1.
Liberalism
–
Liberalism is a political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of liberty and equality. Liberalism first became a political movement during the Age of Enlightenment. Liberalism rejected the social and political norms of hereditary privilege, state religion, absolute monarchy. The 17th-century philosopher John Locke is often credited with founding liberalism as a philosophical tradition. Locke argued that man has a natural right to life, liberty and property. Liberals opposed traditional conservatism and sought to replace absolutism in government with representative democracy, prominent revolutionaries in the Glorious Revolution, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution used liberal philosophy to justify the armed overthrow of what they saw as tyrannical rule. Liberalism started to spread rapidly especially after the French Revolution, the 19th century saw liberal governments established in nations across Europe, South America, and North America. During the 20th century, liberal ideas spread even further as liberal democracies found themselves on the side in both world wars. In Europe and North America, the establishment of social liberalism became a key component in the expansion of the welfare state, today, liberal parties continue to wield power and influence throughout the world. Words such as liberal, liberty, libertarian, and libertine all trace their history to the Latin liber, which means free. One of the first recorded instances of the word occurs in 1375. The words early connection with the education of a medieval university soon gave way to a proliferation of different denotations and connotations. In 16th century England, liberal could have positive or negative attributes in referring to someones generosity or indiscretion, in Much Ado About Nothing, Shakespeare wrote of a liberal villaine who hath. confest his vile encounters. With the rise of the Enlightenment, the word acquired decisively more positive undertones, being defined as free from narrow prejudice in 1781, in 1815, the first use of the word liberalism appeared in English. In Spain, the Liberales, the first group to use the label in a political context. From 1820 to 1823, during the Trienio Liberal, King Ferdinand VII was compelled by the liberales to swear to uphold the Constitution, by the middle of the 19th century, liberal was used as a politicised term for parties and movements worldwide. Over time, the meaning of the word began to diverge in different parts of the world. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, In the United States, liberalism is associated with the policies of the New Deal programme of the Democratic administration of Pres
Liberalism
–
The
Agreement of the People (1647) was a manifesto for political change, proposed by the
Levellers during the
English Civil War. It called for
freedom of religion, frequent convening of
Parliament and equality under the law.
Liberalism
–
John Locke was the first to develop a liberal philosophy, including the right to
private property and the
consent of the governed.
Liberalism
–
The
Bill of Rights was a landmark piece of liberal legislation.
Liberalism
–
The
Philadelphia Convention in 1787 adopted the
United States Constitution, which is still in effect.
2.
History of liberalism
–
Liberalism is the belief in freedom and equal rights generally associated with such thinkers as John Locke and Montesquieu. A few years later, the French Revolution overthrew the hereditary aristocracy, with the liberty, equality, fraternity. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, Liberalism fully exploded as a comprehensive movement against the old order during the French Revolution, which influenced later events on the European continent and around the world. Isolated strands of thought that had existed in Western philosophy since the Ancient Greeks. Disputes between the Parliament and King Charles I over political supremacy sparked a civil war in the 1640s, which culminated in Charles execution. No man hath power over my rights and liberties, and I over no mans, sidney firmly rejected the Filmers reactionary principles and argued that the subjects of the monarch were entitled by right to share in the government through advice and counsel. These ideas were first drawn together and systematized as an ideology, by the English philosopher John Locke. His influential Two Treatises, the text of liberal ideology. And this is that, and that only, which did or could give beginning to any government in the world. Locke had other intellectual opponents besides Hobbes, in the First Treatise, Locke aimed his guns first and foremost at one of the doyens of 17th century English conservative philosophy, Robert Filmer. Locke disagreed so thoroughly and obsessively with Filmer, however, that the First Treatise is almost a sentence-by-sentence refutation of Patriarcha, reinforcing his respect for consensus, Locke argued that conjugal society is made up by a voluntary compact between men and women. Locke maintained that the grant of dominion in Genesis was not to men over women, as Filmer believed, Locke also originated the concept of the separation of church and state. For Locke, this created a right in the liberty of conscience. He also formulated a general defence for religious toleration in his Letters Concerning Toleration, Locke was also influenced by the liberal ideas of Presbyterian politician and poet John Milton, who was a staunch advocate of freedom in all its forms. Milton argued for disestablishment as the effective way of achieving broad toleration. Rather than force a mans conscience, government should recognise the persuasive force of the gospel, as assistant to Oliver Cromwell, Milton also took part in drafting a constitution of the Independents that strongly stressed the equality of all humans as a consequence of democratic tendencies. His central argument was that the individual is capable of using reason to distinguish right from wrong. To be able to exercise this right, everyone must have unlimited access to the ideas of his men in “a free and open encounter
History of liberalism
–
The
Agreement of the People (1647) was a manifesto for political change, proposed by the
Levellers during the
English Civil War. It called for
freedom of religion, frequent convening of
Parliament and equality under the law.
History of liberalism
–
John Locke was the first to develop a liberal philosophy. He coherently described the elementary principles of the liberal movement, such as the right to
private property and the
consent of the governed.
History of liberalism
–
The
Bill of Rights was a landmark piece of liberal legislation.
History of liberalism
–
Joseph II of Austria was an archetypal enlightened despot. Although he maintained a belief in
absolutist monarchy, he championed a series of liberal reforms.
3.
List of liberal theorists
–
Individual contributors to classical liberalism and political liberalism are associated with philosophers of the Enlightenment. Liberalism as a specifically named ideology begins in the late 18th century as a movement towards self-government and away from aristocracy. It included the ideas of self-determination, the primacy of the individual, Some of these people moved away from liberalism, while others espoused other ideologies before turning to liberalism. There are many different views of what constitutes liberalism, and some liberals would feel some of the people on this list were not true liberals. It is intended to be rather than exhaustive. Theorists whose ideas were mainly typical for one country should be listed in that section of liberalism worldwide. Generally only thinkers are listed, politicians are only listed when they, beside their active political work, Aristotle is revered among political theorists for his seminal work Politics. He made invaluable contributions to liberal theory through his observations on different forms of government and he begins with the idea that the best government provides an active and happy life for its people. Aristotle then considers six forms of government, Monarchy, Aristocracy, and Polity on one side as good forms of government, and Tyranny, Oligarchy, in addition, Aristotle was a firm supporter of private property. He references barbarian tribes of his time in property was held in common. He wrote extensively on the need for individual initiative—virtu—as an essential characteristic of stable government and his Discourses on Livy outlined realism as the central idea of political study and favored Republics over Principalities. Erasmusian societies formed across Europe, to some extent in response to the turbulence of the Reformation, in his De libero arbitrio diatribe sive collatio, he analyzes the Lutheran exaggeration of the obvious limitations on human freedom. In the first mentioned book, Spinoza expresses an early criticism of religious intolerance, Spinoza was a thoroughgoing determinist who held that absolutely everything that happens occurs through the operation of necessity. For him, even human behaviour is determined, freedom being our capacity to know we are determined. So freedom is not the possibility to say no to what happens to us but the possibility to say yes, developed a theory of property resting on the actions of individuals, rather than on descent or nobility. Some literature, A Letter Concerning Toleration,1689 The Second Treatise of Civil Government,1689 John Trenchard was co-author, with Thomas Gordon of Catos Letters. Some literature, Catos Letters / John Trenchard & Thomas Gordon, 1720–1723 Charles de Montesquieu In The Spirit of the Laws, Montesquieu expounded the separation of powers in government, montesquieus work had a seminal impact on the American and French revolutionaries. Ironically, the least liberal element of his thought—his privileging of the aristocracy—was belied by both revolutions
List of liberal theorists
–
Aristotle.
List of liberal theorists
–
Niccolò Machiavelli.
List of liberal theorists
–
Desiderius Erasmus
List of liberal theorists
–
Thomas Hobbes
4.
Civil and political rights
–
Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals freedom from infringement by governments, social organizations, and private individuals. They ensure ones ability to participate in the civil and political life of the society, Civil and political rights form the original and main part of international human rights. They comprise the first portion of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the phrase civil rights is a translation of Latin ius civis. Roman citizens could be either free or servile, but they all had rights in law. After the Edict of Milan in 313, these included the freedom of religion. Roman legal doctrine was lost during the Middle Ages, but claims of rights could still be made based on religious doctrine. According to the leaders of Ketts Rebellion, all men may be made free. In the 17th century, English common law judge Sir Edward Coke revived the idea of rights based on citizenship by arguing that Englishmen had historically enjoyed such rights, the Parliament of England adopted the English Bill of Rights in 1689. The Virginia Declaration of Rights, by George Mason and James Madison, was adopted in 1776, the Virginia declaration is the direct ancestor and model for the U. S. Bill of Rights. The removal by legislation of a civil right constitutes a civil disability, in early 19th century Britain, the phrase civil rights most commonly referred to the issue of such legal discrimination against Catholics. In the House of Commons support for civil rights was divided, the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 restored their civil rights. In the 1860s, Americans adapted this usage to newly freed blacks, congress enacted civil rights acts in 1866,1871,1875,1957,1960,1964,1968, and 1991. Marshall notes that civil rights were among the first to be recognized and codified, followed later by political rights, in many countries, they are constitutional rights and are included in a bill of rights or similar document. They are also defined in human rights instruments, such as the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Civil and political rights need not be codified to be protected, although most democracies worldwide do have formal written guarantees of civil, Civil rights are considered to be natural rights. Thomas Jefferson wrote in his A Summary View of the Rights of British America that a free people their rights as derived from the laws of nature, the question of to whom civil and political rights apply is a subject of controversy. According to political scientist Salvador Santino F. Regilme Jr. Custom also plays a role, the United States Declaration of Independence states that people have unalienable rights including Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. It is considered by some that the purpose of government is the protection of life. Ideas of self-ownership and cognitive liberty affirm rights to choose the food one eats, the one takes
Civil and political rights
–
Savka Dabčević-Kučar,
Croatian Spring participant; Europe's first female prime minister
5.
Democracy
–
Democracy, in modern usage, is a system of government in which the citizens exercise power directly or elect representatives from among themselves to form a governing body, such as a parliament. Democracy is sometimes referred to as rule of the majority, Democracy was originally conceived in Classical Greece, where political representatives were chosen by a jury from amongst the male citizens, rich and poor. The English word dates to the 16th century, from the older Middle French, in the 5th century BC, to denote the political systems then existing in Greek city-states, notably Athens, the term is an antonym to aristocracy, meaning rule of an elite. While theoretically these definitions are in opposition, in practice the distinction has been blurred historically, the political system of Classical Athens, for example, granted democratic citizenship to free men and excluded slaves and women from political participation. In 1906, Finland became the first government to harald a more inclusive democracy at the national level. Democracy contrasts with forms of government where power is held by an individual, as in an absolute monarchy, or where power is held by a small number of individuals. Nevertheless, these oppositions, inherited from Greek philosophy, are now ambiguous because contemporary governments have mixed democratic, oligarchic, and monarchic elements. Karl Popper defined democracy in contrast to dictatorship or tyranny, thus focusing on opportunities for the people to control their leaders, No consensus exists on how to define democracy, but legal equality, political freedom and rule of law have been identified as important characteristics. These principles are reflected in all eligible citizens being equal before the law, other uses of democracy include that of direct democracy. In some countries, notably in the United Kingdom which originated the Westminster system, in the United States, separation of powers is often cited as a central attribute. In India, parliamentary sovereignty is subject to the Constitution of India which includes judicial review, though the term democracy is typically used in the context of a political state, the principles also are applicable to private organisations. Majority rule is listed as a characteristic of democracy. Hence, democracy allows for political minorities to be oppressed by the tyranny of the majority in the absence of legal protections of individual or group rights. An essential part of a representative democracy is competitive elections that are substantively and procedurally fair, i. e. just. It has also suggested that a basic feature of democracy is the capacity of all voters to participate freely and fully in the life of their society. While representative democracy is sometimes equated with the form of government. Many democracies are constitutional monarchies, such as the United Kingdom, the term democracy first appeared in ancient Greek political and philosophical thought in the city-state of Athens during classical antiquity. The word comes from demos, common people and kratos, strength, led by Cleisthenes, Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508–507 BC
Democracy
–
A woman casts her vote in the second round of the
2007 French presidential election.
Democracy
–
Cleisthenes, "father of
Athenian democracy ", modern bust.
Democracy
–
Magna Carta, 1215, England.
Democracy
–
The establishment of
universal male suffrage in France in 1848 was an important milestone in the history of democracy.
6.
Liberal democracy
–
Liberal democracy is a liberal political ideology and a form of government in which representative democracy operates under the principles of classical liberalism. It is also called western democracy, to define the system in practice, liberal democracies often draw upon a constitution, either formally written or uncodified, to delineate the powers of government and enshrine the social contract. After a period of sustained expansion throughout the 20th century, liberal democracy became the predominant political system in the world, a liberal democracy may take various constitutional forms, it may be a constitutional monarchy or a republic. It may have a system, a presidential system, or a semi-presidential system. Liberal democracies usually have universal suffrage, granting all citizens the right to vote regardless of race. Historically, however, some regarded as liberal democracies have had a more limited franchise. There may also be such as voters being required to register before being allowed to vote. The decisions made through elections are not by all of the citizens. The liberal democratic constitution defines the character of the state. The purpose of a constitution is seen as a limit on the authority of the government. Liberal democracy emphasises the separation of powers, an independent judiciary, Liberal democracies are likely to emphasise the importance of the state being a Rechtsstaat, i. e. a state that follows the principle of rule of law. Governmental authority is exercised only in accordance with written, publicly disclosed laws adopted and enforced in accordance with established procedure. In practice, democracies do have limits on certain freedoms, there are various legal limitations such as copyright and laws against defamation. There may be limits on speech, on attempts to undermine human rights. In the United States more than in Europe, during the Cold War, now they are more commonly applied to organisations perceived as promoting actual terrorism or the incitement of group hatred. Examples include anti-terrorism legislation, the shutting down of Hezbollah satellite broadcasts, critics claim that these limitations may go too far and that there may be no due and fair judicial process. The common justification for these limits is that they are necessary to guarantee the existence of democracy, for example, allowing free speech for those advocating mass murder undermines the right to life and security. Opinion is divided on how far democracy can extend to include the enemies of democracy in the democratic process, if relatively small numbers of people are excluded from such freedoms for these reasons, a country may still be seen as a liberal democracy
Liberal democracy
–
Eduskunta. Several nations and territories can present arguments for being the first with
universal suffrage. The
Grand Duchy of Finland had complete universal suffrage in 1906.
7.
