1.
Effects unit
–
An effects unit or pedal is an electronic or digital device that alters how a musical instrument or other audio source sounds. In the 2010s, most effects use solid state electronics and/or computer chips, some vintage effects units from the 1930s to the 1970s and modern reissues of these effects use mechanical components as well or vacuum tubes. Musicians, audio engineers and record producers use effects units during live performances or in the studio, typically with electric guitar, electronic keyboard, while guitar effects are most frequently used with electric or electronic instruments, effects can also be used with acoustic instruments, drums and vocals. Rackmounted or audio console-integrated reverb effects are used with vocals in live sound and sound recording. Examples of common units include wah-wah pedals, fuzzboxes and reverb units. A stompbox or pedal is a metal or plastic box placed on the floor in front of the musician and connected to the instrument. Pedals are usually the least expensive format, a rackmount device mounts on a standard 19-inch equipment rack and usually contains several types of effects. Rackmount effects typically have buttons and/or knobs on the face of the chassis for controlling the effects, an effects unit is also called an effect box, effects device, effects processor or simply effects. In audio engineer parlance, a signal without effects is dry, the abbreviation F/X or FX is sometimes used. A pedal-style unit may be called a box, stompbox. When a musician has multiple effects in a rack mounted road case, Effects units are available in a variety of formats or form factors. Stompboxes are usually the smallest, least expensive, and most rugged effects units, rackmount devices are generally more expensive and offer a wider range of functions. An effects unit can consist of analog or digital circuitry or a combination of the two, during a live performance, the effect is plugged into the electrical signal path of the instrument. In the studio, the instrument or other sound-sources auxiliary output is patched into the effect, form factors are part of a studio or musicians outboard gear. Stompboxes are small plastic or metal chassis which usually lie on the floor or in a pedalboard to be operated by the users feet, pedals are often rectangle-shaped, but there are a range of other shapes. Typical simple stompboxes have a single footswitch, one to three potentiometers for controlling the effect, and a single LED that indicates if the effect is on, depending on the type of pedal, the potentiometers may control different parameters of the effect. For a chorus effect, for example, the knobs may control the depth, some pedals have two knobs stacked on top of each other, enabling the unit to provide two knobs per single knob space. An effects chain or signal chain is formed by connecting two or more stompboxes, effect chains are typically created between the guitar and the amp or between the preamplifier and the power amp
2.
Electronic tuner
–
Guitar tuner redirects here, but can also refer to the string tension adjusters also called machine heads. For the radio receiver component, see Tuner In music, a tuner is a device that detects. Pitch is the highness or lowness of a note, which is typically measured in Hertz. Simple tuners indicate—typically with an analog needle-dial, LEDs, or an LCD screen—whether a pitch is lower, higher, in the 2010s, software applications can turn a smartphone, tablet, or personal computer into a tuner. More complex and expensive tuners indicate pitch more precisely, Tuners vary in size from units that fit in a pocket to 19 rack-mount units. Instrument technicians, piano tuners, and violin-family luthiers typically use more expensive, the simplest tuners detect and display tuning only for a single pitch—often A or E—or for a small number of pitches, such as the six used in the standard tuning of a guitar. More complex tuners offer chromatic tuning for all 12 pitches of the equally tempered octave, among the most accurate tuning devices, strobe tuners work differently than regular electronic tuners. They are stroboscopes that flicker a light at the frequency as the note. The light shines on a wheel that spins at a precise speed, the interaction of the light and regularly-spaced marks on the wheel creates a stroboscopic effect that makes the marks for a particular pitch appear to stand still when the pitch is in tune. These can tune instruments and audio devices more accurately than most non-strobe tuners, regular electronic tuners contain either an input jack for electric instruments, a microphone, or a clip-on sensor or some combination of these inputs. Pitch detection circuitry drives some type of display, some tuners have an output, or through-put, so the tuner can connect in-line from an electric instrument to an instrument amplifier or mixing console. Small tuners are usually battery powered, many battery powered tuners also have a jack for an optional AC power supply. Most musical instruments generate a complex waveform. It contains a number of partials, including the fundamental frequency. Each instrument produces different ratios of harmonics, which is what makes notes of the pitch played on different instruments sound different. As well, this waveform constantly changes and this means that for non-strobe tuners to be accurate, the tuner must process a number of cycles and use the pitch average to drive its display. Background noise from other musicians or harmonic overtones from the instrument can impede the electronic tuner from locking onto the input frequency. This is why the needle or display on regular electronic tuners tends to waver when a pitch is played, small movements of the needle, or LED, usually represent a tuning error of 1 cent
3.
Dynamic range compression
–
Compression is commonly used in sound recording and reproduction, broadcasting, live sound reinforcement and in some instrument amplifiers. A dedicated electronic hardware unit or audio software that applies compression is called a compressor, in the 2000s, compressors became available as software plugins that run in digital audio workstation software. In recorded and live music, compression parameters may be adjusted to change the way they affect sounds, compression and limiting are identical in process but different in degree and perceived effect. A limiter is a compressor with a ratio and, generally. Downward compression reduces loud sounds over a certain threshold while quiet sounds remain unaffected, upward compression increases the loudness of sounds below a certain threshold while leaving louder sounds unaffected. Both downward and upward compression reduce the range of an audio signal. An expander performs the function, increasing the dynamic range of the audio signal. Expanders are generally used to make quiet sounds even quieter by reducing the level of a signal that falls below a set threshold level. A noise gate is a type of expander and this design, known as a feed-forward type, is used today in most compressors. Earlier designs were based on a layout where the signal level was measured after the amplifier. There are a number of used for variable-gain amplification, each having different advantages and disadvantages. Vacuum tubes are used in a configuration called variable-mu where the voltage changes to alter the gain. Optical compressors use a photoresistor and a lamp to create changes in signal gain. This technique is believed by some to sound smoother because the times of the light. Other technologies used include field effect transistors and a diode bridge, when working with digital audio, digital signal processing techniques are commonly used to implement compression via digital audio editors, or dedicated workstations. Often the algorithms used emulate the above analog technologies, a compressor reduces the level of an audio signal if its amplitude exceeds a certain threshold. It is commonly set in decibels dB, where a lower threshold means a portion of the signal is treated. The amount of reduction is determined by ratio, a ratio of 4,1 means that if input level is 4 dB over the threshold
4.
Pitch shift
–
Pitch shifting is a sound recording technique in which the original pitch of a sound is raised or lowered. Effects units that raise or lower pitch by a musical interval are called pitch shifters or pitch benders. The simplest methods are used to pitch and reduce durations, or vice versa, reduce pitch. This can be done by replaying a sound waveform at a different speed than it was recorded and it could be accomplished on an early reel-to-reel tape recorder by changing the diameter of the capstan drive shaft, or using a different motor. As technologies improved later designs of motor speeds could be controlled by electronic servo system circuits and this arrangement using “vari-speed” capstan motors allowed the speed change to be achieved more simply. As for vinyl records, the same thing can be done, placing a finger on the turnable to give friction will retard it, a pitch shifter is a sound effects unit that raises or lowers the pitch of an audio signal by a preset interval. For example, a pitch shifter set to increase the pitch by a fourth will raise each note three diatonic intervals above the notes actually played, simple pitch shifters raise or lower the pitch by one or two octaves, while more sophisticated devices offer a range of interval alterations. Pitch shifters are included in most audio processors today, a harmonizer is a type of pitch shifter that combines the shifted pitch with the original pitch to create a two or more note harmony. In digital recording, pitch shifting is accomplished through digital signal processing, older digital processors could often only shift pitch in post-production, whereas many modern devices using computer processing technology can change pitch values virtually in real time. Pitch correction is a form of shifting and is found in software such as Auto-Tune to correct intonation inaccuracies in a recording or performance. Pitch shifting may raise or lower all sounds in a recording by the amount, whereas in practice. Numerous cartoons have used pitch shifters to produce distinctive animal voices, alvin and the Chipmunks recordings with David Seville were created by recording vocal tracks at slow speeds, then playing them back at normal speeds. Voice artist Mel Blanc used pitch shifting techniques to create the voices of Tweety, one notable early practitioner of pitch shifting in music is Chuck Berry, who used the technique to make his voice sound younger. Many of the Beatles records from 1966 and 1967 were made by recording instrumental tracks a half-step higher, examples include Rain, Im Only Sleeping, and When Im Sixty-Four. Electronic musician Burial is known for including pitch-shifted samples of vocal melodies in his songs, goregrind and occasionally death metal use vocals that are often pitch-shifted to sound unnaturally low and guttural. The band was a duo, who lacked a bassist and had never previously used one in any of their music, in the single Diane Young by Vampire Weekend, the lead singer Ezra Koenig makes use of a pitch shifter in the chorus. Time Stretching And Pitch Shifting of Audio Signals by Stephan M. Bernsee pitchshift. js from KievII Pitch shifter algorithm in Javascript, from KievII library
5.
Wah-wah pedal
–
The pedal sweeps the peak response of a frequency filter up and down in frequency to create the sound, a spectral glide, also known as the wah effect. The wah-wah effect originated in the 1920s, with trumpet or trombone players finding they could produce an expressive crying tone by moving a mute in and this was later simulated with electronic circuitry for the electric guitar when the wah-wah pedal was invented. It is controlled by movement of the foot on a rocking pedal connected to a potentiometer. Wah-wah effects are used when a guitarist is soloing, or creating a wacka-wacka funk-styled rhythm for rhythm guitar playing, an envelope filter or envelope follower is often referred to as an auto-wah. The first wah pedal was created by Bradley J. Plunkett at Warwick Electronics Inc. /Thomas Organ Company in November 1966 and this pedal is the original prototype made from a transistorized MRB potentiometer bread-boarded circuit and the housing of a Vox Continental Organ volume pedal. The concept, however, was not new, country guitar virtuoso Chet Atkins had used a similar, self-designed device on his late 1950s recordings of Hot Toddy and Slinkey. A DeArmond Tone and Volume pedal was used in the early 1960s by Big Jim Sullivan, notably in some Krew Cats instrumental tracks, the creation of the modern wah pedal was actually an accident which stemmed from the redesign of the Vox Super Beatle guitar amplifier in 1966. In addition to distributing the British-made Vox amplifiers, the Thomas Organ Company also designed and manufactured much of the Vox equipment sold in the US, the US-made Vox product line development was headed by musician and bandleader Bill Page. Plunkett had lifted and bread-boarded a transistorized tone-circuit from the Thomas Organ to duplicate the Jennings 3-position circuit, after adjusting and testing the amplifier with an electronic oscillator and oscilloscope, Plunkett connected the output to the speaker and tested the circuit audibly. At that point, several engineers and technical consultants, including Bill Page and Del Casher, Page insisted on testing this bread-boarded circuit while he played his saxophone through an amplifier. After the installation, Page began playing his saxophone through the pedal and had asked Joe Banaron, CEO of Warwick Electronics Inc. /Thomas Organ Company, to listen to the effect. Banaron, being a fan of the big band style of music, was interested in marketing the wah pedal for wind instruments as suggested by Page rather than for the guitar as suggested by Casher. After the initial invention of the wah pedal, the pedal was then modified by Casher. The un-modified version of the Vox wah pedal was released to the public in February 1967 with an image of Clyde McCoy on the bottom of the pedal. Warwick Electronics Inc. assigned Lester L. Kushner, an engineer with the Thomas Organ Company, the patent application was submitted on February 24,1967 which included technical diagrams of the pedal being connected to a four-stringed guitar. Warwick Electronics Inc. was granted US patent 3530224 on September 22,1970, early versions of the Clyde McCoy featured an image of McCoy on the bottom panel, which soon gave way to only his signature. Thomas Organ then wanted the effect branded as their own for the American market, Jen, who had been responsible for the manufacture of Thomas Organ and Vox wah pedals, also made rebranded pedals for companies such as Fender and Gretsch and under their own Jen brand. When Thomas Organ moved production completely to Sepulveda, California and Chicago, some of the most famous electric guitarists of the day were keen to adopt the wah-wah pedal soon after its release
6.
