some diseases, industrial antioxidants have diverse uses, such as food and cosmetics preservatives and inhibitors of rubber or gasoline deterioration. Although certain levels of antioxidant vitamins in the diet are required for good health, moreover, if they are actually beneficial, it is unknown which antioxidant are needed from the diet and in what amounts beyond typical dietary intake. Some authors dispute the hypothesis that antioxidant vitamins could prevent chronic diseases, polyphenols, which often have antioxidant properties in vitro, are not necessarily antioxidants in vivo due to extensive metabolism. In many polyphenols, the group acts as electron acceptor and is therefore responsible for the antioxidant activity. However, this catechol group undergoes extensive metabolism upon uptake in the body, for example by catechol-O-methyl transferase. Many polyphenols may have non-antioxidant roles in minute concentrations that affect cell-to-cell signaling, receptor sensitivity, tirilazad is an antioxidant steroid derivative that inhibits the lipid peroxidation that is believed to play a key role in neuronal death in stroke and head injury. It demonstrated activity in animal models of stroke, but human trials demonstrated no effect on mortality or other outcomes in subarachnoid haemorrhage, similarly, the designed antioxidant NXY-059 exhibited efficacy in animal models, but failed to improve stroke outcomes in a clinical trial. As of November 2014, other antioxidants are being studied as potential neuroprotectants, common pharmaceuticals with antioxidant properties may interfere with the efficacy of certain anticancer medication and radiation. During exercise, oxygen consumption can increase by a factor of more than 10, however, no benefits for physical performance to athletes are seen with vitamin E supplementation and 6 weeks of vitamin E supplementation had no effect on muscle damage in ultramarathon runners. Some research suggests that supplementation with amounts as high as 1000 mg of vitamin C inhibits recovery, other studies indicated that antioxidant supplementation may attenuate the cardiovascular benefits of exercise. Relatively strong reducing acids can have antinutrient effects by binding to dietary minerals such as iron and zinc in the gastrointestinal tract, notable examples are oxalic acid, tannins and phytic acid, which are high in plant-based diets. Calcium and iron deficiencies are not uncommon in diets in developing countries where meat is eaten and there is high consumption of phytic acid from beans. Nonpolar antioxidants such as major component of oil of cloves—have toxicity limits that can be exceeded with the misuse of undiluted essential oils. Toxicity associated with high doses of water-soluble antioxidants such as ascorbic acid are less of a concern, more seriously, very high doses of some antioxidants may have harmful long-term effects. The beta-carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial study of cancer patients found that smokers given supplements containing beta-carotene
Antioxidant
–
Fruits and vegetables are good sources of antioxidant vitamins.
Antioxidant
–
Model of the antioxidant
metabolite glutathione. The yellow sphere is the
redox-active sulfur atom that provides antioxidant activity, while the red, blue, white, and dark grey spheres represent oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon atoms, respectively.
23.
Tocopherol
–
Tocopherols are a class of organic chemical compounds, many of which have vitamin E activity. Tocotrienols, which are related compounds, also have vitamin E activity, Vitamin E exists in eight different forms, four tocopherols and four tocotrienols. All feature a ring, with a hydroxyl group that can donate a hydrogen atom to reduce free radicals. Both the tocopherols and tocotrienols occur in α, β, γ and δ forms, determined by the number, the unsaturation of the tails gives tocotrienols only a single stereoisomeric carbon, whereas tocopherols have 3 centers. Each form has a different biological activity, in general, the unnatural l-isomers of tocotrienols lack almost all vitamin activity, and half of the possible 8 isomers of the tocopherols also lack vitamin activity. Of the stereoisomers which retain activity, increasing methylation, especially full methylation to the alpha-form, in tocopherols, this is due to the preference of the tocopherol binding protein for the alpha-tocopherol form of the vitamin. As a food additive, tocopherol is labeled with these E numbers, E306, E307, E308 and these are all approved in the USA, EU and Australia and New Zealand for use as antioxidants. Alpha-tocopherol is the form of vitamin E that is absorbed and accumulated in humans. The measurement of vitamin E activity in units was based on fertility enhancement by the prevention of miscarriages in pregnant rats relative to alpha-tocopherol. There are three stereocenters in alpha-tocopherol, so this is a chiral molecule, the eight stereoisomers of alpha-tocopherol differ in the arrangement of groups around these stereocenters. In the image of RRR-alpha-tocopherol below, all three stereocenters are in the R form, however, if the middle of the three stereocenters were changed, this would become the structure of RSR-alpha-tocopherol. These stereoisomers can also be named in an alternative older nomenclature,1 IU of tocopherol is defined as ⅔ milligrams of RRR-alpha-tocopherol. 1 IU is also defined as 1 milligram of a mix of the eight stereoisomers. This mix of stereoisomers is often called dl-alpha-tocopheryl acetate, even though it is more precisely dl, dl, Tocotrienols, although less commonly known, also belong to the vitamin E family. Tocotrienols have four natural 2 d-isomers, tocotrienol has been subject to fewer clinical studies and seen less research as compared to tocopherol. However, there is growing interest in the effects of these compounds. During feeding experiments with rats Herbert McLean Evans concluded in 1922 that besides vitamins B and C, although every other nutrition was present, the rats were not fertile. This condition could be changed by additional feeding with wheat germ and it took several years until 1936 when the substance was isolated from wheat germ and the formula C29H50O2 was determined
Tocopherol
24.
Gallic acid
–
Gallic acid is a trihydroxybenzoic acid, a type of phenolic acid, found in gallnuts, sumac, witch hazel, tea leaves, oak bark, and other plants. The chemical formula of gallic acid is C6H23COOH and it is found both free and as part of hydrolyzable tannins. The gallic acid groups are bonded to form dimers such as ellagic acid. Hydrolyzable tannins break down on hydrolysis to give gallic acid and glucose or ellagic acid and glucose, known as gallotannins and ellagitannins, gallic acid forms intermolecular esters such as digallic and trigallic acids, and cyclic ether-esters. Gallic acid can also be used as a material in the synthesis of the psychedelic alkaloid mescaline. The name is derived from oak galls, which were used to prepare tannic acid. Despite the name, gallic acid does not contain gallium, salts and esters of gallic acid are termed gallates. Pliny the Elder describes his experiments with it and writes that it was used to produce dyes, galls from oak trees were crushed and mixed with water, producing tannic acid. Gallic acid was one of the used by Angelo Mai, among other early investigators of palimpsests, to clear the top layer of text off. Mai was the first to employ it, but did so with a heavy hand, gallic acid was first studied by the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1786. Gallic acid is a component of some pyrotechnic whistle mixtures, gallic acid is formed from 3-dehydroshikimate by the action of the enzyme shikimate dehydrogenase to produce 3, 5-didehydroshikimate. This latter compound tautomerizes to form the redox equivalent gallic acid, gallate dioxygenase is an enzyme found in Pseudomonas putida that catalyses the reaction gallate + O2 → -4-oxobut-1-ene-1,2, 4-tricarboxylate. Gallate decarboxylase is another enzyme in the degradation of gallic acid, gallate 1-beta-glucosyltransferase is an enzyme that uses UDP-glucose and gallate, whereas its two products are UDP and 1-galloyl-beta-D-glucose. It is a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor. In basic research, gallic acid extracted from seeds has been shown to inhibit the formation of amyloid fibrils, one of the potential causes of Alzheimers disease. One study indicated that gallic acid has this effect on amyloid protein formation by modifying the properties of alpha-synuclein, gallic acid is classified as a mutagen and a teratogen. Gallic acid is found in a number of plants, such as the parasitic plant Cynomorium coccineum, the aquatic plant Myriophyllum spicatum. Gallic acid is found in various oak species, Caesalpinia mimosoides
Gallic acid
25.