Egalitarianism
–
Egalitarianism – or equalitarianism – is a trend of thought that favors equality for all people. Egalitarian doctrines maintain that all humans are equal in fundamental worth or social status, some sources define egalitarianism as the point of view that equality reflects the natural state of humanity. Common forms of egalitarianism include political and philosophical, the 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution, as the rest of the Constitution, in its operative language uses the term person, stating, for example, that. Nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, an example of this form is the Tunisian Constitution of 2014 which provides that men and women shall be equal in their rights and duties. The motto Liberté, égalité, fraternité was used during the French Revolution and is used as an official motto of the French government. The 1789 Rights of Man and of the Citizen French Constitution is framed also with this basis in rights of men. This was satirized by Olympe de Gouges during this time with her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen. The Declaration of Independence of the United States is an example of an assertion of equality of men, John Locke is sometimes considered the founder of this form. Many state constitutions in the US also use rights of man rather than rights of person. See, e. g. the Kentucky State Constitution, at a cultural level, egalitarian theories have developed in sophistication and acceptance during the past two hundred years. Several egalitarian ideas enjoy wide support among intellectuals and in the populations of many countries. Whether any of these ideas have been implemented in practice, however. A position of opposition to egalitarianism is antiegalitarianism, although the economist Karl Marx is sometimes mistaken to be an egalitarian, Marx eschewed normative theorizing on moral principles altogether. Marx did, however, have a theory of the evolution of moral principles in relation to economic systems. The American economist John Roemer has put forth a new perspective of equality, Roemer concludes that egalitarians must reject socialism as it is classically defined in order for equality to be realized. Sikhism The Sikh faith was founded upon egalitarian principles, going beyond most faiths to provide equality not only based upon race, within the wide range of Christianity, there are dissenting views to this from opposing groups, some of which are Complementarians and Patriarchalists. There are also those who may say that, whilst the Bible encourages equality, it also encourages law and order and these ideas are considered by some to be contrary to the ideals of egalitarianism. Various Christian groups have attempted to hold to this view and develop Christian oriented communities, in Acts, chapter 4, members of the early Christian community sell their possessions, give the proceeds to a common fund overseen by the disciples, then take according to their need
Egalitarianism
–
Egalitarian and equality symbol
8.
Free market
–
Another view considers systems with significant market power, inequality of bargaining power, or information asymmetry to be less than free. It is a result of a need being, then the need being met, prices for goods and services are set freely by the forces of supply and demand and are allowed to reach their point of equilibrium without intervention by government policy. Others believe regulation might be part of a market, if the regulation is necessary to control significant market power, inequality of bargaining power. The latter view implies a free market is not necessarily deregulated, although some of those with the former belief speak of free markets, friedrich Hayek argued in The Pure Theory of Capital that the goal is the preservation of the unique information contained in the price itself. The definition of free market has been disputed and made complex by collectivist political philosophers, during the marginal revolution, subjective value theory was rediscovered. Various forms of socialism based on free markets have existed since the 19th century, early notable socialist proponents of free markets include Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Benjamin Tucker, and the Ricardian socialists. These economists believed that free markets and voluntary exchange could not exist within the exploitative conditions of capitalism. Advocates of free-market socialism such as Jaroslav Vanek argue that free markets are not possible under conditions of private ownership of productive property. Socialists also point out that free market capitalism leads to excessive disparities in the distribution of income, corporate monopolies run rampant in free markets, with endless agency over the consumer. Thus, free market capitalism desires government regulation of markets to prevent social instability and this implies that economic rents, i. e. profits generated from lack of perfect competition, must be reduced or eliminated as much as possible through free competition. Economic theory suggests the returns to land and other resources are economic rents that cannot be reduced in such a way because of their perfect inelastic supply. Some economic thinkers emphasize the need to share those rents as a requirement for a well functioning market. It is suggested this would eliminate the need for regular taxes that have a negative effect on trade as well as release land. Two features that improve the competition and free market mechanisms, winston Churchill supported this view by his statement Land is the mother of all monopoly. The American economist and social philosopher Henry George, the most famous proponent of this thesis, followers of his ideas are often called Georgists or Geoists and Geolibertarians. Léon Walras, one of the founders of the neoclassical economics who helped formulate the general theory, had a very similar view. He argued that competition could only be realized under conditions of state ownership of natural resources. Additionally, income taxes could be eliminated because the state would receive income to public services through owning such resources and enterprises
Free market
–
Issues
9.
Free trade
–
Free trade is a policy followed by some international markets in which countries governments do not restrict imports from, or exports to, other countries. Free trade is exemplified by the European Economic Area and the Mercosur, most nations are today members of the World Trade Organization multilateral trade agreements. However, most governments still impose some protectionist policies that are intended to support local employment, governments may also restrict free trade to limit exports of natural resources. Other barriers that may hinder trade include import quotas, taxes, two simple ways to understand the proposed benefits of free trade are through David Ricardos theory of comparative advantage and by analyzing the impact of a tariff or import quota. An economic analysis using the law of supply and demand and the effects of a tax can be used to show the theoretical benefits. Underdeveloped nations today, Chang believes, are players in a much more competitive system. If the chief justification for a tariff is to stimulate infant industries and this theory, known as import substitution industrialization, is largely considered ineffective for currently developing nations. The chart at the right analyzes the effect of the imposition of a tariff on some imaginary good. Prior to the tariff, the price of the good in the market is Pworld. The tariff increases the price to Ptariff. The higher price causes domestic production to increase from QS1 to QS2 and this has three main effects on societal welfare. Consumers are made worse off because the consumer surplus becomes smaller, producers are better off because the producer surplus is made larger. The government also has additional tax revenue, however, the loss to consumers is greater than the gains by producers and the government. The magnitude of this loss is shown by the two pink triangles. Removing the tariff and having free trade would be a net gain for society, an almost identical analysis of this tariff from the perspective of a net producing country yields parallel results. From that countrys perspective, the tariff leaves producers worse off and consumers better off, under similar analysis, export tariffs, import quotas, and export quotas all yield nearly identical results. Free trade creates winners and losers, but theory and empirical evidence show that the size of the winnings from free trade are larger than the losses, applying free trade to the high cost producer can lead to trade diversion and a net economic loss. This is why many economists place such high importance on negotiations for global tariff reductions, the literature analysing the economics of free trade is extremely rich with extensive work having been done on the theoretical and empirical effects
Free trade
Free trade
–
David Ricardo
Free trade
–
Britain waged two
Opium Wars to force China to legalize the
opium trade and to open all of China to British merchants.
Free trade
–
George W. Bush and
Hu Jintao of China meet while attending an
APEC summit in Santiago de Chile, 2004
10.
Freedom of the press
–
Freedom of the press or freedom of the media through various mediums, such as electronic media and published materials. Wherever such freedom exists mostly implies the absence of interference from an overreaching state, with respect to governmental information, any government may distinguish which materials are public or protected from disclosure to the public. Many governments are subject to sunshine laws or freedom of information legislation that are used to define the ambit of national interest. This philosophy is usually accompanied by legislation ensuring various degrees of freedom of research, publishing. The depth to which laws are entrenched in a countrys legal system can go as far down as its constitution. The concept of freedom of speech is often covered by the laws as freedom of the press, thereby giving equal treatment to spoken. This idea was famously summarized by the 20th century American journalist, A. J. Liebling, Freedom of the press gives the printer or publisher exclusive control over what the publisher chooses to publish, including the right to refuse to print anything for any reason. If the author cannot reach a agreement with a publisher to produce the authors work. CPJ shares information on breaking cases with other press freedom organizations worldwide through the International Freedom of Expression Exchange, CPJ also tracks journalist deaths and detentions. CPJ staff applies strict criteria for each case, researchers independently investigate, so the concept of independence of the press is one closely linked with the concept of press freedom. Every year, Reporters Without Borders establishes a ranking of countries in terms of their freedom of the press, the survey asks questions about direct attacks on journalists and the media as well as other indirect sources of pressure against the free press, such as non-governmental groups. RWB is careful to note that the only deals with press freedom. In 2016, the countries where press was the most free were Finland, Netherlands, Norway, Denmark and New Zealand, followed by Costa Rica, Switzerland, Sweden, Ireland and Jamaica. The country with the least degree of freedom was Eritrea, followed by North Korea, Turkmenistan, Syria, China, Vietnam. The problem with media in India, the worlds largest democracy, is enormous, India doesnt have a model for a democratic press. The report written by Ravi S Jha says Indian journalism, with its lack of freedom and self-regulation, cannot be trusted now—it is currently known for manipulation, levels of freedom are scored on a scale from 1 to 100. Depending on the basics, the nations are then classified as Free, Partly Free, in 2009 Iceland, Norway, Finland, Denmark, and Sweden topped the list with North Korea, Turkmenistan, Myanmar, Libya, Eritrea at the bottom. According to Reporters Without Borders, more than a third of the people live in countries where there is no press freedom
Freedom of the press
–
Journalism
Freedom of the press
–
Georgiy Gongadze,
Ukrainian journalist, founder of a popular Internet newspaper
Ukrayinska Pravda, who was kidnapped and murdered in 2000.
11.
Freedom of religion
–
It also includes the freedom to change ones religion or belief. Freedom of religion is considered by people and most of the nations to be a fundamental human right. Historically, freedom of religion has been used to refer to the tolerance of different theological systems of belief, each of these have existed to varying degrees. Compare examples of individual freedom in Italy or the Muslim tradition of dhimmis, in Antiquity, a syncretic point of view often allowed communities of traders to operate under their own customs. When street mobs of separate quarters clashed in a Hellenistic or Roman city, Cyrus the Great established the Achaemenid Empire ca.550 BC, and initiated a general policy of permitting religious freedom throughout the empire, documenting this on the Cyrus Cylinder. Some of the exceptions have been in regions where one of the revealed religions has been in a position of power, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity. This was the core for resentment and the persecution of early Christian communities, Freedom of religious worship was established in the Buddhist Maurya Empire of ancient India by Ashoka the Great in the 3rd century BC, which was encapsulated in the Edicts of Ashoka. Greek-Jewish clashes at Cyrene in 73 AD and 117 AD and in Alexandria in 115 AD provide examples of cities as scenes of tumult. Dhimmis were allowed to operate their own courts following their own systems in cases that did not involve other religious groups. ISIS re-established the punitive jizya tax and forbade Christians in Syria from building places of worship, ringing bells, wearing crosses or criticizing Islam, ancient Jews fleeing from persecution in their homeland 2,500 years ago settled in India and never faced anti-Semitism. Freedom of religion edicts have been written during Ashoka the Greats reign in the 3rd century BC. Freedom to practise, preach and propagate any religion is a right in Modern India. Most major religious festivals of the communities are included in the list of national holidays. Although India is an 80% Hindu country, India is a state without any state religions. Many scholars and intellectuals believe that Indias predominant religion, Hinduism, has long been a most tolerant religion, rajni Kothari, founder of the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies has written, is a country built on the foundations of a civilisation that is fundamentally non-religious. The Dalai Lama, the Tibetan leader in exile, said that religious tolerance of Aryabhoomi, not only Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism which are the native religions but also Christianity and Islam have flourished here. Religious tolerance is inherent in Indian tradition, the Dalai Lama said, Freedom of religion in the Indian subcontinent is exemplified by the reign of King Piyadasi. One of King Ashokas main concerns was to reform governmental institutes and exercise moral principles in his attempt to create a just and humane society
Freedom of religion
–
Minerva as a symbol of enlightened wisdom protects the believers of all religions (
Daniel Chodowiecki, 1791)
Freedom of religion
–
The
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) guarantees freedom of religion, as long as religious activities do not infringe on public order in ways detrimental to society.
Freedom of religion
–
A US Postage Stamp commemorating religious freedom and the
Flushing Remonstrance.
Freedom of religion
–
The
cross of the
war memorial and a
menorah coexist in
Oxford, Oxfordshire, England.
12.
Freedom of speech
–
Freedom of speech is the right to articulate ones opinions and ideas without fear of government retaliation or censorship, or societal sanction. The term freedom of expression is used synonymously, but includes any act of seeking, receiving and imparting information or ideas. The right to freedom of expression includes the right to take, concepts of freedom of speech can be found in early human rights documents. Englands Bill of Rights 1689 legally established the right of freedom of speech in Parliament which is still in effect. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, adopted during the French Revolution in 1789, specifically affirmed freedom of speech as an inalienable right. The Declaration provides for freedom of expression in Article 11, which states that, The free communication of ideas and opinions is one of the most precious of the rights of man. Every citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, Today, freedom of speech, or the freedom of expression, is recognized in international and regional human rights law. This means that the protection of freedom of speech as a right not only the content. The right to freedom of speech and expression is related to other rights. As a general freedom of expression may not limit the right to privacy, as well as the honor. However greater latitude is given when criticism of public figures is involved, the right to freedom of expression is particularly important for media, which plays a special role as the bearer of the general right to freedom of expression for all. However, freedom of the press is not necessarily enabling freedom of speech, lichtenberg argues that freedom of the press is simply a form of property right summed up by the principle no money, no voice. Freedom of speech is understood to be fundamental in a democracy, the norms on limiting freedom of expression mean that public debate may not be completely suppressed even in times of emergency. One of the most notable proponents of the link between freedom of speech and democracy is Alexander Meiklejohn and he argues that the concept of democracy is that of self-government by the people. For such a system to work an informed electorate is necessary, in order to be appropriately knowledgeable, there must be no constraints on the free flow of information and ideas. According to Meiklejohn, democracy will not be true to its essential ideal if those in power are able to manipulate the electorate by withholding information, Meiklejohn acknowledges that the desire to manipulate opinion can stem from the motive of seeking to benefit society. However, he argues, choosing manipulation negates, in its means, eric Barendt has called this defense of free speech on the grounds of democracy probably the most attractive and certainly the most fashionable free speech theory in modern Western democracies. Emerson expanded on this defense when he argued that freedom of speech helps to provide a balance between stability and change, Freedom of speech acts as a safety valve to let off steam when people might otherwise be bent on revolution
Freedom of speech
–
A man expressing his views at
Speaker's Corner in London
Freedom of speech
–
Eleanor Roosevelt and the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1949). Article 19 states that "Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers."
Freedom of speech
–
Free speech zone at the
2004 Democratic National Convention
Freedom of speech
–
Permanent
Free Speech Wall in
Charlottesville, VA
13.
Internationalism (politics)
–
Internationalism is a political principle which transcends nationalism and advocates a greater political or economic cooperation among nations and people. In 19th-century UK there was a liberal internationalist strand of political thought epitomized by Richard Cobden, Cobden and Bright were against the protectionist Corn Laws and in a speech at Covent Garden on September 28,1843 Cobden outlined his utopian brand of internationalism, Free Trade. Cobden believed that Free Trade would pacify the world by interdependence, a belief in the idea of the moral law and an inherent goodness in human nature also inspired their faith in internationalism. One of the first international organisations in the world was the International Workingmens Association, in this sense, the socialist understanding of internationalism is closely related to the concept of international solidarity. From this perspective, it is in the ruling class interest to promote nationalism in order to hide the inherent class conflicts at play within a given society, therefore, socialists see nationalism as a form of ideological control arising from a societys given mode of economic production. The First, Second, Third, and Fourth Internationals were socialist political groupings which sought to advance workers revolution across the globe and achieve international socialism. Socialist internationalism is anti-imperialist, and therefore supports the liberation of peoples from all forms of colonialism and foreign domination, therefore, socialists have often aligned themselves politically with anti-colonial independence movements, and actively opposed the exploitation of one country by another. In socialist theory, world peace can only come once economic competition has been ended, in proportion as the antagonism between classes within the nation vanishes, the hostility of one nation to another will come to an end. The idea was reiterated later by Lenin and advanced as the policy of the Bolshevik party during World War I. But our attitude towards war is different from that of the bourgeois pacifists. Figures such as Karl Marx and anarchist revolutionary Mikhail Bakunin would play prominent roles in the First International, one faction, with Marx as the figurehead, argued that workers and radicals must work within parliaments in order to win political supremacy and create a workers government. The Socialist International, known as the Second International, was founded in 1889 after the disintegration of the International Workingmens Association, unlike the First International, it was a federation of socialist political parties from various countries, including both reformist and revolutionary groupings. The parties of the Second International were the first socialist parties to win support among the working class and have representatives elected to parliaments. Ostensibly committed to peace and anti-imperialism, the International Socialist Congress held its meeting in Basel, Switzerland in 1912. This betrayal led the few anti-war delegates left within the Second International to organize the International Socialist Conference at Zimmerwald, known as the Zimmerwald Conference, its purpose was to formulate a platform of opposition to the war. The conference was unable to reach agreement on all points, but ultimately was able to publish the Zimmerwald Manifesto, the most left-wing and stringently internationalist delegates at the conference were organized around Lenin and the Russian Social Democrats, and known as the Zimmerwald Left. The Zimmerwald Left resolutions urged all socialists who were committed to the internationalist principles of socialism to struggle against the war and it was an association of communist political parties from throughout the world dedicated to proletarian internationalism and the revolutionary overthrow of the world bourgeoisie. A variety of still active left-wing political organizations claim to be the successors of Trotskys original Fourth International
Internationalism (politics)
–
Meeting of the
Anti-Corn Law League, 1846.
