1.
Peru
–
Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
Peru
–
Sculpted
Chavin head embedded in one of the walls of the temple of
Chavín de Huantar
Peru
Peru
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A
Moche ceramic vessel from the 5th century depicting a man's head
Peru
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The citadel of
Machu Picchu, an iconic symbol of pre-Columbian Peru
2.
Trujillo, Peru
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Trujillo is a city in coastal northwestern Peru and the capital of La Libertad Region. It is the third most populous city and center of the second most populous area of Peru. It is located on the banks of the Moche River, near its mouth at the Pacific Ocean and this was a site of the great prehistoric Moche and Chimu cultures before the Inca conquest and subsequent expansion. Trujillo is the birthplace of Perus judiciary, and it was designated as the capital of the country. It was the scene of the Revolution of Trujillo in 1932, Trujillo is considered the cradle of liberty and cradle of the judiciary in Peru. It has sponsored national and international cultural events, and has a lively arts community. Current festivals include the National Marinera Festival, the Trujillo Spring Festival and the International Book Festival, the city center contains many examples of colonial and religious architecture, often incorporating distinctive wrought ironwork. It includes residential areas, a business district, and industrial supply distribution to the various districts. The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Trujillo has its seat here, in 2012 Trujillo was selected by IBM to participate in a Smarter Cities Challenge project intended to improve public safety and transportation through technology. The North Group was formed here, with Eduardo González Viaña, the city presents important national festivals, such as Marinera Festival, Spring Festival, and competitions for the paso horse and caballito de totora. The coat of arms of the city was awarded on December 7,1537 by Royal Decree issued by the King of Spain, Charles V. The flag is the coat of arms on a white background, Also it is flown every December 29 to commemorate the proclamation of independence of Trujillo in 1820. The anthem was written by Ramiro Mendoza Sánchez with music composed by Ramiro Herrera Orbegoso and it is performed mainly for official civic ceremonies, by bands of musicians. The history of Trujillo has its beginning in ancient times, as the area at the mouth of the Moche River was long a center of successive pre-European cultures and they extended their domains along the northern coast of Peru. The archaeological history of this goes back to the early pre-ceramic period. For example, Huaca Prieta was occupied as early as 4700 BC, several ancient cultures developed in this area, the Cupisnique, the Moche and Chimu. Numerous archaeological sites and monumental remains attest to the degree of complexity of these civilizations. Among the Cupisnique culture sites are Caballo Muerto and Huaca Prieta, the Moche culture sites include huacas, the Temples of the Sun and Moon south of the city, the Huaca del Dragón and the Huaca Esmeralda to the north, and others
Trujillo, Peru
Trujillo, Peru
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As the capital of culture, Trujillo hosts important events each year, including the
Marinera Festival in January. The queen of this festival salutes in a parade in the
Historic Centre of Trujillo.
Trujillo, Peru
–
Mochica god "
Ai apaec " or "Degollador", in a wall of the
mochica sanctuary "
Huacas del Sol y de la Luna
Trujillo, Peru
–
Mural of the
Huaca of the Moon Archeological site in "
Moche ", Trujillo
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
4.