Erythorbate
–
Erythorbic acid is a stereoisomer of ascorbic acid. It is synthesized by a reaction between methyl 2-keto-D-gluconate and sodium methoxide and it can also be synthesized from sucrose or by strains of Penicillium that have been selected for this feature. It is denoted by E number E315, and is used as an antioxidant in processed foods. Clinical trials have been conducted to investigate aspects of the value of erythorbic acid. One such trial investigated the effects of acid on vitamin C metabolism in young women. A later study found that erythorbic acid is a potent enhancer of nonheme-iron absorption. Since the U. S. Food and Drug Administration banned the use of sulfites as a preservative in foods intended to be eaten fresh and it is also used as a preservative in cured meats and frozen vegetables. It was first synthesized in 1933 by the German chemists Kurt Maurer and Bruno Schiedt
Erythorbate
–
Erythorbic acid
26.
Citrate
–
Citric acid is a weak organic tricarboxylic acid having the chemical formula C6H8O7. It occurs naturally in citrus fruits, in biochemistry, it is an intermediate in the citric acid cycle, which occurs in the metabolism of all aerobic organisms. More than a million tons of acid are manufactured every year. It is used widely as an acidifier, as a flavoring and chelating agent, a citrate is a derivative of citric acid, that is, the salts, esters, and the polyatomic anion found in solution. An example of the former, a salt is trisodium citrate, when part of a salt, the formula of the citrate ion is written as C6H5O73− or C3H5O33−. Citric acid exists in greater than trace amounts in a variety of fruits and vegetables, lemons and limes have particularly high concentrations of the acid, it can constitute as much as 8% of the dry weight of these fruits. The concentrations of acid in citrus fruits range from 0.005 mol/L for oranges and grapefruits to 0.30 mol/L in lemons. Within species, these values vary depending on the cultivar and the circumstances in which the fruit was grown, wehmer discovered Penicillium mold could produce citric acid from sugar. However, microbial production of citric acid did not become important until World War I disrupted Italian citrus exports. In this production technique, which is still the major route to citric acid used today. The source of sugar is corn steep liquor, molasses, hydrolyzed corn starch or other inexpensive sugary solutions, in 1977, a patent was granted to Lever Brothers for the chemical synthesis of citric acid starting either from aconitic or isocitrate/alloisocitrate calcium salts under high pressure conditions. This produced citric acid in near quantitative conversion under what appeared to be a reverse non-enzymatic Krebs cycle reaction, in 2007, worldwide annual production stood at approximately 1,600,000 tons. More than 50% of this volume was produced in China, citric acid was first isolated in 1784 by the chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele, who crystallized it from lemon juice. It can exist either in a form or as a monohydrate. The anhydrous form crystallizes from hot water, while the forms when citric acid is crystallized from cold water. The monohydrate can be converted to the form at about 78 °C. Citric acid also dissolves in ethanol at 15 °C. It decomposes with loss of carbon dioxide above about 175 °C, citric acid is normally considered to be a tribasic acid, with pKa values, extrapolated to zero ionic strength, of 5.21,4.28 and 2.92 at 25 °C
Citrate
–
Citrate
27.
Tartrate
–
A tartrate is a salt or ester of the organic compound tartaric acid, a dicarboxylic acid. The formula of the dianion is O−OC-CH-CH-COO− or C4H4O62−. As food additives, tartrates are used as antioxidants, acidity regulators, the principal component of this deposit is potassium bitartrate, a potassium salt of tartatic acid. Small amounts of debris, dead yeast, and precipitated phenolic materials such as tannins make up the impurities contaminating the potassium acid tartrate. The wine industry is the source of commercial tartrates. Tartrates separate from new wines because they are soluble in alcohol than in non-alcoholic grape juice. The exact figures vary according to variety and region, but approximately half of the tartrate soluble in grape juice is insoluble in wine, the problem is that the tartrate may remain in a supersaturated state after bottling, only to crystallize at some unpredictable later time. Tartrates precipitated in red wine usually take on some red pigment and are dismissed as mere sediment. The modern wine industry has decided that tartrate stabilization is preferable to consumer education
Tartrate
–
Tartrate
28.
Malate
–
Malic acid is an organic compound with the molecular formula C4H6O5. It is an acid that is made by all living organisms, contributes to the pleasantly sour taste of fruits. Malic acid has two forms, though only the L-isomer exists naturally. The salts and esters of malic acid are known as malates, the malate anion is an intermediate in the citric acid cycle. L-Malic acid is the naturally occurring form, whereas a mixture of L-, malate plays an important role in biochemistry. In the C4 carbon fixation process, malate is a source of CO2 in the Calvin cycle, in the citric acid cycle, -malate is an intermediate, formed by the addition of an -OH group on the si face of fumarate. It can also be formed from pyruvate via anaplerotic reactions, malate is also synthesized by the carboxylation of phosphoenolpyruvate in the guard cells of plant leaves. Malate, as an anion, often accompanies potassium cations during the uptake of solutes into the guard cells in order to maintain electrical balance in the cell. The accumulation of these solutes within the cell decreases the solute potential, allowing water to enter the cell. Malic acid was first isolated from apple juice by Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1785, antoine Lavoisier in 1787 proposed the name acide malique, which is derived from the Latin word for apple, mālum—as is its genus name Malus. In German it is named Äpfelsäure after plural or singular of the fruit apple, Malic acid contributes to the sourness of green apples. It is present in grapes and in most wines with concentrations sometimes as high as 5 g/l and it confers a tart taste to wine, although the amount decreases with increasing fruit ripeness. The taste of malic acid is very clear and pure in rhubarb and it is also a component of some artificial vinegar flavors, such as salt and vinegar flavored potato chips. The process of malolactic fermentation converts malic acid to much milder lactic acid, Malic acid occurs naturally in all fruits and many vegetables, and is generated in fruit metabolism. Malic acid, when added to products, is denoted by E number E296. Malic acid is the source of extreme tartness in United States-produced confectionery and it is also used with or in place of the less sour citric acid in sour sweets. These sweets are sometimes labeled with a warning stating that excessive consumption can cause irritation of the mouth and it is approved for use as a food additive in the EU, US and Australia and New Zealand. Malic acid provides 10 kJ of energy per gram during digestion, racemic malic acid is produced industrially by the double hydration of maleic anhydride
Malate
–
DL -Malic acid
Malate
–
Malic acid
29.
Succinate
–
Succinic acid is a dicarboxylic acid with the chemical formula 22. The name derives from Latin succinum, meaning amber, succinate is generated in mitochondria via the tricarboxylic acid cycle, an ancient energy-yielding process shared by all organisms. As such, succinate links cellular metabolism to the regulation of cellular function, dysregulation of succinate synthesis and degradation can lead to pathological conditions, such as malignant transformation, inflammation and tissue injury. Succinic acid is a white, odorless solid with an acidic taste. In an aqueous solution, succinic acid readily ionizes to form its conjugate base, succinate. As a diprotic acid, succinic acid undergoes two successive reactions,22 → 2− + H+ 2− → 222− + H+ The pKa of these processes are 4.3 and 5.6. Both anions are colorless and can be isolated as the salts, e. g. Na2, in living organisms, primarily succinate, not succinic acid, is found. As a radical group it is called a succinyl group, like most simple mono- and dicarboxylic acids, it is not harmful but can be an irritant to skin and eyes. Succinic acid can be oxidized to fumaric acid or be converted to diesters and this diethyl ester is a substrate in the Stobbe condensation. Dehydration of succinic acid gives succinic anhydride, succinate can be used to derive 1, 4-butanediol, maleic anhydride, succinimide, 2-pyrrolidinone and tetrahydrofuran. Historically, succinic acid was obtained from amber by distillation and has thus been known as spirit of amber, today, succinic acid is generated for human use synthetically or converted from biomass via fermentation. Common industrial routes of synthesis include partial hydrogenation of maleic acid, oxidation of 1, 4-butanediol, succinate is also produced petrochemically from butane via maleic anhydride. Additionally, genetic engineering of bacteria, such as Escherichia coli or Saccharomyces cerevisiae, has allowed for the high-yielding. Global production is estimated at 16,000 to 30,000 tons a year, in 2004, succinate was placed on the US Department of Energys list of top 12 platform chemicals from biomass. Succinic acid is a precursor to polyesters and a component of some alkyd resins. A key derivative of succinic acid,1, 4-butanediol, has industrial applications. The global market size for BDO was estimated at USD4.72 billion in 2013, BDO is a precursor to the common organic solvent THF and a precursor to polybutylene terephthalate, an engineering-grade thermoplastic. The automotive and electronics industries heavily rely on PBT to produce connectors, insulators, wheel covers, gearshift knobs, Succinic acid also serves as the bases of certain biodegradable polymers, which are of interest in tissue engineering applications
Succinate
Succinate
–
Succinic acid
30.