Internationalism (politics)
Internationalism (politics)
–
Ramsay Macdonald, a political spokesman for internationalism.
Internationalism (politics)
–
Karl Marx was a prominent member of the First International, who drafted many of their pamphlets and statements
14.
Liberty
–
Liberty, in philosophy, involves free will as contrasted with determinism. In politics, liberty consists of the social and political freedoms to all community members are entitled. In theology, liberty is freedom from the effects of sin, spiritual servitude, as such, the exercise of liberty is subject to capability and limited by the rights of others. Philosophers from earliest times have considered the question of liberty, according to Thomas Hobbes, a free man is he that in those things which by his strength and wit he is able to do is not hindered to do what he hath the will to do. John Locke rejected that definition of liberty, while not specifically mentioning Hobbes, he attacks Sir Robert Filmer who had the same definition. According to Locke, In the state of nature, liberty consists of being free from any power on Earth. People are not under the will or lawmaking authority of others but have only the law of nature for their rule, in political society, liberty consists of being under no other lawmaking power except that established by consent in the commonwealth. People are free from the dominion of any will or legal restraint apart from that enacted by their own constituted lawmaking power according to the trust put in it. Thus, freedom is not as Sir Robert Filmer defines it, A liberty for everyone to do what he likes, to live as he pleases, freedom is constrained by laws in both the state of nature and political society. Freedom of nature is to be no other restraint but the law of nature. Freedom of people under government is to be under no restraint apart from standing rules to live by that are common to everyone in the society and made by the lawmaking power established in it. Persons have a right or liberty to follow their own will in all things that the law has not prohibited and not be subject to the inconstant, uncertain, unknown, and arbitrary wills of others. John Stuart Mill, in his work, On Liberty, was the first to recognize the difference between liberty as the freedom to act and liberty as the absence of coercion, the modern concept of political liberty has its origins in the Greek concepts of freedom and slavery. To be free, to the Greeks, was to not have a master and that was the original Greek concept of freedom. It is closely linked with the concept of democracy, as Aristotle put it, This, another is that a man should live as he likes. This, they say, is the privilege of a freeman, since, on the other hand and this applied only to free men. In Athens, for instance, women could not vote or hold office and were legally and socially dependent on a male relative, the populations of the Persian Empire enjoyed some degree of freedom. Citizens of all religions and ethnic groups were given the rights and had the same freedom of religion, women had the same rights as men
Liberty
–
The
Magna Carta (originally known as the Charter of Liberties) of 1215, written in iron gall ink on parchment in medieval Latin, using standard abbreviations of the period. This document is held at the British Library and is identified as "British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106"
Liberty
–
John Stuart Mill.
Liberty
–
A romanticised 19th-century recreation of King John signing the
Magna Carta
Liberty
–
The
Statue of Liberty, donated to the US by France, an artistic personification of liberty.
15.
Natural and legal rights
–
Natural and legal rights are two types of rights. Legal rights are those bestowed onto a person by a legal system. Natural rights are those that are not dependent on the laws or customs of any culture or government. The concept of law is closely related to the concept of natural rights. Conversely, the concept of rights is used by others to challenge the legitimacy of all such establishments. Natural rights, in particular, are considered beyond the authority of any government or international body to dismiss, the 1948 United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights is an important legal instrument enshrining one conception of natural rights into international soft law. Natural rights were traditionally viewed as exclusively negative rights, whereas human rights also comprise positive rights, even on a natural rights conception of human rights, the two terms may not be synonymous. The proposition that animals have natural rights is one that gained the interest of philosophers and legal scholars in the 20th century, the existence of natural rights has been asserted by different individuals on different premises, such as a priori philosophical reasoning or religious principles. For example, Immanuel Kant claimed to derive natural rights through reason alone, the United States Declaration of Independence, meanwhile, is based upon the self-evident truth that all men are. Endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, likewise, different philosophers and statesmen have designed different lists of what they believe to be natural rights, almost all include the right to life and liberty as the two highest priorities. H. L. A. Hart argued that if there are any rights at all, there must be the right to liberty, for all the others would depend upon this. T. H. Green argued that “if there are things as rights at all, then, there must be a right to life and liberty, or, to put it more properly to free life. ”John Locke emphasized life. However, despite Lockes influential defense of the right of revolution, leaders are seen as representative of God on earth, but they deserve allegiance only as long as they have farr, a kind of divine blessing that they must earn by moral behavior. The Stoics held that no one was a slave by nature, of fundamental importance to the development of the idea of natural rights was the emergence of the idea of natural human equality. Carlyle notes, There is no change in theory so startling in its completeness as the change from the theory of Aristotle to the later philosophical view represented by Cicero. We think that this cannot be better exemplified than with regard to the theory of the equality of human nature, charles H. Cicero argues in De Legibus that we are born for Justice, and that right is based, not upon opinions, but upon Nature. Centuries later, the Stoic doctrine that the part cannot be delivered into bondage re-emerged in the Reformation doctrine of liberty of conscience. Martin Luther wrote, Furthermore, every man is responsible for his own faith, preservation of the natural rights to life, liberty, and property was claimed as justification for the rebellion of the American colonies
Natural and legal rights
–
Thomas Hobbes
Natural and legal rights
–
John Locke, "
Life,
Liberty,
Estate (
property)"
Natural and legal rights
–
Thomas Paine
Natural and legal rights
–
Benjamin Tucker
16.
Private property
–
Private property is a legal designation for the ownership of property by non-governmental legal entities. Private property is distinguishable from public property, which is owned by an entity, and from collective property. Private property is distinguished from personal property, which refers to property for personal use. Private property is a concept defined and enforced by a countrys political system. Prior to the 18th century, English-speakers generally used the property in reference to land ownership. In England, property did not have a legal definition until the 17th century, private property as commercial property was invented with the great European trading companies of the 17th century. John Locke, in arguing against supporters of monarchy, conceptualized property as a natural right that God had not bestowed exclusively on the monarchy. Influenced by the rise of mercantilism, Locke argued that property was antecedent to. Locke distinguished between common property, by which he meant open-access property, and property in goods and producer-goods. His chief argument for property in land was improved land management, smith confined natural rights to liberty and life. Smith further argued that government could not exist without property. Economic liberals consider private property to be essential for the construction of a prosperous society and they believe private ownership of land ensures the land will be put to productive use and its value protected by the landowner. If the owners must pay property taxes, this forces the owners to maintain a productive output from the land to keep taxes current, private property also attaches a monetary value to land, which can be used to trade or as collateral. Private property thus is an important part of capitalization within the economy, socialist economists are critical of private property as socialism aims to substitute private property in the means of production for social ownership or public property. Socialists generally favor social ownership either to eliminate the distinctions between owners and workers, and as a component of the development of a post-capitalist economic system. According to Mises, this problem would make rational socialist calculation impossible, in Marxian economics and socialist politics, there is distinction between private property and personal property. Prior to the 18th century, private property usually referred to land ownership, private property in the means of production is criticized by socialists, who use the term in a different meaning. The socialist critique of private ownership is heavily influenced by the Marxian analysis of capitalist property forms as part of its critique of alienation and exploitation in capitalism
Private property
–
Gate with a private property sign.
Private property
–
A plaque marking state property in
Jūrmala.
17.
Rule of law
–
The rule of law is the legal principle that law should govern a nation, as opposed to being governed by arbitrary decisions of individual government officials. It primarily refers to the influence and authority of law within society, particularly as a constraint upon behaviour, including behaviour of government officials. The phrase can be traced back to 16th century Britain, John Locke defined freedom under the rule of law as follows, “Freedom is constrained by laws in both the state of nature and political society. Freedom of nature is to be no other restraint but the law of nature. Freedom of people under government is to be under no restraint apart from standing rules to live by that are common to everyone in the society and made by the lawmaking power established in it. Persons have a right or liberty to follow their own will in all things that the law has not prohibited and not be subject to the inconstant, uncertain, unknown, and arbitrary wills of others. ”The rule of law was further popularized in the 19th century by British jurist A. V. Dicey. The concept, if not the phrase, was familiar to ancient philosophers such as Aristotle, Rule of law implies that every citizen is subject to the law, including lawmakers themselves. In this sense, it stands in contrast to an autocracy, dictatorship, Government based upon the rule of law is called nomocracy. In the West, the ancient Greeks initially regarded the best form of government as rule by the best men, Plato advocated a benevolent monarchy ruled by an idealized philosopher king, who was above the law. More than Plato attempted to do, Aristotle flatly opposed letting the highest officials wield power beyond guarding and serving the laws, according to the Roman statesman Cicero, We are all servants of the laws in order that we may be free. During the Roman Republic, controversial magistrates might be put on trial when their terms of office expired, under the Roman Empire, the sovereign was personally immune, but those with grievances could sue the treasury. In contrast, the Huang-Lao school of Daoism rejected legal positivism in favor of a law that even the ruler would be subject to. There has recently been an effort to reevaluate the influence of the Bible on Western constitutional law, according to Professor Bernard M. Levinson, This legislation was so utopian in its own time that it seems never to have been implemented. The Deuteronomic social vision may have influenced opponents of the right of kings. In Islamic jurisprudence rule of law was formulated in the century, so that no official could claim to be above the law. However, this was not a reference to law. Alfred the Great, Anglo-Saxon King of the 9th century, reformed the law of his kingdom and created a law code with the biblical Mosaic law and he ruled that justice had to be equal between people, whether rich or poor, friends or enemies. This was likely inspired from Leviticus 19, You shall do no injustice in judgment and you shall not be partial to the poor, nor defer to the great
Rule of law
–
Mosaic representing both the judicial and legislative aspects of law. The woman on the throne holds a sword to chastise the guilty and a
palm branch to reward the meritorious.
Glory surrounds her head, and the
aegis of
Minerva signifies the armor of righteousness and wisdom.
18.
Secularism
–
Secularism is the principle of the separation of government institutions and persons mandated to represent the state from religious institutions and religious dignitaries. Another manifestation of secularism is the view that public activities and decisions, especially political ones, the purposes and arguments in support of secularism vary widely. In European laicism, it has argued that secularism is a movement toward modernization. This type of secularism, on a social or philosophical level, has occurred while maintaining an official state church or other state support of religion. Within countries as well, differing political movements support secularism for varying reasons, the term secularism was first used by the British writer George Jacob Holyoake in 1851. Although the term was new, the notions of freethought on which it was based had existed throughout history. Holyoake invented the term secularism to describe his views of promoting a social order separate from religion, an agnostic himself, Holyoake argued that Secularism is not an argument against Christianity, it is one independent of it. It does not question the pretensions of Christianity, it advances others, Secularism does not say there is no light or guidance elsewhere, but maintains that there is light and guidance in secular truth, whose conditions and sanctions exist independently, and act forever. Barry Kosmin of the Institute for the Study of Secularism in Society, according to Kosmin, the hard secularist considers religious propositions to be epistemologically illegitimate, warranted by neither reason nor experience. In political terms, secularism is a movement towards the separation of religion and this can refer to reducing ties between a government and a state religion, replacing laws based on scripture with civil laws, and eliminating discrimination on the basis of religion. This is said to add to democracy by protecting the rights of religious minorities, what all secular governments, from the democratic to the authoritarian, share is a concern about the relationship between the church and the state. Each secular government may find its own unique policy prescriptions for dealing with that concern, maharaja Ranjeet Singh of the Sikh empire of the first half of the 19th century successfully established a secular rule in the Punjab. Ranjit Singh also extensively funded education, religion, and arts of various different religions, Secularism is most often associated with the Age of Enlightenment in Europe and it plays a major role in Western society. The principles, but not necessarily the practices, of separation of church and state in the United States, Secular states also existed in the Islamic world during the Middle Ages. Due in part to the belief in the separation of church and state, the most significant forces of religious fundamentalism in the contemporary world are Christian fundamentalism and Islamic fundamentalism. At the same time, one significant stream of secularism has come from religious minorities who see governmental and political secularism as integral to the preservation of equal rights, in studies of religion, modern democracies are generally recognized as secular. This is due to the freedom of religion, and the lack of authority of religious leaders over political decisions. Nevertheless, religious beliefs are considered by many people to be a relevant part of the political discourse in many of these countries
Secularism
–
The
British writer
George Jacob Holyoake (1817–1906), coined the term "secularism."
Secularism
–
The
Italian law professor
Alberico Gentili (1587–1608) has been the first to divide the secularism from canon law and Roman Catholic theology.
19.
Separation of church and state
–
The separation of church and state is a concept defining the distance in the relationship between organized religion and the nation state. It may refer to creating a state, with or without explicit reference to such separation. The concept parallels various other social and political ideas, including secularism, disestablishmentarianism, religious liberty. Whitman observes that in many European countries, the state has, over the centuries, taken over the roles of the church. Many societies in antiquity had imperial cults where heads of state were worshiped as messiahs, ancient history is replete with examples of political leaders who derived legitimacy through religious titles. Sargon of Akkad was referred to as the deputy of Ishtar, julius Caesar was elected as Pontifex Maximus, the chief priest of the Roman state religion before he became the consul of Rome. Caligula referred to himself as a god when meeting with politicians, in this work, Augustine posited that major points of overlap were to be found between the earthly city and the city of God, especially as people need to live together and get along on earth. Thus Augustine held that it was the work of the city to make it possible for a heavenly city to be established on earth. For centuries, monarchs ruled by the idea of divine right, sometimes this began to be used by a monarch to support the notion that the king ruled both his own kingdom and Church within its boundaries, a theory known as caesaropapism. On the other side was the Catholic doctrine that the Pope, as the Vicar of Christ on earth, should have the authority over the Church. In the West the issue of the separation of church and state during the medieval period centered on monarchs who ruled in the secular sphere, at the beginning of the Protestant Reformation, Martin Luther articulated a doctrine of the two kingdoms. While there was a diversity of views in the days of the Radical Reformation. Anabaptists came to teach that religion should never be compelled by state power, approaching the issue of church-state relations primarily from the position of protecting the church from the state. In the 1530s, Henry VIII, angered by the Pope Clement VIIs refusal to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, decided to break with the Church and set himself as ruler of the Church of England. The monarchs of Great Britain have retained ecclesiastical authority in the Church of England since Henry VIII, having the current title, englands ecclesiastical intermixing did not spread widely, however, due to the extensive persecution of Catholics that resulted from Henrys power grab. Some of these people voluntarily sailed to the American Colonies specifically for this purpose, the concept of separating church and state is often credited to the writings of English philosopher John Locke. For Locke, this created a right in the liberty of conscience. At the same period of the 17th century, Pierre Bayle and some fideists were forerunners of the separation of Church and State, maintaining that faith was independent of reason
Separation of church and state
–
John Locke, English
political philosopher argued for individual conscience, free from state control
Separation of church and state
–
Thomas Jefferson, the third
President of the United States, whose letter to the Danbury Baptists Association is often quoted in debates regarding the separation of church and state.
