1.
Chief Justice of the United States
–
The Chief Justice of the United States is the head of the United States federal court system and the chief judge of the Supreme Court of the United States. The Chief Justice is one of nine Supreme Court justices, the eight are the Associate Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States. From 1789 until 1866, the office was known as the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, the Chief Justice also serves as a spokesperson for the judicial branch. The Chief Justice leads the business of the Supreme Court and presides over oral arguments, when the court renders an opinion, the Chief Justice—when in the majority—decides who writes the courts opinion. The Chief Justice also has significant agenda-setting power over the courts meetings, in the case of an impeachment of a President of the United States, which has occurred twice, the Chief Justice presides over the trial in the Senate. In modern tradition, the Chief Justice also has the duty of administering the oath of office of the President of the United States. The first Chief Justice was John Jay, the 17th and current Chief Justice is John G. Roberts, Jr. The office was known as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and is still informally referred to using that title. However,28 U. S. C. §1 specifies that the title is Chief Justice of the United States, the title was changed from Chief Justice of the Supreme Court by Congress in 1866 at the suggestion of the sixth Chief Justice, Salmon P. Chase. Chase wished to emphasize the Supreme Courts role as a branch of government. The first Chief Justice commissioned using the new title was Melville Fuller in 1888, use of the previous title when referring to Chief Justices John Jay through Roger B. Taney is technically correct, as that was the title during their time on the court. The other eight members of the court are officially Associate Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States, the Chief Justice is the only member of the court to whom the Constitution refers as a Justice, and only in Article I. Article III of the Constitution refers to all members of the Supreme Court simply as Judges, the Chief Justice is nominated by the President of the United States and confirmed to sit on the Court by the United States Senate. The salary of the Chief Justice is set by Congress, the Constitution prohibits Congress from lowering the salary of any judge, including the Chief Justice, while that judge holds office. As of 2015, the salary is $258,100 per year, which is higher than that of the Associate Justices. Three serving Associate Justices have received promotions to Chief Justice, Edward Douglass White in 1910, Harlan Fiske Stone in 1941, Associate Justice Abe Fortas was nominated to the position of Chief Justice of the United States, but his nomination was filibustered by Senate Republicans in 1968. Despite the failed nomination, Fortas remained an Associate Justice until his resignation the following year, there have been 21 individuals nominated for Chief Justice, of whom 17 have been confirmed by the Senate, although a different 17 have served
2.
Dwight D. Eisenhower
–
Dwight David Ike Eisenhower was an American politician and Army general who served as the 34th President of the United States from 1953 until 1961. He was a general in the United States Army during World War II. He was responsible for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942–43, in 1951, he became the first Supreme Commander of NATO. Eisenhower was of mostly Pennsylvania Dutch ancestry and was raised in a family in Kansas by parents with a strong religious background. He graduated from West Point in 1915 and later married Mamie Doud, after World War II, Eisenhower served as Army Chief of Staff under President Harry S. Truman and then accepted the post of President at Columbia University. Eisenhower entered the 1952 presidential race as a Republican to counter the non-interventionism of Senator Robert A. Taft, campaigning against communism, Korea and he won in a landslide, defeating Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson and temporarily upending the New Deal Coalition. Eisenhower was the first U. S. president to be constitutionally term-limited under the 22nd Amendment, Eisenhowers main goals in office were to keep pressure on the Soviet Union and reduce federal deficits. He ordered coups in Iran and Guatemala, Eisenhower gave major aid to help the French in the First Indochina War, and after the French were defeated he gave strong financial support to the new state of South Vietnam. Congress agreed to his request in 1955 for the Formosa Resolution, after the Soviet Union launched Sputnik in 1957, Eisenhower authorized the establishment of NASA, which led to the space race. During the Suez Crisis of 1956, Eisenhower condemned the Israeli, British and French invasion of Egypt and he also condemned the Soviet invasion during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action. Eisenhower sent 15,000 U. S. troops to Lebanon to prevent the government from falling to a Nasser-inspired revolution during the 1958 Lebanon crisis. Near the end of his term, his efforts to set up a meeting with the Soviets collapsed because of the U-2 incident. On the domestic front, he covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking executive privilege and he otherwise left most political activity to his Vice President, Richard Nixon. Eisenhower was a conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security. Eisenhowers two terms saw considerable economic prosperity except for a decline in 1958. Voted Gallups most admired man twelve times, he achieved widespread popular esteem both in and out of office, since the late 20th century, consensus among Western scholars has consistently held Eisenhower as one of the greatest U. S. Presidents. The Eisenhauer family migrated from Karlsbrunn in the Saarland, to North America, first settling in York, Pennsylvania, in 1741, accounts vary as to how and when the German name Eisenhauer was anglicized to Eisenhower. Eisenhowers Pennsylvania Dutch ancestors, who were farmers, included Hans Nikolaus Eisenhauer of Karlsbrunn
3.
Fred M. Vinson
–
Frederick Fred Moore Vinson was an American politician who served the United States in all three branches of government and was the most prominent member of the Vinson political family. In the legislative branch, he was an member of the United States House of Representatives from Louisa, Kentucky. In the executive branch, he was Secretary of the Treasury under President Harry S. Truman, in the judicial branch, President Truman appointed Vinson the 13th Chief Justice of the United States in 1946. To date, he is the last candidate nominated by a president from the Democratic Party to be confirmed as Chief Justice. As a child he would help his father in the jail, Vinson worked odd jobs while in school. He graduated from Kentucky Normal School in 1908 and enrolled at Centre College, while at Centre, he was a member of the Kentucky Alpha Delta chapter of Phi Delta Theta fraternity. He became a lawyer in Louisa, a town of 2,500 residents. He first ran for and was elected to office as the City Attorney of Louisa and he joined the Army during World War I. Following the war, he was elected as the Commonwealths Attorney for the Thirty-Second Judicial District of Kentucky, Vinson married Julia Roberta Dixon on January 24,1924 in Ashland, Kentucky. In 1924, he ran in an election for his districts seat in Congress after William J. Fields resigned to become the governor of Kentucky. Vinson was elected as a Democrat and then was reelected twice before losing in 1928 and his loss was attributed to his refusal to dissociate his campaign from Alfred E. Smiths presidential campaign. When the position of the American Medical Association on the measure was questioned, while he was in Congress he befriended Missouri Senator Harry S. Truman, a friendship that would last throughout his life. He soon became an advisor, confidant, card player. Vinsons Congressional service ended after he was nominated by Franklin D. Roosevelt on November 26,1937, Roosevelt wanted him to fill a seat vacated by Charles H. Robb on the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. Vinson was confirmed by the United States Senate on December 9,1937, while he was there, he was designated by Chief Justice Harlan Fiske Stone on March 2,1942, as chief judge of the United States Emergency Court of Appeals. He served here until his resignation on May 27,1943 and he resigned from the bench to become Director of the Office of Economic Stabilization, an executive agency charged with fighting inflation. He also spent time as Federal Loan Administrator and director of War Mobilization and Reconversion and he was appointed United States Secretary of the Treasury by President Truman and served from July 23,1945, to June 23,1946. Before the war ended, Vinson directed the last of the great war-bond drives, in order to encourage private investment in postwar America, he promoted a tax cut in the Revenue Act of 1945
4.
Warren E. Burger
–
Warren Earl Burger was the 15th Chief Justice of the United States from 1969 to 1986. Although Burger was a conservative, and the U. S. Warren Earl Burger was born in Saint Paul, Minnesota, in 1907 and his parents, Katharine and Charles Joseph Burger, a traveling salesman and railroad cargo inspector, were of Austrian German descent. His grandfather, Joseph Burger, had emigrated from Tyrol, Austria, Joseph Burger fought and was wounded in the Civil War, resulting in the loss of his right arm and was awarded the Medal of Honor at the age of 14. Joseph Burger by age 16 became the youngest Captain in the Union Army, Burger grew up on the family farm near the edge of Saint Paul. He attended John A. Johnson High School, where he was president of the student council and he competed in hockey, football, track, and swimming. While in high school, he wrote articles on school sports for local newspapers. That same year, Burger also worked with the building the Robert Street Bridge. Concerned about the number of deaths on the project, he asked that a net be installed to catch anyone who fell, in later years, Burger made a point of visiting the bridge whenever he came back to town. Burger attended night school at the University of Minnesota while selling insurance for Mutual Life Insurance, afterward, he enrolled at Mitchell Hamline School of Law, receiving his degree magna cum laude in 1931. He took a job at the firm of Boyensen, Otis and Faricy, now known as Moore, in 1937, Burger served as the eighth president of the Saint Paul Jaycees. He also taught for years at William Mitchell. His political career began uneventfully, but he rose to national prominence. He supported Minnesota Governor Harold E. Stassens unsuccessful pursuit of the Republican nomination for President in 1948, in 1952, at the Republican convention, he played a key role in Dwight D. Eisenhowers nomination by delivering the Minnesota delegation. After he was elected, President Eisenhower appointed Burger as the Assistant Attorney General in charge of the Civil Division of the Justice Department, in this role, he first argued in front of the Supreme Court. The case involved John P. Peters, a Yale University professor who worked as a consultant to the government and he had been discharged from his position on loyalty grounds. Supreme Court cases are argued by the Solicitor General, but he disagreed with the governments position. In 1956, Eisenhower appointed him to the U. S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit and he remained on the Court of Appeals for thirteen years. In 1968, Chief Justice Earl Warren announced his retirement after 15 years on the Court, President Lyndon Johnson nominated sitting Associate Justice Abe Fortas to the position, but a Senate filibuster blocked his confirmation
5.
Governor of California
–
The position was created in 1849, the year before California became a state. The current governor is Jerry Brown, a Democrat who was inaugurated January 3,2011, in October 2013, Jerry Brown surpassed Earl Warren for the longest cumulative period of time served as governor. Governors are elected by ballot and serve terms of four years. Governors take office on the first Monday after January 1 after their election, there are two methods available to remove a governor before the expiration of the gubernatorial term of office. Impeachment and removal by the legislature The governor can be impeached for misconduct in office by the State Assembly, recall by the voters Petitions signed by California state voters equal in number to 12% of the last vote for the office of governor can launch a gubernatorial recall election. The voters can vote on whether or not to recall the incumbent governor. If a majority of the voters in the vote to recall the governor. The 2003 California recall began with a drive that successfully forced sitting Democratic Governor Gray Davis into a special recall election. It marked the first time in the history of California that a governor faced a recall election and he was subsequently voted out of office, becoming the second governor in the history of the United States to be recalled after Lynn Frazier of North Dakota in 1921. He was replaced by Republican Arnold Schwarzenegger, the Lieutenant Governor of California is separately elected during the same election, not jointly as the running mate of the gubernatorial candidate. California has had a governor and a lieutenant governor of different parties 26 of the past 31 years, the lieutenant governor is also the President of the California State Senate. In practice, there is an agreement for the Lieutenant Governor not to perform more than perfunctory duties while the Governor is away from the state. This agreement was violated when Mike Curb was in office, as he signed several executive orders at odds with the Brown administration when Brown was out of the state. Court rulings have upheld the lieutenant governors right to perform the duties, peter Burnett had the longest post-governorship,44 years. He left office in 1851 and died in 1895, excluding governors who died in office, Robert Waterman had the shortest post-governorship. He died on April 12,1891, a three months and four days after the expiration of his term. Sworn in at the age of 30, J. Neely Johnson was the youngest governor from 1856 to 1858, sworn in at the age of 72, Jerry Brown became the oldest governor in 2011. Earl Warren was the governor to serve more than two consecutive terms in office
6.