Fumarate
–
Fumaric acid or trans-butenedioic acid is the chemical compound with the formula HO2CCH=CHCO2H. This white crystalline compound is one of two isomeric unsaturated dicarboxylic acids, the other being maleic acid, in fumaric acid the carboxylic acid groups are trans and in maleic acid they are cis. Fumaric acid has a fruit-like taste, the salts and esters are known as fumarates. Fumarate can also refer to the C4H2O4−− ion, Fumaric acid was first prepared from succinic acid. A traditional synthesis involves oxidation of furfural using chlorate in the presence of a vanadium-based catalyst, currently, industrial synthesis of fumaric acid is mostly based on catalytic isomerisation of maleic acid in aqueous solutions at low pH. Maleic acid is accessible in large volumes as a product of maleic anhydride. The chemical properties of acid can be anticipated from its component functional groups. This weak acid forms a diester, it undergoes additions across the double bond, Fumaric acid does not combust in a bomb calorimeter under conditions where maleic acid deflagrates smoothly. Fumaric acid is found in fumitory, bolete mushrooms, lichen, fumarate is an intermediate in the citric acid cycle used by cells to produce energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate from food. It is formed by the oxidation of succinate by the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase, fumarate is then converted by the enzyme fumarase to malate. Human skin naturally produces fumaric acid when exposed to sunlight, fumarate is also a product of the urea cycle. Fumaric acid has been used as a food acidulant since 1946 and it is approved for use as a food additive in the EU, USA and Australia and New Zealand. As a food additive, it is used as an acidity regulator and it is generally used in beverages and baking powders for which requirements are placed on purity. As well as being a component of some artificial vinegar flavors, such as Salt and Vinegar flavored potato chips, in patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis, the ester dimethyl fumarate significantly reduced relapse and disability progression in a phase 3 trial. It activates the Nrf2 antioxidant response pathway, the primary defense against the cytotoxic effects of oxidative stress. Various Fumaric acid esters have specific immunomodulating properties which are responsible for effects in the treatment of psoriasis. In the Netherlands, Germany, Austria and the Benelux countries substances derived from fumaric acid have been used for half a century for this purpose, such studies should in the future help specify which psoriasis variants are suited to be treated with fumaric acid esters. Fumaric acid is present in the herb called Fumaria officinalis
Fumarate
–
Fumaric acid
31.
Emulsifier
–
An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible. Emulsions are part of a general class of two-phase systems of matter called colloids. Although the terms colloid and emulsion are sometimes used interchangeably, emulsion should be used when both phases, dispersed and continuous, are liquids, in an emulsion, one liquid is dispersed in the other. Examples of emulsions include vinaigrettes, homogenized milk, mayonnaise, the word emulsion comes from the Latin word for to milk, as milk is an emulsion of fat and water, along with other components. Two liquids can form different types of emulsions, as an example, oil and water can form, first, an oil-in-water emulsion, wherein the oil is the dispersed phase, and water is the dispersion medium. Second, they can form an emulsion, wherein water is the dispersed phase. Multiple emulsions are also possible, including a water-in-oil-in-water emulsion and an oil-in-water-in-oil emulsion, emulsions, being liquids, do not exhibit a static internal structure. The droplets dispersed in the matrix are usually assumed to be statistically distributed. The term emulsion is used to refer to the photo-sensitive side of photographic film. Such a photographic emulsion consist of silver halide colloidal particles dispersed in a gelatin matrix, nuclear emulsions are similar to photographic emulsions, except that they are used in particle physics to detect high-energy elementary particles. Emulsions contain both a dispersed and a phase, with the boundary between the phases called the interface. Emulsions tend to have an appearance because the many phase interfaces scatter light as it passes through the emulsion. Emulsions appear white when all light is scattered equally, if the emulsion is dilute enough, higher-frequency and low-wavelength light will be scattered more, and the emulsion will appear bluer – this is called the Tyndall effect. If the emulsion is concentrated enough, the color will be distorted toward comparatively longer wavelengths and this phenomenon is easily observable when comparing skimmed milk, which contains little fat, to cream, which contains a much higher concentration of milk fat. One example would be a mixture of water and oil, two special classes of emulsions – microemulsions and nanoemulsions, with droplet sizes below 100 nm – appear translucent. This property is due to the fact that lightwaves are scattered by the only if their sizes exceed about one-quarter of the wavelength of the incident light. Due to their similarity in appearance, translucent nanoemulsions and microemulsions are frequently confused, the required surfactant concentration in a microemulsion is, however, several times higher than that in a translucent nanoemulsion, and significantly exceeds the concentration of the dispersed phase. Because of many undesirable side-effects caused by surfactants, their presence is disadvantageous or prohibitive in many applications, in addition, the stability of a microemulsion is often easily compromised by dilution, by heating, or by changing pH levels
Emulsifier
–
A. Two immiscible liquids, not yet emulsified B. An emulsion of Phase II dispersed in Phase I C. The unstable emulsion progressively separates D. The
surfactant (outline around particles) positions itself on the interfaces between Phase II and Phase I, stabilizing the emulsion
32.
Alginate
–
Alginic acid, also called algin or alginate, is an anionic polysaccharide distributed widely in the cell walls of brown algae, where through binding with water it forms a viscous gum. Its colour ranges from white to yellowish-brown and it is sold in filamentous, granular or powdered forms. The monomers can appear in homopolymeric blocks of consecutive G-residues, consecutive M-residues or alternating M, alginates are refined from brown seaweeds. A wide variety of seaweeds of the phylum Phaeophyceae are harvested throughout the world to be converted into the raw material commonly known as sodium alginate. Sodium alginate has a wide use across a variety of industries including food, textile printing. Dental impression material utilizes alginate as its means of gelling, Alginate is both food and skin safe. Seaweeds can be classified into three groups based on pigmentation, brown, red and green. These broad groups are the Phaeophyceae, Rhodophyceae and Chlorophyceae, respectively, brown seaweeds are usually large, and range from the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera that is often 20 m long, to thick, leather-like seaweeds from 2-4 m long, to smaller species 30–60 cm long. None of the usual seaweeds for alginate production are cultivated and they cannot be grown by vegetative means, but must go through a reproductive cycle involving an alternation of generations. This makes cultivated brown seaweeds too expensive compared to the costs of harvesting and transporting wild seaweeds. The only exception is for Laminaria japonica, which is cultivated in China for food, alginates from different species of brown seaweed often have variations in their chemical structure, resulting in different physical properties. Commercial varieties of alginate are extracted from seaweed, including the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera, Ascophyllum nodosum and it is also produced by two bacterial genera Pseudomonas and Azotobacter, which played a major role in the unravelling of its biosynthesis pathway. Bacterial alginates are useful for the production of micro- or nanostructures suitable for medical applications, sodium alginate is the sodium salt of alginic acid. Sodium alginate is a gum, extracted from the walls of brown algae. Potassium alginate is a compound that is the potassium salt of alginic acid. It is an extract of seaweed and its empirical chemical formula is KC6H7O6. Calcium alginate, made from sodium alginate from which the salt has been removed and replaced with calcium, has the chemical formula C12H14CaO12. The processes for the manufacture of sodium alginate from brown seaweeds fall into two categories, 1) Calcium alginate method and, 2) Alginic acid method, the chemistry of the processes used to make sodium alginate from brown seaweeds is relatively simple
Alginate
–
Macrocystis pyrifera, the largest species of giant kelp
Alginate
–
Alginic acid
33.