Moche culture
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The Moche civilization flourished in northern Peru with its capital near present-day Moche, Trujillo, Peru from about 100 to 800 during the Regional Development Epoch. While this issue is the subject of debate, many scholars contend that the Moche were not politically organized as a monolithic empire or state. Rather, they were likely a group of autonomous polities that shared a common culture, as seen in the rich iconography. Moche society was based, with a significant level of investment in the construction of a network of irrigation canals for the diversion of river water to supply their crops. Their culture was sophisticated, and their artifacts express their lives, with detailed scenes of hunting, fishing, fighting, sacrifice, sexual encounters, the Moche are particularly noted for their elaborately painted ceramics, gold work, monumental constructions and irrigation systems. The Salinar culture reigned on the north coast of Peru in 200 BC-200 AD, according to some scholars this was a short transition period between the Cupisnique and the Moche cultures. Theres considerable parallelism between Moche and Cupisnique iconography and ceramic designs, including the iconography of the Spider god, the nearby Huaca de la Luna is better preserved. Its interior walls contains many colorful murals with complex iconography, the site has been under professional archaeological excavation since the early 1990s. Other major Moche sites include Sipan, Loma Negra, Dos Cabezas, Pacatnamu, the El Brujo complex, Mocollope, Cerro Mayal, Galindo, Huanchaco and their adobe huacas have been mostly destroyed by looters and natural forces over the last 1300 years. The surviving ones show that the coloring of their murals was very vibrant, two distinct regions of the Moche civilization have been identified, Southern and Northern Moche, with each area probably corresponding to a different political entity. The Southern Moche region, believed to be the heartland of the culture, originally comprised the Chicama and Moche valleys, the Huaca del Sol-Huaca de la Luna site was probably the capital of this region. It appears that there was a lot of independent development among these various Moche centres and they all likely had ruling dynasties of their own, related to each other. Centralized control of the whole Moche area may have taken place from time to time, pampa Grande, in the Lambayeque Valley, on the shore of the Chancay River, became one of the largest Moche sites anywhere, and occupied the area of more than 400 ha. It was prominent in the Moche V period, and features an abundance of Moche V ceramics, the site was laid out and built in a short period of time, and has an enormous ceremonial complex. It includes Huaca Fortaleza, which is the tallest ceremonial platform in Peru, San Jose de Moro is another northern site in the Jequetepeque valley. It was prominent in the Middle and Late Moche Periods, numerous Moche tombs have been excavated here, including several burials containing high status female individuals. These women were depicted in Moche iconography as the Priestess, Moche pottery is some of the most varied in the world. The use of technology is evident
Moche culture
–
Huaca del Sol (Temple of the Sun), Mochica cultural capital, 4 km south of the modern city of
Trujillo
Moche culture
–
A map of Moche cultural influence.
Moche culture
–
Moche portrait vessel,
Musée du quai Branly in Paris
Moche culture
–
Resting
deer,
Larco Museum Collection
5.
La Libertad Region
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La Libertad is a region in northwestern Peru. Formerly it was known as the Department of La Libertad and it is bordered by the Lambayeque, Cajamarca and Amazonas regions on the north, the San Martín Region on the east, the Ancash and Huánuco regions on the south and the Pacific Ocean on the west. Its capital is Trujillo, which is the third biggest city. The regions main port is Salaverry, one of Perus largest ports, the name of the region is Spanish for freedom or liberty, it was named in honor of the Intendencia of Trujillos proclaiming independence from Spain in 1820 and fighting for that. These were included in the domain of the city of Trujillo, after the Intendencía joined the emancipation cause and was the first to gain independence from Spain, in 1825 the Congress of the Peruvian republic changed the name to Departmento de la Libertad. Since the late 20th century, Peru has decentralized its government, all former Departments in Peru are now called Regions, their governors are elected, and they have more independent authority in decisionmaking. La Libertad is the only Peruvian region that all three natural regions of the nation, coast, Sierra, and selva. Trujillo, the capital, has a location, near where the Andes come closest to the coast. Seen from Trujillo, the Andes appears as a row of low-elevation hills, the Andean Plateau increases altitude sharply to the east, in the provinces of Otuzco and Santiago de Chuco. These two provinces comprise the Pacific hydrographic watershed, which rise to the Moche and Virú rivers, to the south. Pacasmayo Province, located more to the north, is along the coast, to the east, Sánchez Carrión Province waterways drain into the Amazon River and thus belong to the Atlantic Ocean watershed. La Libertad region is the third-most populous in Peru, the census 2007 recorded 1,617,050 residents and it was surpassed only by the Department of Lima and Piura. In 2012 its capital Trujillo is the second-most populated metropolitan area in Peru, the largest population is concentrated in provincial capitals and districts, which comprise the majority urban population in La Libertad region. The migrant population to the region comes from border departments and immigrants from other countries, the principal cities in La Libertad region are shown in the next table. The Region is separated into 12 provinces, political divisions that generally correspond to counties in the United States of America, a Peruvian Region has as its head political executive a governor, an elected official. The head political executive of each province is a lieutenant governor and these 12 provinces comprise a total of 80 districts. The provinces, with their capitals are, Some of the companies in La Libertad Region are the following, Cementos Pacasmayo, It manufactures cement. Sociedad Agrícola Virú, dedicated to agribusiness and based in Virú Province, SEDALIB, water supply and sanitation company based in Trujillo city
La Libertad Region
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Chan Chan, the huge adobe town from Chimu time
La Libertad Region
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Location of the La Libertad Region in Peru
La Libertad Region
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Aia Paec, Moche god
La Libertad Region
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Regions of La Libertad
6.