20.
Social contract
–
The question of the relation between natural and legal rights, therefore, is often an aspect of social contract theory. The term takes its name from The Social Contract, a 1762 book by Jean-Jacques Rousseau that discussed this concept, the starting point for most social contract theories is an examination of the human condition absent any political order that Thomas Hobbes termed the state of nature. In this condition, individuals actions are only by their personal power. Each solved the problem of authority in a different way. Grotius posited that human beings had natural rights. Thomas Hobbes famously said that in a state of nature, human life would be solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, though the sovereigns edicts may well be arbitrary and tyrannical, Hobbes saw absolute government as the only alternative to the terrifying anarchy of a state of nature. Hobbes asserted that humans consent to abdicate their rights in favor of the authority of government. Pufendorf disputed Hobbess equation of a state of nature with war, the central assertion of social contract approaches is that law and political order are not natural, but are instead human creations. According to Hobbes citizens are not obligated to submit to the government when it is too weak to act effectively to suppress factionalism, the Lockean concept of the social contract was invoked in the United States Declaration of Independence. The concept of the contract is posed by Glaucon, as described by Plato in The Republic. They say that to do injustice is, by nature, good, to suffer injustice, evil, for no man who is worthy to be called a man would ever submit to such an agreement if he were able to resist, he would be mad if he did. Such is the account, Socrates, of the nature. The social contract theory also appears in Crito, another dialogue from Plato, Social contract formulations are preserved in many of the worlds oldest records. The Buddhist text of the second century BCE, Mahāvastu, recounts the legend of Mahasammata, then gradually the process of cosmic decay began its work, and mankind became earthbound, and felt the need of food and shelter. As men lost their glory, distinctions of class arose, and they entered into agreements with one another, accepting the institution of private property. He was called the Great Chosen One, and he received the title of raja because he pleased the people, in his rock edicts, the Buddhist king Asoka was said to have argued for a broad and far-reaching social contract. Natural justice is a pledge of reciprocal benefit, to prevent one man from harming or being harmed by another. There never was such a thing as justice, but only agreements made in mutual dealings among men in whatever places at various times providing against the infliction or suffering of harm
Social contract
–
The original cover of
Thomas Hobbes 's work
Leviathan, 1651.
21.
Welfare state
–
The welfare state is a concept of government in which the state plays a key role in the protection and promotion of the social and economic well-being of its citizens. It is based on the principles of equality of opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, the general term may cover a variety of forms of economic and social organization. Marshall described the modern state as a distinctive combination of democracy, welfare. Esping-Andersen classified the most developed welfare state systems into three categories, Social Democratic, Conservative, and Liberal, the welfare state involves a transfer of funds from the state, to the services provided, as well as directly to individuals. It is funded through redistributionist taxation and is referred to as a type of mixed economy. Such taxation usually includes an income tax for people with higher incomes. Proponents argue that this helps reduce the gap between the rich and poor. The German term Sozialstaat has been used since 1870 to describe state support programs devised by German Sozialpolitiker, the literal English equivalent social state didnt catch on in Anglophone countries. However, during the Second World War, Anglican Archbishop William Temple, author of the book Christianity and the Social Order, popularized the concept using the phrase welfare state. Bishop Temples use of state has been connected to Benjamin Disraelis 1845 novel Sybil, or the Two Nations, which speaks of the only duty of power. In Germany, the term Wohlfahrtsstaat, a translation of the English welfare state, is used to describe Swedens social insurance arrangements. The Italian term stato sociale reproduces the original German term, spanish and many other languages employ an analogous term, estado del bienestar – literally, state of well-being. In Brazil, the concept is referred to as previdência social, in French, welfare state is translated into LÉtat-providence. Modern welfare programs are distinguished from earlier forms of poverty relief by their universal. The institution of social insurance in Germany under Bismarck was an influential template, some schemes were based largely in the development of autonomous, mutualist provision of benefits. Others were founded on state provision, in an influential essay, Citizenship and Social Class, British sociologist T. H. Examples of such states are Germany, all of the Nordic countries, the Netherlands, France, Uruguay and New Zealand, since that time, the term welfare state applies only to states where social rights are accompanied by civil and political rights. Changed attitudes in reaction to the worldwide Great Depression, which brought unemployment, during the Great Depression, the welfare state was seen as a middle way between the extremes of communism on the left and unregulated laissez-faire capitalism on the right
Welfare state
–
>30%
22.
Anarcho-capitalism
–
Anarcho-capitalism is a political philosophy that advocates the elimination of the state in favor of individual sovereignty, private property, and free markets. Anarcho-capitalists believe that, in the absence of statute, society would improve itself through the discipline of the free market, in an anarcho-capitalist society, law enforcement, courts, and all other security services would be operated by privately funded competitors rather than centrally through taxation. Money, along all other goods and services, would be privately and competitively provided in an open market. Various theorists have espoused legal philosophies similar to anarcho-capitalism, a Rothbardian anarcho-capitalist society would operate under a mutually agreed-upon libertarian legal code which would be generally accepted, and which the courts would pledge themselves to follow. This pact would recognize self-ownership and the principle, although methods of enforcement vary. Anarcho-capitalists argue for a society based on the trade of private property. However, they also recognize charity and communal arrangements as part of the same voluntary ethic, though anarcho-capitalists are known for asserting a right to private property, some propose that non-state public or community property can also exist in an anarcho-capitalist society. For them, what is important is that it is acquired and transferred without help or hindrance from the compulsory state, anarcho-capitalists see free-market capitalism as the basis for a free and prosperous society. Many anarchists view capitalism as an authoritarian and hierarchical system. On the Nolan chart, anarcho-capitalists are located at the northernmost apex of the libertarian quadrant – since they reject state involvement in economic and personal affairs. Many also argue that subsidized monopolies tend to be corrupt and inefficient, many anarchists also argue that private defense and court agencies would have to have a good reputation in order to stay in business. Rothbard bases his philosophy on natural law grounds and also provides economic explanations of why he thinks anarcho-capitalism is preferable on pragmatic grounds as well. David D. Friedman says he is not an absolutist rights theorist but is not a utilitarian, however. Peter Leeson argues that the case for anarchy derives its strength from empirical evidence, hans-Hermann Hoppe, meanwhile, uses argumentation ethics for his foundation of private property anarchism, which is closer to Rothbards natural law approach. I define anarchist society as one where there is no possibility for coercive aggression against the person or property of any individual. In effect, this means no one else may justly invade, or aggress against. It follows then that each person justly owns whatever previously unowned resources he appropriates or mixes his labor with, from these twin axioms – self-ownership and homesteading – stem the justification for the entire system of property rights titles in a free-market society. This system establishes the right of man to his own person, the right of donation, of bequest
Anarcho-capitalism
–
Murray Rothbard (1926–95).
Anarcho-capitalism
–
Flag used by the Swedish AnarkoKapitalistisk Front
Anarcho-capitalism
–
A postage stamp celebrating the thousandth anniversary of the
Icelandic parliament. According to a theory associated with the economist
David Friedman,
medieval Icelandic society had some features of anarcho-capitalism. Chieftaincies could be bought and sold, and were not geographical monopolies; individuals could voluntarily choose membership in any chieftain's clan.
Anarcho-capitalism
–
Murray Rothbard admired the
American Revolutionary War and believed it is the only U.S. war that can be justified.
23.
Civic nationalism
–
Ernest Renan and John Stuart Mill are often thought to be early civic nationalists. Civic nationhood is an identity built around shared citizenship in a liberal-democratic state. Thus, a civic nation isnt defined by its language or culture, but by its institutions and liberal principles. Membership in the nation is open to anyone who shares these values. A civic nation or state does not aim to promote one culture over another, german philosopher Jürgen Habermas argued that immigrants to a liberal state need not assimilate into the host culture, but only need to accept the principles of the countrys Constitution. Civic nationalism is often contrasted with ethnic nationalism, michael Ignatieff points out the following distinctions between the two nationalism. Civic nationalism is a form of nationalism in which the state derives political legitimacy from the participation of its citizenry. It is often seen as originating with Jean-Jacques Rousseau and especially the social contract theories which take their name from his 1762 book The Social Contract, civic nationalism lies within the traditions of rationalism and liberalism, but as a form of nationalism it is contrasted with ethnic nationalism. Membership of the nation is considered voluntary, as in Ernest Renans classical definition in Quest-ce quune nation. Of the nation as a daily referendum characterized by the will to live together, civic-national ideals influenced the development of representative democracy in countries such as the United States and France. A notable exception is India where civic nationalism has predominated due to the linguistic, religious. In the United Kingdom, UKIP encourage a form of nationalism with more controlled immigration often confused with more sinister forms of nationalism. Civic nationalism in post-Soviet Ukraine has prevailed since the Orange Revolution, in Flanders, Belgium the regionalist New Flemish Alliance is considered the advocate of civic nationalism. Whereas in Catalonia, a region of Spain, parties such as Ciu. Furthermore, in Spain, there is the Eusko Alkartasuna which is becoming increasingly civic, outside Europe, it has also been used to describe the Civil War-era Republican Party in the United States. Civic nationalism contrasts with more restrictive forms, such as ethnic nationalism
Civic nationalism
24.
Classical liberalism
–
Classical liberalism was first called that in the early 19th century, but was built on ideas of the previous century. It was a response to urbanization, and to the Industrial Revolution in Europe, notable individuals whose ideas contributed to classical liberalism include John Locke, Thomas Jefferson, Jean-Baptiste Say, Thomas Malthus, and David Ricardo. It drew on the economics of Adam Smith and on a belief in natural law, utilitarianism, the term classical liberalism was applied in retrospect to distinguish earlier 19th-century liberalism from the newer social liberalism. These beliefs were complemented by a belief that labourers could be best motivated by financial incentive and they opposed any income or wealth redistribution, which they believed would be dissipated by the lowest orders. Drawing on ideas of Adam Smith, classical liberals believed that it is in the common interest that all individuals be able to secure their own economic self-interest and they were critical of what would come to be the ideas of the welfare state as interfering in a free market. A landlord, a farmer, a manufacturer, a merchant, though they did not employ a single workman. Many workmen could not subsist a week, few could subsist a month, in the long run the workman may be as necessary to his master as his master is to him, but the necessity is not so immediate. The workmen desire to get as much, the masters to give as little as possible, in a free market, both labour and capital would receive the greatest possible reward, while production would be organised efficiently to meet consumer demand. For society to guarantee positive rights requires taxation over and above the minimum needed to enforce negative rights. in the late 19th century, classical liberalism developed into neo-classical liberalism, which argued for government to be as small as possible to allow the exercise of individual freedom. In its most extreme form, neo-classical liberalism advocated Social Darwinism, right-libertarianism is a modern form of neo-classical liberalism. Friedrich Hayek identified two different traditions within classical liberalism, the British tradition and the French tradition, the French tradition included Rousseau, Condorcet, the Encyclopedists and the Physiocrats. This tradition believed in rationalism and sometimes showed hostility to tradition and religion, Hayek also rejected the label laissez faire as originating from the French tradition and alien to the beliefs of Hume and Smith. Classical liberalism in Britain developed from Whiggery and radicalism, and was heavily influenced by French physiocracy. Whiggery had become a dominant ideology following the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the origins of rights were seen as being in an ancient constitution, which had existed from time immemorial. These rights, which some Whigs considered to include freedom of the press and they believed that the power of the executive had to be constrained. While they supported limited suffrage, they saw voting as a privilege, British radicals, from the 1790s to the 1820s, concentrated on parliamentary and electoral reform, emphasising natural rights and popular sovereignty. Richard Price and Joseph Priestley adapted the language of Locke to the ideology of radicalism, the radicals saw parliamentary reform as a first step toward dealing with their many grievances, including the treatment of Protestant Dissenters, the slave trade, high prices and high taxes. There was greater unity to classical liberalism ideology than there had been with Whiggery, classical liberals were committed to individualism, liberty and equal rights
Classical liberalism
–
A meeting of the
Anti-Corn Law League in
Exeter Hall in 1846
Classical liberalism
–
Adam Smith
25.
Geolibertarianism
–
Geolibertarianism is a political and economic ideology particularly committed to tax reform that integrates libertarianism with Georgism. It is most often associated with the left or the radical center. Also, along with non-Georgists in the movement, they advocate full civil liberties. Prominent geolibertarians since George have included Albert Jay Nock, Frank Chodorov, since land, by economic definition, is not the product of human labor, its ownership cannot be justified by appealing to natural human rights. Perhaps the best summary of the philosophy is Thomas Paines assertion in his 1797 pamphlet Agrarian Justice that Men did not make the earth. It is the value of the only, and not the earth itself. Every proprietor owes to the community a ground rent for the land which he holds and this strict definition of private property, as the fruits of a persons labor, leads geolibertarians to advocate a free marketplace and the protection of workers rights to their full earnings. Geolibertarians generally support redistributing land rent from private landholders to all community members by way of a land tax, as proposed by Henry George. Some geolibertarians claim the reasoning behind taxing land values likewise justifies a complementary pollution tax for degrading the shared value of the natural commons, the common and inelastic character of the radio wave spectrum is understood to justify the taxation of its exclusive use, as well. American economist and political philosopher Fred E. Foldvary coined the term geo-libertarianism in an article appearing in the magazine Land. A Landlord is a Government – The Libertarian Basis for Land Rights Geo-Rent, A Plea to public economists by Fred E. Foldvary Between State and Anarchy, A Model of Governance by Fred E
Geolibertarianism
–
Thomas Paine inspired the Citizen's Dividend and stated, "Every proprietor owes to the community a ground rent for the land which he holds."
26.
Equity feminism
–
Equity feminism is a form of liberal feminism discussed since the 1980s, specifically a kind of classically liberal or libertarian feminism. Barry Kuhle asserts that equity feminism is compatible with evolutionary psychology, distinctions have been made between conservative and radical forms of equity feminism. Many young conservative women have accepted equity feminism, there are differences between this and equality feminism or social feminism or difference feminism
Equity feminism
–
Cover of the first edition
27.