Distortion (music)
–
Distortion and overdrive are forms of audio signal processing used to alter the sound of amplified electric musical instruments, usually by increasing their gain. Distortion is most commonly used with the guitar, but may also be used with other electric instruments. Guitarists playing electric blues originally obtained an overdriven sound by turning up their vacuum tube-powered guitar amplifiers to high volumes, the terms distortion and overdrive are often used interchangeably, where a distinction is made, distortion is used to denote a more extreme version of the effect than overdrive. Fuzz is a used to describe a particular form of distortion originally created by guitarists using faulty equipment. Distortion, overdrive, and fuzz can be produced by effects pedals, rackmounts, pre-amplifiers, power amplifiers, speakers and by digital amplifier modeling devices and these effects are used with electric guitars, electric basses, electronic keyboards, and more rarely as a special effect with vocals. The first guitar amplifiers were relatively low-fidelity, and would often produce distortion when their volume was increased beyond their design limit or if they sustained minor damage. Around 1945, Western-swing guitarist Junior Barnard began experimenting with a rudimentary humbucker pick-up, in early rock music, Goree Carters Rock Awhile featured an over-driven electric guitar style similar to that of Chuck Berry several years later, as well as Joe Hill Louis Boogie in the Park. In the early 1950s, pioneering rock guitarist Willie Johnson of Howlin Wolf′s band began deliberately increasing gain beyond its intended levels to produce distorted sounds. Guitar Slim also experimented with distorted overtones, which can be heard in his hit electric blues song The Things That I Used to Do, Chuck Berrys 1955 classic Maybellene features a guitar solo with warm overtones created by his small valve amplifier. Rock guitarists began intentionally doctoring amplifiers and speakers in order to emulate this form of distortion, according to other sources Burlisons amp had a partially broken loudspeaker cone. In the late 1950s, Guitarist Link Wray began intentionally manipulating his amplifiers vacuum tubes to create a noisy and dirty sound for his solos after a similarly accidental discovery. Wray also poked holes in his speaker cones with pencils to further distort his tone, used electronic echo chambers, the recent powerful and fat Gibson humbucker pickups, the resultant sound can be heard on his highly influential 1958 instrumental, Rumble and Rawhide. In 1961, Grady Martin scored a hit with a fuzzy tone caused by a faulty preamplifier that distorted his guitar playing on the Marty Robbins song Dont Worry, later that year Martin recorded an instrumental tune under his own name, using the same faulty preamp. The song, on the Decca label, was called The Fuzz, Martin is generally credited as the discoverer of the fuzz effect. Rhodes offered The Ventures a fuzzbox he had made, which used to record 2000 Pound Bee in 1962. The best-known early commercial distortion circuit was the Maestro FZ-1 Fuzz-Tone, manufactured by Gibson, in May 1965 Keith Richards used a Gibson Maestro FZ-1 Fuzz-Tone to record Satisfaction. The songs success boosted sales of the device, and all available stock sold out by the end of 1965. In music the different forms of linear distortion have specific names describing them, in the context of music, the most common source of distortion is clipping in amplifier circuits and is most commonly known as overdrive
7.
Equalization (audio)
–
Equalization is the process of adjusting the balance between frequency components within an electronic signal. The most well known use of equalization is in recording and reproduction but there are many other applications in electronics. The circuit or equipment used to achieve equalization is called an equalizer and these devices strengthen or weaken the energy of specific frequency bands or frequency ranges. In sound recording and reproduction, equalization is the commonly used to alter the frequency response of an audio system using linear filters. Most hi-fi equipment uses relatively simple filters to make bass and treble adjustments, graphic and parametric equalizers have much more flexibility in tailoring the frequency content of an audio signal. An equalizer is the circuit or equipment used to achieve equalization, since equalizers, adjust the amplitude of audio signals at particular frequencies, they are, in other words, frequency-specific volume knobs. The term EQ specifically refers to this variant of the term, stereos and basic guitar amplifiers typically have adjustable equalizers which boost or cut bass or treble frequencies. Mid- to high-priced guitar and bass amplifiers usually have more bands of frequency control, such as bass, mid-range and treble or bass, low-mid, high-mid, some amps have an additional knob for controlling very high frequencies. Broadcast and recording studios use sophisticated equalizers capable of more detailed adjustments. The most common equalizers in music production are parametric, semi-parametric, graphic, peak, graphic equalizers are often included in consumer audio equipment and software which plays music on home computers. Parametric equalizers require more expertise than graphic equalizers, and they can provide more specific compensation or alteration around a chosen frequency and this may be used in order to remove unwanted resonances or boost certain frequencies. An acoustic guitarist who finds that her instrument sounds too boomy may ask the engineer to reduce the low frequency range response. A guitarist who finds that the instrument sound in the PA has too much finger noise may ask the engineer to reduce the frequency range response. The concept of equalization was first applied in correcting the frequency response of telephone lines using passive networks, a plot of the systems net frequency response would be flat, as its response to all frequencies would literally be equal. Much later the concept was applied in engineering to adjust the frequency response in recording, reproduction. Audio amplifiers have long had filters or controls to modify their frequency response and these are most often in the form of variable bass and treble controls, and switches to apply low-cut or high-cut filters for elimination of low frequency rumble and high frequency hiss respectively. Graphic equalizers and other equipment developed for improving fidelity have since used by recording engineers to modify frequency responses for aesthetic reasons. Hence in the field of audio electronics the term equalization is now used to describe the application of such filters regardless of intent
8.
Tremolo
–
In music, tremolo, or tremolando, is a trembling effect. There are two types of tremolo, tremolo picking, in which a single note is repeated extremely rapidly, is also possible on classical guitar, acoustic guitar and electric guitar. Between two notes or chords in alternation, an imitation of the preceding that is common on keyboard instruments. Mallet instruments such as the marimba are capable of either method, a roll on any percussion instrument, whether tuned or untuned. This non-standard use of the term refers to pitch rather than amplitude. True tremolo for a guitar, electronic organ, or any electronic signal would normally be produced by a simple amplitude modulation electronic circuit. Electronic tremolo effects were available on many guitar amplifiers. In the 2010s, electronic effects units in the form of pedals are also available as a method to produce this sound. The measured tremolo, presumably played with rhythmic regularity, was invented to add dramatic intensity to string accompaniment, however, it was not till the time of Gluck that the real tremolo became an accepted method of tone production. Four other types of historical tremolos include the obsolete undulating tremolo, the tremolo, the fingered tremolo. The undulating tremolo was produced through the fingers of the right hand alternately exerting and relaxing pressure upon the bow to create a very uncertain–undulating effect, there is some speculation that tremolo was employed in medieval Welsh harp music, as indicated in the transcription by Robert ap Huw. In musical notation, tremolo is usually notated as regular repeated demisemiquavers, generally, there are three strokes, except on note which already have beams or flags, quavers then take two additional slashes, and semiquavers take one. In the case of semibreves, which lack stems, the strokes or slashes are drawn above or below the note, because there is ambiguity as to whether an unmeasured tremolo or regular repeated demisemiquavers should be played, the word tremolo or the abbreviation trem. is sometimes added. In slower music when there is a chance of confusion. Above the staff, Arpeggio, a chord played one note after the other Leslie speaker, a rotating speaker horn
9.
Musical instrument
–
A musical instrument is an instrument created or adapted to make musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces sound can be a musical instrument—it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument, the history of musical instruments dates to the beginnings of human culture. Early musical instruments may have used for ritual, such as a trumpet to signal success on the hunt. Cultures eventually developed composition and performance of melodies for entertainment, Musical instruments evolved in step with changing applications. The date and origin of the first device considered an instrument is disputed. The oldest object that some refer to as a musical instrument. Some consensus dates early flutes to about 37,000 years ago, many early musical instruments were made from animal skins, bone, wood, and other non-durable materials. Musical instruments developed independently in many populated regions of the world, however, contact among civilizations caused rapid spread and adaptation of most instruments in places far from their origin. By the Middle Ages, instruments from Mesopotamia were in maritime Southeast Asia, development in the Americas occurred at a slower pace, but cultures of North, Central, and South America shared musical instruments. By 1400, musical instrument development slowed in areas and was dominated by the Occident. Musical instrument classification is a discipline in its own right, Instruments can be classified by their effective range, their material composition, their size, etc. However, the most common method, Hornbostel-Sachs, uses the means by which they produce sound. The academic study of instruments is called organology. Once humans moved from making sounds with their bodies—for example, by using objects to create music from sounds. Primitive instruments were designed to emulate natural sounds, and their purpose was ritual rather than entertainment. The concept of melody and the pursuit of musical composition were unknown to early players of musical instruments. A player sounding a flute to signal the start of a hunt does so without thought of the notion of making music. Musical instruments are constructed in an array of styles and shapes
10.
Electric blues
–
Electric blues refers to any type of blues music distinguished by the use of electric amplification for musical instruments. The guitar was the first instrument to be amplified and used by early pioneers T-Bone Walker in the late 1930s and John Lee Hooker. Their styles developed into West Coast blues, Detroit blues, and post-World War II Chicago blues, by the early 1950s, Little Walter was a featured soloist on blues harmonica or blues harp using a small hand-held microphone fed into a guitar amplifier. Although it took a longer, the electric bass guitar gradually replaced the stand-up bass by the early 1960s. Electric organs and especially keyboards later became used in electric blues. The blues, like jazz, probably began to be amplified in the late 1930s. After World War II, amplified blues music popular in American cities that had seen widespread African American migration, such as Chicago, Memphis, Detroit, St. Louis. The initial impulse was to be heard above the noise of lively rent parties, playing in small venues, electric blues bands tended to remain modest in size compared with larger jazz bands. In its early electric blues typically used amplified electric guitars, double bass, and harmonica played through a microphone. By the late 1940s several Chicago-based blues artists had begun to use amplification, including John Lee Williamson, early recordings in the new style were made in 1947 and 1948 by musicians such as Johnny Young, Floyd Jones, and Snooky Pryor. The format was perfected by Muddy Waters, who utilized various small groups that provided a strong rhythm section and his I Cant Be Satisfied was followed by a series of ground-breaking recordings. Chicago blues is influenced to an extent by the Mississippi blues style. Howlin Wolf, Muddy Waters, Willie Dixon and Jimmy Reed were all born in Mississippi and moved to Chicago during the Great Migration. In addition to guitar, harmonica, and a rhythm section of bass and drums. Lenoirs also used saxophones, largely as a supporting instrument, Muddy Waters and Elmore James were known for their innovative use of slide electric guitar. Howlin Wolf and Muddy Waters were for their deep, gravelly voices, bassist and composer Willie Dixon played a major role on the Chicago blues scene. He composed and wrote many standard blues songs of the period, such as Hoochie Coochie Man, I Just Want to Make Love to You and, Wang Dang Doodle, Spoonful and Back Door Man for Howlin Wolf. Most artists of the Chicago blues style recorded for the Chicago-based Chess Records and Checker Records labels, there were also smaller blues labels in this era including Vee-Jay Records and J. O. B
11.