Frederick F. Houser
–
Frederick Francis Houser served as the 34th Lieutenant Governor of California under governor Earl Warren between 1943 and 1947. Houser was also a Superior Court judge, and prior to this, Houser was born to California Court of Appeals Justice, Frederick W. Houser and Sara Wilde, both of whom were active participants in the early years of what is now the USC Gould School of Law. Houser graduated from UCLA, specializing in government and economics, in 1926 and he served as president of the alumni association 1933–1935. In later years Houser was a Harvard University professor teaching government and he was a resident of Alhambra, California
7.
Culbert Olson
–
Culbert Levy Olson was an American lawyer and politician. A Democratic Party member, Olson was involved in Utah and California politics and was elected as the 29th governor of California from 1939 to 1943, Olson was born in Fillmore, Utah, the son of Delilah Cornelia and George Daniel Olson, on November 7,1876. Olsons mother was a suffragette and became the first female elected official in Utah, both his mother and father belonged to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. However, Culbert was unconvinced of the existence of God, becoming an atheist at the age of ten, Olsons change of beliefs distanced himself from his parents Mormon beliefs. He was also the first cousin of U. S, senator William H. King, and both were descendants of Edmund Rice, an early immigrant to Massachusetts Bay Colony. Leaving school at the age of 14, Olson worked briefly as an operator and in 1890, enrolled at Brigham Young University in Provo, studying law. Upon graduating at the age of 19 in 1895, Olson embarked on a career as a journalist with the Daily Ogden Standard, during the 1896 Presidential Election, Olson openly campaigned for Democratic candidate William Jennings Bryan. During his time in the capital, Olson attended law school at George Washington University, Olson moved back to Utah in 1901, settling in Salt Lake City to join a law practice. Building a reputation of defending trade unionists and political progressives, Olson was elected to the Utah State Senate in 1916. During his four years in the State Senate, Olson wrote and endorsed legislation to end child labor in the state, guarantee old age pensions, Olson declined to run again for the State Senate in the 1920 general election. Instead, Olson relocated to Los Angeles, California, beginning another law practice, Olson campaigned openly for Progressive Party candidate Robert La Follette in the 1924 Elections, and for Democrat Franklin Roosevelt in the 1932 Elections. In 1934, in the middle of the Great Depression, Olson ran as a Democrat for the California State Senate, while Sinclair lost the gubernatorial election to Republican Frank Merriam, Olson was elected to the State Senate that year. While in the California State Senate, the state legislature he was elected to. Seeing large business interests as a barrier to change, Olson wrote the Olson Oil Bill to cut down oil company monopolies in the state. With the open support of President Roosevelt, Olson ran for governor of California in the 1938 general elections against conservative Republican and he was the first Democrat to win the governorship since James Budds election in 1895, breaking the 40 year Republican dynasty over the governorship. Olson was inaugurated as Californias twenty-ninth executive on January 2,1939, Olson refused to say so help me God during his oath of office to state Supreme Court Justice William H. Waste. Olson remarked earlier to Justice Waste that God couldnt help me at all, instead, Olson said, I will affirm. Olsons tenure in the governorship began to a rocky start, Olson collapsed four days after his inauguration
8.
Goodwin Knight
–
Goodwin Jess “Goodie” Knight was an American politician who was the 31st Governor of California from 1953 until 1959. Knight was born in Provo, Utah, but his family moved to Los Angeles when he was a boy and his father, Jess Knight, was a mining engineer, but Goodwin followed in his mothers fathers footsteps. This grandfather was a judge in Provo, Utah, Knight attended high school in Los Angeles, at Manual Arts High School. One of his classmates was Jimmy Doolittle and he earned an A. B. in Law and Business from Stanford University, where he was a member of the Stanford Chaparral, in 1919. He served in the U. S. Navy during World War I, Knight was a judge of the Superior Court in Los Angeles beginning in 1935. He was reelected in 1936 and 1942 without significant opposition and his case load varied from the glamorous to the mundane. He oversaw weddings and divorces for Hollywood starlets, Knight began his political career in 1944, when he pursued the Republican nomination for the U. S. Senate. He bowed out early, though, to back Fred Houser and he was elected as the 35th Lieutenant Governor of California to serve under Governor Earl Warren in 1946 then reelected in 1950. He became governor himself when Warren resigned to become Chief Justice of the United States in 1953, while Lieutenant-Governor he made a guest appearance on the Jack Benny show, an episode from San Francisco. As governor, Knight fought for control of the Republican Party of California with U. S. Senate Majority Leader William Knowland, in 1954, Knight was easily elected to his own full term. At first Knight seemed to make an alliance with Knowland, in 1957, Knowland announced that he would challenge Knight in the 1958 Republican primary for governor. Knight, known as a moderate, and sympathetic to organized labor and he was induced by Knowland, Nixon, President Dwight Eisenhower, and others to run for Knowlands Senate seat instead of running for governor again. This left Nixon in control of the California party and in line for the presidential nomination, Knight was present at the July 17,1955, opening of Disneyland, and gave a speech following Walt Disneys famous dedication. In 1964, Knight endorsed Nelson Rockefeller for the Republican nomination against Barry Goldwater, Rockefeller was unsuccessful in stopping Goldwater, the darling of the partys growing conservative wing. Knight never ran for office again. Knights first wife, Arvilla, died of an attack on 29 October 1952. He married Virginia Carlson, the widow of an Army Lieutenant, on May 22,1970, Knight died three months after his daughter, Carolyn, committed suicide. His widow, Virginia, never remarried, and died on 29 November 2010, Goodwin Knights funeral took place at a Sacramento Mormon meetinghouse, and he was interred at Rose Hills Memorial Park in Whittier, California
9.
California Attorney General
–
The Attorney General of California is the State Attorney General of California. The Department employs over 1,100 attorneys and 3,700 non-attorney employees, the Attorney General is elected to a four-year term, with a maximum of two terms. The election is held at the statewide election as the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Controller, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Superintendent of Public Instruction. Heads the Department of Justice, which is responsible for providing legal services. Acts as the counsel in state litigation. Oversees law enforcement agencies, including District Attorneys and Sheriffs, previously, the attorney general lacked jurisdiction over matters in the jurisdiction of locally-elected district attorneys and sheriffs. Warren went on to become Attorney General himself in 1938 where he reorganized states law enforcement into districts, for a comprehensive list, see List of Attorneys General of California. Representative George Deukmejian – Governor of California Jerry Brown – California Secretary of State, Governor of California Mayor, Oakland California Kamala Harris – U. S
10.
Ulysses S. Webb
–
Ulysses Sigel Webb was an American lawyer and politician affiliated with the Republican Party. He served as the 19th Attorney General of California for the span of 37 years. Webbs parents were Cyrus Webb, a Civil War captain, and he was born in West Virginia and educated in Kansas, and later moved to Quincy, California. There, he gained admittance to the State Bar of California and was elected Plumas County District Attorney and he was appointed Attorney General of California by Governor Henry Gage in 1902, and elected to a full term later that year. Webb served as general for 37 years, from 1902 to 1939. His administration served to clarify new legislation involving elections, motor vehicles, in the 1930s, Webbs office pressured Fish and Game authorities to go after aliens with commercial fishermens licenses and prevent offloading fish at the port of San Diego. On September 18,1934, Judge C. N. Andrews ruled that residence requirements were a violation of the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution. Webb appealed to the Court of Appeals and the state Supreme Court, California Atty. Gen. Bill Lockyer apologized in 2003 for Webbs zealous sterilization program under the states eugenics policy. Webb married Grace Goodwin, the daughter of Judge J. D. the Webbs had three children, Hester, Sigel Goodwin and Grace. Webb belonged to the Masonic and Knights of Pythias fraternities and to the Union League Club and he died in San Francisco on July 31,1947
11.
California Republican Party
–
The California Republican Party is the California affiliate of the United States Republican Party. The party chairman is Jim Brulte, and is based in Burbank, California, the CRP also has a headquarters in Sacramento. The partys stated goals are to enhance economic prosperity within the state, cut taxes, the CRP is active throughout the entire state of California, and the party prides itself on providing common sense solutions to the most troubling issues. As of 2016 Republicans represent approximately 28% of the registered voters. Crime and justice—The California Republican Party supports the governments protecting the welfare of the people and creating fair, the party advocates victims rights under the position that the victim is just as important as the offender in a crime. They believe overcrowding is an issue that should be solved by the creation of both private and public prisons. The party also supports the use of punishment for heinous crimes. The party call for a cut on unnecessary spending in order to create government infrastructure that will boost the economy, the party also supports Right-to-work laws and opposes closed shop establishments. Education— The California Republican Party believes that all children have the right to a first-class education, the party supports parents and local school boards being the primary regulators of the education system. The party also supports incentives for quality educators and that school admission, the party also believes that unions have too much influence in Californias schools and that has caused the degradation of the curriculum and the marginalization of involvement by parents. Environment—The California Republican Party believes in long-term responsible stewardship of Californias natural resources, the party supports California industry being a world leader in developing and manufacturing safe, renewable and sustainable energy. The party also believes that city governments should be held to the standards of cleaning waste water as are applied to private industry. Equal Opportunity—We oppose quotas, special rights, set asides, or guaranteed equality of results and we support laws prohibiting discrimination in employment and housing based on race, ethnicity, nationality, sex, sexual orientation, disability, or religion. Family values—We support the two-parent family as the best environment for raising children, the Supreme Courts ruling cannot and must not be used to coerce a church or religious institution into performing marriages that their faith does not recognize. We believe public policy and education should not be exploited to advocate or teach any social or political agenda, healthcare—The California Republican Party opposes government mandated health care plans and single payer plans. The party also opposes any government healthcare plan for California that would involve taxes on doctors or hospitals, coverage for illegal aliens, the party also supports private sector solutions such as small business insurance pools, employment pricing reductions, guaranteed insurability and medical savings accounts. Immigration—The California Republican Party contends that the state of California is rich in the history of immigration, English should be mandatory in the workplace and businesses should be able to require employees to speak the English and all immigrants should be required to learn the language. Illegal aliens should be deported if they engage in criminal activity, the party supports the government offering intensive English language instruction to all who need it, including stipends to help immigrants attend the programs
12.