Liberal socialism
–
Liberal socialism is a socialist political philosophy that includes liberal principles within it. Although liberal socialism unequivocally favors a mixed economy, it identifies legalistic and artificial monopolies to be the fault of capitalism. It considers both liberty and equality to be compatible and mutually dependent on each other, Principles that can be described as liberal socialist are based on the works of philosophers such as Mill, Bernstein, Dewey, Rosselli, Bobbio, Mouffe and Polanyi. Other important liberal socialist figures include Calogero, Gobetti, Hobhouse, Keynes, liberal socialism has been particularly prominent in British and Italian politics. Liberal socialists seminal ideas can be traced to John Stuart Mill, Mill theorised that capitalist societies should experience a gradual process of socialisation through work-controlled enterprises, coexisting with private enterprises. The main liberal English thinker John Stuart Mills early economic philosophy was one of free markets, however, he accepted interventions in the economy, such as a tax on alcohol, if there were sufficient utilitarian grounds. He also accepted the principle of intervention for the purpose of animal welfare. Mill originally believed that equality of taxation meant equality of sacrifice, given an equal tax rate regardless of income, Mill agreed that inheritance should be taxed. A utilitarian society would agree that everyone should be one way or another. Therefore, receiving inheritance would put one ahead of society unless taxed on the inheritance and those who donate should consider and choose carefully where their money goes—some charities are more deserving than others. Considering public charities boards such as a government will disburse the money equally, however, a private charity board like a church would disburse the monies fairly to those who are in more need than others. Later he altered his views toward a more socialist bent, adding chapters to his Principles of Political Economy in defence of a socialist outlook, within this revised work he also made the radical proposal that the whole wage system be abolished in favour of a co-operative wage system. Mills Principles, first published in 1848, was one of the most widely read of all books on economics in the period, as Adam Smiths Wealth of Nations had during an earlier period, Mills Principles dominated economics teaching. In the case of Oxford University it was the text until 1919. Mill also at some point promoted substituting capitalist businesses with worker cooperatives, liberal socialism has exercised influence in British politics, especially in the variant known as ethical socialism. Ethical socialists advocated an economy that involves an acceptance of a role of both public enterprise as well as socially-responsible private enterprise. Ethical socialism was founded by the R. H. Tawney, a Christian socialist and it emphasizes the need for a morally-conscious economy based upon the principles of service, cooperation, and social justice while opposing possessive individualism. Ethical socialism is distinct in its focus on criticism of the ethics of capitalism and its founder, Tawney, denounced the self-seeking amoral and immoral behaviour that he claimed is supported by capitalism
Liberal socialism
–
Willy Brandt,
Chancellor of West Germany, (1969-1974).
Liberal socialism
–
R. H. Tawney.
Liberal socialism
–
Ramsay MacDonald,
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, (1924, 1929-1935).
Liberal socialism
–
Carlo Rosselli
28.
Muscular liberalism
–
Muscular liberalism is a form of liberalism advocated by British Prime Minister David Cameron that describes his policy towards state multiculturalism. Cameron coined the term in a speech in Munich on 5 February 2011, according to David Cameron, Under the doctrine of state multiculturalism, we have encouraged different cultures to live separate lives, apart from each other and apart from the mainstream. Weve failed to provide a vision of society to which they feel they want to belong, the theory is that multiculturalism has shifted from tolerating multiple cultures to tolerating multiple value systems, which can be hostile to liberalism. Ban preachers of hate from coming to the host country, strictly prevent the allocation of public money and donations to groups not being used to tackle extremists. Barring organisations that incite terrorism at host country and abroad, judging the religious organisations acceptability to operate in host country based on universal human rights, support for democracy and encourage integration with host country basic values. Prevention of extremism in universities and prisons, promoting ideals of democracy where people elect their own government. Promoting universal human rights, including rights to women and people of other faiths. Freedom of worship and of speech, promoting equal rights, irrespective of race, sex or sexuality. Promoting individualism and consequent individual rights, according to Baroness Neville-Jones, Security Minister of Britain, extremism meant all forms but not just islamist extremism. Ajmal Masroor, of the Islamic Society of Britain, rejected it, saying that national identity, president Nicolas Sarkozy of France has said that he agrees with Cameron. Social contract Muscular Christianity Muscular Judaism Transcript of David Camerons speech in Munich News. yahoo. com Guardian article
Muscular liberalism
29.
Neoliberalism
–
Neoliberalism refers primarily to the 20th-century resurgence of 19th-century ideas associated with laissez-faire economic liberalism. These market-based ideas and the policies they inspired constitute a paradigm shift away from the post-war Keynesian consensus which lasted from 1945 to 1980, as such, neoliberalism shares many attributes with other contested concepts, including democracy. The definition and usage of the term have changed over time, in the 1960s, usage of the term neoliberal heavily declined. When the term was reintroduced in the 1980s in connection with Augusto Pinochets economic reforms in Chile, once the new meaning of neoliberalism was established as a common usage among Spanish-speaking scholars, it diffused into the English-language study of political economy. By 1994, with the passage of NAFTA and the Zapatistas reaction to development in Chiapas. Scholarship on the phenomenon of neoliberalism has been growing, the impact of the global 2008–2009 crisis has also given rise to new scholarship that critiques neoliberalism and seeks developmental alternatives. In 1938 at the Colloque Walter Lippmann, the term neoliberalism was proposed, among other terms, the colloquium defined the concept of neoliberalism as involving the priority of the price mechanism, free enterprise, the system of competition, and a strong and impartial state. To be neoliberal meant advocating an economic policy with state intervention. Neoliberal state interventionism brought a clash with the opposing camp of classical liberals. Although Hayek had intellectual ties to the German neoliberals, his name was occasionally mentioned in conjunction with neoliberalism during this period due to his more pro-free market stance. During the military rule under Augusto Pinochet in Chile, opposition scholars took up the expression to describe the economic reforms implemented there, once this new meaning was established among Spanish-speaking scholars, it diffused into the English-language study of political economy. Another center-left movement from modern American liberalism that used the term neoliberalism to describe its ideology formed in the United States in the 1970s, according to David Brooks, prominent neoliberal politicians included Al Gore and Bill Clinton of the Democratic Party of the United States. The neoliberals coalesced around two magazines, the New Republic and the Washington Monthly, the godfather of this version of neoliberalism was the journalist Charles Peters who in 1983 published A Neoliberals Manifesto. Neoliberal theory argues that a market will allow efficiency, economic growth, income distribution. Any state intervention to encourage these phenomena will worsen economic performance, yet the handbook argues to view the term as merely a pejorative or radical political slogan is to reduce its capacity as an analytic frame. If neoliberalism is to serve as a way of understanding the transformation of society over the last few decades then the concept is in need of unpacking. Other scholars note that neoliberalism is associated with the policies introduced by Margaret Thatcher in the United Kingdom. There are several usages of the term that can be identified, As a development model
Neoliberalism
–
Ludwig Erhard.
Neoliberalism
–
Pamphlet calling for
a protest in 1983 following
the economic crisis attributed to neoliberal experimentation.
Neoliberalism
–
Friedrich von Hayek.
30.
Ordoliberalism
–
Ordoliberalism is the German variant of social liberalism that emphasizes the need for the state to ensure that the free market produces results close to its theoretical potential. Ordoliberal ideals drove the creation of the post-World War II German social market economy, the term Ordoliberalism was coined in 1950 by Hero Moeller, and refers to the academic journal ORDO. Ordoliberals separate themselves from classical liberals, notably Walter Eucken, with Franz Böhm, founder of Ordoliberalism and the Freiburg School, rejected Neoliberalism. The theory was developed from about 1930–1950 by German economists and legal scholars from Freiburg School such as Walter Eucken, Franz Böhm, Hans Grossmann-Doerth, Leonhard Miksch, Ordoliberal ideals drove the creation of the post-World War II German social market economy. They were especially influential on forming a competition law in Germany. Additionally some Institutes and Foundations like the Walter Eucken Institut or the Stiftung Ordnungspolitik are engaged in the ordoliberal tradition, Ordoliberalism was a major influence of the economic model developed in the post-war West Germany. Ordoliberalism in Germany became known as the Social Market Economy, the Ordoliberal model implemented in Germany was started by the government of Konrad Adenauer. His governments Minister of Economics, Ludwig Erhard, was a known Ordoliberal, under Adenauers government, some, but not all, price controls were lifted, and taxes on small businesses and corporations were lowered. Furthermore, social security and pensions were increased to provide a social basis, Ordoliberals have stated that these policies led to the Wirtschaftswunder, or economic miracle. Ordoliberal theory holds that the state must create a legal environment for the economy. This is the foundation of its legitimacy, quoting Stephen Padgett, A central tenet of ordo-liberalism is a clearly defined division of labor in economic management, with specific responsibilities assigned to particular institutions. Monetary policy should be the responsibility of a central bank committed to monetary stability and low inflation, fiscal policy—balancing tax revenue against government expenditure—is the domain of the government, whilst macro-economic policy is the preserve of employers and trade unions. The state should form an economic order instead of directing economic processes, the Ordoliberal idea of a social market economy is often seen as a progressive alternative beyond left and right and as a third way between collectivism and laissez-faire liberalism. While the ordoliberal idea of a market is similar to that of the third-way social democracy advocated by the likes of the New Labour government. Ordoliberals are also known for pursuing a minimum configuration of vital resources, wilhelm Röpke considered ordoliberalism to be liberal conservatism, against capitalism in his work Civitas Humana. Alexander Rüstow also criticized laissez-faire capitalism in his work Das Versagen des Wirtschaftsliberalismus, the ordoliberals thus separated themselves from classical liberals and valued the idea of social justice. Social security and social justice, wrote Eucken, are the greatest concerns of our time, michel Foucault also notes the similarity between the Ordo/Freiburg school and the Frankfurt School of critical theory, due to their inheritance from Max Weber. That is, both recognise the irrational rationality of the capitalist system, but not the logic of contradiction that Marx posited, both groups took up the same problem, but in vastly different directions
Ordoliberalism
–
Ludwig Erhard with Konrad Adenauer in 1956, while Erhard was Minister of Economics.
31.
Radical centrism
–
At first it was defined in a variety of ways, but at the beginning of the 21st century a number of texts and think tanks gave the philosophy a more developed cast. The radical in the term refers to a willingness on the part of most radical centrists to call for reform of institutions. The centrism refers to a belief that genuine solutions require realism and pragmatism, not just idealism, thus one radical centrist text defines radical centrism as idealism without illusions, a phrase originally from John F. Kennedy. Most radical centrists borrow what they see as good ideas from left, right, most support market-based solutions to social problems with strong governmental oversight in the public interest. There is support for increased engagement and the growth of an empowered middle class in developing countries. Many radical centrists work within the political parties, but also support independent or third-party initiatives and candidacies. Criticism of radical centrist policies and strategies has mounted as the philosophy has developed. One common criticism is that radical centrist policies are only different from conventional centrist policies. Another criticism is that the radical centrist penchant for third parties is naive, some observers see radical centrism as primarily a process of catalyzing dialogue and fresh thinking among polarized people and groups. Some influences on radical centrist political philosophy are not directly political, however, most commonly cited influences and precursors are from the political realm. One of the first people to develop a positive definition was Renata Adler, in the introduction to her second collection of essays, Toward a Radical Middle, she presented radical centrism as a healing radicalism. It rejected the violent posturing and rhetoric of the 1960s, she said, in favor of such values as reason, decency, prosperity, human dignity. She called for the reconciliation of the working class and African-Americans. In the 1970s, sociologist Donald I, although they might vote for Democrats or Republicans, or for populists like George Wallace, they felt politically homeless and were looking for leaders who would address their concerns. In the 1980s and 1990s, several authors contributed their understandings to the concept of the radical center, for example, futurist Marilyn Ferguson added a holistic dimension to the concept when she said, Radical Center. Is not neutral, not middle-of-the-road, but a view of the whole road, african-American theorist Stanley Crouch upset many political thinkers when he pronounced himself a radical pragmatist. In the 1990s, political independents Jesse Ventura, Angus King, according to John Avlon, they pioneered the combination of fiscal prudence and social tolerance that has served as a model for radical centrist governance ever since. They also developed a style, a combination of common sense
Radical centrism
–
Urban theorist and activist
Jane Jacobs (1916–2006) in 1961. She has been described as "proto-radical middle".
Radical centrism
–
Former
Independence Party of Minnesota Governor
Jesse Ventura helped define radical centrism in the 1990s.
Radical centrism
–
The
New America Foundation was started by authors
Ted Halstead and
Michael Lind to bring radical centrism to Washington, D.C.
Radical centrism
–
Parag Khanna, senior research fellow at the New America Foundation, speaks on his book How to Run the World.
32.
Social liberalism
–
Social liberalism is a political ideology that believes individual liberty requires a level of social justice. Under social liberalism, the good of the community is viewed as harmonious with the freedom of the individual, Social liberal policies have been widely adopted in much of the capitalist world, particularly following World War II. Social liberal ideas and parties tend to be considered centrist or centre-left, a reaction against social liberalism in the late twentieth century, often called neoliberalism, led to monetarist economic policies and a reduction in government provision of services. However, governments continued to provide services and retained control over economic policy. In American political usage, the social liberalism describes progressive stances on socio-political issues like abortion, same-sex marriage or gun control. A social liberal in this sense may hold either liberal or conservative views on fiscal policy, some Victorian writers—including Charles Dickens, Thomas Carlyle, and Matthew Arnold—became early influential critics of social injustice. John Stuart Mill contributed enormously to liberal thought by combining elements of liberalism with what eventually became known as the new liberalism. More positive and proactive measures were required to ensure that individual would have an equal opportunity of success. What they proposed is now called social liberalism, in their view, the poverty, squalor and ignorance in which many people lived made it impossible for freedom and individuality to flourish. New Liberals believed that conditions could be ameliorated only through collective action coordinated by a strong, welfare-oriented. What was new in these reforms was the assumption that the state could be a positive force. Was not how much the state left people alone, but whether he gave them the capacity to fill themselves as individuals, schulze-Delitzsch is also known as the founding father of the German cooperative movement and is credited as the organiser of the worlds first credit unions. But their ideas found relatively few supporters among the liberal politicians, one of the first German authors to propose the term and concept of social liberalism was the historian and economist Ignaz Jastrow. He published the manifesto Social-liberal, Tasks for Liberalism in Prussia in 1893 and this project was however rejected by Social Democrats and failed. Naumann called this a proletarian-bourgeois integral liberalism, the new group advocated, among other things, increased social welfare legislation, the right to strike, and profit-sharing in industry. Although the party was unable to win any seats and soon dissolved, the left-liberal German Democratic Party during the Weimar Republic included both classically and economically liberal and social-liberal currents. They explained that a division of labor caused greater opportunity and individualism. They argued that the individual had a debt to society, promoting progressive taxation to support public works, however, they wanted the state to coordinate rather than to manage, and they encouraged cooperative insurance schemes among individuals
Social liberalism
–
L.T. Hobhouse
Social liberalism
–
T.H. Green
Social liberalism
–
Friedrich Naumann
Social liberalism
–
Franklin Delano Roosevelt, the 32nd
President of the United States, his
New Deal domestic policies defined
American liberalism for the middle third of the 20th century.
33.