Rock music
–
It has its roots in 1940s and 1950s rock and roll, itself heavily influenced by blues, rhythm and blues and country music. Rock music also drew strongly on a number of genres such as electric blues and folk. Musically, rock has centered on the guitar, usually as part of a rock group with electric bass guitar. Typically, rock is song-based music usually with a 4/4 time signature using a verse-chorus form, like pop music, lyrics often stress romantic love but also address a wide variety of other themes that are frequently social or political in emphasis. Punk was an influence into the 1980s on the subsequent development of subgenres, including new wave, post-punk. From the 1990s alternative rock began to rock music and break through into the mainstream in the form of grunge, Britpop. Similarly, 1970s punk culture spawned the visually distinctive goth and emo subcultures and this trio of instruments has often been complemented by the inclusion of other instruments, particularly keyboards such as the piano, Hammond organ and synthesizers. The basic rock instrumentation was adapted from the blues band instrumentation. A group of musicians performing rock music is termed a rock band or rock group, Rock music is traditionally built on a foundation of simple unsyncopated rhythms in a 4/4 meter, with a repetitive snare drum back beat on beats two and four. Melodies are often derived from older musical modes, including the Dorian and Mixolydian, harmonies range from the common triad to parallel fourths and fifths and dissonant harmonic progressions. Critics have stressed the eclecticism and stylistic diversity of rock, because of its complex history and tendency to borrow from other musical and cultural forms, it has been argued that it is impossible to bind rock music to a rigidly delineated musical definition. These themes were inherited from a variety of sources, including the Tin Pan Alley pop tradition, folk music and rhythm, as a result, it has been seen as articulating the concerns of this group in both style and lyrics. Christgau, writing in 1972, said in spite of some exceptions, rock and roll usually implies an identification of male sexuality, according to Simon Frith rock was something more than pop, something more than rock and roll. Rock musicians combined an emphasis on skill and technique with the concept of art as artistic expression, original. The foundations of music are in rock and roll, which originated in the United States during the late 1940s and early 1950s. Its immediate origins lay in a melding of various musical genres of the time, including rhythm and blues and gospel music, with country. In 1951, Cleveland, Ohio disc jockey Alan Freed began playing rhythm and blues music for a multi-racial audience, debate surrounds which record should be considered the first rock and roll record. Other artists with rock and roll hits included Chuck Berry, Bo Diddley, Fats Domino, Little Richard, Jerry Lee Lewis
12.
Dynamics (music)
–
In music, dynamics are instructions in musical notation to the performer about the loudness at which to play a note or phrase. More generally, dynamics may also include aspects of the execution of a given piece. The two basic dynamic indications in music are, p or piano, meaning soft, more subtle degrees of loudness or softness are indicated by, mp, standing for mezzo-piano, meaning half soft. Mf, standing for mezzo-forte, meaning half loud, più p, standing for più piano and meaning softer. Più f, standing for più forte and meaning louder, use of up to three consecutive fs or ps is also common, pp, standing for pianissimo and meaning very soft. Ff, standing for fortissimo and meaning very loud, ppp, standing for pianississimo and meaning very very soft. Fff, standing for fortississimo and meaning very loud. Some pieces contain dynamic designations with more than three consecutive fs or ps, in Holsts The Planets, ffff occurs twice in Mars and once in Uranus often punctuated by organ and fff occurs several times throughout the work. It also appears in Heitor Villa-Lobos Bachianas Brasileiras No,4, and in Liszts Fantasy and Fugue on the chorale Ad nos, ad salutarem undam. Igor Stravinsky used ffff at the end of the finale of the Firebird Suite, ffff is also found in a prelude by Rachmaninoff, op. 3-2. Shostakovich even went as loud as fffff in his fourth symphony, gustav Mahler, in the third movement of his Seventh Symphony, gives the celli and basses a marking of fffff, along with a footnote directing pluck so hard that the strings hit the wood. On another extreme, Carl Nielsen, in the movement of his Symphony No. 5, marked a passage for woodwinds a diminuendo to ppppp, another more extreme dynamic is in György Ligetis Études No. 13, which has at one point a ffffff and progresses to a ffffffff, in the baritone passage Era la notte from his opera Otello, Verdi uses pppp. Steane and others suggest that such markings are in reality a strong reminder to less than subtle singers to at least sing softly rather than an instruction to the singer actually to attempt a pppp, dynamic indications of this kind are relative, not absolute. Mp does not indicate a level of volume, it merely indicates that music in a passage so marked should be a little louder than p. Interpretations of dynamic levels are mostly to the performer, in the Barber Piano Nocturne. Another instance of performers discretion in this piece occurs when the hand is shown to crescendo to a f
13.
Expression pedal
–
An expression pedal is an important control found on many musical instruments including organs, electronic keyboards and pedal steel guitar. The musician uses the pedal to control different aspects of the sound, separate expression pedals can often be added to a guitar amplifier or effects unit and used to control many different aspects of the tone. e. The organ produces the same whether the key or pedal is depressed gently or firmly. Moreover, the tone will remain constant in pitch, volume, the expression pedal gives the organist control over the external source of power, and thus the volume, of the instrument, while leaving his or her hands free. This system of control is completely distinct from the act of adding stops or pulling more drawbars. As the pedal is pressed forward with the toes, the volume of the sound is increased, as it is depressed with the heel, the volume is decreased. A mechanical mechanism connected the box to a pedal that the organist would use to open and close the shutters, when the box is shut, less sound is released into the venue. In American and British organs, the division is usually named the Swell. Thus, the pedal is sometimes known as the swell pedal or swell shoe. Larger organs may have two or more expression pedals, allowing the volume of different divisions to be individually controlled, no matter how well a swell box is designed, the sound of the pipes is altered by their enclosure. Even when the shutters are opened, the pipes do not speak as clearly into the room as they would if they were otherwise unenclosed. On pipe organs, the pedal should not be confused with the crescendo pedal. Historically, the palettes were manipulated by a ratchet swell, a lever operated by the foot to the side of the console, the lever would fit into two or three different notches, which would lock the position of the lever, and therefore the shutters, in place. To change the position of the shutters, the lever would be kicked sideways to allow it to travel into a new position, the lever was weighted so that its default position was at the top, with the shutters closed. As the lever was lowered, the shutters would open, the balanced swell pedal was developed in the late nineteenth century so that the opening of the box could be fixed at any degree. This pedal is fitted above the center of the pedalboard and it usually rotates towards and away from the organist through a distance of about 90° from an almost vertical position to a near horizontal position. Because the pedal is balanced, the organist does not need to hold it in position, in addition, this location for most expression pedals, above the center of the pedalboard, is much more convenient for use by both feet if necessary. Correspondence to The Musical Times in 1916 debates the merits of both the ratchet lever and balanced pedal systems of expression
14.
Linear filter
–
Linear filters process time-varying input signals to produce output signals, subject to the constraint of linearity. This results from systems composed solely of components classified as having a linear response, most filters implemented in analog electronics, in digital signal processing, or in mechanical systems are classified as causal, time invariant, and linear signal processing filters. The general concept of linear filtering is used in statistics, data analysis. This includes non-causal filters and filters in more than one such as those used in image processing. The frequency response, given by the transfer function H, is an alternative characterization of the filter. The frequency response may be tailored to, for instance, eliminate unwanted frequency components from an input signal, or to limit an amplifier to signals within a particular band of frequencies. The impulse response h of a linear time-invariant causal filter specifies the output that the filter would produce if it were to receive an input consisting of an impulse at time 0. An impulse in a continuous time filter means a Dirac delta function, the impulse response completely characterizes the response of any such filter, inasmuch as any possible input signal can be expressed as a combination of weighted delta functions. The second equation is a version used, for example, by digital filters implemented in software. The impulse response h completely characterizes any linear time-invariant filter, the input x is said to be convolved with the impulse response h having a duration of time T. The complexity of a filter may be specified according to the order of the filter, among the time-domain filters we here consider, there are two general classes of filter transfer functions that can approximate a desired frequency response. Consider a physical system that acts as a filter, such as a system of springs and masses. Such a system is said to have an impulse response. The convolution integral above extends over all time, T must be set to infinity, for instance, consider a damped harmonic oscillator such as a pendulum, or a resonant L-C tank circuit. If the pendulum has been at rest and we were to strike it with a hammer, setting it in motion, it would swing back and forth, say, with an amplitude of 10 cm. After 10 minutes, say, the pendulum would still be swinging but the amplitude would have decreased to 5 cm, after another 10 minutes its amplitude would be only 2.5 cm, then 1.25 cm, etc. However it would never come to a complete rest, and we call that response to the impulse infinite in duration. The complexity of such a system is specified by its order N, a filter implemented in a computer program is a discrete-time system, a different set of mathematical concepts defines the behavior of such systems
15.
Modulation
–
Most radio systems in the 20th century used frequency modulation or amplitude modulation to make the carrier carry the radio broadcast. Modulation of a sine waveform transforms a narrow frequency range baseband message signal into a passband signal, a modulator is a device that performs modulation. A demodulator is a device that performs demodulation, the inverse of modulation, a modem can perform both operations. The aim of digital modulation is to transfer a digital bit stream over an analog bandpass channel, in music synthesizers, modulation may be used to synthesise waveforms with an extensive overtone spectrum using a small number of oscillators. In this case the carrier frequency is typically in the order or much lower than the modulating waveform. In analog modulation, the modulation is applied continuously in response to the information signal. Where an AM carrier also carries a variable phase f. TM is f In digital modulation, a carrier signal is modulated by a discrete signal. Digital modulation methods can be considered as digital-to-analog conversion, and the corresponding demodulation or detection as analog-to-digital conversion, the changes in the carrier signal are chosen from a finite number of M alternative symbols. A simple example, A telephone line is designed for transferring audible sounds, for example tones, computers may however communicate over a telephone line by means of modems, which are representing the digital bits by tones, called symbols. If there are four symbols, the first symbol may represent the bit sequence 00, the second 01, the third 10. If the modem plays a melody consisting of 1000 tones per second, since each tone represents a message consisting of two digital bits in this example, the bit rate is twice the symbol rate, i. e.2000 bits per second. This is similar to the used by dialup modems as opposed to DSL modems. According to one definition of digital signal, the signal is a digital signal. According to another definition, the modulation is a form of digital-to-analog conversion, most textbooks would consider digital modulation schemes as a form of digital transmission, synonymous to data transmission, very few would consider it as analog transmission. The most fundamental digital modulation techniques are based on keying, PSK, FSK, a finite number of frequencies are used. ASK, a number of amplitudes are used. QAM, a number of at least two phases and at least two amplitudes are used
16.
Chorus effect
–
In music, a chorus effect occurs when individual sounds with approximately the same timbre, and very similar pitch converge and are perceived as one. When the effect is produced successfully, none of the constituent sounds are perceived as being out of tune and it is characteristic of sounds with a rich, shimmering quality that would be absent if the sound came from a single source. The shimmer occurs because of beating, the effect is more apparent when listening to sounds that sustain for longer periods of time. The chorus effect is especially easy to hear when listening to a choir or string ensemble, a choir has multiple people singing each part. A string ensemble has multiple violinists and possibly multiples of other stringed instruments, in spite of the name, most electronic chorus effects do not accurately emulate this acoustic ensemble effect. Instead, they create a moving electronic shimmer. Some instruments produce an effect as part of their design, however. Piano - Each hammer strikes multiple strings tuned to nearly the same pitch, professional piano tuners carefully control the mistuning of each string to add movement without losing clarity. 12 string guitar - Six pairs of strings tuned in octaves, synthesizer - The effect can be achieved by using multiple, slightly detuned oscillators for each note, or by passing all the notes played through a separate electronic chorus circuit. Mandolin -4 pairs of identically tuned strings, as opposed to octaves, accordion - two or three reed blocks tuned to nearly the same pitch produce a unique and distinctive sound exclusive to the accordion. The chorus effect can be simulated by signal processing equipment, the signal processor may be software running on a computer, software running in a digital effect processor, or an analog effect processor. If the processor is hardware-based, it may be packaged as a pedal, a rack-mount module, some keyboard instruments have an electronic chorus effect built in, such as some electronic pianos and some Hammond organs. Regardless of the technology or form factor, the processor achieves the effect by taking an audio signal, the pitch of the added voices is typically modulated by an LFO, which makes the overall effect similar to that of a flanger, except with longer delays and without feedback. Stereo chorus effect processors produce the effect, but it is varied between the left and right channels by offsetting the delay or phase of the LFO. The effect is enhanced because sounds are produced from multiple locations in the stereo field. Used on instruments like clean electric guitar and keyboards, it can yield very dreamy or ambient sounds, examples of the use of obviously chorused guitar tracks include Fripp & Enos Evensong, Nirvanas Come As You Are, Mike Sterns Swunk, and Satellite Partys Mr. Sunshine. The voix céleste is an organ consisting of either one or two ranks of pipes slightly out of tune. The term celeste refers to a rank of pipes detuned slightly so as to produce an effect when combined with a normally tuned rank
17.