Louis B. Mayer
–
Louis Burt Mayer was an Belarusian-Canadian-American film producer and co-founder of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer studios in 1924. Mayer was skilled at developing star actors, including actors, then placing them in consistently slick productions, such as musicals or comedies. Under Mayers management, MGM became the most prestigious film studio and he renovated and expanded several other theaters in the Boston area catering to higher end audiences. After expanding and moving to Los Angeles, he teamed up with Irving Thalberg, Mayer handled the business part of running the studio, such as setting budgets and approving new productions, while Thalberg, still in his twenties, ran all MGM productions. During his reign at MGM, after Thalbergs early death in 1936, some stars did not appreciate his control over their lives, while others saw him as a father figure, important in their lives. He believed in wholesome entertainment and went to lengths to discover new actors. Actors working under Mayer would generally portray an idealized vision of men and women, family life, virtue and he believed that movies should not be a mere reflection of life, but be an entertaining escape from life. Because of his gift for understanding the nature of stardom and the needs of the audience and he was forced to resign MGM as its vice president in 1951, when the studios parent company, Loews, Inc. wanted to improve MGMs declining profits. Mayer was a conservative, at one time the chairman of Californias Republican party. In 1927 he was one of the founders of AMPAS, famous for its annual Academy Awards, Mayer was born Lazar Meir to a Jewish family in Minsk, Russian Empire. Probably his date of birth was July 12,1884 and his parents were Jacob Meir and Sarah Meltzer, and he had two sisters—Yetta, born in 1878, and Ida, born in 1883. Mayer first moved with his family to Rhode Island, where lived from 1887 to 1892. Then, they moved to Saint John, New Brunswick, Canada where Mayer attended school and his father started a scrap metal business, J. Mayer & Son. An immigrant unskilled in any trade, he struggled to earn a living, young Louis quit school at age twelve to work with his father and help support his family. He roamed the streets with a cart that said Junk Dealer, wilson remembered that he was impressed with the boys good manners and bright personality. Whenever Mayer visited Saint John in later years, he placed flowers on Wilsons grave and it was a crappy childhood, said Mayers nephew Gerald. His family was poor, and Mayers father spoke little English and had no valuable skills and it thereby became young Mayers ambition and drive which supported the family. With his family speaking mostly Yiddish at home, his goal of self-education when he quit school was more difficult
13.
Alameda County, California
–
Alameda County is a county in the state of California in the United States. As of the 2010 census, the population was 1,510,271, Alameda County is included in the San Francisco Bay Area, occupying much of the East Bay region. The county was formed on March 25,1853, from a portion of Contra Costa County. The Spanish word alameda means a place where trees grow. The willow and sycamore trees along the banks of the river reminded the early explorers of a road lined with trees, the county seat at the time it was formed was located at Alvarado, now part of Union City. In 1856 it was moved to San Leandro, where the county courthouse was destroyed by the devastating 1868 quake on the Hayward Fault, the county seat was then re-established in the town of Brooklyn from 1872-1875. Brooklyn is now part of Oakland, which has been the county seat since 1873, much of what is now considered an intensively urban region, with major cities, was developed as a trolley car suburb of San Francisco in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The annual county fair is held at the Alameda County Fairgrounds in Pleasanton, the fair runs for three weekends from June to July. Attractions include horse racing, carnival rides, 4-H exhibits, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 821 square miles, of which 739 square miles is land and 82 square miles is water. The San Francisco Bay borders the county on the west, the crest of the Berkeley Hills form part of the northeastern boundary, and reach into the center of the county. A coastal plain several miles wide lines the bay, and is Oaklands most populous region, Livermore Valley lies in the eastern part of the county. Don Edwards San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge A2014 analysis found Alameda County to be the 4th most racially diverse county in the United States, the 2010 United States Census reported that Alameda County had a population of 1,510,271. The population density was 2,047.6 people per square mile, Hispanic or Latino of any race were 339,889 persons,16. 4% Mexican,0. 8% Puerto Rican,0. 2% Cuban,5. 1% Other Hispanic. 26. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.71 and the average family size was 3.31. In the county, the population was out with 24. 6% under the age of 18,9. 6% from 18 to 24,33. 9% from 25 to 44,21. 7% from 45 to 64. The median age was 34 years, for every 100 females there were 96.60 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.00 males, the median income for a household in the county was $55,946, and the median income for a family was $65,857. Males had an income of $47,425 versus $36,921 for females
14.
Los Angeles
–
Los Angeles, officially the City of Los Angeles and often known by its initials L. A. is the cultural, financial, and commercial center of Southern California. With a census-estimated 2015 population of 3,971,883, it is the second-most populous city in the United States, Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated county in the United States. The citys inhabitants are referred to as Angelenos, historically home to the Chumash and Tongva, Los Angeles was claimed by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo for Spain in 1542 along with the rest of what would become Alta California. The city was founded on September 4,1781, by Spanish governor Felipe de Neve. It became a part of Mexico in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence, in 1848, at the end of the Mexican–American War, Los Angeles and the rest of California were purchased as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, thereby becoming part of the United States. Los Angeles was incorporated as a municipality on April 4,1850, the discovery of oil in the 1890s brought rapid growth to the city. The completion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1913, delivering water from Eastern California, nicknamed the City of Angels, Los Angeles is known for its Mediterranean climate, ethnic diversity, and sprawling metropolis. Los Angeles also has an economy in culture, media, fashion, science, sports, technology, education, medicine. A global city, it has been ranked 6th in the Global Cities Index, the city is home to renowned institutions covering a broad range of professional and cultural fields, and is one of the most substantial economic engines within the United States. The Los Angeles combined statistical area has a gross metropolitan product of $831 billion, making it the third-largest in the world, after the Greater Tokyo and New York metropolitan areas. The city has hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 1932 and 1984 and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics and thus become the second city after London to have hosted the Games three times. The Los Angeles area also hosted the 1994 FIFA mens World Cup final match as well as the 1999 FIFA womens World Cup final match, the mens event was watched on television by over 700 million people worldwide. The Los Angeles coastal area was first settled by the Tongva, a Gabrielino settlement in the area was called iyáangẚ, meaning poison oak place. Gaspar de Portolà and Franciscan missionary Juan Crespí, reached the present site of Los Angeles on August 2,1769, in 1771, Franciscan friar Junípero Serra directed the building of the Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, the first mission in the area. The Queen of the Angels is an honorific of the Virgin Mary, two-thirds of the settlers were mestizo or mulatto with a mixture of African, indigenous and European ancestry. The settlement remained a small town for decades, but by 1820. Today, the pueblo is commemorated in the district of Los Angeles Pueblo Plaza and Olvera Street. New Spain achieved its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, during Mexican rule, Governor Pío Pico made Los Angeles Alta Californias regional capital
15.
Washington, D.C.
–
Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
16.
Republican Party (United States)
–
The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883. The Republicans supported the pietistic Protestants who demanded Prohibition, nevertheless, by 1890 the Republicans had agreed to the Sherman Antitrust Act and the Interstate Commerce Commission in response to complaints from owners of small businesses and farmers
17.
University of California, Berkeley
–
The University of California, Berkeley, is a public research university located in Berkeley, California. In 1960s, UC Berkeley was particularly noted for the Free Speech Movement as well as the Anti-Vietnam War Movement led by its students. S, Department of Energy, and is home to many world-renowned research institutes and organizations including Mathematical Sciences Research Institute and Space Sciences Laboratory. Faculty member J. R. Oppenheimer, the father of the atomic bomb, Lawrence Livermore Lab also discovered or co-discovered six chemical elements. The Academic Ranking of World Universities also ranks the University of California, Berkeley, third in the world overall, in 1866, the private College of California purchased the land comprising the current Berkeley campus. Ten faculty members and almost 40 students made up the new University of California when it opened in Oakland in 1869, billings was a trustee of the College of California and suggested that the college be named in honor of the Anglo-Irish philosopher George Berkeley. In 1870, Henry Durant, the founder of the College of California, with the completion of North and South Halls in 1873, the university relocated to its Berkeley location with 167 male and 22 female students and held its first classes. In 1905, the University Farm was established near Sacramento, ultimately becoming the University of California, by the 1920s, the number of campus buildings had grown substantially, and included twenty structures designed by architect John Galen Howard. Robert Gordon Sproul served as president from 1930 to 1958, by 1942, the American Council on Education ranked UC Berkeley second only to Harvard University in the number of distinguished departments. During World War II, following Glenn Seaborgs then-secret discovery of plutonium, UC Berkeley physics professor J. Robert Oppenheimer was named scientific head of the Manhattan Project in 1942. Along with the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley is now a partner in managing two other labs, Los Alamos National Laboratory and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, originally, military training was compulsory for male undergraduates, and Berkeley housed an armory for that purpose. In 1917, Berkeleys ROTC program was established, and its School of Military Aeronautics trained future pilots, including Jimmy Doolittle, both Robert McNamara and Frederick C. Weyand graduated from UC Berkeleys ROTC program, earning B. A. degrees in 1937 and 1938, in 1926, future fleet admiral Chester W. Nimitz established the first Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps unit at Berkeley. The Board of Regents ended compulsory military training at Berkeley in 1962, during the McCarthy era in 1949, the Board of Regents adopted an anti-communist loyalty oath. A number of faculty members objected and were dismissed, ten years passed before they were reinstated with back pay, in 1952, the University of California became an entity separate from the Berkeley campus. Each campus was given autonomy and its own Chancellor. Then-president Sproul assumed presidency of the entire University of California system, Berkeley gained a reputation for student activism in the 1960s with the Free Speech Movement of 1964 and opposition to the Vietnam War. In the highly publicized Peoples Park protest in 1969, students and the school conflicted over use of a plot of land, then governor of California Ronald Reagan called the Berkeley campus a haven for communist sympathizers, protesters, and sex deviants. Modern students at Berkeley are less active, with a greater percentage of moderates and conservatives
18.
Bachelor of Arts
–
A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
19.