Huaca Prieta
–
Huaca Prieta is the site of a prehistoric settlement beside the Pacific Ocean in the Chicama Valley, just north of Trujillo, La Libertad Province, Peru. It is a part of the El Brujo Archaeological Complex, which also includes Moche sites, Huaca Prieta was occupied as early as 4700 BC, before the ceramics were introduced. It consisted of a mound of ash, stones, textiles, plants and shells, with some burials. It was first excavated by Junius B, Bird in 1946–1947 who excavated three large test pits in or beside it. The many stone artifacts were not fancy—fish net weights, flakes and simple pebble tools, in the upper part of the mound there were many underground structures of unknown function, some with burials. They were made of cobblestones cemented with an ash-water mixture, the inhabitants fished, gathered shellfish, and grew fruit, gourds, squash, peppers, beans, tubers and, importantly, cotton. There is a low mound 70–170 m to the north where Bird excavated three test pits and he found many ruins and much refuse, including ceramics of the Guañape, Early Cupisnique and Cupisnique cultures. The last is linked to the highland Chavín culture, a large tsunami damaged both mounds leaving a thick layer of cobblestones just north of the preceramic mound, at about 850 BCE, between the two Cupisnique phases. Until recently, it was beilieved that maize was introduced to the rather late. In 2012, it was reported that corncobs found at two ancient sites in Peru may date from as early as 4700 B. C and this suggests that people living along the coast of northern Peru were already eating corn by that time. These results were reported by Dolores Piperno, and other scientists from Washingtons National Museum of Natural History This is the earliest maize discovered so far in South America, in 2016, 6000-year-old dyed cotton fabric was discovered at the Preceramic site of Huaca Prieta. Analysis of the pigment identified it as indigotin, an indigoid dye and this marks the earliest recorded use of indigo dye to date, predating the use of indigo in Egypts Fifth Dynasty by about 1,500 years. Andean preceramic Norte Chico civilization Cupisnique culture Huaca Ventarron K. Kris Hirst, Huaca Prieta, Formative Mound Construction in Peru archaeology. about. com
Huaca Prieta
–
Panoramic view of Huaca Prieta
Huaca Prieta
–
Cotton cloth fragment from Huaca Prieta, 2500 BC -
American Museum of Natural History, New York
7.
Cupisnique
–
Cupisnique was a pre-Columbian culture which flourished from ca.1500 to 500 BC along what is now Perus northern Pacific Coast. The culture had a style of adobe clay architecture but shared artistic styles. The relationship between Chavin and Cupisnique is not well understood, and the names are used interchangeably. For instance, the scholar Alana Cordy-Collins treats as Cupisnique a culture lasting from 1000 –200 BC, izumi Shimada calls Cupisnique a possible ancestor of Mochica culture with no mention of Chavin. Anna C. Roosevelt refers to the manifestation of the Chavin Horizon. dominated by the Cupisnique style. A Cupisnique adobe temple was discovered in 2008 in the Lambayeque valley in the area of the site of Ventarron. The newly discovered temple is close to the Ventarron temple. This temple sheds some light on the connection between the Cupisnique and the Chavin because of shared iconography, in fact, some other related temples have also been discovered in the area recently. The Chavin people who came after the Cupisnique built an adjacent to Collud about three hundred years later, this location is named Zarpan. All three temples are close together, and form a single archaeological site, there are also many shared elements between all three locations. For example, one element is that of the Spider Creator god with his net. This motif appears to persevere from the 4, 000-year-old temple of Ventarrón all the way to the Moche culture, the temple found in 2008 also includes imagery of the spider god, thought to be associated with rainfall, hunting and warfare. The spider god image combines a spiders neck and head, with the mouth of a large cat, the only decapitator creature that by nature decapitates its victims heads is the spider. The reason the Moche and the Cupisnique are sometimes referred to interchangeably is due to their similarities in ceramic designs. The Moche were the most “vibrant” in incorporating the cupisnique society of the cultures that had a base population of farming and fishing along with a middle. The main connection between the Cupisnique and the Moche is the incorporation of the theme where there exists a decapitator. Below are images of the main five decpitators from both the Cupisnique and the Moche culture, scholars believe that the parallelism between Moche and Cupisnique iconography is not just coincidental, rather the Moche were “the heirs to a belief that they subscribed to in practice”. The Cupisnique people are sometimes spoken of as a due to two main reasons
Cupisnique
–
Stirrup-handled Cupinisque ceramic vase 1250BC
Larco Museum Collection
Cupisnique
–
Cupisnique ceramic bottle from
Musée du quai Branly, Paris
Cupisnique
–
Ancient
Moche people of Peru depict spiders in their art, such as this
Larco Museum ceramic, ca. 300
CE.