Juan Bautista Alberdi
–
Juan Bautista Alberdi was an Argentine political theorist and diplomat. Although he lived most of his life in exile in Montevideo and Chile, Juan Bautista Alberdi was born in San Miguel de Tucumán, capital city of the Tucumán Province, Argentina, on August 29,1810. His father, Salvador Alberdi, was a Spanish Basque merchant, his mother and she died as a result of Juan Bautistas birth. His father died as well in 1822, as he was still a minor his siblings Felipe and he got a scolarship to the School of Moral sciences in Buenos Aires, along fellow Tucuman Marco Avellaneda. He studied alongside Vicente Fidel López and Esteban Echeverría and he could not endure the harsh discipline of the school, and briefly left his studies pretexting being sick. He became interested in music, but preferred to learn it through autodidacticism rather than through formal artistic education and he wrote his first book in 1832, El espíritu de la música. He got a job with Juan Maldes, a friend of his family and he resumed his formal studies in 1831, and moved to the University of Córdoba. He returned to his province for family business, and wrote Memoria descriptiva sobre Tucumán at the request of governor Alejandro Heredia and he declined the governors request to stay in Tucumán, and returned to Buenos Aires. Once in Buenos Aires, Alberdi became friends with Juan María Gutiérrez and they established the Generation of 37, a group of liberal intellectuals that met at the Marcos Sastre literary hall. They criticized both factions of the Argentine Civil Wars, deeming the federals too violent and the unitarians incapable to rule and they thought that both factions should end their disputes and work together. The governor Juan Manuel de Rosas forced Marcos Sastre to close the hall, Alberdi established then a womens magazine, La Moda, writing with the pseudonym Figarillo. Despite of the focus, the magazine contained political content as well. Alberdi was concerned about the system of Argentina as well. The members of the Generation of 37 continued as a society, known as the May Association. Most members emigrated to countries, Alberdi emigrated to Uruguay in 1838. In this city he got a degree as lawyer, he had finished his studies in Buenos Aires. Alberdi thought that the problem in Argentina was not specifically Rosas. As a result, he thought that the generation of 37 should understand the reasons of such popular support and he worked in antirosist publications, such as El Grito Arjentino and Muera Rosas
Juan Bautista Alberdi
–
Alberdi's daguerreotype taken in Chile, dated between 1850 and 1853.
Juan Bautista Alberdi
–
The "Literary hall", meeting of members of the
Generation of '37
Juan Bautista Alberdi
–
Alberdi in his young age
Juan Bautista Alberdi
–
Alberdi's book
Bases y puntos de partida para la organización política de la República Argentina (Spanish: Bases and starting points for the political organization of the Argentine republic) influenced the content of the
Constitution of Argentina of 1853.
34.
Matthew Arnold
–
Matthew Arnold was an English poet and cultural critic who worked as an inspector of schools. He was the son of Thomas Arnold, the headmaster of Rugby School. Matthew Arnold has been characterised as a writer, a type of writer who chastises. The Reverend John Keble, who would one of the leaders of the Oxford Movement. Thomas Arnold admired Kebles hymns in The Christian Year, only reversing himself with exasperation when this old friend became a Romeward-tending High Church reactionary in the 1830s. In 1828, Arnolds father was appointed Headmaster of Rugby School and his family took up residence. In 1831, Arnold was tutored by his uncle, Rev. John Buckland in the village of Laleham. In 1834, the Arnolds occupied a home, Fox How. William Wordsworth was a neighbour and close friend, in 1836, Arnold was sent to Winchester College, but in 1837 he returned to Rugby School where he was enrolled in the fifth form. He moved to the form in 1838 and thus came under the direct tutelage of his father. He wrote verse for the manuscript Fox How Magazine co-produced with his brother Tom for the enjoyment from 1838 to 1843. During his years there, he won prizes for English essay writing. His prize poem, Alaric at Rome, was printed at Rugby, in 1841, he won an open scholarship to Balliol College, Oxford. During his residence at Oxford, his friendship ripened with Arthur Hugh Clough, Arnold attended John Henry Newmans sermons at St. Marys but did not join the Oxford Movement. His father died suddenly of disease in 1842, and Fox How became his familys permanent residence. Arnolds poem Cromwell won the 1843 Newdigate prize and he graduated in the following year with a 2nd class honours degree in Literae Humaniores. In 1845, after an interlude of teaching at Rugby, he was elected Fellow of Oriel College. In 1847, he became Private Secretary to Lord Lansdowne, Lord President of the Council, in 1849, he published his first book of poetry, The Strayed Reveller
Matthew Arnold
–
Matthew Arnold, by
Elliott & Fry, circa 1883.
Matthew Arnold
–
Matthew Arnold's grave at the All Saints Church,
Laleham, Surrey.
Matthew Arnold
–
A
London County Council blue plaque for Arnold at 2
Chester Square,
Belgravia
35.
Raymond Aron
–
Raymond Claude Ferdinand Aron was a French philosopher, sociologist, journalist, and political scientist. Critic Roger Kimball suggests that Opium is a book of the twentieth century. Aron is also known for his friendship, sometimes fractious. He is also known for his 1973 book, The Imperial Republic, The United States and the World 1945-1973, Aron wrote extensively on a wide range of other topics. Born in Paris, the son of a secular Jewish lawyer, Aron studied at the École Normale Supérieure, where he met Jean-Paul Sartre and he was a rational humanist, and a leader among those who did not embrace existentialism. Aron took first place in the agrégation of philosophy in 1928, in 1930, he received a doctorate in the philosophy of history from the École Normale Supérieure. He had been teaching philosophy at the University of Toulouse for only a few weeks when World War II began. When France was defeated, he left for London to join the Free French forces, editing the newspaper, when the war ended Aron returned to Paris to teach sociology at the École Nationale dAdministration and at the Paris Institute of Political Studies. From 1955 to 1968, he taught at the Sorbonne, in 1953, he befriended the young American philosopher Allan Bloom, who was teaching at the Sorbonne. A lifelong journalist, Aron in 1947 became an influential columnist for Le Figaro, a position he held for thirty years until he joined LExpress and he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1960. Aron died of an attack in Paris on 17 October 1983. In Berlin, Aron witnessed the rise to power of the Nazi Party, in 1938 he participated in the Colloque Walter Lippmann in Paris. Aron is the author of books on Karl Marx and on Carl von Clausewitz, in Peace and War he set out a theory of international relations. He argues that Max Webers claim that the State has a monopoly on the use of physical force does not apply to the relationship between States. In the field of relations, in the 1950s, Aron hypothesized that despite the advent of nuclear weapons, nations would still require conventional military forces. The usefulness of such forces would be necessary by what he called a nuclear taboo. La Sociologie allemande contemporaine, Paris, Alcan,1935, German Sociology, London, De la IVe à la Ve République, Paris, Calmann-Lévy,1959 Introduction. Essai sur le marxisme imaginaire, Paris, Gallimard,1969 De la condition historique du sociologue, Paris, Gallimard,1971 Études politiques, Paris, Gallimard,1972 République impériale
Raymond Aron
–
Raymond Aron (1966) by
Erling Mandelmann
36.
Simone de Beauvoir
–
Simone Lucie Ernestine Marie Bertrand de Beauvoir was a French writer, intellectual, existentialist philosopher, political activist, feminist and social theorist. Though she did not consider herself a philosopher, she had a significant influence on both feminist existentialism and feminist theory, De Beauvoir wrote novels, essays, biographies, autobiography and monographs on philosophy, politics and social issues. She was also known for her lifelong relationship with French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre. Simone de Beauvoir was born in Paris on 9 January 1908 and her parents were Georges Bertrand de Beauvoir, a legal secretary who once aspired to be an actor, and Françoise de Beauvoir, a wealthy bankers daughter and devout Catholic. Simones sister, Hélène, was two years later. De Beauvoir herself was deeply religious as a child, at one point intending to become a nun and she experienced a crisis of faith at age 14, after which she remained an atheist for the rest of her life. De Beauvoir was intellectually precocious, fueled by her fathers encouragement, he reportedly would boast, because of her familys straitened circumstances, de Beauvoir could no longer rely on her dowry, and like other middle-class girls of her age, her marriage opportunities were put at risk. De Beauvoir took this opportunity to do what she wanted to do while also taking steps to earn a living for herself. After passing baccalaureate exams in mathematics and philosophy in 1925, she studied mathematics at the Institut Catholique de Paris and she then studied philosophy at the Sorbonne and after completing her degree in 1928, she wrote her diplôme détudes supérieures on Leibniz for Léon Brunschvicg. De Beauvoir was only the woman to have received a degree from the Sorbonne at the time. De Beauvoir first worked with Maurice Merleau-Ponty and Claude Lévi-Strauss, when all three completed their practice teaching requirements at the secondary school. It was while studying for the agrégation that she met École Normale students Jean-Paul Sartre, Paul Nizan, and René Maheu. The jury for the agrégation narrowly awarded Sartre first place instead of de Beauvoir and this disequilibrium, which made my life a kind of endless disputation, is the main reason why I became an intellectual. From 1929 to 1943, De Beauvoir taught at the level until she could support herself solely on the earnings of her writings. She taught at the Lycée Montgrand, the Lycée Jeanne-dArc, the Lycée Molière, during October 1929, Jean-Paul Sartre and De Beauvoir became a couple and, after they were confronted by her father, Sartre asked her to marry him. One day while they were sitting on a bench outside the Louvre, he said, near the end of her life, de Beauvoir said, Marriage was impossible. So they entered a lifelong relationship, De Beauvoir chose never to marry and did not set up a joint household with Sartre. This gave her time to earn an academic degree, to join political causes, to travel, to write, to teach
Simone de Beauvoir
–
De Beauvoir in 1968
Simone de Beauvoir
–
Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir at the Balzac Memorial
Simone de Beauvoir
–
Dunes cottage where Algren and de Beauvoir summered in
Miller Beach, Indiana
Simone de Beauvoir
–
Antonio Núñez Jiménez, de Beauvoir,
Sartre and
Che Guevara in Cuba, 1960
37.
Jeremy Bentham
–
Jeremy Bentham was an English philosopher, jurist, and social reformer. He is regarded as the founder of modern utilitarianism, Bentham defined as the fundamental axiom of his philosophy the principle that it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong. He became a leading theorist in Anglo-American philosophy of law, and he advocated individual and economic freedom, the separation of church and state, freedom of expression, equal rights for women, the right to divorce, and the decriminalising of homosexual acts. He called for the abolition of slavery, the abolition of the penalty. He has also known in recent years as an early advocate of animal rights. Though strongly in favour of the extension of legal rights, he opposed the idea of natural law and natural rights. On his death in 1832, Bentham left instructions for his body to be first dissected, and then to be preserved as an auto-icon. This was done, and the auto-icon is now on display at University College London. Because of his arguments in favour of the availability of education. However, he played only a direct part in its foundation. Bentham was born in Houndsditch, London, to a family that supported the Tory party. He was reportedly a child prodigy, he was found as a sitting at his fathers desk reading a multi-volume history of England. He had one surviving sibling, Samuel Bentham, with whom he was close. He attended Westminster School and, in 1760, at age 12, was sent by his father to The Queens College, Oxford and he trained as a lawyer and, though he never practised, was called to the bar in 1769. He became deeply frustrated with the complexity of the English legal code, among his many proposals for legal and social reform was a design for a prison building he called the Panopticon. Although the prison was never built, the concept had an important influence on generations of thinkers. Twentieth-century French philosopher Michel Foucault argued that the Panopticon was paradigmatic of several 19th-century disciplinary institutions, Bentham became convinced that his plans for the Panopticon had been thwarted by the King and an aristocratic elite acting in their own interests. More successful was his cooperation with Patrick Colquhoun in tackling the corruption in the Pool of London and this resulted in the Thames Police Bill of 1798, which was passed in 1800
Jeremy Bentham
–
Jeremy Bentham
Jeremy Bentham
Jeremy Bentham
–
Portrait of Bentham by the studio of
Thomas Frye, 1760–1762
Jeremy Bentham
–
Bentham's auto-icon
38.
Isaiah Berlin
–
Sir Isaiah Berlin OM CBE FBA was a Russian-British social and political theorist, philosopher and historian of ideas. He was an essayist, conversationalist, raconteur, and lecturer, born in Riga, Latvia in 1909, he moved to Petrograd, Russia at the age of six, where he witnessed the revolutions of 1917. In 1921 his family came to England, and he was educated at St Pauls School, London and Corpus Christi College, in 1932, at the age of 23, Berlin was elected to a prize fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford. He translated works by Ivan Turgenev from Russian into English and, during the war, from 1957 to 1967 he was Chichele Professor of Social and Political Theory at the University of Oxford. He was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1963 to 1964, in 1966, he played a crucial role in founding Wolfson College, Oxford, and became its first President. Berlin was appointed a CBE in 1946, knighted in 1957 and he was President of the British Academy from 1974 to 1978. He also received the 1979 Jerusalem Prize for his writings on individual freedom, an annual Isaiah Berlin Lecture is held at the Hampstead Synagogue, at Wolfson College, Oxford, at the British Academy, and in Riga. Berlins work on theory and on value pluralism has had a lasting influence. Berlin was the surviving child of a prosperous Jewish family, the son of Mendel Berlin, a timber trader and direct descendant of Shneur Zalman. He spent his first six years in Riga, and later lived in Andreapol and Petrograd, in London, the family first stayed in Surbiton, then within the year they bought a house in Holland Park, and six years later in Hampstead. Berlins English was virtually nonexistent at first, but he became fluent within a year, Berlin was educated at St Pauls School, then at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, where he studied Greats. In his final examinations, he took a First, winning The John Locke Prize for his performance in the philosophy papers and he subsequently took another degree at Oxford in PPE, winning another First after less than a year on the course. He was appointed a tutor in philosophy at New College, Oxford, and soon afterwards was elected to a fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford. While still a student, he befriended Ayer, Stuart Hampshire, Richard Wollheim, Maurice Bowra, Stephen Spender, J. L. Austin, in 1940, he presented a philosophical paper on other minds to a meeting attended by Ludwig Wittgenstein at Cambridge University. Wittgenstein rejected the argument of his paper in discussion but praised Berlin for his honesty and integrity. Prior to this service, however, Berlin was barred from participation in the British war effort as a result of his being born in Latvia, for his services, he was appointed a CBE in the 1946 New Year Honours. Berlin was fluent in Russian and English, spoke French, German and Italian, meetings with Anna Akhmatova in Leningrad in November 1945 and January 1946 had a powerful effect on both of them, and serious repercussions for Akhmatova. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and he was instrumental in the founding, in 1966, of a new graduate college at Oxford University, Wolfson College
Isaiah Berlin
–
Sir Isaiah Berlin
CBE
Isaiah Berlin
–
Plaque marking what was once Berlin's childhood home in Riga, engraved in Latvian, English and Hebrew with the tribute "The British philosopher Sir Isaiah Berlin lived in this house 1909–1915"
Isaiah Berlin
–
The Berlin Quadrangle,
Wolfson College.
39.