Juris Doctor
–
The Juris Doctor degree, also known as the Doctor of Jurisprudence degree, is a graduate-entry professional degree in law and one of several Doctor of Law degrees. It is earned by completing law school in Australia, Canada and the United States and it has the academic standing of a second-entry, professional baccalaureate degree in Canada, a masters degree in Australia and a professional doctorate in the United States. The degree was first awarded in the United States in the early 20th century and was created as a version of the old European doctor of law degree. Originating from the 19th century Harvard movement for the study of law. It involves a program in most jurisdictions. To be authorized to practice law in the courts of a state in the United States. Lawyers must, however, be admitted to the bar of the court before they are authorized to practice in that court. Admission to the bar of a district court includes admission to the bar of the related bankruptcy court. In the United States, the doctorate in law may be conferred in Latin or in English, as Juris Doctor and at some law schools Doctor of Law. Juris Doctor literally means Teacher of Law, while the Latin for Doctor of Jurisprudence—Jurisprudentiae Doctor—literally means Teacher of Legal Knowledge, the J. D. is not to be confused with Doctor of Laws or Legum Doctor. In institutions where the latter can be earned, e. g. D, the LL. D. is invariably an honorary degree in the United States. The first university in Europe, the University of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 11th century who were students of the school in that city. This served as the model for law schools of the Middle Ages. While Bologna granted only doctorates, preparatory degrees were introduced in Paris, the nature of the J. D. can be better understood by a review of the context of the history of legal education in England. The teaching of law at Cambridge and Oxford Universities was mainly for philosophical or scholarly purposes, the universities taught only civil and canon law but not the common law that applied in most jurisdictions. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, by the fifteenth century, the Inns functioned like a university akin to the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, though very specialized in purpose. With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the role grew tremendously. The apprenticeship program for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades
20.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
21.
United States Army
–
The United States Army is the largest branch of the United States Armed Forces and performs land-based military operations. After the Revolutionary War, the Congress of the Confederation created the United States Army on 3 June 1784, the United States Army considers itself descended from the Continental Army, and dates its institutional inception from the origin of that armed force in 1775. As a uniformed service, the Army is part of the Department of the Army. As a branch of the forces, the mission of the U. S. The branch participates in conflicts worldwide and is the major ground-based offensive and defensive force of the United States, the United States Army serves as the land-based branch of the U. S. Section 3062 of Title 10, U. S, the army was initially led by men who had served in the British Army or colonial militias and who brought much of British military heritage with them. As the Revolutionary War progressed, French aid, resources, a number of European soldiers came on their own to help, such as Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, who taught Prussian Army tactics and organizational skills. The army fought numerous pitched battles and in the South in 1780–81 sometimes used the Fabian strategy and hit-and-run tactics, hitting where the British were weakest, to wear down their forces. Washington led victories against the British at Trenton and Princeton, but lost a series of battles in the New York and New Jersey campaign in 1776, with a decisive victory at Yorktown, and the help of the French, the Continental Army prevailed against the British. After the war, though, the Continental Army was quickly given land certificates, State militias became the new nations sole ground army, with the exception of a regiment to guard the Western Frontier and one battery of artillery guarding West Points arsenal. However, because of continuing conflict with Native Americans, it was realized that it was necessary to field a trained standing army. The War of 1812, the second and last war between the United States and Great Britain, had mixed results. After taking control of Lake Erie in 1813, the U. S. Army seized parts of western Upper Canada, burned York and defeated Tecumseh, which caused his Western Confederacy to collapse. Following U. S. victories in the Canadian province of Upper Canada, British troops, were able to capture and burn Washington, which was defended by militia, in 1814. Two weeks after a treaty was signed, Andrew Jackson defeated the British in the Battle of New Orleans and Siege of Fort St. Philip, U. S. troops and sailors captured HMS Cyane, Levant, and Penguin in the final engagements of the war. Per the treaty, both sides, the United States and Great Britain, returned to the status quo. Both navies kept the warships they had seized during the conflict, the armys major campaign against the Indians was fought in Florida against Seminoles. It took long wars to defeat the Seminoles and move them to Oklahoma
22.
91st Division (United States)
–
The 91st Infantry Division was an infantry division of the United States Army that fought in World War I and World War II. From 1946 until 2008, it was part of the United States Army Reserve and it was briefly inactivated from 2008 until 2010 when it was elevated back to a division size element as the 91st Training Division. Constituted on 5 August 1917 at Camp Lewis, Washington, near Tacoma, in September 1918, the divisions first operation was in the St. Mihiel Offensive in France. Twelve days before the end of World War I, the division, as part of the VII Corps of the French Sixth Army, the division was awarded separate campaign streamers for its active role in the Lorraine, Meuse-Argonne and Ypres-Lys campaigns. In 1919, the 91st was inactivated at the Presidio of San Francisco, after being reconstituted in 1921 as part of the Organized Reserves, the division then served as an administrative control center for the next 21 years. After initial training at Camp White, the participation in the Oregon Maneuver combat exercise in the fall of 1943. Then, the division, now under Major General William G. Livesay, there, on the Italian Front, the 361st Regimental Combat Team was detached to participate in the battles for Rome and the Arno River. It became the first formation of the U. S, fifth Army to reach the river. In September 1944, the crossed the Sieve River, outflanked the famous Gothic Line. For its part in combat, the division was awarded the North Apennines, Po Valley, the division returned to the United States where it was inactivated at Camp Rucker, Alabama, in December 1945. Two members were awarded the Medal of Honor during the war, Roy W. Harmon, awards, MH-2, DSC-2, DSM-1, SS-528, LM-33, SM-43, BSM-4,152. S. In 1959, the division was reorganized and redesignated as the 91st Division, in 1993, the division was again reorganized and redesignated as the 91st Division and again in 1999 as the 91st Division. Its previous headquarters were at Parks Reserve Forces Training Area, Dublin, in its 2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission recommendations, the Department of Defense recommended relocating the 91st Division to Fort Hunter Liggett. The four brigades of the 91st Division were redesignated as brigades, 1st Brigade is now 5th Brigade. 2nd Brigade is now 5th Armored Brigade, 3rd Brigade is now the 402nd Field Artillery Brigade. 4th Brigade is now 191st Infantry Brigade, the 91st Division moved its headquarters to Fort Hunter Liggett on 1 May 2009. The 91st Division was reorganized and re-designated as the 91st Training Brigade on 1 October 2009, the 91st Training Brigade was re-designated as the 91st Training Division on 1 October 2010. William Borders, Army Catholic Chaplain, was awarded the Bronze Star for Valor and he later became the Archbishop of Baltimore
23.
Classical liberalism
–
Classical liberalism was first called that in the early 19th century, but was built on ideas of the previous century. It was a response to urbanization, and to the Industrial Revolution in Europe, notable individuals whose ideas contributed to classical liberalism include John Locke, Thomas Jefferson, Jean-Baptiste Say, Thomas Malthus, and David Ricardo. It drew on the economics of Adam Smith and on a belief in natural law, utilitarianism, the term classical liberalism was applied in retrospect to distinguish earlier 19th-century liberalism from the newer social liberalism. These beliefs were complemented by a belief that labourers could be best motivated by financial incentive and they opposed any income or wealth redistribution, which they believed would be dissipated by the lowest orders. Drawing on ideas of Adam Smith, classical liberals believed that it is in the common interest that all individuals be able to secure their own economic self-interest and they were critical of what would come to be the ideas of the welfare state as interfering in a free market. A landlord, a farmer, a manufacturer, a merchant, though they did not employ a single workman. Many workmen could not subsist a week, few could subsist a month, in the long run the workman may be as necessary to his master as his master is to him, but the necessity is not so immediate. The workmen desire to get as much, the masters to give as little as possible, in a free market, both labour and capital would receive the greatest possible reward, while production would be organised efficiently to meet consumer demand. For society to guarantee positive rights requires taxation over and above the minimum needed to enforce negative rights. in the late 19th century, classical liberalism developed into neo-classical liberalism, which argued for government to be as small as possible to allow the exercise of individual freedom. In its most extreme form, neo-classical liberalism advocated Social Darwinism, right-libertarianism is a modern form of neo-classical liberalism. Friedrich Hayek identified two different traditions within classical liberalism, the British tradition and the French tradition, the French tradition included Rousseau, Condorcet, the Encyclopedists and the Physiocrats. This tradition believed in rationalism and sometimes showed hostility to tradition and religion, Hayek also rejected the label laissez faire as originating from the French tradition and alien to the beliefs of Hume and Smith. Classical liberalism in Britain developed from Whiggery and radicalism, and was heavily influenced by French physiocracy. Whiggery had become a dominant ideology following the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the origins of rights were seen as being in an ancient constitution, which had existed from time immemorial. These rights, which some Whigs considered to include freedom of the press and they believed that the power of the executive had to be constrained. While they supported limited suffrage, they saw voting as a privilege, British radicals, from the 1790s to the 1820s, concentrated on parliamentary and electoral reform, emphasising natural rights and popular sovereignty. Richard Price and Joseph Priestley adapted the language of Locke to the ideology of radicalism, the radicals saw parliamentary reform as a first step toward dealing with their many grievances, including the treatment of Protestant Dissenters, the slave trade, high prices and high taxes. There was greater unity to classical liberalism ideology than there had been with Whiggery, classical liberals were committed to individualism, liberty and equal rights
24.
Warren Court
–
The Warren Court refers to the Supreme Court of the United States during the period when Earl Warren served as Chief Justice. Warren replaced the deceased Fred M. Vinson as Chief Justice in 1953, Warren was succeeded as Chief Justice by Warren Burger. Warren led a majority that used judicial power in dramatic fashion. The Warren Court expanded civil rights, civil liberties, judicial power, the period is recognized as the highest point in judicial power that has receded ever since, but with a substantial continuing impact. Prominent members of the Court during the Warren era besides the Chief Justice included Justices William J. Brennan, Jr. William O. Douglas, Hugo Black, Felix Frankfurter, Warren brought a strong belief in the remedial power of law. According to historian Bernard Schwartz, Warrens view of the law was pragmatic, seeing it as an instrument for obtaining equity, a related component of Warrens leadership was his focus on broad ethical principles, rather than narrower interpretative structures. Tushnet suggests Warrens principles were philosophical, political, and intuitive, Warrens leadership was characterized by remarkable consensus on the court, particularly in some of the most controversial cases. Fallon says that, Some thrilled to the approach of the Warren Court, many law professors were perplexed, often sympathetic to the Courts results but skeptical of the soundness of its constitutional reasoning. And some of course were horrified, professor John Hart Ely in his book Democracy and Distrust famously characterized the Warren Court as a Carolene Products Court. Warrens greatest asset, what made him in the eyes of many of his admirers Super Chief, was his skill in manipulating the other justices. Over the years his ability to lead the Court, to forge majorities in support of major decisions, Warren realized his weakness and asked the senior associate justice, Hugo L. Black, to preside over conferences until he became accustomed to the drill. A quick study, Warren soon was in fact, as well as in name, when Warren joined the Court in 1954 all the justices had been appointed by Franklin D. Roosevelt or Truman, and all were committed New Deal liberals. They disagreed about the role that the courts should play in achieving liberal goals, the Court was split between two warring factions. Felix Frankfurter and Robert H. Jackson led one faction, which insisted upon judicial self-restraint and insisted courts should defer to the prerogatives of the White House. Warren was a liberal justice than anyone had anticipated. Warren was able to craft a series of landmark decisions because he built a winning coalition. When Frankfurter retired in 1962 and President John F. Kennedy named labor union lawyer Arthur Goldberg to replace him, William J. Brennan, Jr. a liberal Democrat appointed by Eisenhower in 1956, was the intellectual leader of the faction that included Black and Douglas. Brennan complemented Warrens political skills with the legal skills Warren lacked
25.