8.
Lambayeque culture
–
This article concerns the Sican Culture of what is now Peru. For the people of ancient Sicily, see the article Sicani, the Sican culture is the name that archaeologist Izumi Shimada gave to the culture that inhabited what is now the north coast of Peru between about 750 and 1375. According to Shimada, Sican means temple of the Moon, the Sican culture is also referred to as Lambayeque culture, after the name of the region in Peru. There is still controversy among archeologists and anthropologists over whether the two are separate cultures, the Sican culture is divided into three major periods based on cultural changes as evidenced in archeological artifacts. Archaeologist Izumi Shimada, founder of the Sican Archaeological Project, named the culture which he discovered in northwestern Peru. They succeeded the Moche and preceded the Inca Empire, the civilization that encountered the Spanish explorers and conquistadors. The Sican inhabited a territory near the La Leche and Lambayeque Rivers. The archaeological sites span the Lambayeque region, including the Motupe, La Leche, Lambayeque, numerous sites have been identified in the Batán Grande area of the La Leche Valley. The climate of the area during Sican occupation was similar to the current climate, despite changes in landscape accumulated in the last 600 years, the drought-and-flood cycles seen in the region for the past 1500 years did not spare the Sican culture. The Early Sican period began around 750 and lasted until 900, the lack of artifacts has limited the development of knowledge about this early period. The Sican were probably descendants of the Moche culture, which fell around 800 and their works shows shared motifs in the artifacts recovered. Similar groups include Cajamarca, Wari and Pachacamac, the Lambayeque culture may have been a separate trading people as well. Around 800, the Sican created the city of Poma, located at Batán Grande, few other Early Sican sites have been discovered. The Early Sican culture is known for the polished, black-finish ceramics found in the La Leche Valley. This black-finish ceramic style began in the Moche culture prior to the Early Sican, much of the ceramics were examples of a single spout, loop-handle bottle, featuring an anthropomorphic-avian face at the spout base. The face consisted of bulging eyes, a beak or triangular projection instead of a nose, stylized ears. It appeared to be a predecessor to the faces of the Sican Deity. Aside from the ceramic styles, much of the Early Sican defines a distinguishable culture
Lambayeque culture
–
Gold Ceremonial Mask, La Leche Valley, A.D. 900-1100
Lambayeque culture
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Map of Peru- Lambayeque region top left, third down on coast
Lambayeque culture
–
Gold disc ornament
Lambayeque culture
–
9-11th century Sican funerary mask in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
9.
Polychrome
–
Polychrome is the practice of decorating architectural elements, sculpture, etc. in a variety of colors. The term is used to refer to certain styles of architecture, some very early polychrome pottery has been excavated on Minoan Crete such as at the Bronze Age site of Phaistos. In ancient Greece sculptures were painted in strong colors, the paint was frequently limited to parts depicting clothing, hair, and so on, with the skin left in the natural color of the stone. But it could cover sculptures in their totality, the painting of Greek sculpture should not merely be seen as an enhancement of their sculpted form but has the characteristics of a distinct style of art. On high-quality bronzes like the Riace bronzes, an early example of polychrome decoration was found in the Parthenon atop the Acropolis of Athens. By the time European antiquarianism took off in the 18th century, however, however, some classicists such as Jacques Ignace Hittorff noticed traces of paint on classical architecture and this slowly came to be accepted. An example of classical Greek architectural polychrome may be seen in the full size replica of the Parthenon exhibited in Nashville, Tennessee, throughout medieval Europe religious sculptures in wood and other media were often brightly painted or colored, as were the interiors of church buildings. The exteriors of churches were painted as well, but little has survived, exposure to the elements and changing tastes and religious approval over time acted against their preservation. With the arrival of European porcelain in the 18th century, brightly colored pottery figurines with a range of colors became very popular. Polychrome brickwork is a style of brickwork which emerged in the 1860s. It was often used to replicate the effect of quoining and to decorate around windows, early examples featured banding, with later examples exhibiting complex diagonal, criss-cross, and step patterns, in some cases even writing using bricks. In the 1970s and 1980s, especially, architects working with bold colors included Robert Venturi, Michael Graves, Polychrome building facades later rose in popularity as a way of highlighting certain trim features in Victorian and Queen Anne architecture in the United States. The rise of the paint industry following the civil war also helped to fuel the use of multiple colors. These earned the endearment Painted Ladies, a term that in modern times is considered kitsch when it is applied to describe all Victorian houses that have painted with period colors. John Joseph Earley developed a process of concrete slab construction and ornamentation that was admired across America. In the Washington, D. C. metropolitan area, his products graced a variety of buildings — all formed by the staff of the Earley Studio in Rosslyn, earleys Polychrome Historic District houses in Silver Spring, Maryland were built in the mid-1930s. The concrete panels were pre-cast with colorful stones and shipped to the lot for on-site assembly, less well-known, but just as impressive, is the Dr. Fealy Polychrome House that Earley built atop a hill in Southeast Washington, D. C. overlooking the city. His uniquely designed polychrome houses were outstanding among prefabricated houses in the country, appreciated for their Art Deco ornament, the term polychromatic means having several colors
Polychrome
–
Reconstructed color scheme of the
entablature on a
Doric temple.