Natural gum
–
Natural gums are polysaccharides of natural origin, capable of causing a large increase in a solution’s viscosity, even at small concentrations. In the food industry they are used as thickening agents, gelling agents, emulsifying agents, in other industries, they are also used as adhesives, binding agents, crystal inhibitors, clarifying agents, encapsulating agents, flocculating agents, swelling agents, foam stabilizers, etc. Most often these gums are found in the elements of plants or in seed coatings. Natural gums can be classified according to their origin and they can also be classified as uncharged or ionic polymers
Natural gum
–
Natural gum of plum tree
Natural gum
–
Animal products
34.
Polyethylene glycol
–
Polyethylene glycol is a polyether compound with many applications from industrial manufacturing to medicine. PEG is also known as polyethylene oxide or polyoxyethylene, depending on its molecular weight, the structure of PEG is commonly expressed as H−n−OH. PEG, PEO, and POE refer to an oligomer or polymer of ethylene oxide, the three names are chemically synonymous, but historically PEG is preferred in the biomedical field, whereas PEO is more prevalent in the field of polymer chemistry. PEG and PEO are liquids or low-melting solids, depending on their molecular weights, PEGs are prepared by polymerization of ethylene oxide and are commercially available over a wide range of molecular weights from 300 g/mol to 10,000,000 g/mol. Lower-molecular-weight PEGs are also available as purer oligomers, referred to as monodisperse, uniform, very high purity PEG has recently been shown to be crystalline, allowing determination of a crystal structure by x-ray diffraction. Since purification and separation of pure oligomers is difficult, the price for this type of quality is often 10–1000 fold that of polydisperse PEG, PEGs are also available with different geometries. Branched PEGs have three to ten PEG chains emanating from a core group. Star PEGs have 10 to 100 PEG chains emanating from a core group. Comb PEGs have multiple PEG chains normally grafted onto a polymer backbone, most PEGs include molecules with a distribution of molecular weights. The size distribution can be characterized statistically by its weight average molecular weight and its number average molecular weight, MW and Mn can be measured by mass spectrometry. PEGylation is the act of covalently coupling a PEG structure to another molecule, for example, a therapeutic protein. PEGylated interferon alfa-2a or −2b are commonly used injectable treatments for hepatitis C infection, PEG is soluble in water, methanol, ethanol, acetonitrile, benzene, and dichloromethane, and is insoluble in diethyl ether and hexane. It is coupled to hydrophobic molecules to produce non-ionic surfactants, PEGs contain potential toxic impurities, such as ethylene oxide and 1, 4-dioxane. Ethylene Glycol and its ethers are nephrotoxic if applied to damaged skin, polyethylene glycol and related polymers are often sonicated when used in biomedical applications. However, as reported by Murali et al, PEG is very sensitive to sonolytic degradation and PEG degradation products can be toxic to mammalian cells. It is, thus, imperative to assess potential PEG degradation to ensure that the material does not contain undocumented contaminants that can introduce artifacts into experimental results. PEGs and methoxypolyethylene glycols are manufactured by Dow Chemical under the tradename Carbowax for industrial use and they vary in consistency from liquid to solid, depending on the molecular weight, as indicated by a number following the name. Some specific groups are lauromacrogols, nonoxynols, octoxynols, and poloxamers, macrogol, used as a laxative, is a form of polyethylene glycol
Polyethylene glycol
–
Polyethylene oxide (PEO,
Mw 4
kDa) nanometric crystallites (4 nm)
Polyethylene glycol
–
Polyethylene glycol
Polyethylene glycol
–
The remains of the 16th century
carrack Mary Rose undergoing conservation treatment with PEG in the 1980s
35.
Cellulose
–
Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula n, a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to many thousands of β linked D-glucose units. Cellulose is an important structural component of the cell wall of green plants, many forms of algae. Some species of bacteria secrete it to form biofilms, Cellulose is the most abundant organic polymer on Earth. The cellulose content of cotton fiber is 90%, that of wood is 40–50%, Cellulose is mainly used to produce paperboard and paper. Smaller quantities are converted into a variety of derivative products such as cellophane. Conversion of cellulose from energy crops into biofuels such as ethanol is under investigation as an alternative fuel source. Cellulose for industrial use is mainly obtained from wood pulp and cotton, some animals, particularly ruminants and termites, can digest cellulose with the help of symbiotic micro-organisms that live in their guts, such as Trichonympha. In humans, cellulose acts as a bulking agent for feces and is often referred to as a dietary fiber. Cellulose was discovered in 1838 by the French chemist Anselme Payen, Cellulose was used to produce the first successful thermoplastic polymer, celluloid, by Hyatt Manufacturing Company in 1870. Production of rayon from cellulose began in the 1890s and cellophane was invented in 1912, hermann Staudinger determined the polymer structure of cellulose in 1920. The compound was first chemically synthesized in 1992, by Kobayashi, Cellulose has no taste, is odorless, is hydrophilic with the contact angle of 20–30 degrees, is insoluble in water and most organic solvents, is chiral and is biodegradable. It was shown to melt at 467 °C in 2016 and it can be broken down chemically into its glucose units by treating it with concentrated mineral acids at high temperature. Cellulose is derived from D-glucose units, which condense through β-glycosidic bonds and this linkage motif contrasts with that for α-glycosidic bonds present in starch and glycogen. This confers tensile strength in cell walls, where cellulose microfibrils are meshed into a polysaccharide matrix, compared to starch, cellulose is also much more crystalline. Whereas starch undergoes a crystalline to amorphous transition when heated beyond 60–70 °C in water, cellulose requires a temperature of 320 °C, several different crystalline structures of cellulose are known, corresponding to the location of hydrogen bonds between and within strands. Natural cellulose is cellulose I, with structures Iα and Iβ, Cellulose produced by bacteria and algae is enriched in Iα while cellulose of higher plants consists mainly of Iβ. Cellulose in regenerated cellulose fibers is cellulose II, the conversion of cellulose I to cellulose II is irreversible, suggesting that cellulose I is metastable and cellulose II is stable. With various chemical treatments it is possible to produce the structures cellulose III, many properties of cellulose depend on its chain length or degree of polymerization, the number of glucose units that make up one polymer molecule
Cellulose
–
A triple strand of cellulose showing the hydrogen bonds (cyan lines) between glucose strands
Cellulose
–
Cellulose
Cellulose
–
Cotton fibres represent the purest natural form of cellulose, containing more than 90% of this
polysaccharide.
36.