American law
–
The United States Code is the official compilation and codification of general and permanent federal statutory law. Federal law and treaties, so long as they are in accordance with the Constitution, preempt conflicting state and territorial laws in the 50 U. S. states, however, the scope of federal preemption is limited because the scope of federal power is not universal. Indeed, states may grant their citizens broader rights than the federal Constitution as long as they do not infringe on any federal constitutional rights. Thus, most U. S. law consists primarily of state law, which can and does vary greatly from one state to the next. At both the federal and state levels, the law of the United States is largely derived from the law system of English law. However, American law has diverged greatly from its English ancestor both in terms of substance and procedure, and has incorporated a number of civil law innovations. In the United States, the law is derived from five sources, constitutional law, statutory law, treaties, administrative regulations, where Congress enacts a statute that conflicts with the Constitution, the Supreme Court may find that law unconstitutional and declare it invalid. Notably, a statute does not disappear automatically merely because it has been found unconstitutional, many federal and state statutes have remained on the books for decades after they were ruled to be unconstitutional. However, under the principle of stare decisis, no sensible lower court will enforce an unconstitutional statute, conversely, any court that refuses to enforce a constitutional statute will risk reversal by the Supreme Court. The United States and most Commonwealth countries are heirs to the common law tradition of English law. Certain practices traditionally allowed under English common law were expressly outlawed by the Constitution, such as bills of attainder, as common law courts, U. S. courts have inherited the principle of stare decisis. The actual substance of English law was received into the United States in several ways. Some reception statutes impose a specific date for reception, such as the date of a colonys founding. Thus, contemporary U. S. Second, a number of important British statutes in effect at the time of the Revolution have been independently reenacted by U. S. states. Two examples that many lawyers will recognize are the Statute of Frauds, such English statutes are still regularly cited in contemporary American cases interpreting their modern American descendants. However, it is important to understand that despite the presence of reception statutes, early on, American courts, even after the Revolution, often did cite contemporary English cases. But citations to English decisions gradually disappeared during the 19th century as American courts developed their own principles to resolve the problems of the American people. The number of published volumes of American reports soared from eighteen in 1810 to over 8,000 by 1910
26.
Brown v. Board of Education
–
The decision overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson decision of 1896, which allowed state-sponsored segregation, insofar as it applied to public education. Handed down on May 17,1954, the Warren Courts unanimous decision stated that educational facilities are inherently unequal. As a result, de jure segregation was ruled a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution. This ruling paved the way for integration and was a victory of the Civil Rights Movement. For much of the sixty years preceding the Brown case, race relations in the United States had been dominated by racial segregation, racial segregation in education varied widely from the 17 states that required racial segregation to the 16 in which it was prohibited. Brown was influenced by UNESCOs 1950 Statement, signed by a variety of internationally renowned scholars. This declaration denounced previous attempts at scientifically justifying racism as well as morally condemning racism, another work that the Supreme Court cited was Gunnar Myrdals An American Dilemma, The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy. Myrdal had been a signatory of the UNESCO declaration, the research performed by the educational psychologists Kenneth B. Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark also influenced the Courts decision. The Clarks doll test studies presented substantial arguments to the Supreme Court about how segregation affected black schoolchildrens mental status, the plaintiffs were thirteen Topeka parents on behalf of their 20 children. The suit called for the district to reverse its policy of racial segregation. The plaintiffs had been recruited by the leadership of the Topeka NAACP, notable among the Topeka NAACP leaders were the chairman McKinley Burnett, Charles Scott, one of three serving as legal counsel for the chapter, and Lucinda Todd. The named plaintiff, Oliver L. Brown, was a parent, a welder in the shops of the Santa Fe Railroad, an assistant pastor at his church. He was convinced to join the lawsuit by Scott, a childhood friend, as directed by the NAACP leadership, the parents each attempted to enroll their children in the closest neighborhood school in the fall of 1951. They were each refused enrollment and directed to the segregated schools, linda Brown Thompson later recalled the experience in a 2004 PBS documentary. Like I say, we lived in a neighborhood and I had all of these playmates of different nationalities. And so when I found out that day that I might be able to go to their school, I was just thrilled, you know. And I remember walking over to Sumner school with my dad that day and going up the steps of the school, and I remember going inside and my dad spoke with someone and then he went into the inner office with the principal and they left me out. To sit outside with the secretary, and while he was in the inner office, I could hear voices and hear his voice raised, you know, as the conversation went on
27.
Gideon v. Wainwright
–
Gideon v. Wainwright,372 U. S.335, is a landmark case in United States Supreme Court history. In it, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that states are required under the Sixth Amendment to the U. S, constitution to provide counsel in criminal cases to represent defendants who are unable to afford to pay their own attorneys. Between midnight and 8,00 a. m. on June 3,1961, an unknown person broke a door, smashed a cigarette machine and a record player, and stole money from a cash register. Later that day, a reported that he had seen Clarence Earl Gideon in the poolroom at around 5,30 that morning, leaving with a wine bottle. Based on this alone, the police arrested Gideon and charged him with breaking and entering with intent to commit petty larceny. Under the laws of the State of Florida, the time the court can appoint counsel to represent a defendant is when that person is charged with a capital offense. I am sorry, but I will have to deny your request to appoint counsel to defend you in this case, GIDEON, The United States Supreme Court says I am entitled to be represented by counsel. The Florida court declined to appoint counsel for Gideon, as a result, he was forced to act as his own counsel and conduct his own defense in court, emphasizing his innocence in the case. At the conclusion of the trial the jury returned a guilty verdict, the court sentenced Gideon to serve five years in the state prison. G. Cochran later retired and was replaced with Louie L. Wainwright before the case was heard by the Supreme Court. Gideon argued in his appeal that he had been denied counsel and, therefore, his Sixth Amendment rights, the Supreme Court assigned Gideon a prominent Washington, D. C. attorney, future Supreme Court justice Abe Fortas of the law firm Arnold, Fortas & Porter. Opposing, Bruce Jacob, who later became Dean of the Mercer University School of Law and Dean of Stetson University College of Law, argued the case for the State of Florida. Fortas was assisted by longtime Arnold, Fortas & Porter partner Abe Krash and famed legal scholar John Hart Ely, the Supreme Courts decision was announced on March 18,1963, and delivered by Justice Hugo Black. The decision was announced as unanimous in favor of Gideon, three concurring opinions were written by Justices Clark, Douglas and Harlan. The Supreme Court decision specifically cited its previous ruling in Powell v. Alabama, whether or not the decision in Powell v. Alabama applied to non-capital cases had sparked heated debate. The Supreme Court remanded the case to the Supreme Court of Florida for further action not inconsistent with this decision. In the subsequent cases of Massiah v. United States,377 U. S.201 and Miranda v. Arizona 384 U. S.436, about 2000 individuals that had been convicted were freed in Florida alone as a result of the Gideon decision. The decision did not directly result in Gideon being freed, instead, Gideon chose W. Fred Turner to be his lawyer in his second trial
28.
Reynolds v. Sims
–
The case was brought on behalf of voters in Alabama by M. O. Since the industrialization of America and urbanization of the United States from the Gilded Age onwards, state, of the forty-eight states then in the Union, only seven twice redistricted even one chamber of their legislature following both the 1930 and the 1940 Censuses. Oregon did not redistrict between 1907 and 1960, Illinois not between 1910 and 1955, whilst Alabama and Tennessee had at the time of Reynolds not redistricted since 1901. Before Reynolds, urban counties nationwide often had total representations similar to rural counties, voters from Jefferson County, Alabama, home to the state’s largest city of Birmingham, had challenged the apportionment of the Alabama Legislature. The Alabama Constitution provided that there be one state senator per county. Ratio variances as great as 41 to 1 from one district to another existed in the Alabama Senate. Among the more extreme pre-Reynolds disparities claimed by Morris K. Udall, In the Connecticut General Assembly, one House district had 191 people. In the New Hampshire General Court, one township with three people had a Representative in the house, this was the same representation given another district with a population of 3,244. In the Utah State Legislature, the smallest district had 165 people, in the Vermont General Assembly, the smallest district had 36 people, the largest 35,000. Los Angeles County, California, then with six people, had one member in the California State Senate. In the Idaho Senate, the smallest district had 951 people, in the Nevada Senate, seventeen members represented as many as 127,000 or as few as 568 people. The eight justices who struck down state senate inequality based their decision on the principle of “one person, one vote. ”In his majority decision, Chief Justice Earl Warren said “Legislators represent people, legislators are elected by voters, not farms or cities or economic interests. Justice Tom C. Clark wrote a concurring opinion, interestingly, the Court soon extended “one person, one vote” to all U. S. congressional districts in Wesberry v. Sanders, but not to the senate. Since the ruling applied different representation rules to the states than was applicable to the federal government, Senator Everett Dirksen of Illinois led a fight to pass a constitutional amendment allowing legislative districts based on land area, similar to the United States Senate. He warned that, “the forces of our national life are not brought to bear on public questions solely in proportion to the weight of numbers. Under the Courts new decree, California could be dominated by Los Angeles and San Francisco, Michigan by Detroit. ”In many ways, Senator Dirksens fears have come to pass, numerous states had to change their system of representation in the state legislature. For instance, South Carolina had elected one senator from each county. It devised a reapportionment plan and passed an amendment providing for home rule to counties
29.
Miranda v. Arizona
–
Miranda v. Arizona,384 U. S.436, was a landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court. The Supreme Court decided Miranda with three other consolidated cases, Westover v. United States, Vignera v. New York, and California v. Stewart. Its purpose is to ensure the accused are aware of, and reminded of, these rights under the U. S. Constitution, the circumstances triggering the Miranda safeguards, i. e. Miranda rights, are custody and interrogation. Custody means formal arrest or the deprivation of freedom to an extent associated with formal arrest, interrogation means explicit questioning or actions that are reasonably likely to elicit an incriminating response. Per the U. S. Supreme Court decision Berghuis v, at least one scholar has argued that Thompkins effectively gutted Miranda. During the 1960s, a movement which provided defendants with legal aid emerged from the efforts of various bar associations. In the civil realm, it led to the creation of the Legal Services Corporation under the Great Society program of President Lyndon Baines Johnson, escobedo v. Illinois, a case which closely foreshadowed Miranda, provided for the presence of counsel during police interrogation. This concept extended to a concern over police interrogation practices, which were considered by many to be barbaric, coercive interrogation tactics were known in period slang as the third degree. However, at no time was Miranda told of his right to counsel, moores objection was overruled and based on this confession and other evidence, Miranda was convicted of rape and kidnapping. He was sentenced to 20–30 years of imprisonment on each charge, moore filed Mirandas appeal to the Arizona Supreme Court, claiming that Mirandas confession was not fully voluntary and should not have been admitted into the court proceedings. The Arizona Supreme Court affirmed the courts decision to admit the confession in State v. Miranda,401 P. 2d 721. In affirmation, the Arizona Supreme Court emphasized heavily the fact that Miranda did not specifically request an attorney, if the individual states that he wants an attorney, the interrogation must cease until an attorney is present. At that time, the individual must have an opportunity to confer with the attorney, however, the dissenting justices accused the majority of overreacting to the problem of coercive interrogations, and anticipated a drastic effect. They believed that, once warned, suspects would always demand attorneys, in a separate concurrence in part, dissent in part, Justice Tom C. Clark argued that the Warren Court went too far too fast. Instead, Justice Clark would use the totality of the circumstances test enunciated by Justice Goldberg in Haynes v. Washington, nor did Justice White believe it had any basis in English common law. White further warned of the consequences of the majority opinion. As a consequence, there not be a gain, but a loss. Miranda was retried in 1967 after the case against him was thrown out
30.