Polychrome
–
Ancient Greek statue of a woman with blue and gilt garment, fan and sun hat, from
Tanagra, 325-300 BC
Polychrome
–
Relics of polychrome on an Ancient Greek
Ionic capital, from an unidentified 5th century BC building. Ancient Agora Museum, Athens,
Stoa of Attalus
Polychrome
–
The "Warrior Vase", a pictorial Style
krater discovered by Schliemann at
Mycenae, in a house on the Acropolis, 1200-1100 BC
10.
Relief
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Relief, formerly known as Panorama, is a public affairs newsmagazine series in Canada, airing nightly in Ontario on TFO, the Franco-Ontarian public television network. The series is hosted by Gisèle Quenneville, reporters associated with the series include Melanie Routhier-Boudreau, Isabelle Brunet, Marie Duchesneau, Luce Gauthier, Frédéric Projean and Chantal Racine. Longtime host Pierre Granger retired from the series in 2009, the series was renamed RelieF in fall 2010. The show airs seven nights a week at 7 p. m, from Monday to Thursday, it airs news and public affairs. On Fridays, the program airs documentary programming, on Saturdays, it airs a week in review edition, and on Sundays it airs an arts and culture magazine
Relief
11.
Mural painting
–
A mural is any piece of artwork painted or applied directly on a wall, ceiling or other permanent surface. A distinguishing characteristic of painting is that the architectural elements of the given space are harmoniously incorporated into the picture. Some wall paintings are painted on canvases, which are then attached to the wall. Whether these works can be accurately called murals is a subject of controversy in the art world. Murals of sorts date to Upper Paleolithic times such as the paintings in the Chauvet Cave in Ardèche department of southern France, many ancient murals have been found within ancient Egyptian tombs, the Minoan palaces and in Pompeii. During the Middle Ages murals were executed on dry plaster. The huge collection of Kerala mural painting dating from the 14th century are examples of fresco secco, in Italy, circa 1300, the technique of painting of frescos on wet plaster was reintroduced and led to a significant increase in the quality of mural painting. In modern times, the became more well-known with the Mexican muralism art movement. There are many different styles and techniques, the best-known is probably fresco, which uses water-soluble paints with a damp lime wash, a rapid use of the resulting mixture over a large surface, and often in parts. The colors lighten as they dry, the marouflage method has also been used for millennia. Murals today are painted in a variety of ways, using oil or water-based media, the styles can vary from abstract to trompe-lœil. Initiated by the works of artists like Graham Rust or Rainer Maria Latzke in the 1980s, trompe-loeil painting has experienced a renaissance in private. The buon fresco technique consists of painting in pigment mixed with water on a layer of wet, fresh. The pigment is absorbed by the wet plaster, after a number of hours. After this the painting stays for a time up to centuries in fresh. Fresco-secco painting is done on dry plaster, the pigments thus require a binding medium, such as egg, glue or oil to attach the pigment to the wall. By the end of the century this had largely displaced the buon fresco method. This technique had, in reduced form, the advantages of a secco work, in Greco-Roman times, mostly encaustic colors applied in a cold state were used
Mural painting
–
Ceiling painting, by
Jean-André Rixens. Salle des Illustres, Le Capitole,
Toulouse, France.