Fatty acid
–
In chemistry, particularly in biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with a long aliphatic chain, which is either saturated or unsaturated. Most naturally occurring fatty acids have a chain of an even number of carbon atoms. Fatty acids are derived from triglycerides or phospholipids. Fatty acids are important dietary sources of fuel for animals because, many cell types can use either glucose or fatty acids for this purpose. Fatty acids that have double bonds are known as unsaturated. Fatty acids without double bonds are known as saturated and they differ in length as well. Fatty acid chains differ by length, often categorized as short to very long, short-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of five or fewer carbons. Medium-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 6–12 carbons, long-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 13 to 21 carbons. Very long chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 22 or more carbons, unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds between carbon atoms. The two carbon atoms in the chain that are next to either side of the double bond can occur in a cis or trans configuration. Cis A cis configuration means that the two atoms adjacent to the double bond stick out on the same side of the chain. The rigidity of the double bond freezes its conformation and, in the case of the cis isomer, causes the chain to bend, the more double bonds the chain has in the cis configuration, the less flexibility it has. When a chain has many cis bonds, it becomes quite curved in its most accessible conformations, for example, oleic acid, with one double bond, has a kink in it, whereas linoleic acid, with two double bonds, has a more pronounced bend. α-Linolenic acid, with three bonds, favors a hooked shape. Trans A trans configuration, by contrast, means that the adjacent two hydrogen atoms lie on opposite sides of the chain, as a result, they do not cause the chain to bend much, and their shape is similar to straight saturated fatty acids. In most naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids, each bond has three n carbon atoms after it, for some n, and all are cis bonds. Most fatty acids in the configuration are not found in nature and are the result of human processing. Fatty acids that are required by the body but cannot be made in sufficient quantity from other substrates
Fatty acid
–
Three-dimensional representations of several fatty acids
Fatty acid
–
Comparison of the
trans isomer Elaidic acid (top) and the cis isomer
oleic acid (bottom).
37.
PH
–
In chemistry, pH is a numeric scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. It is approximately the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the concentration, measured in units of moles per liter. More precisely it is the negative of the logarithm to base 10 of the activity of the hydrogen ion, solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic. Pure water is neutral, at pH7, being neither an acid nor a base, contrary to popular belief, the pH value can be less than 0 or greater than 14 for very strong acids and bases respectively. The pH scale is traceable to a set of standard solutions whose pH is established by international agreement, the pH of aqueous solutions can be measured with a glass electrode and a pH meter, or an indicator. In the first papers, the notation had the H as a subscript to the p, as so. The exact meaning of the p in pH is disputed, but according to the Carlsberg Foundation and it has also been suggested that the p stands for the German Potenz, others refer to French puissance. Another suggestion is that the p stands for the Latin terms pondus hydrogenii, potentia hydrogenii and it is also suggested that Sørensen used the letters p and q simply to label the test solution and the reference solution. Currently in chemistry, the p stands for decimal cologarithm of, PH is defined as the decimal logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion activity, aH+, in a solution. P H = − log 10 = log 10 For example and this definition was adopted because ion-selective electrodes, which are used to measure pH, respond to activity. For H+ number of electrons transferred is one and it follows that electrode potential is proportional to pH when pH is defined in terms of activity. The reference electrode may be a silver chloride electrode or a calomel electrode, the hydrogen-ion selective electrode is a standard hydrogen electrode. Reference electrode | concentrated solution of KCl || test solution | H2 | Pt Firstly, the cell is filled with a solution of hydrogen ion activity. Then the emf, EX, of the cell containing the solution of unknown pH is measured. PH = pH + E S − E X z The difference between the two measured emf values is proportional to pH and this method of calibration avoids the need to know the standard electrode potential. The proportionality constant, 1/z is ideally equal to 12.303 R T / F the Nernstian slope, to apply this process in practice, a glass electrode is used rather than the cumbersome hydrogen electrode. A combined glass electrode has a reference electrode. It is calibrated against buffer solutions of hydrogen ion activity
PH
–
Lemon juice tastes sour because it contains 5% to 6%
citric acid, which has a pH of 2.2.
PH
–
Chart showing the variation of color of universal indicator paper with pH
PH
–
pH values of some common substances
38.
Chloride
–
The chloride ion /ˈklɔəraɪd/ is the anion Cl−. It is formed when the element chlorine gains an electron or when a compound such as chloride is dissolved in water or other polar solvents. Chloride salts such as sodium chloride are often soluble in water. It is an essential electrolyte located in all body fluids responsible for maintaining acid/base balance, transmitting nerve impulses and regulating fluid in, less frequently, the word chloride may also form part of the common name of chemical compounds in which one or more chlorine atoms are covalently bonded. For example, methyl chloride, with the standard name chloromethane is a compound with a covalent C−Cl bond in which the chlorine is not an anion. A chloride ion is much larger than an atom,167 and 99 pm. The ion is colorless and diamagnetic, in aqueous solution, it is highly soluble in most cases, however, some chloride salts, such as silver chloride, lead chloride, and mercury chloride are slightly soluble in water. In aqueous solution, chloride is bound by the end of the water molecules. Some chloride-containing minerals include the chlorides of sodium, potassium, and magnesium, called serum chloride, the concentration of chloride in the blood is regulated by the kidneys. A chloride ion is a component of some proteins, e. g. it is present in the amylase enzyme. The chlor-alkali industry is a consumer of the worlds energy budget. This process converts sodium chloride into chlorine and sodium hydroxide, which are used to make many other materials and chemicals, in the petroleum industry, the chlorides are a closely monitored constituent of the mud system. An increase of the chlorides in the mud system may be an indication of drilling into a high-pressure saltwater formation and its increase can also indicate the poor quality of a target sand. Chloride is also a useful and reliable chemical indicator of river / groundwater fecal contamination, as chloride is a non-reactive solute, many water regulating companies around the world utilize chloride to check the contamination levels of the rivers and potable water sources. Chloride salts such as sodium chloride are used to preserve food, chloride is an essential electrolyte, trafficking in and out of cells through chloride channels and playing a key role in maintaining cell homeostasis and transmitting action potentials in neurons. Characteristic concentrations of chloride in model organisms are, in both E. coli and budding yeast are 10-200mM, in mammalian cell 5-100mM and in blood plasma 100mM, chloride can be oxidized but not reduced. The first oxidation, as employed in the process, is conversion to chlorine gas. Chlorine can be oxidized to other oxides and oxyanions including hypochlorite, chlorine dioxide, chlorate
Chloride
–
Crystals of sodium chloride, which, like most chloride salts is colorless and water-soluble.
39.
Sulphate
–
The sulfate or sulphate ion is a polyatomic anion with the empirical formula SO2−4. Sulfate is the spelling recommended by IUPAC, but sulphate is used in British English, salts, acid derivatives, and peroxides of sulfate are widely used in industry. Sulfates occur widely in everyday life, sulfates are salts of sulfuric acid and many are prepared from that acid. The sulfate anion consists of a sulfur atom surrounded by four equivalent oxygen atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement. The symmetry is the same as that of methane, the sulfur atom is in the +6 oxidation state while the four oxygen atoms are each in the state. The sulfate ion carries a charge of −2 and it is the conjugate base of the bisulfate ion, HSO−4. Organic sulfate esters, such as sulfate, are covalent compounds. The tetrahedral molecular geometry of the ion is as predicted by VSEPR theory. Later, Linus Pauling used valence bond theory to propose that the most significant resonance canonicals had two pi bonds involving d orbitals and his reasoning was that the charge on sulfur was thus reduced, in accordance with his principle of electroneutrality. The S−O bond length of 149 pm is shorter than the bond lengths in sulfuric acid of 157 pm for S−OH, the double bonding was taken by Pauling to account for the shortness of the S−O bond. Paulings use of d orbitals provoked a debate on the importance of π bonding. The outcome was a consensus that d orbitals play a role. A widely accepted description involving pπ – dπ bonding was initially proposed by D. W. J. Cruickshank, in this model, fully occupied p orbitals on oxygen overlap with empty sulfur d orbitals. However, in description, despite there being some π character to the S−O bonds. For sulfuric acid, computational analysis confirms a positive charge on sulfur. Therefore, the representation with four single bonds is the optimal Lewis structure rather than the one with two double bonds, in this model, the structure obeys the octet rule and the charge distribution is in agreement with the electronegativity of the atoms. However, the representation of Pauling for sulfate and other main group compounds with oxygen is still a common way of representing the bonding in many textbooks. On the other hand, in the structure with an ionic bond, exceptions include calcium sulfate, strontium sulfate, lead sulfate, and barium sulfate, which are poorly soluble
Sulphate
–
Sulfate
40.