Flanging
–
Flanging /ˈflændʒɪŋ/ is an audio effect produced by mixing two identical signals together, one signal delayed by a small and gradually changing period, usually smaller than 20 milliseconds. This produces a swept comb filter effect, peaks and notches are produced in the frequency spectrum. Varying the time delay causes these to sweep up and down the frequency spectrum, a flanger is an effects unit that creates this effect. Part of the signal is usually fed back to the input, producing a resonance effect which further enhances the intensity of the peaks. The phase of the signal is sometimes inverted, producing another variation on the flanger sound. As an audio effect, a listener hears a drainpipe or swoosh or jet plane sweeping effect as shifting sum-and-difference harmonics are created analogous to use of a notch filter. The term flanging comes from one of the methods of producing the effect. The finished music track is recorded simultaneously to two matching tape machines, then replayed with both decks in sync, the playback-head output from the two recorders is mixed to a third recorder. The engineer slows down one recorder by lightly pressing a finger on the flange of one of the playout reels, the drainpipe or subtle swoosh flange flango effect sweeps in one direction, and the playback of that recorder remains slightly behind the other when the finger is removed. By pressing a finger on the flange of the other deck, as the weight of the tape built on one reel, the pressure on the capstans caused flanging in mixdown or dubbing. His 1955 single Nuevo Laredo features phase shifting, as does the 1953 single Mammys Boogie, american music industry veterans David S. Flanging is also heard in the opening of The Ventures 1962 cover of The Tornados Telstar, in a rocket launch sound effect. Further development of the effect is attributed to Ken Townsend, an engineer at EMIs Abbey Road Studio. Tired of laboriously re-recording dual vocal tracks, John Lennon asked Townsend if there was some way for the Beatles to get the sound of double-tracked vocals without doing the work, Townsend devised Artificial Double Tracking or ADT. According to historian Mark Lewisohn, it was Lennon who first called the technique flanging, Lennon asked George Martin to explain how ADT worked, and Martin answered with the nonsense explanation Now listen, its very simple. We take the image and we split it through a double vibrocated sploshing flange with double negative feedback. Martin replied, Well, lets flange it again and see, from that point, when Lennon wanted ADT he would ask for his voice to be flanged, or call out for Kens flanger. According to Lewisohn, the Beatles influence meant the term flanging is still in use today, the first Beatles track to feature flanging was Tomorrow Never Knows from Revolver, which was recorded on April 6,1966. When Revolver was released on August 5,1966, almost every song had been subjected to flanging, others have attributed it to George Chkiantz, an engineer at Olympic Studios in Barnes, London
18.
Phaser (effect)
–
A phaser is an electronic sound processor used to filter a signal by creating a series of peaks and troughs in the frequency spectrum. The position of the peaks and troughs of the waveform being affected is typically modulated so that they vary over time, for this purpose, phasers usually include a low-frequency oscillator. The electronic phasing effect is created by splitting an audio signal into two paths, one path treats the signal with an all-pass filter, which preserves the amplitude of the original signal and alters the phase. The amount of change in phase depends on the frequency, when signals from the two paths are mixed, the frequencies that are out of phase will cancel each other out, creating the phasers characteristic notches. Changing the mix ratio changes the depth of the notches, the deepest notches occur when the mix ratio is 50%, the definition of phaser typically excludes such devices where the all-pass section is a delay line, such a device is called a flanger. Using a delay line creates a series of equally spaced notches. It is possible to cascade a delay line with another type of all-pass filter and this combines the unlimited number of notches from the flanger with the uneven spacing of the phaser. Traditional electronic phasers use a series of variable all-pass phase-shift networks which alter the phases of the different frequency components in the signal and these networks pass all frequencies at equal volume, introducing only phase change to the signal. Human ears are not very responsive to phase differences, but this creates audible interferences when mixed back with the dry signal, creating notches. The simplified structure of a phaser is shown below, The number of all-pass filters varies with different models. Digital phasers may offer up to 32 or even more and this determines the number of notches/peaks in the sound, affecting the general sound character. A phaser with n stages generally has n/2 notches in the spectrum, additionally, the output can be fed back to the input for a more intense effect, creating a resonant effect by emphasizing frequencies between notches. This involves feeding the output of the all-pass filter chain back to the input, as shown here, note that the peaks between the notches are sharper when theres feedback, giving a distinct sound. A stereo phaser is usually two identical phasers modulated by a signal, the output of the oscillators for the left. Most modern phasers are a part of a signal processor. Phasers are mostly found as plugins for sound editing software, as a part of a monolithic rackmount sound effect unit, phasing is a popular effect for electric guitar. The term was used to refer to the original tape flanging effect heard on many psychedelic records of the late 1960s. By the early 1970s, phasing was available as a portable guitar effect, in the late 1970s, Brian May used large amounts of phasing, in such songs as Sheer Heart Attack
19.
Pitch (music)
–
Pitch can be determined only in sounds that have a frequency that is clear and stable enough to distinguish from noise. Pitch is a major attribute of musical tones, along with duration, loudness. Pitch may be quantified as a frequency, but pitch is not a purely objective physical property, Pitch is an auditory sensation in which a listener assigns musical tones to relative positions on a musical scale based primarily on their perception of the frequency of vibration. Pitch is closely related to frequency, but the two are not equivalent, frequency is an objective, scientific attribute that can be measured. Pitch is each persons subjective perception of a wave, which cannot be directly measured. However, this not necessarily mean that most people wont agree on which notes are higher and lower. Sound waves themselves do not have pitch, but their oscillations can be measured to obtain a frequency and it takes a sentient mind to map the internal quality of pitch. However, pitches are usually associated with, and thus quantified as frequencies in cycles per second, or hertz, by comparing sounds with pure tones, Complex and aperiodic sound waves can often be assigned a pitch by this method. According to the American National Standards Institute, pitch is the attribute of sound according to which sounds can be ordered on a scale from low to high. That is, high pitch means very rapid oscillation, and low pitch corresponds to slower oscillation, despite that, the idiom relating vertical height to sound pitch is shared by most languages. At least in English, it is just one of many deep conceptual metaphors that involve up/down, the exact etymological history of the musical sense of high and low pitch is still unclear. There is evidence that humans do actually perceive that the source of a sound is slightly higher or lower in vertical space when the frequency is increased or reduced. The pitch of tones can be ambiguous, meaning that two or more different pitches can be perceived, depending upon the observer. In a situation like this, the percept at 200 Hz is commonly referred to as the missing fundamental, Pitch depends to a lesser degree on the sound pressure level of the tone, especially at frequencies below 1,000 Hz and above 2,000 Hz. The pitch of lower tones gets lower as sound pressure increases, for instance, a tone of 200 Hz that is very loud seems one semitone lower in pitch than if it is just barely audible. Above 2,000 Hz, the pitch gets higher as the sound gets louder, theories of pitch perception try to explain how the physical sound and specific physiology of the auditory system work together to yield the experience of pitch. In general, pitch perception theories can be divided into place coding, place theory holds that the perception of pitch is determined by the place of maximum excitation on the basilar membrane. However, a purely place-based theory cannot account for the accuracy of pitch perception in the low, temporal theories offer an alternative that appeals to the temporal structure of action potentials, mostly the phase-locking and mode-locking of action potentials to frequencies in a stimulus
20.
Reverberation
–
Reverberation, in psychoacoustics and acoustics, is the persistence of sound after a sound is produced. This is most noticeable when the sound source stops but the reflections continue, decreasing in amplitude, until they reach zero amplitude. In comparison to an echo that is a minimum of 50 to 100 ms after the initial sound. As time passes, the amplitude of the reflections is reduced until it is reduced to zero, Reverberation is not limited to indoor spaces as it exists in forests and other outdoor environments where reflection exists. Reverberation occurs naturally when a person sings, talks or plays an instrument acoustically in a hall or performance space with sound-reflective surfaces. The sound of reverberation is often added to the vocals of singers in live sound systems. The time it takes for a signal to drop by 60 dB is the reverberation time, RT60 is the time required for reflections of a direct sound to decay 60 dB. Reverberation time is stated as a single value, if measured as a wide band signal, however, being frequency dependent. Being frequency dependent, the time measured in narrow bands will differ depending on the frequency band being measured. For precision, it is important to know what ranges of frequencies are being described by a time measurement. In the late 19th century, Wallace Clement Sabine started experiments at Harvard University to investigate the impact of absorption on the reverberation time. Using a portable wind chest and organ pipes as a sound source and he found that the reverberation time is proportional to room dimensions and inversely proportional to the amount of absorption present. The optimum reverberation time for a space in which music is played depends on the type of music that is to be played in the space, rooms used for speech typically need a shorter reverberation time so that speech can be understood more clearly. If the reflected sound from one syllable is still heard when the syllable is spoken. Cat, Cab, and Cap may all sound very similar, if on the other hand the reverberation time is too short, tonal balance and loudness may suffer. Reverberation effects are used in studios to add depth to sounds. Reverberation changes the perceived spectral structure of a sound, but does not alter the pitch, basic factors that affect a rooms reverberation time include the size and shape of the enclosure as well as the materials used in the construction of the room. Every object placed within the enclosure can also affect this time, including people
21.
Delay (audio effect)
–
Delay is an audio effect and an effects unit which records an input signal to an audio storage medium, and then plays it back after a period of time. The delayed signal may either be played multiple times, or played back into the recording again. Delay effects range from an echo effect to a pronounced blending of previous sounds with new sounds. The first delay effects were achieved using tape loops improvised on reel-to-reel magnetic recording systems, by shortening or lengthening the loop of tape and adjusting the read and write heads, the nature of the delayed echo could be controlled. Audio engineers working in music quickly adapted similar techniques, to augment their use of plate reverb. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, several sound engineers began making devices for use in recording studios, guitarist and instrument designer Les Paul was an early pioneer in delay devices. A landmark device was the EchoSonic made by American Ray Butts and it is a portable guitar amplifier with a built-in tape echo, which became used widely in country music and especially in rock and roll. Tape echoes became commercially available in the 1950s, an echo machine is the early name for a sound processing device used with electronic instruments to repeat the sound and produce a simulated echo. The device was popular with guitarists and was used by Brian May, Jimmy Page, One example is the Echoplex which used a tape loop. The length of delay was adjusted by changing the distance between the record and playback heads. Another example is the Roland Space Echo with a record and multiple tape heads. The time between echo repeats was adjusted by varying the tape speed, the length or intensity of the echo effect was adjusted by changing the amount of echo signal was fed back into the pre-echo signal. Different effects could be created by combining the different playback heads, some models also included a spring reverb. Before the invention of audio technology, music employing a delayed echo had to be recorded in a naturally reverberant space, often an inconvenience for musicians. The presence of multiple taps made it possible to have delays at varying rhythmic intervals, many delay processors based on analog tape recording, such as Ray Butts EchoSonic, Mike Battles Echoplex, or the Roland Space Echo, used magnetic tape as their recording and playback medium. Electric motors guided a tape loop through a device with a variety of mechanisms allowing modification of the effects parameters, in the Space Echo, all of the heads are fixed, but the speed of the tape could be adjusted, changing the delay time. Thin magnetic tape was not entirely suited for operation, however. Several designs were made, the 1959 Ecco-Fonic had a spinning head, many were temperamental, such as the Vox Echomatic
22.