Jerry Brown
–
Edmund Gerald Jerry Brown Jr. is an American politician and lawyer who has served as the 39th Governor of California since 2011. A member of the Democratic Party, Brown previously served as the 34th governor from 1975 to 1983, as the only son of Edmund G. Pat Brown Sr. Elected governor in 1974 at age 36, Brown was the youngest California governor in 111 years, Brown was re-elected governor in 1978, and ran against fellow Democrat and incumbent President Jimmy Carter in the 1980 primaries. While challengers to incumbent presidents seldom gain traction, the challenge by Senator Ted Kennedy of Massachusetts did, Brown declined to run for a third term in 1982, instead running for the United States Senate in 1982. However, Brown was defeated by Republican Pete Wilson, and many considered his career to be over. After traveling abroad, Brown returned to California and served as Chairman of the California Democratic Party, after six years out of politics, Brown returned to public life, serving as Mayor of Oakland, and then Attorney General of California. Brown decided to run for another term as governor in 2010, the law limited a governor to two terms, however, the four living governors when the law was passed remained eligible. Brown defeated Meg Whitman in 2010 to become the 39th governor in 2011, on October 7,2013, he became the governor in California history. Brown was re-elected in 2014, with sixty percent of the vote, as a consequence of the 28-year gap between his second and third terms, Brown has been both the sixth-youngest California governor, and the oldest California governor in history. Browns father was of half-Irish and half-German descent, Browns great-grandfather August Schuckman, a German immigrant, settled in California in 1852 during the California Gold Rush. Brown was a member of the California Cadet Corps at St. Ignatius High School, in 1955, Brown entered Santa Clara University for a year, and left to attend Sacred Heart Novitiate, a Jesuit novice house, intent on becoming a Catholic priest. Brown left the novitiate after three years, enrolling at the University of California, Berkeley in 1960, where he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in Classics in 1961, Brown went on to Yale Law School and graduated with a Bachelor of Laws in 1964. After law school, Brown worked as a law clerk for California Supreme Court Justice Mathew Tobriner, returning to California, Brown took the state bar exam and passed on his second attempt. He then settled in Los Angeles and joined the law firm of Tuttle & Taylor, in 1969, Brown ran for the newly created Los Angeles Community College Board of Trustees, which oversaw community colleges in the city, and placed first in a field of 124. In 1970, Brown was elected California Secretary of State, Brown argued before the California Supreme Court and won cases against Standard Oil of California, International Telephone and Telegraph, Gulf Oil, and Mobil for election law violations. In addition, he forced legislators to comply with campaign disclosure laws, while holding this office, he discovered the use of falsely notarized documents by then-President Richard Nixon to fraudulently earn a tax deduction for donation of his pre-presidential papers. Brown also drafted and helped to pass the California Political Reform Act of 1974, Proposition 9, among other provisions, it established the California Fair Political Practices Commission. Brown won the primary with the recognition of his father, Pat Brown
31.
Vice President of the United States
–
The executive power of both the vice president and the president is granted under Article Two, Section One of the Constitution. The vice president is elected, together with the president. The Office of the Vice President of the United States assists, as the president of the United States Senate, the vice president votes only when it is necessary to break a tie. Additionally, pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment, the president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College. Currently, the president is usually seen as an integral part of a presidents administration. The Constitution does not expressly assign the office to any one branch, causing a dispute among scholars whether it belongs to the executive branch, the legislative branch, or both. The modern view of the president as a member of the executive branch is due in part to the assignment of executive duties to the vice president by either the president or Congress. Mike Pence of Indiana is the 48th and current vice president and he assumed office on January 20,2017. The formation of the office of vice president resulted directly from the compromise reached at the Philadelphia Convention which created the Electoral College, the delegates at Philadelphia agreed that each state would receive a number of presidential electors equal to the sum of that states allocation of Representatives and Senators. The delegates assumed that electors would typically choose to favor any candidate from their state over candidates from other states, under a plurality election process, this would tend to result in electing candidates solely from the largest states. Consequently, the delegates agreed that presidents must be elected by a majority of the number of electors. To guard against such stratagems, the Philadelphia delegates specified that the first runner-up presidential candidate would become vice president, the process for selecting the vice president was later modified in the Twelfth Amendment. Each elector still receives two votes, but now one of those votes is for president, while the other is for vice president. The requirement that one of those votes be cast for a candidate not from the electors own state remains in effect. S, other statutorily granted roles include membership of both the National Security Council and the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. As President of the Senate, the president has two primary duties, to cast a vote in the event of a Senate deadlock and to preside over. For example, in the first half of 2001, the Senators were divided 50-50 between Republicans and Democrats and Dick Cheneys tie-breaking vote gave the Republicans the Senate majority, as President of the Senate, the vice president oversees procedural matters and may cast a tie-breaking vote. As President of the Senate, John Adams cast 29 tie-breaking votes that was surpassed by John C. Calhoun with 31. Adamss votes protected the presidents sole authority over the removal of appointees, influenced the location of the national capital, on at least one occasion Adams persuaded senators to vote against legislation he opposed, and he frequently addressed the Senate on procedural and policy matters
32.
United States presidential election, 1948
–
The United States presidential election of 1948 was the 41st quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 2,1948. Trumans victory is considered to be one of the greatest election upsets in American history, virtually every prediction indicated that he would be defeated by Dewey. The Democratic Party had a severe three-way ideological split, with both the far left and far right of the Party running third-party campaigns, with simultaneous success in the 1948 congressional elections, the Democrats regained control of both houses of Congress, which they had lost in 1946. Thus, Trumans election confirmed the Democratic Partys status as the majority party. As would be experienced by the Democrats, there was a boom for General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the most popular general of World War II, unlike the latter movement within the Democratic party, however, the Republican draft movement came largely from the grassroots of the party. With the first state primary approaching, Eisenhower was forced to make a quick decision, stating that soldiers should keep out of politics, Eisenhower declined to run and requested that the grassroots draft movement cease its activities. Dewey, who had been the Republican nominee in 1944, was regarded as the frontrunner when the primaries began, Dewey was the acknowledged leader of the Republican Partys Eastern Establishment. In 1946 he had been re-elected governor of New York by the largest margin in state history, Deweys handicap was that many Republicans disliked him on a personal level, he often struck observers as cold, stiff, and calculating. Taft was the leader of the Republican Partys conservative wing, which was strongest in the Midwest, Taft had two major weaknesses, He was a plodding, dull campaigner, and he was viewed by most party leaders as being too conservative and controversial to win a presidential election. Both Vandenberg and Warren were highly popular in their states, but each refused to campaign in the primaries. Their supporters, however, hoped that in the event of a Dewey-Taft-Stassen deadlock, General MacArthur, the famous war hero, was especially popular among conservatives. Since he was serving in Japan as the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers occupying that nation and they chose to enter his name in the Wisconsin primary. The surprise candidate of 1948 was Stassen, a liberal from Minnesota, in 1938, Stassen had been elected governor of Minnesota at the age of 31, he resigned as governor in 1943 to serve in the wartime Navy. In 1945 he served on the committee created the United Nations. Stassen was widely regarded as the most liberal of the Republican candidates, Stassen stunned Dewey and MacArthur in the Wisconsin primary, Stassens surprise victory virtually eliminated General MacArthur, whose supporters had made a major effort on his behalf. Stassen defeated Dewey again in the Nebraska primary, thus making him the new frontrunner and he then made the strategic mistake of trying to beat Taft in Ohio, Tafts home state. Stassen believed that if he could defeat Taft in his state, Taft would be forced to quit the race. Taft defeated Stassen in his native Ohio, however, and Stassen earned the hostility of the partys conservatives, even so, Stassen was still leading Dewey in the polls for the upcoming Oregon primary
33.
Thomas E. Dewey
–
Thomas Edmund Dewey was an American lawyer, prosecutor, and politician. He served as the 47th Governor of New York from 1943 to 1954, in 1944, he was the Republican candidate for President, but lost to President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the closest of Roosevelts four presidential elections. He was again the Republican candidate in 1948, but lost to President Harry S. Truman in one of the greatest upsets in presidential election history. As a New York City prosecutor early in his career, Dewey was relentless in his effort to curb the power of the American Mafia, most famously, he successfully prosecuted Mafioso kingpin Charles Lucky Luciano on charges of compulsory prostitution in 1936. Luciano was given a prison sentence. Dewey almost succeeded in apprehending Jewish mobster Dutch Schultz as well, Dewey led the moderate or progressive faction of the Republican Party, in which he fought conservative Ohio Senator Robert A. Taft. Dewey was an advocate for the professional and business community of the Northeastern United States, in addition he played a large part in the election of Dwight D. Eisenhower as President in 1952. Deweys successor as leader of the progressive Republicans was Nelson Rockefeller, the New York State Thruway is named in Deweys honor. Dewey was born and raised in Owosso, Michigan, where his father, George Martin Dewey, owned, edited, and published the local newspaper, the Owosso Times. His mother, Annie, whom he called Mater, bequeathed her son a healthy respect for common sense and the average man or woman who possessed it. One journalist noted that he did show leadership and ambition above the average, by the time he was thirteen and he graduated from the University of Michigan in 1923, and from Columbia Law School in 1925. While at the University of Michigan, he joined Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia, a fraternity for men of music. He was an excellent singer with a deep, baritone voice and he briefly considered a career as a professional singer, but decided against it after a temporary throat ailment convinced him that such a career would be risky. He then decided to pursue a career as a lawyer and he also wrote for The Michigan Daily, the universitys student newspaper. On June 16,1928, Dewey married Frances Eileen Hutt, a native of Sherman, Texas, she was a stage actress, after their marriage she dropped her acting career. They had two sons, Thomas E. Dewey Jr. and John Martin Dewey, in 1945, Dewey told a reporter that my farm is my roots. The heart of this nation is the small town. Dapplemere was part of a rural community called Quaker Hill
34.