Mural painting
–
Jataka tales from the
Ajanta caves, 7th century
Mural painting
–
The 18th-century BC fresco of the
Investiture of Zimrilim discovered at the
Royal Palace of ancient
Mari in
Syria
Mural painting
–
CAM designed
Frescography by Rainer Maria Latzke, digitally printed on canvas
12.
Lady of Cao
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The Lady of Cao is a name given to a female Moche mummy discovered at the archeological site El Brujo, which is located about 45 km north of Trujillo in the La Libertad Region of Peru. The mummy, which was heavily tattooed and wrapped in layers of cloth, was found with a number of ceremonial items, including weapons. Also found were the remains of a young woman, possibly a human sacrifice. A modern autopsy indicated that the Lady of Cao was in her mid twenties when she died, the estimated date of death for the Lady of Cao is about 450 CE. Prior to this discovery, it was believed that only men held high rank in the Moche culture, the discovery of the Lady of Cao burial is compared with that of the Lord of Sipan in terms of important archeological discoveries relating to the Moche. Rebecca Stone-Miller, Thames and Hudson,1995, the Incas and Their Ancestors, the archaeology of Peru. Michael E. Moseley, Thames and Hudson,1992
Lady of Cao
–
The Lady of Cao
13.
National Geographic (magazine)
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National Geographic is the official magazine of the National Geographic Society. It has been published continuously since its first issue in 1888 and it primarily contains articles about science, geography, history, and world culture. The magazine is known for its thick square-bound glossy format with a rectangular border. The magazine is published monthly, and additional map supplements are also included with subscriptions and it is available in a traditional printed edition and through an interactive online edition. On occasion, special editions of the magazine are issued and this includes a US circulation of 3.5 million. From the 1970s through about 2010 the magazine was printed in Corinth, Mississippi, the current Editor-in-Chief of the National Geographic Magazine is Susan Goldberg. Goldberg is also Editorial Director for National Geographic Partners, overseeing the print and she is responsible for News, Books, National Geographic Traveler magazine, National Geographic History magazine, Maps, and all digital content with the exception of National Geographic Kids. Goldberg reports to Declan Moore, CEO of National Geographic Partners, the first issue of National Geographic Magazine was published on September 22,1888, nine months after the Society was founded. The June 1985 cover portrait of the presumed to be 12-year-old Afghan girl Sharbat Gula, shot by photographer Steve McCurry, in the late 1990s, the magazine began publishing The Complete National Geographic, a digital compilation of all the past issues of the magazine. It was then sued over copyright of the magazine as a work in Greenberg v. National Geographic and other cases. The magazine eventually prevailed in the dispute, and in July 2009 it resumed publishing a compilation containing all issues through December 2008. The compilation was updated to make more recent issues available. National Geographic Kids, the version of the magazine, was launched in 1975 under the name National Geographic World. The January 2017 issue of National Geographic has a nine-year-old transgender girl on the cover, the magazine printed articles on Berlin, de-occupied Austria, the Soviet Union, and Communist China that deliberately downplayed politics to focus on culture. In its coverage of the Space Race, National Geographic focused on the scientific achievement while largely avoiding reference to the connection to nuclear arms buildup. There were also articles in the 1930s, 40s and 50s about the individual states and their resources. Many of these articles were written by longtime staff such as Frederick Simpich, there were also articles about biology and science topics. In later years articles became outspoken on issues such as issues, deforestation, chemical pollution, global warming
National Geographic (magazine)
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March 2009 cover of National Geographic
National Geographic (magazine)
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January 1915 cover of The National Geographic Magazine
National Geographic (magazine)
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Color photograph of the
Taj Mahal. Source: The National Geographic Magazine, March 1921
National Geographic (magazine)
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Srirangam Temple, India (National Geographic Magazine November 1909)
14.