Hydroxide
–
Hydroxide is a diatomic anion with chemical formula OH−. It consists of an oxygen and hydrogen atom held together by a covalent bond and it is an important but usually minor constituent of water. It functions as a base, a ligand, a nucleophile, the hydroxide ion forms salts, some of which dissociate in aqueous solution, liberating solvated hydroxide ions. Sodium hydroxide is a multi-million-ton per annum commodity chemical, a hydroxide attached to a strongly electropositive center may itself ionize, liberating a hydrogen cation, making the parent compound an acid. The corresponding electrically neutral compound •HO is the hydroxyl radical, the corresponding covalently-bound group –OH of atoms is the hydroxyl group. Hydroxide ion and hydroxyl group are nucleophiles and can act as a catalyst in organic chemistry, many inorganic substances which bear the word hydroxide in their names are not ionic compounds of the hydroxide ion, but covalent compounds which contain hydroxyl groups. The pH of a solution is equal to the decimal cologarithm of the cation concentration. The concentration of ions can be expressed in terms of pOH. Addition of a base to water will reduce the hydrogen cation concentration, POH can be kept at a nearly constant value with various buffer solutions. In aqueous solution the hydroxide ion is a base in the Brønsted–Lowry sense as it can accept a proton from a Brønsted–Lowry acid to form a water molecule and it can also act as a Lewis base by donating a pair of electrons to a Lewis acid. In aqueous solution both hydrogen and hydroxide ions are solvated, with hydrogen bonds between oxygen and hydrogen atoms. Indeed, the bihydroxide ion H 3O−2 has been characterized in the solid state and this compound is centrosymmetric and has a very short hydrogen bond that is similar to the length in the bifluoride ion HF−2. In aqueous solution the hydroxide ion forms strong bonds with water molecules. A consequence of this is that concentrated solutions of sodium hydroxide have high viscosity due to the formation of a network of hydrogen bonds as in hydrogen fluoride solutions. In solution, exposed to air, the ion reacts rapidly with atmospheric carbon dioxide, acting as an acid, to form, initially. OH− + CO2 ⇌ HCO−3 The equilibrium constant for this reaction can be specified either as a reaction with dissolved carbon dioxide or as a reaction with carbon dioxide gas. At neutral or acid pH, the reaction is slow, but is catalyzed by the carbonic anhydrase. Solutions containing the hydroxide ion attack glass, in this case, the silicates in glass are acting as acids
Hydroxide
–
Hydroxide
41.
Alkali metal
–
The alkali metals are a group in the periodic table consisting of the chemical elements lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, and francium. Indeed, the alkali metals provide the best example of trends in properties in the periodic table. The alkali metals are all shiny, soft, highly reactive metals at standard temperature and pressure and they can all be cut easily with a knife due to their softness, exposing a shiny surface that tarnishes rapidly in air due to oxidation by atmospheric moisture and oxygen. Because of their reactivity, they must be stored under oil to prevent reaction with air. Caesium, the alkali metal, is the most reactive of all the metals. All the alkali metals react with water, with the alkali metals reacting more vigorously than the lighter ones. Experiments have been conducted to attempt the synthesis of ununennium, which is likely to be the member of the group. Most alkali metals have different applications. One of the applications of the pure elements is the use of rubidium and caesium in atomic clocks, of which caesium atomic clocks are the most accurate. A common application of the compounds of sodium is the sodium-vapour lamp, table salt, or sodium chloride, has been used since antiquity. The physical and chemical properties of the alkali metals can be explained by their having an ns1 valence electron configuration. Hence, all the metals are soft and have low densities, melting and boiling points, as well as heats of sublimation, vaporisation. They all crystallise in the cubic crystal structure, and have distinctive flame colours because their outer s electron is very easily excited. The ns1 configuration also results in the alkali metals having very large atomic and ionic radii, most of the chemistry has been observed only for the first five members of the group. The chemistry of francium is not well established due to its radioactivity, thus. What little is known about francium shows that it is close in behaviour to caesium. The physical properties of francium are even sketchier because the element has never been observed. The alkali metals are more similar to other than the elements in any other group are to each other
Alkali metal
–
Lithium (Li) 3
Alkali metal
–
Sodium (Na) 11
Alkali metal
–
Potassium (K) 19
Alkali metal
–
Rubidium (Rb) 37
42.
Silicate
–
A silicate is a compound containing an anionic silicon compound. The great majority of the silicates are oxides, but hexafluorosilicate, orthosilicate is the anion SiO4−4 or its compounds. Related to orthosilicate are families of anions with the formula 2n−, important members are the cyclic and single chain silicates n and the sheet-forming silicates n. Silicates constitute the majority of Earths crust, as well as the terrestrial planets, rocky moons. Sand, Portland cement, and thousands of minerals are examples of silicates, silicate compounds, including the minerals, consist of silicate anions whose charge is balanced by various cations. Myriad silicate anions can exist, and each can form compounds with many different cations, hence this class of compounds is very large. Both minerals and synthetic materials fit in this class, in the vast majority of silicates, including silicate minerals, the Si occupies a tetrahedral environment, being surrounded by 4 oxygen centres. In these structures, the bonds to silicon conform to the octet rule. These tetrahedra sometimes occur as isolated SiO4−4 centres, but most commonly, commonly the silicate anions are chains, double chains, sheets, and three-dimensional frameworks. All these such species have negligible solubility in water at normal conditions, silicates are well characterized as solids, but are less commonly observed in solution. The anion SiO4−4 is the base of silicic acid, Si4. Instead, solutions of silicates are usually observed as mixtures of condensed, the nature of soluble silicates is relevant to understanding biomineralization and the synthesis of aluminosilicates, such as the industrially important catalysts called zeolites. Although the tetrahedron is the coordination geometry for silicon compounds. A well-known example of such a high number is hexafluorosilicate. Octahedral coordination by 6 oxygen centres is observed, at very high pressure, even SiO2 adopts this geometry in the mineral stishovite, a dense polymorph of silica found in the lower mantle of the Earth. This structure is formed by shock during meteorite impacts. In geology and astronomy, the silicate is used to denote types of rock that consist predominantly of silicate minerals. On Earth, a variety of silicate minerals occur in an even wider range of combinations as a result of the processes that form
Silicate
–
Diatomaceous earth, as viewed under a microscope, is a soft,
siliceous,
sedimentary rock made up of the
frustules (shells) of single cell
diatoms. Diatom cell walls are made up of biogenic
silica; silica synthesised in the diatom cell by the
polymerisation of
silicic acid. This image of diatomaceous earth particles in
water is at a scale of 6.236 pixels/
μm, the entire image covers a region of approximately 1.13 by 0.69 mm.
Silicate
–
Basic
(ortho-)silicate oxoanion (SiO 4 −4) structure
43.
Gluconate
–
Gluconic acid is an organic compound with molecular formula C6H12O7 and condensed structural formula HOCH24COOH. It is one of the 16 stereoisomers of 2,3,4,5, in aqueous solution at neutral pH, gluconic acid forms the gluconate ion. The salts of gluconic acid are known as gluconates, gluconic acid, gluconate salts, and gluconate esters occur widely in nature because such species arise from the oxidation of glucose. Some drugs are injected in the form of gluconates, the chemical structure of gluconic acid consists of a six-carbon chain with five hydroxyl groups terminating in a carboxylic acid group. In aqueous solution, gluconic acid exists in equilibrium with the cyclic ester glucono delta-lactone, gluconic acid occurs naturally in fruit, honey, and wine. As a food additive, it is an acidity regulator and it is also used in cleaning products, where it dissolves mineral deposits, especially in alkaline solution. The gluconate anion chelates Ca2+, Fe2+, Al3+, and other metals, in 1929 Horace Terhune Herrick developed a process for producing the salt by fermentation. Gluconate is also a present in certain solutions, such as plasmalyte a. Quinine gluconate is a salt between gluconic acid and quinine, which is used for injection in the treatment of malaria. Zinc gluconate injections are used to neuter male dogs, ferrous gluconate injections have been proposed in the past to treat anemia. Gluconic acid on NIST. gov ChemSub Online, D-Gluconic acid
Gluconate
–
D -Gluconic acid
44.