Eduard Bernstein
–
Eduard Bernstein was a German social democratic political theorist and politician, a member of the Social Democratic Party, and the founder of evolutionary socialism, social democracy, and reformism. He rejected significant parts of Marxist theory that were based upon Hegelian metaphysics and this mature form of Marxism refers to Marx in his later life acknowledging that socialism could be achieved through peaceful means through legislative reform in democratic societies. Bernstein was born in Schöneberg, to Jewish parents, who were active in the Reform Temple on the Johannistrasse where services were performed on Sunday and his father was a locomotive driver. From 1866 to 1878, after leaving school, he was employed in banks as a bankers clerk, Bernsteins party contested two elections against a rival socialist party, the Lassalleans, but in both elections neither party was able to win a significant majority of the leftist vote. Consequently, Bernstein, together with August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht, in the Reichstag elections of 1877, the German Social Democratic Party gained 493,000 votes. Bismarcks strict anti-Socialist legislation was passed on 12 October 1878, for nearly all practical purposes, the Social Democratic Party was outlawed and, throughout Germany, it was actively suppressed. However, it was possible for Social Democrats to campaign as individuals for election to the Reichstag. Indeed, despite the persecution to which it was subjected. The vehemence of Bernsteins opposition to the government of Bismarck made it desirable for him to leave Germany, a warrant subsequently issued for his arrest ruled out any possibility of his returning to Germany, and he was to remain in exile for more than twenty years. It was soon after his arrival in Switzerland that he began to think of himself as a Marxist, Engels in particular was impressed by Bernsteins zeal and his ideas. Back in Zurich, Bernstein became increasingly active in working for Der Sozialdemokrat, and later succeeded Georg von Vollmar as the papers editor and it was during these years between 1880 and 1890 that Bernstein established his reputation as a major party theoretician and a Marxist of impeccable orthodoxy. In this he was helped by the personal and professional relationship he established with Engels. This relationship owed much to the fact that he shared Engelss strategic vision and accepted most of the policies which, in Engelss opinion. In 1887, the German government persuaded the Swiss authorities to ban Der Sozialdemokrat, Bernstein moved to London where he resumed publication from premises in Kentish Town. His relationship with Engels soon developed into friendship and he also communicated with various English socialist organizations, notably the Fabian Society and Henry Hyndmans Social Democratic Federation. In later years, his opponents claimed that his revisionism was due to his having come to see the world through English spectacles. Which is all the reason why I should like it to appear in its entirety in the Neue Zeit in order that this disgraceful impression may be erased. He also published a book titled Die Voraussetzungen des Sozialismus und die Aufgaben der Sozialdemokratie in 1899, the book was in great contrast to the positions of August Bebel, Karl Kautsky and Wilhelm Liebknecht
Eduard Bernstein
–
Eduard Bernstein
Eduard Bernstein
–
USPD Partei Board on 5 December 1919, Arthur Crispiens, Wilhelm Dittmann,
Viktor Adler,
Richard Lipinski, Wilhelm Bock,
Alfred Henke Eduard Bernstein, Fritz Geyer, Fritz Zubeil,
Hugo Haase, Fritz Kunert,
Georg Ledebour, Arthur Hagen, Emanuel Wurm.
40.
William Beveridge
–
William Henry Beveridge, 1st Baron Beveridge KCB was a British economist, noted progressive and social reformer. He is best known for his 1942 report Social Insurance and Allied Services which served as the basis for the post-World War II welfare state put in place by the Labour government elected in 1945. He was Director of the London School of Economics and Political Science from 1919 until 1937, when he was elected Master of University College, Oxford. Beveridge, the eldest son of Henry Beveridge, an Indian Civil Service officer and District Judge and his mother was a member of the Stourbridge Unitarian community who, along with another Unitarian, Elisabeth Malleson, had founded the Working Womens College in Londons Queen Square in 1864. She met and married Henry Beveridge in Calcutta where she had gone in 1873 to open a school for native Indian girls, after leaving university, Beveridge initially became a lawyer. He became interested in the services and wrote about the subject for the Morning Post newspaper. His interest in the causes of unemployment began in 1903 when he worked at Toynbee Hall, churchill invited Beveridge to join the Board of Trade, and he organised the implementation of the national system of labour exchanges and National Insurance to combat unemployment and poverty. During the First World War he was involved in mobilising and controlling manpower, after the war, he was knighted and made permanent secretary to the Ministry of Food. In 1919 he left the service to become director of the London School of Economics. Over the next few years he served on commissions and committees on social policy. He published academic economic works including his work on unemployment. The Fabians made him a director of the LSE in 1919, during his time as Director, he jousted with Edwin Cannan and Lionel Robbins, who were trying to steer the LSE away from its Fabian roots. In 1933 he helped set up the Academic Assistance Council and this helped prominent academics who had been dismissed from their posts on grounds of race, religion or political position to escape Nazi persecution. In 1937, Beveridge was appointed Master of University College, Oxford, three years later, Ernest Bevin, Minister of Labour in the wartime National government, invited Beveridge to take charge of the Welfare department of his Ministry. Beveridge refused, but declared an interest in organising British manpower in wartime, Bevin was reluctant to let Beveridge have his way but did commission him to work on a relatively unimportant manpower survey from June 1940 and so Beveridge became a temporary civil servant. Neither Bevin nor the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry Sir Thomas Phillips liked working with Beveridge as both found him conceited, Beveridge, at first uninterested and seeing the committee as a distraction from his work on manpower, accepted only reluctantly. The Report to the Parliament on Social Insurance and Allied Services was published in 1942 and it proposed that all people of working age should pay a weekly national insurance contribution. In return, benefits would be paid to people who were sick, Beveridge argued that this system would provide a minimum standard of living below which no one should be allowed to fall
William Beveridge
–
Lord Beveridge
William Beveridge
–
Beveridge at Balliol College in 1898
William Beveridge
–
Beveridge in the 1910s.
William Beveridge
–
Beveridge talking to an American fighter pilot hospitalised at
University College, Oxford during the
Second World War
41.
Norberto Bobbio
–
Norberto Bobbio was an Italian philosopher of law and political sciences and a historian of political thought. He also wrote regularly for the Turin-based daily La Stampa, Bobbio was a liberal socialist in the tradition of Piero Gobetti, Carlo Rosselli, Guido Calogero, and Aldo Capitini. He was also influenced by Hans Kelsen and Vilfredo Pareto. In high school he met Vittorio Foa, Leone Ginzburg and Cesare Pavese and he ran unsuccessfully in the 1946 Constituent Assembly of Italy elections. With the partys failure in a post-war Italy dominated by the Christian Democrats, Bobbio left electoral politics and he was a strong partisan of the Historic Compromise between the Italian Communist Party and the Christian Democrats, and a fierce critic of Silvio Berlusconi. Bobbio died in Turin, the city in which he was born. He was a National Associate of the Lincean Academy and longtime director of the Rivista di Filosofia and he became a Corresponding Associate of the British Academy in 1966, in 1979 he was nominated as Senator-for-life by Italian President Sandro Pertini. Bobbio received, among others, the Balzan Prize in 1994 and diplomas honoris causa from the Universities of Paris, Madrid, Bologna, Chambéry, Madrid, Sassari, Camerino, Madrid, celebrations were officially opened on 10 January 2009 at the University of Turin. New York, Telos Press Liberalismo e democrazia State, Government And Society Il terzo assente, a defense of the Gulf War, about which he later changed his mind. - Un saggio appassionato per dire se luomo conti ancora, su Ricorditi di me. In Lecco 2000, Lecco 1999 Maissin, Gabriel, Légalité, étoile polaire de la gauche, à propos du livre de Noberto Bobbio « Droite et gauche » obituary in Politique, La philosophie politique de Norberto Bobbio ou un social-libéralisme tragique. CS1 maint, Date format The Works of Norberto Bobbio, a multilingual site Bobbio Centenary, official website
Norberto Bobbio
–
Norberto Bobbio
42.
John Bright
–
John Bright, Quaker, was a British Radical and Liberal statesman, one of the greatest orators of his generation and a promoter of free trade policies. He is most famous for battling the Corn Laws, the Corn Laws were repealed in 1846. Bright also worked with Cobden in another free trade initiative, the Cobden–Chevalier Treaty of 1860 and this campaign was conducted in collaboration with French economist Michel Chevalier, and succeeded despite Parliaments endemic mistrust of the French. Bright sat in the House of Commons from 1843 to 1889, promoting trade, electoral reform. He was almost a lone voice in opposing the Crimean War and he was a spokesman for the middle class, and strongly opposed to the privileges of the landed aristocracy. In terms of Ireland, he sought to end the privileges of Anglicans, disestablished the Church of Ireland. He coined the phrase Mother of Parliaments, Bright was born at Greenbank, Rochdale, in Lancashire, England – one of the early centres of the Industrial Revolution. His father, Jacob Bright, was a much-respected Quaker, who had started a mill at Rochdale in 1809. Jacobs father, Abraham, was a Wiltshire yeoman, who, early in the 18th century, moved to Coventry, Jacob Bright was educated at the Ackworth School of the Society of Friends, and apprenticed to a fustian manufacturer at New Mills, Derbyshire. John Bright was his son by his wife, Martha Wood. Educated at Ackworth School, she was a woman of great strength of character, There were eleven children of this marriage, of whom John was the eldest surviving son. His younger brother was Jacob Bright, an MP and mayor and his sisters included Priscilla Bright and Margaret Bright Lucas. John was a child, and was sent as a day pupil to a boarding school near his home. A year at the Ackworth School, two years at Bootham School, York, and a year and a half at Newton, near Clitheroe, completed his education. He learned, he said, but little Latin and Greek, but acquired a great love of English literature, which his mother fostered. In his sixteenth year, he entered his fathers mill, in Rochdale, Jacob Bright was a leader of the opposition to a local church-rate. Rochdale was also prominent in the movement for reform, by which the town successfully claimed to have a member allotted to it under the Reform Bill. John Bright took part in both campaigns and he was an ardent Nonconformist, proud to number among his ancestors John Gratton, a friend of George Fox, and one of the persecuted and imprisoned preachers of the Religious Society of Friends
John Bright
–
The Right Honourable John Bright
John Bright
–
Meeting of the
Anti-Corn Law League in
Exeter Hall in 1846
John Bright
–
Carte de visite of John Bright by
Elliott & Fry
John Bright
–
Engraving for
reproductions
43.
Edmund Burke
–
Burke criticized British treatment of the American colonies, including through its taxation policies. Burke is remembered for his support for Catholic emancipation, the impeachment of Warren Hastings from the East India Company, in the nineteenth century Burke was praised by both conservatives and liberals. Subsequently, in the century, he became widely regarded as the philosophical founder of modern conservatism. Burke was born in Dublin, Ireland, Burke adhered to his fathers faith and remained a practising Anglican throughout his life, unlike his sister Juliana who was brought up as and remained a Roman Catholic. Although never denying his Irishness, Burke often described himself as an Englishman, according to the historian J. C. D. Clark, this was in an age before Celtic nationalism sought to make Irishness and Englishness incompatible. As a child he spent time away from the unhealthy air of Dublin with his mothers family in the Blackwater Valley in County Cork. He received his education at a Quaker school in Ballitore, County Kildare, some 67 kilometres from Dublin. He remained in correspondence with his schoolmate from there, Mary Leadbeater, in 1744, Burke started at Trinity College Dublin, a Protestant establishment, which up until 1793, did not permit Catholics to take degrees. The minutes of the meetings of Burkes Club remain in the collection of the Historical Society, Burke graduated from Trinity in 1748. Burkes father wanted him to read Law, and with this in mind he went to London in 1750, after eschewing the Law, he pursued a livelihood through writing. The late Lord Bolingbrokes Letters on the Study and Use of History was published in 1752 and this provoked Burke into writing his first published work, A Vindication of Natural Society, A View of the Miseries and Evils Arising to Mankind, appearing in Spring 1756. Burke imitated Bolingbrokes style and ideas in a reductio ad absurdum of his arguments for atheistic rationalism, Burke claimed that Bolingbrokes arguments against revealed religion could apply to all social and civil institutions as well. Lord Chesterfield and Bishop Warburton initially thought that the work was genuinely by Bolingbroke rather than a satire, all the reviews of the work were positive, with critics especially appreciative of Burkes quality of writing. Some reviewers failed to notice the ironic nature of the book, a minority of scholars have taken the position that, in fact, Burke did write the Vindication in earnest, later disowning it only for political reasons. It was his only purely philosophical work, and when asked by Sir Joshua Reynolds and French Laurence to expand it thirty years later and it was to be submitted for publication by Christmas 1758. G. M. Young did not value Burkes history and claimed that it was demonstrably a translation from the French. Lord Acton, on commenting on the story that Burke stopped his history because David Hume published his, Burke remained the chief editor of the publication until at least 1789 and there is no evidence that any other writer contributed to it before 1766. On 12 March 1757, Burke married Jane Mary Nugent, daughter of Dr Christopher Nugent and their son Richard was born on 9 February 1758, an elder son, Christopher, died in infancy
Edmund Burke
–
Painting of Edmund Burke MP c. 1767, studio of
Joshua Reynolds (1723–1792)
Edmund Burke
Edmund Burke
–
"The writers against religion, whilst they oppose every system, are wisely careful never to set up any of their own."
A Vindication of Natural Society
Edmund Burke
–
The Gregories estate, purchased by Burke for £20,000 in 1768
44.
Thomas Carlyle
–
Thomas Carlyle was a Scottish philosopher, satirical writer, essayist, historian and teacher. Considered one of the most important social commentators of his time, a respected historian, his 1837 book The French Revolution, A History was the inspiration for Charles Dickens 1859 novel A Tale of Two Cities, and remains popular today. Carlyles 1836 Sartor Resartus is a philosophical novel. A great polemicist, Carlyle coined the term the dismal science for economics and he also wrote articles for the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, and his Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question remains controversial. Once a Christian, Carlyle lost his faith while attending the University of Edinburgh, in mathematics, he is known for the Carlyle circle, a method used in quadratic equations and for developing ruler-and-compass constructions of regular polygons. Carlyle was born in Ecclefechan in Dumfriesshire and his parents determinedly afforded him an education at Annan Academy, Annan, where he was bullied and tormented so much that he left after three years. His father was a member of the Burgher secession church, in early life, his familys strong Calvinist beliefs powerfully influenced the young man. After attending the University of Edinburgh, Carlyle became a teacher, first in Annan and then in Kirkcaldy. His prose style, famously cranky and occasionally savage, helped cement an air of irascibility, Carlyles thinking became heavily influenced by German idealism, in particular the work of Johann Gottlieb Fichte. He established himself as an expert on German literature in a series of essays for Frasers Magazine and he also wrote a Life of Schiller. In 1826, Thomas Carlyle married fellow intellectual Jane Baillie Welsh, in 1827, he applied for the Chair of Moral Philosophy at St Andrews University but was not appointed. A residence provided by Janes estate was a house on Craigenputtock and he often wrote about his life at Craigenputtock – in particular, It is certain that for living and thinking in I have never since found in the world a place so favourable. Here Carlyle wrote some of his most distinguished essays, and began a friendship with the American essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson. In 1831, the Carlyles moved to London, settling initially in lodgings at 4 Ampton Street, in 1834, they moved to 5 Cheyne Row, Chelsea, which has since been preserved as a museum to Carlyles memory. He became known as the Sage of Chelsea, and a member of a circle which included the essayists Leigh Hunt. Here Carlyle wrote The French Revolution, A History, a study concentrating both on the oppression of the poor of France and on the horrors of the mob unleashed. By 1821, Carlyle abandoned the clergy as a career and focused on making a life as a writer and his first fiction was Cruthers and Jonson, one of several abortive attempts at writing a novel. Following his work on a translation of Goethes Wilhelm Meisters Apprenticeship, he came to distrust the form of the realistic novel and so worked on developing a new form of fiction
Thomas Carlyle
–
Photo by
Elliott & Fry, circa 1860s
Thomas Carlyle
–
Signature
Thomas Carlyle
–
Birthplace of Thomas Carlyle.
Thomas Carlyle
–
Carlyle's home at 4 (now 33) Ampton Street, London, marked with a
plaque by the
London County Council
45.