Quechua languages
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Quechua /ˈkɛtʃwə/, also known as runa simi, is an indigenous language family, with variations spoken by the Quechua peoples, primarily living in the Andes and highlands of South America. Derived from an ancestral language, it is the most widely spoken language family of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Approximately 13% of Peruvians speak Quechua and it is perhaps most widely known for being the main language of the Inca Empire, and was disseminated by the colonizers throughout their reign. Quechua had already expanded across wide ranges of the central Andes long before the expansion of the Inca Empire, the Inca were one among many peoples in present-day Peru who already spoke forms of Quechua. In the Cusco region, Quechua was influenced by languages such as Aymara. The Cuzco variety of Quechua developed as quite distinct, in similar ways, diverse dialects developed in different areas, related to existing local languages, when the Inca Empire ruled and imposed Quechua as the official language. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in the 16th century and it was officially recognized by the Spanish administration and many Spanish learned it in order to communicate with the local peoples. Clergy of the Catholic Church adopted Quechua to use as the language of evangelization, given its use by the Catholic missionaries, the range of Quechua continued to expand in some areas. In the late 18th century, colonial officials ended administrative and religious use of Quechua, the Crown banned even loyal pro-Catholic texts in Quechua, such as Garcilaso de la Vegas Comentarios Reales. Despite a brief revival of the immediately after the Latin American nations achieved independence in the 19th century. Gradually its use declined so that it was mostly by indigenous people in the more isolated. Nevertheless in the 21st century, those speaking Quechua language speakers number 8 to 10 million people across South America, the oldest written records of the language are by missionary Domingo de Santo Tomás, who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540. He published his Grammatica o arte de la lengua de los indios de los reynos del Perú in 1560. In 1975 Peru became the first country to recognize Quechua as one of its official languages, the major obstacle to the usage and teaching of Quechua is the lack of written materials in that language, such as books, newspapers, software, and magazines. The Bible has been translated into Quechua and is distributed by certain missionary groups, Quechua, along with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, remains essentially a spoken language. In recent years, Quechua has been introduced in intercultural education in Bolivia, Ecuador. Even in these areas, the governments are reaching only a part of the Quechua-speaking populations, some indigenous people in each of the countries are having their children study in Spanish for the purposes of social advancement. Radio Nacional del Perú broadcasts news and agrarian programs in Quechua for periods in the mornings, Quechua and Spanish are now heavily intermixed in much of the Andean region, with many hundreds of Spanish loanwords in Quechua
Quechua languages
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Quechua
15.
Andes
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The Andes or Andean Mountains are the longest continental mountain range in the world. They are a range of highlands along the western edge of South America. This range is about 7,000 km long, about 200 to 700 km wide, the Andes extend from north to south through seven South American countries, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. Along their length, the Andes are split into several ranges, the Andes are the location of several high plateaus – some of which host major cities, such as Quito, Bogotá, Arequipa, Medellín, Sucre, Mérida and La Paz. The Altiplano plateau is the worlds second-highest after the Tibetan plateau and these ranges are in turn grouped into three major divisions based on climate, the Tropical Andes, the Dry Andes, and the Wet Andes. The Andes are the worlds highest mountain range outside of Asia, the highest mountain outside Asia, Mount Aconcagua, rises to an elevation of about 6,961 m above sea level. The peak of Chimborazo in the Ecuadorean Andes is farther from the Earths center than any other location on the Earths surface, the worlds highest volcanoes are in the Andes, including Ojos del Salado on the Chile-Argentina border, which rises to 6,893 m. The etymology of the word Andes has been debated, the majority consensus is that it derives from the Quechua word anti, which means east as in Antisuyu, one of the four regions of the Inca Empire. In the northern part of the Andes, the isolated Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta range is considered to be part of the Andes. The term cordillera comes from the Spanish word cordel, meaning rope, the Andes range is about 200 km wide throughout its length, except in the Bolivian flexure where it is about 640 kilometres wide. The Andes are the result of plate tectonics processes, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American plate. The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the compression of the rim of the South American Plate due to the subduction of the Nazca Plate. In the south, the Andes share a boundary with the former Patagonia Terrane. To the west, the Andes end at the Pacific Ocean, from a geographical approach, the Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and a less rugged topography. The Andes Mountains also contain large quantities of iron ore located in mountains within the range. The Andean orogen has a series of bends or oroclines, the Bolivian Orocline is a seaward concave bending in the coast of South America and the Andes Mountains at about 18° S. At this point the orientation of the Andes turns from Northwest in Peru to South in Chile, the Andean segment north and south of the orocline have been rotated 15° to 20° counter clockwise and clockwise respectively. The Bolivian Orocline area overlaps with the area of maximum width of the Altiplano Plateau, the specific point at 18° S where the coastline bends is known as the Arica Elbow
Andes
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Aerial photo of a portion of the Andes between
Argentina and
Chile
Andes
Andes
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"
Cono de Arita " in the
Puna de Atacama,
Salta (
Argentina).