Glutamate
–
Glutamic acid is an α-amino acid with formula C 5H 9O 4N. It is usually abbreviated as Glu or E in biochemistry and its molecular structure could be idealized as HOOC-CH-2-COOH, with two carboxyl groups -COOH and one amino group -NH2. However, in the state and mildly acid water solutions. Glutamic acid is used by almost all living beings in the biosynthesis of proteins and it is non-essential in humans, meaning the body can synthesize it. The acid can lose one proton from second carboxyl group to form the conjugate base and this form of the compound is prevalent in neutral solutions. The glutamate neurotransmitter plays the role in neural activation. This anion is also responsible for the flavor of certain foods. In highly alkaline solutions the doubly negative anion −OOC-CH-2-COO− prevails, the radical corresponding to glutamate is called glutamyl. When glutamic acid is dissolved in water, the group may gain a proton, and/or the carboxyl groups may lose protons. In sufficiently acid environments, the group gains a proton. At pH values between about 2.5 and 4.1, the carboxylic acid closer to the amine generally loses a proton, and the acid becomes the neutral zwitterion −OOC-CH-2-COOH. This is also the form of the compound in the solid state. The switchover is gradual, the two forms are in equal concentrations at pH2.10, at even higher pH, the other carboxyl loses its proton and the acid exists almost entirely as the glutamate anion −OOC-CH-2-COO−, with a single negative charge. The switchover occurs at pH4.07, the latter is the case, in particular, in the physiological pH range. At even higher pH, the group loses the extra proton. The switchover occurs at pH9.47, the carbon atom adjacent to the amino group is chiral, so glutamic acid can exist in two optical isomers, D and L. The L form is the one most widely occurring in nature, but the D form occurs in special contexts, such as the cell walls of the bacterium Escherichia coli. Although they occur naturally in foods, the flavor contributions made by glutamic acid
Glutamate
Glutamate
–
Glutamic acid
45.
Antibiotics
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Antibiotics, also called antibacterials, are a type of antimicrobial drug used in the treatment and prevention of bacterial infections. They may either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria, a limited number of antibiotics also possess antiprotozoal activity. Antibiotics are not effective against viruses such as the cold or influenza. Drugs which inhibit viruses are termed antiviral drugs or antivirals rather than antibiotics, sometimes the term antibiotic is used to refer to any substance used against microbes, synonymous with antimicrobial. Some sources distinguish between antibacterial and antibiotic, antibacterials are used in soaps and disinfectants, while antibiotics are used as medicine, Antibiotics revolutionized medicine in the 20th century, and have together with vaccination led to the near eradication of diseases such as tuberculosis in the developed world. However, their effectiveness and easy access led to overuse, especially in raising, prompting bacteria to develop resistance. All classes of antibiotics in use today were first discovered prior to the mid 1980s, substances with antibiotic properties had been used for various purposes since ancient times. Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore, mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used specially selected mold and plant materials, more recent observations made in the laboratory of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials produced by microorganisms. Louis Pasteur observed, if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics. In 1874, physician Sir William Roberts noted that cultures of the mold Penicillium glaucum that is used in the making of types of blue cheese did not display bacterial contamination. In 1876, physicist John Tyndall also contributed to this field, Louis Pasteur conducted research showing that Bacillus anthracis would not grow in the presence of the related mold Penicillium notatum. In his thesis, Duchesne proposed that bacteria and molds engage in a battle for survival. Duchesne observed that E. coli was eliminated by the fungus Penicillium glaucum when they were grown in the same culture. He also observed that when he inoculated animals with lethal doses of typhoid bacilli together with Penicillium glaucum. Unfortunately Duchesnes army service after getting his degree prevented him from doing any further research, Duchesne died of tuberculosis, a disease now treated by antibiotics. In 1928, Sir Alexander Fleming identified penicillin, a molecule produced by molds that kills or stops the growth of certain kinds of bacteria. Fleming was working on a culture of disease-causing bacteria when he noticed the spores of a mold, Penicillium chrysogenum
Antibiotics
–
Testing the susceptibility of
Staphylococcus aureus to antibiotics by the
Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method – antibiotics diffuse from antibiotic-containing disks and inhibit growth of S. aureus, resulting in a zone of inhibition.
Antibiotics
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Health advocacy messages such as this one encourage patients to talk with their doctor about safety in using antibiotics.
Antibiotics
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Scanning electron micrograph of a human
neutrophil ingesting
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
Antibiotics
–
Alexander Fleming
46.
Wax
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Waxes are a diverse class of organic compounds that are hydrophobic, malleable solids near ambient temperatures. They include higher alkanes and lipids, typically with melting points above about 40 °C, waxes are insoluble in water but soluble in organic, nonpolar solvents. Natural waxes of different types are produced by plants and animals, waxes are organic compounds that characteristically consist of long alkyl chains. They may also include various groups such as fatty acids, primary and secondary long chain alcohols, unsaturated bonds, aromatics, amides, ketones. They frequently contain fatty acid esters as well, synthetic waxes are often long-chain hydrocarbons that lack functional groups. Waxes are synthesized by plants and animals. Those of animal origin typically consist of wax esters derived from a variety of carboxylic acids, in waxes of plant origin characteristic mixtures of unesterified hydrocarbons may predominate over esters. The composition depends not only on species, but also on location of the organism. The most commonly known animal wax is beeswax, but other insects secrete waxes, a major component of the beeswax used in constructing honeycombs is the ester myricyl palmitate which is an ester of triacontanol and palmitic acid. Its melting point is 62-65 °C, spermaceti occurs in large amounts in the head oil of the sperm whale. One of its constituents is cetyl palmitate, another ester of a fatty acid. Lanolin is a wax obtained from wool, consisting of esters of sterols, plants secrete waxes into and on the surface of their cuticles as a way to control evaporation, wettability and hydration. From the commercial perspective, the most important plant wax is carnauba wax, containing the ester myricyl cerotate, it has many applications, such as confectionery and other food coatings, car and furniture polish, floss coating, and surfboard wax. Other more specialized vegetable waxes include candelilla wax and ouricury wax, plant and animal based waxes or oils can undergo selective chemical modifications to produce waxes with more desirable properties than are available in the unmodified starting material. This approach has relied on green chemistry approaches including olefin metathesis and enzymatic reactions, although many natural waxes contain esters, paraffin waxes are hydrocarbons, mixtures of alkanes usually in a homologous series of chain lengths. These materials represent a significant fraction of petroleum and they are refined by vacuum distillation. Paraffin waxes are mixtures of saturated n- and iso- alkanes, naphthenes, a typical alkane paraffin wax chemical composition comprises hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2, such as Hentriacontane, C31H64. The degree of branching has an important influence on the properties, millions of tons of paraffin waxes are produced annually
Wax
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Commercial
honeycomb foundation, made by pressing beeswax between patterned metal rollers.
Wax
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Ceroline brand wax for floors and furniture, first half of 20th century. From the
Museo del Objeto del Objeto collection
Wax
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Wax candle.
Wax
–
A typical modern
wax sculpture of
Cecilia Cheung at
Madame Tussauds Hong Kong.
47.