Integrated circuit
–
An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit is a set of electronic circuits on one small flat piece of semiconductor material, normally silicon. The ICs mass production capability, reliability and building-block approach to circuit design ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of using discrete transistors. ICs are now used in all electronic equipment and have revolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, mobile phones, and other home appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies, made possible by the small size. These advances, roughly following Moores law, allow a computer chip of 2016 to have millions of times the capacity, ICs have two main advantages over discrete circuits, cost and performance. Cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by photolithography rather than being constructed one transistor at a time, furthermore, packaged ICs use much less material than discrete circuits. Performance is high because the ICs components switch quickly and consume little power because of their small size, the main disadvantage of ICs is the high cost to design them and fabricate the required photomasks. This high initial cost means ICs are only practical when high production volumes are anticipated, Circuits meeting this definition can be constructed using many different technologies, including thin-film transistor, thick film technology, or hybrid integrated circuit. However, in general usage integrated circuit has come to refer to the single-piece circuit construction originally known as a integrated circuit. Jacobi disclosed small and cheap hearing aids as typical industrial applications of his patent, an immediate commercial use of his patent has not been reported. The idea of the circuit was conceived by Geoffrey Dummer. Dummer presented the idea to the public at the Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic Components in Washington and he gave many symposia publicly to propagate his ideas, and unsuccessfully attempted to build such a circuit in 1956. A precursor idea to the IC was to create small ceramic squares, Components could then be integrated and wired into a bidimensional or tridimensional compact grid. This idea, which seemed very promising in 1957, was proposed to the US Army by Jack Kilby, however, as the project was gaining momentum, Kilby came up with a new, revolutionary design, the IC. In his patent application of 6 February 1959, Kilby described his new device as a body of semiconductor material … wherein all the components of the circuit are completely integrated. The first customer for the new invention was the US Air Force, Kilby won the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physics for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit. His work was named an IEEE Milestone in 2009, half a year after Kilby, Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor developed his own idea of an integrated circuit that solved many practical problems Kilbys had not. Noyces design was made of silicon, whereas Kilbys chip was made of germanium, Noyce credited Kurt Lehovec of Sprague Electric for the principle of p–n junction isolation, a key concept behind the IC
23.
Leslie speaker
–
The Leslie speaker is a combined amplifier and two-way loudspeaker that projects the signal from an electric or electronic instrument, while modifying the sound by rotating the loudspeakers. It is most commonly associated with the Hammond organ, though it was used for the guitar. A typical Leslie speaker contains an amplifier, and a treble, a musician controls the Leslie speaker by either an external switch or pedal that alternates between a slow and fast speed setting, known as chorale and tremolo. The speaker is named after its inventor, Donald Leslie, Leslie began working in the late 1930s to get a speaker for a Hammond organ that had a closer emulation of a pipe or theatre organ, and discovered that rotating sound gave the best effect. Hammond was not interested in marketing or selling the speakers, so Leslie sold them himself as an add-on, Leslie made the first speaker in 1941. The sound of the organ being played through his speakers received national radio exposure across the US and it soon became an essential tool for most jazz organists. In 1965, Leslie sold his business to CBS who, in 1980, Suzuki Musical Instrument Corporation subsequently acquired the Hammond and Leslie brands. Because the Leslie is a sound device in its own right. Many musicians have used the Univox Uni-Vibe, the Neo Ventilator, or Hammond-Suzukis own simulator in a box, Leslie worked as a radio service engineer at Barker Brothers Department Store in Los Angeles, which sold and repaired Hammond organs. He bought one in 1937, hoping it would be a substitute for a pipe organ. He was disappointed, however, with the sound in his home compared to the large showroom where he heard it. Consequently, he attempted to design a speaker to overcome this and he initially tried making a cabinet similar to Hammonds, but soon concluded that pipe organs produced a spacially varied sound because of the different location of each pipe. He set out to emulate this by making a moving speaker and he tried various combinations of speakers and speeds, and discovered that a single one running at whats now known as the tremolo speed worked best. After further experimentation, he decided that splitting the signal into a drum and horn helped accentuate bass. By 1940, Leslie decided his prototype was ready to market, laurens Hammond, however, was not impressed with Leslies attempt to better his own organ design, and declined to market it. The company even changed the interface on their organs to make them Leslie-proof. Leslie began manufacturing the speaker in 1941—initially under a variety of names, including Vibratone, Brittain Speakers, Hollywood Speakers and he returned to the name Leslie Vibratone in 1947. To counteract Hammonds slogan Musics Most Glorious Voice, Leslie added a similar slogan and he eventually owned nearly 50 patents on the speaker
24.
Vacuum tube
–
In electronics, a vacuum tube, an electron tube, or just a tube, or valve, is a device that controls electric current between electrodes in an evacuated container. Vacuum tubes mostly rely on thermionic emission of electrons from a hot filament or a cathode heated by the filament and this type is called a thermionic tube or thermionic valve. A phototube, however, achieves electron emission through the photoelectric effect, the simplest vacuum tube, the diode, contains only a heater, a heated electron-emitting cathode, and a plate. Current can only flow in one direction through the device between the two electrodes, as electrons emitted by the travel through the tube and are collected by the anode. Adding one or more control grids within the tube allows the current between the cathode and anode to be controlled by the voltage on the grid or grids, Tubes with grids can be used for many purposes, including amplification, rectification, switching, oscillation, and display. In the 1940s the invention of devices made it possible to produce solid-state devices, which are smaller, more efficient, more reliable, more durable. Hence, from the mid-1950s solid-state devices such as transistors gradually replaced tubes, the cathode-ray tube remained the basis for televisions and video monitors until superseded in the 21st century. However, there are still a few applications for which tubes are preferred to semiconductors, for example, the used in microwave ovens. One classification of vacuum tubes is by the number of active electrodes, a device with two active elements is a diode, usually used for rectification. Devices with three elements are used for amplification and switching. Additional electrodes create tetrodes, pentodes, and so forth, which have additional functions made possible by the additional controllable electrodes. X-ray tubes are vacuum tubes. Phototubes and photomultipliers rely on electron flow through a vacuum, though in those cases electron emission from the cathode depends on energy from photons rather than thermionic emission, since these sorts of vacuum tubes have functions other than electronic amplification and rectification they are described in their own articles. A vacuum tube consists of two or more electrodes in a vacuum inside an airtight enclosure, most tubes have glass envelopes, though ceramic and metal envelopes have been used. The electrodes are attached to leads which pass through the envelope via an airtight seal, Tubes were a frequent cause of failure in electronic equipment, and consumers were expected to be able to replace tubes themselves. In addition to the terminals, some tubes had an electrode terminating at a top cap. The principal reason for doing this was to avoid leakage resistance through the tube base, the bases were commonly made with phenolic insulation which performs poorly as an insulator in humid conditions. There was even a design that had two top cap connections
25.
Guitar amplifier
–
The input of modern guitar amplifiers is a 1/4 jack, which is fed a signal from an electro-magnetic pickup or a piezoelectric pickup using a patch cord, or a wireless transmitter. For electric guitar players, their choice of guitar amp and the settings they use on the amplifier are a key part of their signature tone or sound, some guitar players are longtime users of a specific amp brand or model. Many electric guitar players use external effects pedals to alter the sound of their tone before the signal reaches the guitar amp, such as the wah wah pedal and this article focuses on electric guitar amps. For information on amps for guitar, a lower-pitched, similar instrument. More expensive amplifiers typically have controls for other frequency ranges. Some guitar amplifiers have a graphic equalizer, which uses vertical fader controls which can control many frequency bands, the first amplifier stage is a preamplifier stage, which amplifies the guitar signal to a level that can drive the power stage. The power amplifier or output stage produces a current signal to drive a loudspeaker to produce sound that the guitarist. Amplifiers may use vacuum tubes, solid-state devices, or both, a wide range of speaker configurations are available in guitar cabinets, ranging from cabinets with a single speaker or multiple speakers. Guitar amplifiers have a range in price and quality. Music equipment companies import small, low-powered practice amplifiers for students, other companies produce expensive custom-made amplifiers for professional musicians, which can cost thousands of dollars. Most combo amplifiers have a handle, and many combo amplifiers. Control knobs are typically mounted on the front of the cabinet or chassis, though in some cases, the most basic amps only have a few knobs, which typically control volume, bass and treble. More expensive amps may have a number of knobs that control pre-amp volume, distortion or overdrive, volume, bass, mid and treble, some older amps have a knob that controls a vibrato effect. The 1/4 input jack is typically mounted on the front of the amplifier, in the simplest, least expensive amplifiers, this 1/4 jack is the only jack on the amplifier. Some amps have a 1/4 jack for connecting a pedal to turn the amps onboard overdrive and reverb on, the cone speaker, widely used in 2000s-era amp cabinets, was not offered for sale until 1925. The first amplifiers and speakers could only be powered with large batteries, when engineers developed the first AC mains-powered amplifiers, they were soon used to make musical instruments louder. Engineers invented the first loud, powerful amplifier and speaker systems for public address systems and these large PA systems and movie theatre sound systems were very large and very expensive, and so they could not be used by most touring musicians. During the late 1920s to mid-1930s, small portable PA systems, in 1928, the Stromberg-Voisinet firm was the first company to sell an electric stringed instrument and amplifier package
26.
DJ
–
A disc jockey is a person who mixes different sources of pre-existing recorded music as it is playing, usually for a live audience in a nightclub or dance club or via broadcasting. DJs typically perform for an audience in a nightclub or dance club or a TV, radio broadcast audience, or in the 2010s. DJs also create mixes, remixes and tracks that are recorded for later sale, in hip hop music, DJs may create beats, using percussion breaks, basslines and other musical content sampled from pre-existing records. In hip hop, rappers and MCs use these beats to rap over, DJs use equipment that can play at least two sources of recorded music simultaneously and mix them together. This allows the DJ to create seamless transitions between recordings and develop unique mixes of songs, DJ equipment, notably the specialized DJ mixer, a small audio mixer with a crossfader and cue functions. The crossfader enables the DJ to blend or transition from one song to another, the cue knobs or switches allow the DJ to preview a source of recorded music in headphones before playing it for the live club or broadcast audience. Previewing the music in headphones helps the DJ pick the track they want to play. DJs may also use a microphone to speak to the audience, effects such as reverb to create sound effects, drum machines. The title DJ is also used by DJs in front of their real names or adopted pseudonyms or stage names as a title to denote their profession. Some DJs focus on creating a mix of songs for the club dancers or radio audience. Other DJs use turntablism techniques such as scratching, in which the DJ or turntablist manipulates the record player turntable to create new sounds. In many types of DJing, including club DJing and radio/TV DJing, there are several types of disc jockey. Radio DJs or radio personalities introduce and play music that is broadcast on AM, FM, club DJs select and play music in bars, nightclubs or discothèques, or at parties, raves, or even in stadiums. Mobile DJs travel with portable sound systems and play recorded music at a variety of events. Some mobile DJs also serve as the master of ceremonies at weddings or other events, directing the attention of attendees, there are also many competitions for DJs that specialize in different turntablism techniques, such as mixing, hip hop music-style scratching or other kinds of techniques. Other types of DJ use musical performance techniques that allow them to be categorized as performing musicians, hip hop DJs and are also often songwriters or music producers who use turntablism and sampling to create backing instrumentals for new tracks. In reggae, the DJ is a vocalist who raps, toasts, chants or chats over pre-recorded rhythm tracks, the individual who helps the DJ by selecting tracks or records to be played is called the selector. Many electronica artists and producers who work as DJs often perform music by combining turntablism with keyboards, digital musical instruments
27.