Anders Chydenius
–
Anders Chydenius was a Finnish priest and a member of the Swedish Riksdag, and is known as the leading classical liberal of Nordic history. Born in Sotkamo, Finland and having studied under Pehr Kalm at the Royal Academy of Åbo, Chydenius became a priest and Enlightenment philosopher. Ultimately, the increasingly autocratic position brought Chydenius out of favour again, and he retired to private life in Ostrobothnia. Anders Chydenius was born in 1729 in Sotkamo, Ostrobothnia where his father Jacob was a chaplain, the family moved to Kuusamo in 1734 where his father became a parish rector. Anders childhood was spent in the area of northern Finland. He and his brother Samuel were taught privately by their father, after the Russo-Swedish War, the boys studied privately in Tornio and entered The Royal Academy of Åbo in 1745. They also studied at Uppsala University, Anders studied mathematics, natural sciences, Latin and philosophy. In 1746 the father Jacob and family moved to Kokkola, in 1753, after graduation, Anders was appointed preacher of the Chapel of the dependent parish of Nedervetil in Ostrobothnia. He was married in 1755 to Beata Magdalena Mellberg, daughter of a merchant from Jakobstad and his aim was to enlighten the peasants by example. Chydenius practiced medicine and became known by inoculating ordinary people against smallpox and he also performed cataract operations and prepared medicines. Some of his first writings were about practical matters such as the moss overgrowing the meadows, then he moved on to social questions and became known as a writer and speaker. He was sent to the Diet in 1765 to obtain free trading rights for the towns of Ostrobothnia, the cities of Gamlakarleby, Vasa, Björneborg and Uleåborg received navigational rights which helped with their later development as well as helping all of Ostrobothnia. At that time, the tar which should have brought prosperity to his town and the coast had to be sold abroad through Stockholm, which made most of the profits. Largely due to Chydenius efforts, Stockholms monopoly was broken and from 1765, Chydenius participated actively in the Diet, and published several articles of criticism which caused a great stir. One of the results of his activities in the Diet was a stricter control of the government budget. He considered that one of his greatest achievements was an extension of the freedom of the press and his radical activities caused him to be excluded from the Diet by his own political party in 1766. In 1770 he was appointed rector of Gamlakarleby where he concentrated on parish work and he maintained his own orchestra, and rehearsed with them. They gave concerts in the reception hall
Anders Chydenius
–
Anders Chydenius
Anders Chydenius
–
Chydenius
Anders Chydenius
–
Statue of Anders Chydenius in
Kokkola,
Finland.
Anders Chydenius
–
Anders Chydenius commemorative coin
46.
Nick Clegg
–
Clegg was the Leader of the Liberal Democrats from 2007 to 2015 and has been the Member of Parliament for Sheffield Hallam since 2005. In 2007 he was elected Leader of the Liberal Democrats, leading his party into a government with the Conservative Party in 2010. In 2015, he resigned as leader of the Liberal Democrats following that years general election at which his party was defeated and lost 49 MPs. Clegg is a fluent speaker of five European languages including English, German, Spanish, French and his English grandfather was Hugh Anthony Clegg, editor of the British Medical Journal for 35 years. Cleggs Dutch mother, Hermance van den Wall Bake, was interned, along with her family and she met Cleggs father during a visit to England in 1956, and they married on 1 August 1959. Clegg is multilingual, he speaks English, French, Dutch, German and his background has informed his politics. He says, There is simply not a shred of racism in me, as a person whose whole family is formed by flight from persecution and its one of the reasons I am a liberal. His Dutch mother instilled in him a degree of scepticism about the entrenched class configurations in British society. He has said of languages that The danger is that we can afford to be lazy about languages, because they all want to speak English – English is the most useful, the global language bar none. But I dont think we should allow that luxury to be a sort of not to learn languages. As a 16-year-old exchange student in Munich, he and a friend drunkenly set fire to what he called the collection of cacti in Germany. When news of the incident was reported during his time as Liberal Democrat home affairs spokesman and he was arrested and not formally charged, but performed a kind of community service. He spent a gap year working as a instructor in Austria, before going on to Cambridge University in 1986. He was active in the student theatre at Cambridge, acting in a play about AIDS and he was also captain of his colleges tennis team, and campaigned for the human rights organisation Survival International. Clegg spent the summer of 1989 as a junior in Postipankki bank in Helsinki. It has been alleged that Clegg joined the Cambridge University Conservative Association between 1986 and 1987, Clegg has maintained he has no recollection of that whatsoever. However, Conservative MP Greg Hands has a record of CUCA members for 1986–1987, Hands noted that for the avoidance of any doubt, there was only one N Clegg at Robinson College. Is listed in the Robinson College Record, under Freshmen 1986 and he graduated with an upper second class honours degree in social anthropology
Nick Clegg
–
The Right Honourable Nick Clegg
MP
Nick Clegg
–
Westminster School
Nick Clegg
–
Nick Clegg attends the Je Suis Charlie rally with his wife Miriam González Durántez in Trafalgar Square, January 2015
Nick Clegg
–
"Nicholas Clegg" redirects here. For the British businessman, see
Nicholas P. Clegg.
47.
Richard Cobden
–
Richard Cobden was an English manufacturer and Radical and Liberal statesman, associated with two major free trade campaigns, the Anti-Corn Law League and the Cobden–Chevalier Treaty. As a young man, Cobden was a commercial traveller who became co-owner of a highly profitable calico printing factory in Manchester. However, he found himself more engaged in politics. As a Member of Parliament from 1841, he fought against opposition from the Peel ministry, another free trade initiative was the Cobden-Chevalier Treaty of 1860, promoting closer interdependence between Britain and France. This campaign was conducted in collaboration with John Bright and French economist Michel Chevalier, Cobden was born at a farmhouse called Dunford, in Heyshott near Midhurst, in Sussex. He was the fourth of children born to William Cobden. His family had been resident in that neighbourhood for many generations, occupied partly in trade and his father William however forsook malting in favour of farming, taking over the running of Dunford Farm when Richard died in 1809. A poor business man, he sold the property when the failed and moved the family to a smaller farm at nearby Gullard’s Oak. Conditions did not improve and by 1814, after several more moves, Cobden attended a dame school and then Bowes Hall School in Teesdale, County Durham. When fifteen years of age he went to London to the business of his uncle Richard Ware Cole where he became a commercial traveller in muslin. His relative, noting the lads passionate addiction to study, solemnly warned him against indulging such a taste, Cobden was undeterred and made good use of the library of the London Institution. When his uncles business failed, he joined that of Partridge & Price, in Eastcheap, in 1828, Cobden set up his own business with Sheriff and Gillet, partly with capital from John Lewis, acting as London agents for Fort Brothers, Manchester calico printers. In 1831, the sought to lease a factory from Forts at Sabden, near Clitheroe. They had, however, insufficient capital between them, Cobden and his colleagues so impressed Forts that they consented to retain a substantial proportion of the equity. The new firm prospered and soon had three establishments – the printing works at Sabden and sales outlets in London and Manchester, the Manchester outlet came under the direct management of Cobden, who settled there in 1832, beginning a long association with the city. He lived in a house on Quay Street, which is now called Cobden House, the success of the enterprise was decisive and rapid, and the Cobden prints soon became well known for their quality. Had Cobden devoted all his energies to the business, he soon have become very wealthy. His earnings in the business were typically £8,000 to £10,000 a year, however, his lifelong habit of learning and inquiry absorbed much of his time
Richard Cobden
–
Cobden's Manchester home on
Quay Street.
Richard Cobden
–
Richard Cobden
Richard Cobden
–
Statue of Richard Cobden outside St Ann's Church,
Manchester
Richard Cobden
–
Meeting of the
Anti-Corn Law League in
Exeter Hall in 1846
48.
Marquis de Condorcet
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Unlike many of his contemporaries, he advocated a liberal economy, free and equal public instruction, constitutionalism, and equal rights for women and people of all races. His ideas and writings were said to embody the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment and rationalism and he died a mysterious death in prison after a period of flight from French Revolutionary authorities. Condorcet was born in Ribemont, and descended from the ancient family of Caritat, fatherless at a young age, he was raised by his devoutly religious mother. He was educated at the Jesuit College in Reims and at the Collège de Navarre in Paris, where he showed his intellectual ability. When he was sixteen, his analytical abilities gained the praise of Jean le Rond dAlembert and Alexis Clairaut, soon, from 1765 to 1774, he focused on science. In 1765, he published his first work on mathematics entitled Essai sur le calcul intégral and he would go on to publish more papers, and on 25 February 1769, he was elected to the Académie royale des Sciences. In 1772, he published another paper on integral calculus, soon after, he met Jacques Turgot, a French economist, and the two became friends. Turgot was to be an administrator under King Louis XV in 1772, Condorcet worked with Leonhard Euler and Benjamin Franklin. In 1774, Condorcet was appointed general of the Paris mint by Turgot. From this point on, Condorcet shifted his focus from the purely mathematical to philosophy, in the following years, he took up the defense of human rights in general, and of womens and Blacks rights in particular. He supported the ideals embodied by the newly formed United States, in 1776, Turgot was dismissed as Controller General. Consequently, Condorcet submitted his resignation as Inspector General of the Monnaie, but the request was refused, Condorcet later wrote Vie de M. Turgot, a biography which spoke fondly of Turgot and advocated Turgots economic theories. In 1785, Condorcet wrote an essay on the application of analysis of the probability of decisions made on a majority vote, the paper also outlines a generic Condorcet method, designed to simulate pair-wise elections between all candidates in an election. He disagreed strongly with the method of aggregating preferences put forth by Jean-Charles de Borda. Condorcet was one of the first to apply mathematics in the social sciences. In 1781, Condorcet wrote a pamphlet, Reflections on Negro Slavery, in 1786, Condorcet worked on ideas for the differential and integral calculus, giving a new treatment of infinitesimals – a work which was never printed. In 1789, he published Vie de Voltaire, which agreed with Voltaire in his opposition to the Church, in 1791, Condorcet along with Sophie de Grouchy, Thomas Paine, Etienne Dumont, Jacques-Pierre Brissot, and Achilles Duchastellet published a brief journal titled Le Républicain. Its main goal being the promotion of republicanism and the rejection of establishing a constitutional monarchy, the theme being that any sort of monarchy is a threat to freedom no matter who is leading, which emphasized that liberty is freedom from domination
Marquis de Condorcet
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Jacques Turgot was Condorcet's mentor and longtime friend
Marquis de Condorcet
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Marquis de Condorcet
Marquis de Condorcet
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Condorcet was symbolically interred in the
Panthéon (pictured) in 1989.
49.
Benjamin Constant
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Henri-Benjamin Constant de Rebecque, or simply Benjamin Constant, was a Swiss-French political activist and writer on politics and religion. He was the author of a partly biographical psychological novel, Adolphe, henri-Benjamin Constant was born in Lausanne to descendants of Huguenot Protestants who had fled from Artois to Switzerland during the Huguenot Wars in the 16th century. His father, Jules Constant de Rebecque, served as a officer in the Dutch States Army, like his grandfather, his uncle. When Constants mother died soon after his birth, both his grandmothers took care of him, private tutors educated him in Brussels and in the Netherlands. At the Protestant University of Erlangen, he gained appointment to the court of Duchess Sophie Caroline Marie of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and he had to leave after an affair with a girl, and moved to the University of Edinburgh. There he lived at the home of Andrew Duncan, the elder and became friends with James Mackintosh, when he left the city, he promised to pay back his gambling debts. In 1787, he returned, traveling on horseback through England and Scotland, when he stayed at her home in Colombier Switzerland, they wrote an epistolary novel together. She acted as a mother to him until Constants appointment to the court of Charles William Ferdinand and he left the court when the War of the First Coalition began in 1792. In Brunswick, he had married Wilhelmina von Cramm, but he divorced her in 1793, in September 1794, he met and became interested in the famous and rich Anne Louise Germaine de Staël, brought up on the principles of Rousseau. They both admired Jean Lambert Tallien and Talleyrand and their intellectual collaboration between 1795 and 1811 made them one of the most celebrated intellectual couples of their time. After the Reign of Terror in France, Constant became a defender of bicameralism, in revolutionary France this strand of political thought resulted in the Constitution of the Year III, the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Ancients. Constant became acquainted with Julie Talma, the wife of François-Joseph Talma, in 1800, the Plot of the rue Saint-Nicaise, an act of terror, failed. In 1803, at a time when Britain and France were at peace, Jean Gabriel Peltier, while living in England, the lawyer James Mackintosh defended the French refugee against a libel suit instigated by Napoleon – then First Consul of France. Mackintoshs speech was published in English and also across Europe in a French translation by Madame de Staël. She was forced to leave Paris, de Staël, disappointed in French Rationalism, became interested in German Romanticism. Constant moved with her and their two children to Weimar, Duchess Anna Amalia of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel welcomed them the day after their arrival. In Weimar they met Friedrich von Schiller, Johann Wolfgang Goethe at first hesitated, in Berlin, they met with August Wilhelm Schlegel, and his brother, Friedrich Schlegel. Constant parted from de Stael and in 1806 lived in Rouen and Meulan, in 1809, he secretly married Caroline von Hardenberg, a woman who had been divorced twice
Benjamin Constant
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Benjamin Constant
Benjamin Constant
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Painting by Marguerite Gérard, Mme de Staël et sa fille (around 1805)
Benjamin Constant
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Charlotte von Hardenberg
Benjamin Constant
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Madame Recamier (1777–1849) by
Alexandre-Evariste Fragonard
50.
Benedetto Croce
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Benedetto Croce was an Italian idealist philosopher, historian and politician. He wrote on topics, including philosophy, history, historiography. He was a liberal, although he opposed laissez-faire free trade and had influence on other Italian intellectuals. He was President of PEN International, the writers association. He was nominated for the Nobel prize for literature sixteen times, Croce was born in Pescasseroli in the Abruzzo region of Italy. His family was influential and wealthy, and he was raised in a very strict Catholic environment and he kept this philosophy for the rest of his life. In 1883, an earthquake occurred in the village of Casamicciola on the island of Ischia near Naples and his mother, father, and only sister were all killed, while he was buried for a long time and barely survived. He studied law, but never graduated, at the University of Naples and his ideas were publicized at the University of Rome towards the ends of the 1890s by Professor Antonio Labriola. Influenced by Neapolitan-born Gianbattista Vicos thoughts about art and history, he began studying philosophy in 1893, Croce also purchased the house in which Vico had lived. His friend, the philosopher Giovanni Gentile, encouraged him to read Hegel, Croces famous commentary on Hegel, What is Living and What is Dead in the Philosophy of Hegel, was published in 1907. As his fame increased, Croce was persuaded, against his initial wishes and he was appointed to the Italian Senate, a lifelong position, in 1910. He was a critic of Italys participation in World War I. Though this made him unpopular, his reputation was restored after the war. He was Minister of Public Education between 1920 and 1921 for the 5th and last government headed by Giovanni Giolitti, Gentile remained minister for only a year, but managed to begin a comprehensive reform of Italian education that was based partly on Croces earlier suggestions. Gentiles reform remained in force well beyond the Fascist regime, and was partly abolished in 1962. Croce was instrumental in the relocation of the Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele III to Naples Palazzo Reale in 1923, Croce initially supported Mussolinis Fascist government that took power in 1922. However, the assassination by Fascists of the socialist politician, Giacomo Matteotti and he later explained that he had hoped that the support for Mussolini in parliament would weaken the more extreme Fascists who, he believed, were responsible for Matteottis murder. Croce later coined the term onagrocrazia to emphasize the anti-intellectual and boorish tendencies of parts of the Fascist regime, Croce also described Fascism as malattia morale
Benedetto Croce
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Benedetto Croce