Sugar substitute
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A sugar substitute is a food additive that provides a sweet taste like that of sugar while containing significantly less food energy. Some sugar substitutes are produced by nature, and others produced synthetically and those that are not produced by nature are, in general, called artificial sweeteners. An important class of sugar substitutes is known as high-intensity sweeteners and these are compounds with many times the sweetness of sucrose, common table sugar. As a result, much less sweetener is required and energy contribution is often negligible, the sensation of sweetness caused by these compounds is sometimes notably different from sucrose, so they are often used in complex mixtures that achieve the most natural sweet sensation. If the sucrose that is replaced has contributed to the texture of the product, in the United States, seven intensely sweet sugar substitutes have been approved for use. They are stevia, aspartame, sucralose, neotame, acesulfame potassium, saccharin, cyclamates are used outside the U. S. but have been prohibited in the U. S. since 1969. Others, which may or may not be approved depending on jurisdiction, include allulose, the U. S. Food and Drug Administration regulates artificial sweeteners as food additives. Food additives must be approved by the FDA, which publishes a generally recognized as safe list of additives, stevia is exempt under the FDAs GRAS policy due to its being a natural substance in wide use well before 1958, and the FDA has approved it on these grounds. The conclusions about safety are based on a review of a large body of information. The majority of sugar substitutes approved for use are artificially synthesized compounds. However, some bulk natural sugar substitutes are known, including sorbitol and xylitol, which are found in berries, fruit, vegetables and it is not commercially viable to extract these products from fruits and vegetables, so they are produced by catalytic hydrogenation of the appropriate reducing sugar. For example, xylose is converted to xylitol, lactose to lactitol, other natural substitutes are known, but these have yet to gain official approval for food use. Sorbitol and xylitol are examples of sugar alcohols and these are, in general, less sweet than sucrose but have similar bulk properties and can be used in a wide range of food products. Sometimes the sweetness profile is fine-tuned by mixing these with high-intensity sweeteners, as with all food products, the development of a formulation to replace sucrose is a complex proprietary process. This allows them to eat the foods they normally would while allowing them to lose weight. Dental care – Carbohydrates and sugars usually adhere to the tooth enamel, the bacteria convert the sugar to acids that decay the teeth. Sugar substitutes, unlike sugar, do not erode teeth as they are not fermented by the microflora of the dental plaque. A sweetener that can actually benefit dental health is xylitol, which tends to prevent bacteria from adhering to the surface, thus preventing plaque formation
Sugar substitute
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Packets of
Assugrin, a brand of
cyclamate.
Sugar substitute
–
Cyclamate-based sugar substitute sold in Canada.
Sugar substitute
–
Saccharin, historical wrapping;
Sugar Museum (Berlin)
48.
Curcumin
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Curcumin is a bright yellow chemical produced by some plants. It is the principal curcuminoid of turmeric, a member of the ginger family and it is sold as an herbal supplement, cosmetics ingredient, food flavoring, and food coloring. As a food additive, its E number is E100 and it was isolated in 1815 when Vogel and Pelletier reported the isolation of a yellow coloring-matter from the rhizomes of turmeric and named it curcumin. Although curcumin has been used historically in Ayurvedic medicine, its potential for medicinal properties remains unproven and is doubted as a therapy when used orally, chemically, curcumin is a diarylheptanoid, belonging to the group of curcuminoids, which are natural phenols responsible for turmerics yellow color. It is a tautomeric compound existing in enolic form in organic solvents, the most common applications are as a dietary supplement, in cosmetics, as a food coloring, and as flavoring for foods such as turmeric-flavored beverages. Annual sales of curcumin have increased since 2012, largely due to an increase in its popularity as a dietary supplement and it is increasingly popular in skin care products that are marketed as containing natural ingredients or dyes, especially in Asia. The largest market is in North America, where sales exceeded US$20 million in 2014, curcumin incorporates several functional groups whose structure was first identified in 1910. The aromatic ring systems, which are phenols, are connected by two α, β-unsaturated carbonyl groups, the diketones form stable enols and are readily deprotonated to form enolates, the α, β-unsaturated carbonyl group is a good Michael acceptor and undergoes nucleophilic addition. Curcumin is used as an indicator for boron and it reacts with boric acid to form a red-color compound, rosocyanine. The biosynthetic route of curcumin is uncertain, in 1973, Roughly and Whiting proposed two mechanisms for curcumin biosynthesis. The first mechanism involves a chain reaction by cinnamic acid and 5 malonyl-CoA molecules that eventually arylized into a curcuminoid. The second mechanism involves two cinnamate units coupled together by malonyl-CoA, both use cinnamic acid as their starting point, which is derived from the amino acid phenylalanine. Plant biosyntheses starting with cinnamic acid is rare compared to the more common p-coumaric acid, only a few identified compounds, such as anigorufone and pinosylvin, build from cinnamic acid. In vitro, curcumin exhibits numerous interference properties which may lead to misinterpretation of results, although curcumin has been assessed in numerous laboratory and clinical studies, it has no medical uses established by well-designed clinical research. Cancer studies using curcumin conducted by Bharat Aggarwal, formerly a researcher at the MD Anderson Cancer Center, were deemed fraudulent, curcumin, which shows positive results in most drug discovery assays, may be a false lead that medicinal chemists refer to as pan-assay interference compounds. In vitro, curcumin has been shown to inhibit certain enzymes, transcriptional co-activator proteins. Two preliminary clinical studies in cancer patients consuming high doses of curcumin showed no toxicity, curcumin appears to reduce circulating C-reactive protein in human subjects, although no dose-response relationship was established. Turmeric and curcumin, from Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center Turmeric, from the University of Maryland Medical Center
Curcumin
–
Curcumin
49.
Turmeric
–
Turmeric is a rhizomatous herbaceous perennial plant of the ginger family, Zingiberaceae. It is native to southern Asia, requiring temperatures between 20 and 30 °C and an amount of annual rainfall to thrive. Plants are gathered annually for their rhizomes and propagated from some of those rhizomes in the following season, although long-used in Ayurvedic medicine to treat various diseases, there is little high-quality clinical evidence for use of turmeric or its main constituent, curcumin, as a therapy. Turmeric has been used in Asia for thousands of years and is a part of Siddha medicine. It was first used as a dye, and then later for its medicinal properties, the origin of the name is uncertain, possibly deriving from Middle English/early modern English as turmeryte or tarmaret. Speculation exists that it may be of Latin origin, terra merita, the name of the genus, Curcuma, is from an Arabic name of both saffron and turmeric. Turmeric is a herbaceous plant that reaches up to 1 m tall. Highly branched, yellow to orange, cylindrical, aromatic rhizomes are found, the leaves are alternate and arranged in two rows. They are divided into leaf sheath, petiole, and leaf blade, from the leaf sheaths, a false stem is formed. The petiole is 50 to 115 cm long, the simple leaf blades are usually 76 to 115 cm long and rarely up to 230 cm. They have a width of 38 to 45 cm and are oblong to elliptic, in China, the flowering time is usually in August. Terminally on the stem is a 12 to 20 cm long inflorescence stem containing many flowers. The bracts are green and ovate to oblong with a blunt upper end with a length of 3 to 5 cm. At the top of the inflorescence, stem bracts are present on which no flowers occur, these are white to green and sometimes, tinged reddish-purple, the hermaphrodite flowers are zygomorphic and threefold. The three 0.8 to 1.2 cm long sepals are fused, white, have fluffy hairs, the three bright-yellow petals are fused into a corolla tube up to 3 cm long. The three corolla lobes have a length of 1.0 to 1.5 cm, and are triangular with soft-spiny upper ends, while the average corolla lobe is larger than the two lateral, only the median stamen of the inner circle is fertile. The dust bag is spurred at its base, all other stamens are converted to staminodes. The outer staminodes are shorter than the labellum, the labellum is yellowish, with a yellow ribbon in its center and it is obovate, with a length from 1.2 to 2.0 cm
Turmeric
–
Turmeric
Turmeric
Turmeric
–
Botanical view of Curcuma longa
Turmeric
–
Turmeric field in an Indian village