Record producer
–
A record producer or music producer oversees and manages the sound recording and production of a band or performers music, which may range from recording one song to recording a lengthy concept album. A producer has many roles during the recording process, the roles of a producer vary. The producer may perform these roles himself, or help select the engineer, the producer may also pay session musicians and engineers and ensure that the entire project is completed within the record companies budget. A record producer or music producer has a broad role in overseeing and managing the recording. Producers also often take on an entrepreneurial role, with responsibility for the budget, schedules, contracts. In the 2010s, the industry has two kinds of producers with different roles, executive producer and music producer. Executive producers oversee project finances while music producers oversee the process of recording songs or albums. In most cases the producer is also a competent arranger, composer. The producer will also liaise with the engineer who concentrates on the technical aspects of recording. Noted producer Phil Ek described his role as the person who creatively guides or directs the process of making a record, indeed, in Bollywood music, the designation actually is music director. The music producers job is to create, shape, and mold a piece of music, at the beginning of record industry, producer role was technically limited to record, in one shot, artists performing live. The role of producers changed progressively over the 1950s and 1960s due to technological developments, the development of multitrack recording caused a major change in the recording process. Before multitracking, all the elements of a song had to be performed simultaneously, all of these singers and musicians had to be assembled in a large studio and the performance had to be recorded. As well, for a song that used 20 instruments, it was no longer necessary to get all the players in the studio at the same time. Examples include the rock sound effects of the 1960s, e. g. playing back the sound of recorded instruments backwards or clanging the tape to produce unique sound effects. These new instruments were electric or electronic, and thus they used instrument amplifiers, new technologies like multitracking changed the goal of recording, A producer could blend together multiple takes and edit together different sections to create the desired sound. For example, in jazz fusion Bandleader-composer Miles Davis album Bitches Brew, producers like Phil Spector and George Martin were soon creating recordings that were, in practical terms, almost impossible to realise in live performance. Producers became creative figures in the studio, other examples of such engineers includes Joe Meek, Teo Macero, Brian Wilson, and Biddu
28.
Audio engineer
–
An audio engineer works on the recording, manipulating the record using equalization and electronic effects, mixing, reproduction, and reinforcement of sound. Audio engineers work on the. technical aspect of recording—the placing of microphones, pre-amp knobs, the physical recording of any project is done by an engineer. Many audio engineers creatively use technologies to produce sound for film, radio, television, music, electronic products and computer games. Audio engineers also set up, sound check and do live sound mixing using an audio console, research and development audio engineers invent new technologies, equipment and techniques, to enhance the process and art of audio engineering. They might also be referred to as acoustic engineers, audio engineers in research and development usually possess a bachelors degree, masters degree or higher qualification in acoustics, physics, computer science or another engineering discipline. They might work in consultancy, specializing in architectural acoustics. Alternatively they might work in companies, or other industries that need audio expertise. Some positions, such as faculty require a Doctor of Philosophy, in Germany a Toningenieur is an audio engineer who designs, builds and repairs audio systems. The listed subdisciplines are based on PACS coding used by the Acoustical Society of America with some revision, audio engineers develop algorithms to allow the electronic manipulation of audio signals. These can be processed at the heart of audio production such as reverberation. Alternatively, the algorithms might carry out echo cancellation on Skype, or identify, architectural acoustics is the science and engineering of achieving a good sound within a room. For audio engineers, architectural acoustics can be about achieving good speech intelligibility in a stadium or enhancing the quality of music in a theatre, architectural Acoustic design is usually done by acoustic consultants. Electroacoustics is concerned with the design of headphones, microphones, loudspeakers, sound reproduction systems, examples of electroacoustic design include portable electronic devices, sound systems in architectural acoustics, surround sound in movie theater and vehicle audio. Musical acoustics is concerned with researching and describing the science of music, in audio engineering, this includes the design of electronic instruments such as synthesizers, the human voice, computer analysis of audio, music therapy, and the perception and cognition of music. Psychoacoustics is the study of how humans respond to what they hear. At the heart of audio engineering are listeners who are the final arbitrator as to whether a design is successful. The production, computer processing and perception of speech is an important part of audio engineering, ensuring speech is transmitted intelligibly, efficiently and with high quality, in rooms, through public address systems and through mobile telephone systems are important areas of study. Producer, engineer, and mixer Phil Ek has described audio engineering as the aspect of recording—the placing of microphones, the turning of pre-amp knobs
29.
Recording studio
–
A recording studio is a facility for sound recording and mixing. Ideally both the recording and monitoring spaces are designed by an acoustician or audio engineer to achieve optimum acoustic properties. The engineers and producers listen to the music and the recorded tracks on monitor speakers and/or headphones. Major recording studios typically have a range of large, heavy, Isolation booths are small sound-insulated rooms with doors, designed for instrumentalists. This equipment may interfere with the recording process, Recording studios are carefully designed around the principles of room acoustics to create a set of spaces with the acoustical properties required for recording sound with precision and accuracy. This will consist of both room treatment and soundproofing to prevent sound from leaving the property. Even though sound isolation is a key goal, the musicians, singers, audio engineers and record producers still need to be able to see other, to see cue gestures. As such, the room, isolation booths, vocal booths. Some smaller studios do not have instruments, and bands and artists are expected to bring their own instruments, having musical instruments and equipment in the studio creates additional costs for a studio, as pianos have to be tuned and instruments need to be maintained. However, it makes it convenient for recording artists, as they do not have to bring in large. As well, less costly studio time is spent moving in gear, drummers bring their own snare drum, cymbals and sticks/brushes. The types and brands of equipment owned by a studio depends on the styles of music for the bands. A studio that mainly records heavy metal music will be likely to have large, powerful guitar amp heads, in contrast, a studio which mainly records country bands will likely have a selection of small, vintage combo amps. A studio that records a lot of 1970s-style funk may have an electric piano. General purpose computers have rapidly assumed a role in the recording process. A computer thus outfitted is called a Digital Audio Workstation, or DAW, other software applications include Ableton Live, Mixcraft, Cakewalk Sonar, ACID Pro, FL Studio, Adobe Audition, Auto-Tune, Audacity, and Ardour. While Apple Macintosh is used for most studio work, there is a breadth of available for Microsoft Windows. If no mixing console is used and all mixing is done using only a keyboard and mouse, the OTB is used when mixing with other hardware and not just the PC software
30.
Electric guitar
–
The vibrations of the strings are sensed by a pickup, of which the most common type is the magnetic pickup, which uses the principle of direct electromagnetic induction. The signal generated by a guitar is too weak to drive a loudspeaker, so it is plugged into a guitar amplifier before being sent to a loudspeaker. The output of a guitar is an electric signal. Invented in 1931, the electric guitar was adopted by jazz guitarists. Early proponents of the guitar on record included Les Paul, Lonnie Johnson, Sister Rosetta Tharpe, T-Bone Walker. During the 1950s and 1960s, the guitar became the most important instrument in pop music. It has evolved into an instrument that is capable of a multitude of sounds and styles in genres ranging from pop and rock to country music, blues and jazz. It served as a component in the development of electric blues, rock and roll, rock music, heavy metal music. Electric guitar design and construction vary greatly in the shape of the body and the configuration of the neck, bridge, Guitars may have a fixed bridge or a spring-loaded hinged bridge that lets players bend the pitch of notes or chords up or down or perform vibrato effects. The sound of a guitar can be modified by new playing techniques such as string bending, tapping, hammering on, using audio feedback, in a small group, such as a power trio, one guitarist switches between both roles. In larger rock and metal bands, there is often a rhythm guitarist, many experiments at electrically amplifying the vibrations of a string instrument were made dating back to the early part of the 20th century. Patents from the 1910s show telephone transmitters were adapted and placed inside violins, hobbyists in the 1920s used carbon button microphones attached to the bridge, however, these detected vibration from the bridge on top of the instrument, resulting in a weak signal. With numerous people experimenting with electrical instruments in the 1920s and early 1930s, Electric guitars were originally designed by acoustic guitar makers and instrument manufacturers. Some of the earliest electric guitars adapted hollow-bodied acoustic instruments and used tungsten pickups, the first electrically amplified guitar was designed in 1931 by George Beauchamp, the general manager of the National Guitar Corporation, with Paul Barth, who was vice president. The maple body prototype for the one-piece cast aluminum frying pan was built by Harry Watson, commercial production began in late summer of 1932 by the Ro-Pat-In Corporation, in Los Angeles, a partnership of Beauchamp, Adolph Rickenbacker, and Paul Barth. In 1934, the company was renamed the Rickenbacker Electro Stringed Instrument Company, in that year Beauchamp applied for a United States patent for an Electrical Stringed Musical Instrument and the patent was issued in 1937. The Electro-Spanish Ken Roberts provided players a full 25 scale, with 17 frets free of the fretboard and it is estimated that fewer than 50 Electro-Spanish Ken Roberts were constructed between 1933 and 1937, fewer than 10 are known to survive today. The need for the guitar became apparent during the big band era as orchestras increased in size, particularly when acoustic guitars had to compete with large
31.
Bass guitar
–
The bass guitar is a stringed instrument played primarily with the fingers or thumb, by plucking, slapping, popping, strumming, tapping, thumping, or picking with a plectrum, often known as a pick. The bass guitar is similar in appearance and construction to a guitar, but with a longer neck and scale length. The four-string bass, by far the most common, is tuned the same as the double bass. The bass guitar is an instrument, as it is notated in bass clef an octave higher than it sounds to avoid excessive ledger lines. Like the electric guitar, the guitar has pickups and it is plugged into an amplifier and speaker on stage, or into a larger PA system using a DI unit. Since the 1960s, the guitar has largely replaced the double bass in popular music as the bass instrument in the rhythm section. While types of basslines vary widely from one style of music to another, many styles of music utilise the bass guitar, including rock, heavy metal, pop, punk rock, country, reggae, gospel, blues, symphonic rock, and jazz. It is often a solo instrument in jazz, jazz fusion, Latin, funk, progressive rock and other rock, the adoption of a guitar form made the instrument easier to hold and transport than any of the existing stringed bass instruments. The addition of frets enabled bassists to play in more easily than on acoustic or electric upright basses. Around 100 of these instruments were made during this period, around 1947, Tutmarcs son, Bud, began marketing a similar bass under the Serenader brand name, prominently advertised in the nationally distributed L. D. Heater Music Company wholesale jobber catalogue of 1948, however, the Tutmarc family inventions did not achieve market success. In the 1950s, Leo Fender, with the help of his employee George Fullerton and his Fender Precision Bass, which began production in October 1951, became a widely copied industry standard. This split pickup, introduced in 1957, appears to have been two mandolin pickups, the pole pieces and leads of the coils were reversed with respect to each other, producing a humbucking effect. Humbucking is a design that electrically cancels the effect of any AC hum, the Fender Bass was a revolutionary new instrument, which could be easily transported, and which was less prone to feedback when amplified than acoustic bass instruments. Monk Montgomery was the first bass player to tour with the Fender bass guitar, roy Johnson, and Shifty Henry with Louis Jordan & His Tympany Five, were other early Fender bass pioneers. Bill Black, playing with Elvis Presley, switched from bass to the Fender Precision Bass around 1957. The bass guitar was intended to appeal to guitarists as well as upright bass players, following Fenders lead, in 1953, Gibson released the first short scale violin-shaped electric bass with extendable end pin, allowing it to be played upright or horizontally. In 1959 these were followed by the more conventional-looking EB-0 Bass, the EB-0 was very similar to a Gibson SG in appearance
32.