Warren Commission
–
Its 888-page final report was presented to President Johnson on September 24,1964 and made public three days later. It concluded that President Kennedy was assassinated by Lee Harvey Oswald and it also concluded that Jack Ruby also acted alone when he killed Oswald two days later. The Commissions findings have proven controversial and have been challenged and supported by later studies. The Commission took its unofficial name—the Warren Commission—from its chairman, Chief Justice Earl Warren, one of their chief reservations was that a commission would ultimately create more controversy than consensus. Nicholas Katzenbach has been credited with providing advice after the assassination of John F. Kennedy that led to the creation of the Warren Commission, on November 28 he sent a memo to Johnsons White House aide Bill Moyers recommending the formation of a Presidential Commission to investigate the assassination. To combat speculation of a conspiracy, Katzenbach said that the results of the FBIs investigation should be made public and he wrote, in part, The public must be satisfied that Oswald was the assassin, that he did not have confederates who are still at large. Four days after Katzenbachs memo, Johnson appointed some of the nations most prominent figures, including the Chief Justice of the United States, to the Commission. The Warren Commission met formally for the first time on December 5,1963 on the floor of the National Archives Building in Washington. The Commission conducted its business primarily in closed sessions, but these were not secret sessions, two misconceptions about the Warren Commission hearing need to be clarified. hearings were closed to the public unless the witness appearing before the Commission requested an open hearing. No witness except one. requested an open hearing, second, although the hearings were conducted in private, they were not secret. In a secret hearing, the witness is instructed not to disclose his testimony to any party. He then asked, Now why, if JFK had been assassinated and the country, the obvious answer is that it knew its work could not survive any critical examination. Committee Earl Warren, Chief Justice of the United States Richard Russell, Jr. U. S. Senator, John Sherman Cooper, the specific findings prompted the Secret Service to make numerous modifications to its security procedures. All of the records were then transferred on November 23 to the National Archives. ”The 75-year rule no longer exists, supplanted by the Freedom of Information Act of 1966. By 1992,98 percent of the Warren Commission records had released to the public. The remaining Kennedy assassination related documents are scheduled to be released to the public by October 26,2017, the CIA was also covering up evidence that the CIA may have been in communication with Oswald before 1963, according to the CIA findings. Also withheld were earlier CIA plots, involving CIA links with the Mafia, to assassinate Cuban president Fidel Castro, in 1992, the Assassination Records Review Board was created by the JFK Records Act to collect and preserve the documents relating to the assassination. It pointed out in its report, Doubts about the Warren Commissions findings were not restricted to ordinary Americans
35.
Assassination of John F. Kennedy
–
On November 22,1963, John F. Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States, was fatally shot in Dallas, Texas while riding in a motorcade in Dallas Dealey Plaza, at 12,30 p. m. Fatally shot by Lee Harvey Oswald, he was traveling with his wife, Jacqueline, Texas Governor John Connally, Kennedys death marked the fourth and most recent assassination of an American President. The Committee was not able to identify any individuals or groups involved with the conspiracy, in addition, the HSCA found that the original federal investigations were seriously flawed in respect of information-sharing and the possibility of conspiracy. As recommended by the HSCA, the evidence indicating conspiracy was subsequently re-examined and rejected. However, Kennedys assassination is still the subject of debate and has spawned numerous conspiracy theories. Polling in 2013 showed that 60% of Americans believe that a group of conspirators was responsible for the assassination, President Kennedy traveled to Texas to smooth over frictions in the Democratic Party between liberals Ralph Yarborough and Don Yarborough and conservative John Connally. A presidential visit to the state of Texas was first agreed upon by Lyndon B. Johnson, President John F. Kennedys vice president, and Texas native, President Kennedys trip to Dallas was first announced to the public in September 1963. The exact motorcade route was finalized on November 18 and announced to the public a few days before November 22, the White House staff informed the Secret Service that the President would arrive there via a short flight from Carswell Air Force Base in Fort Worth to Dallas Love Field. Leaving from Dallas Love Field,45 minutes had been allotted for the motorcade to reach the Trade Mart at an arrival time of 12,15 p. m. The actual route was chosen to be a meandering 10-mile route between the two places, which could be driven slowly in the allotted time, on November 14, both men attended a meeting at Love Field and drove over the route that Sorrels believed best suited for the motorcade. From Love Field, the route passed through a portion of Dallas, through Downtown along Main Street. The planned route to the Trade Mart was widely reported in Dallas newspapers several days before the event, for the benefit of people who wished to view the motorcade. The route on Main Street precluded a direct turn onto the Fort Worth Turnpike exit, the Texas School Book Depository was situated at this corner of Houston and Elm. Three vehicles were used for Secret Service and police protection in the Dallas motorcade, the first car, an unmarked white Ford, carried Dallas Police Chief Jesse Curry, Secret Service Agent Win Lawson, Sheriff Bill Decker and Dallas Field Agent Forrest Sorrels. The second car, a 1961 Lincoln Continental convertible, held driver Agent Bill Greer, SAIC Roy Kellerman, Governor John Connally, Nellie Connally, President Kennedy, Secret Service agents Clint Hill, Jack Ready, Tim McIntyre and Paul Landis rode on the running boards. By the time the motorcade reached Dealey Plaza, they were five minutes away from their planned destination. At 12,30 p. m. President, you cant say Dallas doesnt love you and those were the last words ever spoken by John F. Kennedy
36.
Norwegian American
–
Norwegian Americans comprise Americans with ancestral roots from Norway. Norwegian immigrants went to the United States primarily in the half of the 19th century. There are more than 4.5 million Norwegian Americans according to the most recent U. S. census, Norwegian Americans currently comprise the 10th largest European ancestry group in the United States. Norsemen from Greenland and Iceland were the first Europeans to reach North America, leif Ericson reached North America via Norse settlements in Greenland around the year 1000. Norse settlers from Greenland founded the settlement of LAnse aux Meadows and Point Rosee in Vinland, in what is now Newfoundland and these settlers failed to establish a permanent settlement because of conflicts with indigenous people and within the Norse community. There was a Norwegian presence in New Amsterdam in the part of 17th century. Hans Hansen Bergen, a native of Bergen, Norway, was one of the earliest settlers of the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam having immigrated in 1633, another of the first Norwegian settlers was Albert Andriessen Bradt who arrived in New Amsterdam in 1637. Pieter Van Brugh, Mayor of Albany, New York was the grandson of Norwegian immigrants, approximately 60 persons had settled in the Manhattan area before the British take-over in 1664. How many Norwegians that settled in New Netherland is not known, the Netherlands had strong commercial ties with the coastal lumber trade of Norway during the 17th century and many Norwegians immigrated to Amsterdam. Some of them settled in Dutch colonies, although never in large numbers, there were also Norwegian settlers in Pennsylvania in the first half of the 18th century, upstate New York in the latter half of the same century, and in New England during both halves. The earliest immigrants from Norway to America emigrated mostly because of religious motives, as Religious Society of Friends, organized Norwegian immigration to North America began in 1825, when several dozen Norwegians left Stavanger bound for North America on the sloop Restauration under the leadership of Cleng Peerson. To a great extent, this emigration from Norway was borne out of religious persecution, especially for Quakers and a local religious group. The ship landed in New York City, where it was at first impounded for exceeding its passenger limit. After intervention from President John Quincy Adams, the passengers moved on to settle in Kendall, New York with the help of Andreas Stangeland, many of these immigrants moved on from the Kendall Settlement, settling in Illinois and Wisconsin. In July of that year, a group of six dissenting families, seeking a haven from the official Norwegian state church, set sail from Stavanger in an undersized sloop, the Restaurationen. When it arrived in New York harbor after an arduous 14-week journey, the Restaurationen caused a sensation, local Quakers helped the destitute emigrants, who eventually established a community in upstate New York. Today, their descendants are known as sloopers. While about 65 Norwegians emigrated via Sweden and elsewhere in the years, no emigrant ships left Norway for the New World until the 1836 departures of the Den Norske Klippe
37.
Swedish American
–
Swedish Americans are an American ethnic group of people who have ancestral roots from Sweden. They primarily include the 1.2 million Swedish immigrants during 1885–1915 and they formed tight-knit communities, primarily in the American Midwest, and intermarried with other Swedish-Americans. Historically, Swedish Americans have been concentrated in the Midwest, roughly in the area west and northwest of Chicago, many of them came to Minnesota. A contingent also settled in the woods of northern Maine, the first Swedish Americans were the settlers of New Sweden. A colony established by Queen Christina of Sweden in 1638, it centered around the Delaware Valley including parts of the states of Delaware, New Jersey. New Sweden was incorporated into New Netherland in 1655 and ceased to be a territory of the Realm of Sweden. However, many Swedish and Finnish colonists remained and were allowed some political and cultural autonomy, Swedish Americans usually came through New York City and subsequently settled in the upper Midwest. Most were Lutheran and belonged to synods now associated with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, theologically, they were pietistic, politically they often supported progressive causes and prohibition. In the year 1900, Chicago was the city with the second highest number of Swedes after Stockholm, by then, Swedes in Chicago had founded the Evangelical Covenant Church and established such enduring institutions as Swedish Covenant Hospital and North Park University. Many others settled in Minnesota in particular, followed by Wisconsin, as well as New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Iowa, Nebraska and Illinois. Like their Norwegian American and Danish American brethren, many Swedes sought out the agrarian lifestyle they had left behind in Sweden, as many immigrants settled on farms throughout the Midwest. In the east, New England became a destination for many skilled workers and Swedish centers developed in areas such as Jamestown, New York, Providence, Rhode Island. A small Swedish settlement was begun in New Sweden, Maine. 51 Swedish settlers came to the area, led by W. W. Thomas, who called them mina barn i skogen, upon arrival, they knelt in prayer and thanksgiving to God. This area soon expanded and other settlements were named Stockholm, Jemptland, the town of New Sweden, Maine celebrates St. Lucia, Midsummer, and Founders Day. It is a Swedish-American community that continues to honor traditions of the old country, gustaf Adolph Lutheran Church was served by a native of Sweden as recently as 1979-1985 who was known to occasionally conduct special worship services in Swedish. The largest settlement in New England was Worcester, Massachusetts, here, Swedes were drawn to the citys wire and abrasive industries
38.