Electronic keyboard
–
An electronic keyboard or digital keyboard is an electronic musical instrument, an electronic or digital derivative of keyboard instruments. Broadly speaking, in a popular context, the term electronic keyboard or just a keyboard mostly refers to any type of digital or electronic keyboard instrument. These include synthesizers, digital pianos, stage pianos, electronic organs, however, in true musical terminology, an electronic keyboard is an inexpensive synthesizer equipped with built-in power amplifier and small loudspeakers. Electronic keyboards are capable of recreating a wide range of instrument sounds with less complex sound synthesis, Electronic keyboards are usually dedicated for home users, beginners and other non-professional users. The least expensive models do not have velocity-sensitive keys, but mid- to high-priced models do have these feature, home keyboards typically have little if any sound editing capacity. The user typically selects from a range of voices or sounds. Home keyboards have a lower cost than professional synthesizers. Casio and Yamaha are among the manufacturers of home keyboards. An electronic keyboard may also called a digital keyboard, portable keyboard, or home keyboard, referring their digital-based sound generation and light-weight, portable build. In Russia, most kinds of keyboards were often referred to as a synthesizer. The term electronic keyboard may also be used to refer to synthesizer or digital piano on colloquial usage, Most keyboards use a keyboard matrix circuit to reduce the amount of wiring that is needed. Electronic hardware can also do this, Sound generator, A digital sound module typically contained within an integrated ROM, which is capable of accepting MIDI commands and producing sounds. Keyboard sound generators are mostly based on PCM synth, amplifier and speakers, an internal audio amplifier built to the sound generator chip and low-powered speakers that amplify the sounds so that the listener can hear them. Power supply, Keyboards may or may not have a power supply system built to the main circuit board. Flash memory, Most electronic keyboards have an amount of onboard memory for storing MIDI data and/or recorded songs. Floppy disks were obsolete by the early 2000s, with memory cards start to replace them shortly afterwards, USB storage were originally less common at the time, but was later popularized by Yamahas Tyros2 workstation keyboard in 2005 and has become a standard feature ever since. Most keyboards today uses USB storage, with the exception of some Casio, keyboard instruments can be found as far back as the hydraulis in the 3rd century BCE, which developed into the pipe organ, and small portable instruments such as the portative and positive organ. Additional keyboard instruments, the clavichord and harpsichord, were developed in the 14th century CE, as technology improved, more sophisticated keyboards were developed, including the 12-tone keyboard still in use today
33.
Electric piano
–
An electric piano is an electric musical instrument which produces sounds when a performer presses the keys of the piano-style musical keyboard. Unlike a synthesizer, the piano is not an electronic instrument. Instead, it is an electro-mechanical instrument, some early electric pianos used lengths of wire to produce the tone, like a traditional piano. Smaller electric pianos used short slivers of steel to produce the tone, the earliest electric pianos were invented in the late 1920s, the 1929 Neo-Bechstein electric grand piano was among the first. Probably the earliest stringless model was Lloyd Loars Vivi-Tone Clavier, a few other noteworthy producers of electric pianos include Baldwin Piano and Organ Company and the Wurlitzer Company. Early electric piano recordings include Duke Ellingtons in 1955 and Sun Ras India as well as tracks from the 1956 sessions included on his second album Super Sonic Jazz. Another factor driving their development and acceptance was the electrification of popular music. Musicians adopted a number of types of electric pianos for rock. This encouraged their manufacturers to modify them for use and then develop models primarily intended for stage use. However, some performers still perform and record with vintage electric pianos, in 2009, Fender Rhodes produced a new line of electro-mechanical pianos, known as the Rhodes Mark 7 followed by an offering from Vintage Vibe. The Neo-Bechstein electric piano was built in 1929, the Vierlang-Forster electric piano was introduced in 1937. The RCA Storytone electric piano was built in 1939 in a joint venture between Story & Clark and RCA, the case was designed by John Vassos, the American industrial designer. It debuted at the 1939 Worlds Fair, the piano has normal strings and hammer action but no soundboard. The sound is amplified through electromagnetic pickups, circuitry and a speaker system, many types were initially designed as a less-expensive alternative to an acoustic piano for home or school use. Some electric pianos were designed with multiple keyboards for use in school or college piano labs, electric piano is a heterogeneous category encompassing several different instruments which vary in their sound-producing mechanisms and consequent timbral characters. Yamaha, Baldwin, Helpinstill and Kawais electric pianos are actual grand or upright pianos with strings, the Helpinstill models have a traditional soundboard, the others have none, and are more akin to a solid-body electric guitar. On Yamaha, Baldwin and Kawais pianos, the vibration of the strings is converted to a signal by piezoelectric pickups under the bridge. Helpinstills instruments use a set of electromagnetic pickups attached to the instruments frame, all these instruments have a tonal character similar to that of an acoustic piano
34.
Electronic musical instrument
–
An electronic musical instrument is a musical instrument that produces sound using electronics. Such an instrument sounds by outputting an electrical signal that ultimately drives a loudspeaker. An electronic instrument might include a user interface for controlling its sound, often by adjusting the pitch, frequency, all electronic musical instruments can be viewed as a subset of audio signal processing applications. Simple electronic musical instruments are called sound effects, the border between sound effects and actual musical instruments is often hazy. Electronic musical instruments are now used in most styles of music. Development of new musical instruments, controllers, and synthesizers continues to be a highly active. In the 18th-century, musicians and composers adapted a number of instruments to exploit the novelty of electricity. The former instrument consisted of an instrument of over 700 strings. The latter was an instrument with plectra activated electrically. However, neither instrument used electricity as a sound-source, the first electric synthesizer was invented in 1876 by Elisha Gray. The Musical Telegraph used steel reeds oscillated by electromagnets and transmitted over a telephone line, Gray also built a simple loudspeaker device into later models, which consisted of a diaphragm vibrating in a magnetic field. A significant invention, which later had an effect on electronic music, was the audion in 1906. This was the first thermionic valve, or vacuum tube and which led to the generation and amplification of signals, radio broadcasting. Other early synthesizers included the Telharmonium, the Theremin, Jörg Magers Spharophon and Partiturophone, Taubmanns similar Electronde, Maurice Martenots ondes Martenot, only two models of this latter were built and the only surviving example is currently stored at the Lomonosov University in Moscow. It has been used in many Russian movies—like Solaris—to produce unusual, Hugh Le Caine, John Hanert, Raymond Scott, composer Percy Grainger, and others built a variety of automated electronic-music controllers during the late 1940s and 1950s. In 1959 Daphne Oram produced a method of synthesis, her Oramics technique, driven by drawings on a 35 mm film strip. In 1897 Thaddeus Cahill patented an instrument called the Telharmonium, using tonewheels to generate musical sounds as electrical signals by additive synthesis, it was capable of producing any combination of notes and overtones, at any dynamic level. This technology was used to design the Hammond organ
35.
Acoustic music
–
Acoustic music is music that solely or primarily uses instruments that produce sound through acoustic means, as opposed to electric or electronic means. The retronym acoustic music appeared after the advent of electric instruments, such as the guitar, electric violin, electric organ. It has its origins in the music of the 1960s. The trend has also dubbed as acoustic rock in some cases. Navigating the Music Industry, Current Issues & Business Models, Music and the Modern Condition, Investigating the Boundaries
36.
Drum
–
The drum is a member of the percussion group of musical instruments. In the Hornbostel-Sachs classification system, it is a membranophone, Drums consist of at least one membrane, called a drumhead or drum skin, that is stretched over a shell and struck, either directly with the players hands, or with a drum stick, to produce sound. There is usually a head on the underside of the drum. Other techniques have been used to cause drums to make sound, Drums are the worlds oldest and most ubiquitous musical instruments, and the basic design has remained virtually unchanged for thousands of years. Drums may be played individually, with the using a single drum. Others are normally played in a set of two or more, all played by the one player, such as drums and timpani. A number of different drums together with form the basic modern drum kit. Drums are usually played by striking with the hand, or with one or two sticks, in many traditional cultures, drums have a symbolic function and are used in religious ceremonies. Drums are often used in therapy, especially hand drums, because of their tactile nature. In popular music and jazz, drums usually refers to a kit or a set of drums. Drums acquired even divine status in places such as Burundi, where the karyenda was a symbol of the power of the king, the shell almost invariably has a circular opening over which the drumhead is stretched, but the shape of the remainder of the shell varies widely. In the western tradition, the most usual shape is a cylinder, although timpani, for example. Other shapes include a design, truncated cones, goblet shaped. Drums with cylindrical shells can be open at one end, or can have two drum heads, single-headed drums typically consist of a skin stretched over an enclosed space, or over one of the ends of a hollow vessel. Drums with two heads covering both ends of a shell often have a small hole somewhat halfway between the two heads, the shell forms a resonating chamber for the resulting sound. Exceptions include the African slit drum, also known as a log drum as it is made from a tree trunk. Drums with two heads can also have a set of wires, called snares, held across the head, top head. The heads tension can be adjusted by loosening or tightening the rods, many such drums have six to ten tension rods
37.
Singing
–
Singing is the act of producing musical sounds with the voice, and augments regular speech by the use of sustained tonality, rhythm, and a variety of vocal techniques. A person who sings is called a singer or vocalist, Singers perform music that can be sung with or without accompaniment by musical instruments. Singing is often done in an ensemble of musicians, such as a choir of singers or a band of instrumentalists, Singers may perform as soloists, or accompanied by anything from a single instrument up to a symphony orchestra or big band. Singing can be formal or informal, arranged or improvised and it may be done as a form of religious devotion, as a hobby, as a source of pleasure, comfort, or ritual, as part of music education, or as a profession. Excellence in singing requires time, dedication, instruction, and regular practice, if practice is done on a regular basis then the sounds can become more clear and strong. Professional singers usually build their careers around one specific genre, such as classical or rock. They typically take voice training provided by teachers or vocal coaches throughout their careers. Though these four mechanisms function independently, they are coordinated in the establishment of a vocal technique and are made to interact upon one another. During passive breathing, air is inhaled with the diaphragm while exhalation occurs without any effort, exhalation may be aided by the abdominal, internal intercostal and lower pelvis/pelvic muscles. Inhalation is aided by use of external intercostals, scalenes and sternocleidomastoid muscles, the pitch is altered with the vocal cords. With the lips closed, this is called humming, humans have vocal folds which can loosen, tighten, or change their thickness, and over which breath can be transferred at varying pressures. The shape of the chest and neck, the position of the tongue, any one of these actions results in a change in pitch, volume, timbre, or tone of the sound produced. Sound also resonates within different parts of the body and an individuals size, Singers can also learn to project sound in certain ways so that it resonates better within their vocal tract. This is known as vocal resonation, another major influence on vocal sound and production is the function of the larynx which people can manipulate in different ways to produce different sounds. These different kinds of function are described as different kinds of vocal registers. The primary method for singers to accomplish this is through the use of the Singers Formant and it has also been shown that a more powerful voice may be achieved with a fatter and fluid-like vocal fold mucosa. The more pliable the mucosa, the more efficient the transfer of energy from the airflow to the vocal folds, Vocal registration refers to the system of vocal registers within the voice. A register in the voice is a series of tones, produced in the same vibratory pattern of the vocal folds
38.
Guitar pedalboard
–
A guitar pedalboard is a flat board or panel which serves as a container, patch bay and power supply for effects pedals for the electric guitar. Some pedalboards contain their own transformer and power cables, in order to power a number of different pedals, pedalboards assist the player in managing multiple pedals. The entire pedalboard can be packed up and transported to the location without the need for disassembly. Pedalboards often have a cover which protects the effects pedals during transportation, there are many varieties of pedalboard cases, including homemade DIY pedalboard cases, store-bought pedalboard cases, and, for professional musicians, custom-made pedalboard cases. Some pedalboards have handles or wheels to facilitate transportation, most effects pedals are powered by varying levels of DC voltage, depending on the manufacturer. Possible voltages include 9V, 12V, 15V, 18V, 24V, some effects pedals accept a range of voltages, producing different effects. Guitar players can experiment with varying voltages to generate different sounds, DC power can be generated by batteries, an AC/DC power supply, or a rechargeable battery. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages, using individual batteries is fine for occasional players, because they dont have to worry about the cost of replacement batteries or changes in sound as batteries get tired. Battery life varies depending on the power draw. Professional players normally replace all batteries with new ones before a show, using a DC power supply is a good alternative, even though the initial cost is higher. However, one has to pay attention to ground loops and power line hum, noise gates can help to reduce the noise by suppressing the signal below a certain volume threshold, but this only controls unwanted noise without actually removing it from the signal. The third approach is to use a rechargeable battery to drive all the pedals. This eliminates ground loops because the pedals are grounded at a single point, there are batteries on the market that can power over 20 effects pedals for eight hours on a single charge. The effects pedals are connected to the battery via isolated DC-DC converters. Using a rechargeable effects pedal battery or AC/DC power supply in conjunction with a “pedalboard suitcase” reduces setup time prior to a show, pete Cornish Effects unit Guitar amplifier Distortion Electric guitar Chairmen of the Boards
39.
19-inch rack
–
A 19-inch rack is a standardized frame or enclosure for mounting multiple electronic equipment modules. Each module has a front panel that is 19 inches wide, the 19-inch dimension includes the edges, or ears, that protrude on each side which allow the module to be fastened to the rack frame with screws. Common uses include server, audio, and scientific lab equipment, the height of the electronic modules is also standardized as multiples of 1.752 inches or one rack unit or U. The industry standard rack cabinet is 42U tall, the term relay rack appeared first in the world of telephony. By 1911, the term was also being used in railroad signaling, there is little evidence that the dimensions of these early racks were standardized. The 19-inch rack format with rack-units of 1.75 inches was established as a standard by AT&T around 1922 in order to reduce the space required for repeater, the earliest repeaters from 1914 were installed in ad-hoc fashion on shelves, in wooden boxes and cabinets. Once serial production started, they were built into bespoke racks, the height of the different panels will vary, but in all cases to be a whole multiple of 1¾ inches. The 19-inch rack format has remained constant while the technology that is mounted within it has changed considerably, nineteen-inch racks in two-post or four-post form hold most equipment in modern data centers, ISP facilities, and professionally designed corporate server rooms. They allow for dense hardware configurations without occupying excessive floorspace or requiring shelving, nineteen-inch racks are also often used to house professional audio and video equipment, including amplifiers, effects units, interfaces, headphone amplifiers, and even small scale audio mixers. A third common use for rack-mounted equipment is industrial power, control, typically, a piece of equipment being installed has a front panel height 1⁄32 inch less than the allotted number of Us. Thus, a 1U rackmount computer is not 1.75 inches tall but is 1.719 inches tall, 2U would be 3.469 inches instead of 3.5 inches. This gap allows a bit of room above and below a piece of equipment so it may be removed without binding on the adjacent equipment. State-of-the-art rackmount cases are now constructed of thermo stamped composite, carbon fiber. Originally, the holes were tapped with a particular screw thread. Tapping large numbers of holes that may never be used is expensive, nonetheless tapped-hole racks are still in use, examples include telephone exchanges, network cabling panels, broadcast studios and some government and military applications. The tapped-hole rack was first replaced by clearance-hole racks, the holes are large enough to permit a bolt to be freely inserted through without binding, and bolts are fastened in place using cage nuts. In the event of a nut being stripped out or a bolt breaking, production of clearance-hole racks is less expensive because tapping the holes is eliminated and replaced with fewer, less expensive, cage nuts. The next innovation in design has been the square-hole rack
40.
Road case
–
A large number of varying-sized road cases can be built to outfit the needs of an entire touring production company, or custom designed individually for a specific industry or product. The term road case is used in the United States and implies that the case is primarily for road based travel. The term originates from its use for storing and shipping band equipment while the musicians were on the road, the history of flight case design is based on an airplane parts packaging specification. It was designed by airline packaging engineers, the specification is ATA300 Category I. ATA is the A4A International, formerly the Air Transport Association of America located in Washington, D. C. and consists of members like Boeing, Airbus, Fed-Ex, American, United, and Delta. ATA300 Cat I cases are designed to withstand 100 round trips, Cat II containers 10 round trips, the original design required the cases to be white, so they would not be left on the airport runway when loading cases at night time. The first ATA300 spec was published on August 1,1960, most cases are fabricated from panels joined by metal or plastic extrusions, molded plastic, or metal. Fabricated cases are made from panels constructed of two layers. An outer layer of ABS or fiberglass laminate is adhered to a layer of lightweight 3/16 to 1/2 cabinet-grade plywood such as birch, poplar. These two layers are known as laminate panel, and high grade cases are made from composite material, inside the case, an internal shock-absorbing filler such as polyurethane or polyethylene foam has cavities that correspond to the shape of the component it is preserving. Alternate shock protection methods include mounting the case contents to racks or panels attached to the walls with shock isolators. The corners of fabricated cases are commonly reinforced with stamped sheet steel case corners commonly finished in zinc, nickel, chrome. The term ATA Case is frequently used to describe cases that resemble those that comply with ATA Spec 300 category I, but have not been certified by the independent testing defined in ATA Spec 300. Caster wheels are built into or attached to the case for ease of transit. Molded cases are made of polyethylene or polypropylene plastic by injection molding or rotational molding. Most are gasketed for splash protection and they typically have the same interior and wheel options as fabricated panel cases. Cases may be customized by adding a power adapter and a computer fan. Thus certain equipment may operate in transit or at destination without leaving the protection of the case, typical uses for road cases on tour are wardrobe, hair and make-up, catering, rigging, backline, sound, lights, video, production and carpentry
41.
Electronic circuit
–
In an integrated circuit or IC, the components and interconnections are formed on the same substrate, typically a semiconductor such as silicon or gallium arsenide. An electronic circuit can usually be categorized as an analog circuit, breadboards, perfboards, and stripboards are common for testing new designs. They allow the designer to make changes to the circuit during development. Analog electronic circuits are those in current or voltage may vary continuously with time to correspond to the information being represented. Analog circuitry is constructed from two building blocks, series and parallel circuits. In a series circuit, the current passes through a series of components. A string of Christmas lights is an example of a series circuit, if one goes out. In a parallel circuit, all the components are connected to the voltage. The basic components of analog circuits are wires, resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes, analog circuits are very commonly represented in schematic diagrams, in which wires are shown as lines, and each component has a unique symbol. Analog circuit analysis employs Kirchhoffs circuit laws, all the currents at a node, wires are usually treated as ideal zero-voltage interconnections, any resistance or reactance is captured by explicitly adding a parasitic element, such as a discrete resistor or inductor. When the circuit size is comparable to a wavelength of the relevant signal frequency, wires are treated as transmission lines, with constant characteristic impedance, and the impedances at the start and end determine transmitted and reflected waves on the line. These values represent the information that is being processed, in the vast majority of cases, binary encoding is used, one voltage represents a binary 1 and another voltage represents a binary 0. Digital circuits make extensive use of transistors, interconnected to create gates that provide the functions of Boolean logic, AND, NAND, OR, NOR, XOR. Digital circuits therefore can provide both logic and memory, enabling them to perform arbitrary computational functions, the design process for digital circuits is fundamentally different from the process for analog circuits. Each logic gate regenerates the binary signal, so the designer need not account for distortion, gain control, offset voltages, as a consequence, extremely complex digital circuits, with billions of logic elements integrated on a single silicon chip, can be fabricated at low cost. Such digital integrated circuits are ubiquitous in electronic devices, such as calculators, mobile phone handsets. Digital circuitry is used to general purpose computing chips, such as microprocessors. Field-programmable gate arrays, chips with logic circuitry whose configuration can be modified after fabrication, are widely used in prototyping
42.
Aux-send
–
An aux-send is an electronic signal-routing output used on multi-channel sound mixing consoles used in recording and broadcasting settings and on PA system amplifier-mixers used in music concerts. The signal from the auxiliary send is often routed through outboard audio processing units and then returned to the mixer using an auxiliary return input jack. This allows effects to be added to a source or channel within the mixing console. The routing configuration and usage of an aux-send will vary depending on the application, two types of aux-sends commonly exist, pre-fader and post-fader. Pre-fade sends are not affected by the slider for the channel. In a common configuration, a post-fade aux-send output is connected to the input of an outboard audio effects unit. The audio output of the unit is then connected to the aux-return input on the mixing console. The reason that a post-fade is used is to avoid channels that are zero gain on the sliders from contaminating the effects return loop, mixing consoles most commonly have a group of aux-send knobs in each channel strip, where one knob corresponds to each aux-send on the board. The controls enable the operator to adjust the amount of signal that will be sent from its corresponding channel into the signal bus routed to its corresponding aux-send output. A benefit of using an aux-send is that it enables the signals from multiple channels on a console to be simultaneously routed to a single outboard device. For instance, audio signals from all the channels of a mixing console can be routed to a single outboard reverb unit so that all channels are heard with reverb. The aux-sends from a group of inputs can also be routed to an amplifier, the benefit of using the pre-fade aux-send function is that the volume of the vocals or instruments in the monitor mix does not have to be the same as the front-of-house mix for the audience. Sound reinforcement system Sound recording Send track
43.
Ibanez
–
Ibanez is a Japanese guitar brand owned by Hoshino Gakki. The Hoshino Gakki company began in 1908 as the musical instrument sales division of the Hoshino Shoten, the Ibanez brand name dates back to 1929 when Hoshino Gakki began importing Salvador Ibáñez guitars from Spain. In the 1960s Japanese guitar makers started to mainly copy American guitar designs and Ibanez branded copies of Gibson and this resulted in the so-called Ibanez lawsuit period. During this lawsuit period Ibanez started producing guitars under the Mann name to avoid authorities in the US, after the lawsuit period Hoshino Gakki introduced Ibanez models that were definitely not copies of the Gibson or Fender designs such as the Iceman and The Ibanez Roadstar. The company has produced its own guitar designs ever since, the late 1980s and early 1990s were an important period for the Ibanez brand. Hoshino Gakki also had semi acoustic, nylon and steel stringed acoustic guitars manufactured under the Ibanez name, cimar and Starfield were guitar and bass brands owned by Hoshino Gakki. In the 1970s, Hoshino Gakki and Kanda Shokai shared some guitar designs and so some Ibanez, the Kanda Shokai Greco guitars were sold in Japan and the Hoshino Gakki Ibanez guitars were sold outside Japan. From 1982, Ibanez guitars have also sold in Japan as well as being sold outside Japan. Guitar brands such as Antoria and Mann shared some Ibanez guitar designs, the Antoria guitar brand was managed by JT Coppock Leeds Ltd England. CSL was a brand managed by Charles Summerfield Ltd England. The Maxxas brand name came about because Hoshino Gakki thought that the guitar did not fit in with the Ibanez model range and was therefore named Maxxas by Rich Lasner from Hoshino USA. Harry Rosenbloom, founder of the Medley Music of Bryn Mawr, by 1965 Rosenbloom had decided to stop manufacturing guitars and chose to become the exclusive North American distributor for Ibanez guitars. In September 1972, Hoshino began a partnership with Elger Guitars to import guitars from Japan, in September 1981, Elger was renamed Hoshino U. S. A. retaining the company headquarters in Bensalem, Pennsylvania as a distribution and quality-control center. Hoshino settled out of court in early 1978 and the case was closed on February 2,1978. After the lawsuit Hoshino Gakki abandoned the strategy of copying classic U. S. A. electric guitar designs—having already introduced a plethora of original designs, Hoshino was producing Artist models of their own design from 1974, introducing a set neck model in 1975. Ibanez J. Custom The J. Custom series are the most exclusive and they are Envisioned to be the finest Japanese-made guitar in history. Built by some of the most skilled luthiers Ibanez has to offer, they represent every advance in design and they feature aftermarket pickups 5 piece maple/wenge necks with Titanium reinforcement rods, a rosewood fingerboard with a tree of life fret board inlay, and Edge Zero tremolo systems. Ibanez Prestige The Prestige guitars are Ibanezs top of the models that are built in Japan
-2.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)