Southern Pacific Railroad
–
The Southern Pacific Transportation Company, earlier Southern Pacific Railroad and Southern Pacific Company, and usually called the Southern Pacific or Espee, was an American Class I railroad. It was absorbed in 1988 by the company controlled the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad. The railroad was founded as a holding company in 1865. By 1900 the Southern Pacific Company was a railroad system incorporating many smaller companies, such as the Texas and New Orleans Railroad and Morgans Louisiana. It extended from New Orleans through Texas to El Paso, across New Mexico and through Tucson, to Los Angeles, through most of California, including San Francisco, Central Pacific lines extended east across Nevada to Ogden, Utah, and reached north through Oregon to Portland. By the 1980s route mileage had dropped to 10,423 miles, in 1988 the Southern Pacific was taken over by D&RGW parent Rio Grande Industries. The combined railroad kept the Southern Pacific name due to its recognition in the railroad industry. Along with the addition of the SPCSL Corporation route from Chicago to St. Louis, by 1996 years of financial problems had dropped SPs mileage to 13,715 miles, and it was taken over by the Union Pacific Railroad. Southern Pacific founded important hospitals in San Francisco, Tucson, in the 1970s, it also founded a telecommunications network with a state-of-the-art microwave and fiber optic backbone. This evolved into Sprint, a company name that came from the acronym for Southern Pacific Railroad Internal Networking Telephony. The original aim was to construct a railroad from Galveston Bay to a point on the Red River near a trading post known as Coffees Station, the GRR built 2 miles of track in Houston in 1855. Track laying began in earnest in 1856 and on 1 September 1856 GRR was renamed the Houston and Texas Central Railway. SP acquired H&TC in 1883 but it continued to operate as a subsidiary under its own management until 1927, when it was leased to another SP-owned railroad, the Texas and New Orleans Railroad. The Buffalo Bayou, Brazos and Colorado Railway, was chartered in Texas on 11 February 1850 by a group that included General Sidney Sherman, bBB&C was the first railroad to commence operation in Texas and the first component of SP to commence operation. Surveying of the route alignment commenced at Harrisburg, Texas in 1851, the first 20 miles of track opened in August 1853. SP was founded in San Francisco, California in 1865 by a group of businessmen led by Timothy Phelps with the aim of building a connection between San Francisco and San Diego, California. The company was purchased in September 1868 by a group of known as the Big Four, Charles Crocker, Leland Stanford, Mark Hopkins. The Big Four had, in 1861, created the Central Pacific Railroad, CPRR was merged into SP in 1870
39.
Blacklist
–
Blacklisting is the action of a group or authority, compiling a blacklist of people, countries or other entities to be avoided or distrusted as not being acceptable to those making the list. A blacklist can list people to be discriminated against, refused employment, as a verb, blacklist can mean to put an individual or entity on such a list. The English dramatist Philip Massinger used the black list in his 1639 tragedy The Unnaturall Combat. After the Restoration of the English monarchy brought Charles II of England to the throne in 1660, the first published reference to blacklisting of an employee dates from 1774. This became a significant employment issue in American mining towns and company towns, though the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 outlawed punitive blacklists against employees who supported trade unions or criticised their employers, the practice continued in common use. Since then, lawsuits for unfair dismissal have led to blacklisting being covert or informal, in the summer of 1940, the SS printed a secret list called Sonderfahndungsliste G. B. Blacklisting by multiple providers is an act by doctors to deny care to a certain patient or patients. It is done in ways for various reasons, blacklisting is not new. In 1907 the Transvaal Medical Union in South Africa blacklisted patients if they could not pay cash in advance, in this case, there was a physical list kept by the community of physicians. A physical list is not necessary to blacklist patients but the effect is the same, the United States Department of Health & Human Services found that reviewed hospitals did not generate incident reports for 93% of adverse events. The 7% of the time when they did generate reports, the information was inaccurate 63% of the time, problems causing harm to patients were reported accurately only 2% of the time. Those patients are further injured by not having the accurate record necessary for getting care for the injuries, in the US the list is called TMF/MATCH. In computing, a blacklist is a control system that denies entry to a specific list of users, programs. Many can expect to pay a price for a time to come. There has been controversy as to whether this is a response to the passage of Proposition 8 on the part of those opposed to it. The Suppression of Salt of the Earth, How Hollywood, Big Labor, and Politicians Blacklisted a Movie in Cold War America
40.
Bakersfield, California
–
Bakersfield is a city in California, United States, and the county seat of Kern County. It covers about 142 square miles near the end of the San Joaquin Valley. Bakersfields population is approximately 365,000, making it the ninth-most populous city in California, the Bakersfield–Delano Metropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Kern County, had a 2010 census population of 839,631, making it the 62nd largest metropolitan area in the United States. The more built-up urban area that includes Bakersfield and areas immediately around the city, such as East Bakersfield, the city is a significant hub for both agriculture and oil production. Kern County is the most productive oil producing county, and the fourth most productive county in the United States. Industries include natural gas and other energy extraction, aerospace, mining, petroleum refining, manufacturing, distribution, food processing, the city is also the birthplace of the country music genre known as the Bakersfield sound. Archaeological evidence indicates the presence of Native American settlements dating back thousands of years, the Yokuts lived in lodges along the branches of the Kern River Delta and hunted antelope, tule elk, deer, bear, fish, and game birds. In 1776, Spanish missionary Father Francisco Garcés became the first European to explore the area, following the discovery of gold in California in 1848, settlers flooded into the San Joaquin Valley. In 1851, gold was discovered along the Kern River in the southern Sierra Nevada, the Bakersfield area, once a tule-reed-covered marshland, was first known as Kern Island to the handful of pioneers who built log cabins there in 1860. The area was subject to flooding from the Kern River, which occupied what is now the downtown area. In 1862, disastrous floods swept away the original settlement founded in 1860 by the German-born Christian Bohna, among those attracted to the area by the California gold rush was Thomas Baker, a lawyer and former colonel in the militia of Ohio, his home state. Baker moved to the banks of the Kern River in 1863, at what became known as Bakers Field, by 1870, with a population of 600, what is now known as Bakersfield was becoming the principal town in Kern County. In 1873, Bakersfield was officially incorporated as a city, alexander Mills was hired as the city marshal, a man one historian would describe as. An old man by the time he became Marshal of Bakersfield, but he was a Kentuckian, a handy man with a gun, and not lacking in initiative and resource when the mood moved him. Businessmen and others began to resent Mills, who was cantankerous, wanting to fire him but fearing reprisals, they came up with a scheme to disincorporate, effectively leaving him without an employer. According to local historian Gilbert Gia, the city was also failing to collect the taxes it needed for services, in 1876, the city voted to disincorporate. For the next 22 years, a citizens council managed the community, by 1880, the town had a population of 801, and by 1890, it had a population of 2,626. Migration from Texas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Southern California brought new residents, the city reincorporated on January 11,1898
41.
Bakersfield High School
–
Bakersfield High School is a high school located in Bakersfield, California, United States. The first name change, adding the word Union, came when the school separated from the Bakersfield City School District. Then it was known informally as K. C. or Kay Cee High School and it was formally renamed by the school board in 1945. The school has been in the location since its inception. The 1952 Kern County earthquake precipitated a great deal of reconstruction and it hosts several buildings, each with multiple floors. One of its most prominent buildings is Harvey Auditorium, which houses a theater and one little theater. It serves as a venue for the arts community. There are two Industrial Arts buildings, which both a functioning automotive garage along with a wood shop and weight room and fitness center. With a student population just over 2,800, it has the largest student body on one of the smallest campuses in the Kern High School District and this E-waste recycling club is the first of its kind in the Kern High School District. The BHS Drillers have been competing in football since 1896, the Drillers hold the California state records for most state football titles, and the most section championships, commonly called valley titles for being within the San Joaquin Valley. In 2013 Bakersfield High won the CIF Division I State title over Loomis-Del Oro played at the Home Depot Center at Cal State Dominguez Hills in Carson. Bakersfield High has the most wins in California high school football history, Bakersfield has 737 wins as of the end of the 2013 season, Long Beach Poly has 734. It clinched its 700th win, the first team in California to do so, on October 23,2009, in that seasons Homecoming game. The most recognized Driller alum is Frank Gifford, who played football both at Bakersfield College and the University of Southern California, and pro football with the New York Giants. The Drillers have called Griffith Field their home field since 1923, the field features a monolithic concrete structure for home seating on the western home side with the Drillers locker rooms inside it. The field is unusual in that the eastern bleachers are located on the grass inside the dirt practice track. The bleachers run from end zone to end zone with the front row only about 12-feet away from the sideline with nothing separating the fans from the field, Griffith Field can seat approximately 8,000 spectators. Griffith Field is scheduled to undergo a renovation project to be completed in time for the 2016 season
42.
UC Berkeley School of Law
–
The University of California, Berkeley, School of Law, commonly referred to as Berkeley Law and Boalt Hall, is one of 14 schools and colleges at the University of California, Berkeley. Berkeley Law is consistently ranked as one of the top law schools in the nation, with rates lower than every school except Yale. William Miller, Solicitor General of the United States Theodore Olson, the Department of Jurisprudence was founded at Berkeley in 1894. In 1912, the department was renamed the School of Jurisprudence, in 1951, the School moved to its current location in the new Boalt Hall, at the southeast corner of the campus, and the old Boalt Hall was renamed Durant Hall. In April 2008, the law school rebranded itself, through a change of name from Boalt Hall to Berkeley Law to tie the law schools more closely with the campus upon which it resides. The administration hopes that this will improve the law schools name recognition since people know of UC Berkeley. Boalt Hall has approximately 850 J. D. students,200 students in the LL. M. and J. S. D, programs, and 45 students in the Ph. D. program in Jurisprudence and Social Policy. The JD programs admissions process is highly selective, Berkeley Law is known to value high undergraduate GPAs. Consequently, Berkeley has the 9th highest 75th percentile GPA, according to U. S. News and World Report, Berkeley has the 12th lowest acceptance rate among U. S. law schools, with about 25% of applicants admitted. For the class entering in the fall of 2016,1,328 out of 5,336 applicants were offered admission, the 25th and 75th LSAT percentiles for the 2016 entering class were 163 and 169, respectively, with a median of 166. The 25th and 75th undergraduate GPA percentiles were 3.65 and 3.89, respectively, boalts grading system for the JD program is unusual among law schools. Students are graded on a High Honors, Honors, and Pass scale, the top student in each class or section receives the Jurisprudence Award, while the second-place student receives the Prosser Prize. For a typical class in the JD program, the age of admitted students is 24 years old. Berkeley Laws tuition has increased in recent years, currently, tuition and fees are $48,703 per year and $52,654 per year. Most out-of-state students may claim in-state status in their year of study. The faculty of Berkeley Law also provide direction and the bulk of the instruction for the undergraduate program in Legal Studies. The Legal Studies program is not intended as a pre-law program and it is an American Bar Association approved law school since 1923. It joined the Association of American Law Schools in 1912, Boalt Hall offers combined degree programs with other schools at the University of California, as well as MA degrees from Tufts University and Harvard University
United States
United States Army
First Lieutenant