Andes
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Aerial view of Aconcagua.
16.
Moche, Trujillo
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Moche is a Peruvian city, the capital of Moche District in Trujillo Province of La Libertad Region in northern Peru. It is located in the Moche Valley and was the center of development of the ancient Moche or Mochica culture, now it is a major tourist destination of the Moche Route tourist circuit and It is part of the integrated area of Trujillo city. San Jose Festival, in Las Delicias beach, anniversary of Spanish foundation, celebrated in October of every year. Bullfighting in San Jose Festival on YouTube
Moche, Trujillo
Moche, Trujillo
Moche, Trujillo
Moche, Trujillo
17.
Huanchaco
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Huanchaco is a beachside town of Mochica origin and a popular vacation spot. It is the most visited beach of Trujillo in Peru, situated 12 km northwest of the city in a bay, on a terrace at the foot of Campana mountain, Huanchaco is notable for its surf breaks and its caballitos de totora, and its ceviche. Huanchaco is near the ruin of Chan Chan, Huanchaco was approved as a World Surfing Reserve by the organization Save The Waves Coalition in 2012 This historic town is part of the tourist circuit called the Moche Route or Ruta Moche. Today it is still a beautiful beach that, despite its modernity and it was the main port Moche, Chimú and Inca eras, and was described by Inca Garcilaso de la Vega as the preferred port of the Incas. In the Chimú culture 800 A. C. to 1400 A. C, in the colonial era, Huanchaco continued to be the main port of Trujillo city, but the port closed in 1870. According to Andrés Tinoco Rondan, a researcher at Ricardo Palma University. Oral histories suggest ceviche was prepared with lemons from Simbal, with chilli from the Moche River valley, several surf events are held and one of the most important each year in January is the Huanchaco longboard. Other nearby attractions include Chan Chan, Mount Campana, a mountain in the Chimu culture and Pampas de Gramalote. In the year 2012 Huanchaco was approved as a World Surfing Reserve by the organization Save The Waves Coalition and this designation is the first awarded to a Latin America town and the fifth in the world. Many tourists enjoy sandboarding on dunes near the town of Laredo, swamps of Huanchaco, also known as Wetlands of Huanchaco is an ecological Chimu reserve located in Huanchaco Beach, about 14 km northwest of Trujillo city, Peru. From this ecological reserve the ancient mochica extracted the raw material for the manufacture of the ancient Caballitos de totora used since the time of the Moche for fishing. Currently Huanchaco fishermen still use materials from these swamps to make the traditional boats Carnival of Huanchaco, originally villagers performed a carnival emulating the famous Venetian Carnival of the time. In 2012 the carnival parade was held on 25 February, San Pedro, the patron saint of fishermen at sea, is also called San Pedrito, in Huanchaco it is made a traditional Patacho which is a giant reed horse. It is celebrated in the month of June. huanchacovivo. com Huanchaco Longboard on YouTube Gallery of Huanchaco by Panoramio, with information of several authors
Huanchaco
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From top and left to right: View of Huanchaco beach,
Dish of cebiche, Huanchaco pier, Saveguard in
Caballito de Totora,
Tumi:
Chimu work,
Chan Chan: capital
Chimu, Park in Huanchaco, Night view of the pier,
Swamps of Huanchaco, Navegator
Chimu in a
Caballito de Totora,
Surfers in Huanchaco, Wall in
Chan Chan
Huanchaco
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Typical dish of
ceviche in Huanchaco, National Cultural Heritage by the Peruvian government
Huanchaco
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Surfing in a
caballito de totora in Huanchaco
18.
The Daily Telegraph
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It was founded by Arthur B. Sleigh in 1855 as The Daily Telegraph and Courier, the papers motto, Was, is, and will be, appears in the editorial pages and has featured in every edition of the newspaper since April 19,1858. The paper had a circulation of 460,054 in December 2016 and its sister paper, The Sunday Telegraph, which started in 1961, had a circulation of 359,287 as of December 2016. The Daily Telegraph has the largest circulation for a newspaper in the UK. The two sister newspapers are run separately, with different editorial staff, but there is cross-usage of stories, articles published in either may be published on the Telegraph Media Groups www. telegraph. co. uk website, under the title of The Telegraph. However, critics, including an editor, accuse it of being unduly influenced by advertisers. The Daily Telegraph and Courier was founded by Colonel Arthur B, Sleigh in June 1855 to air a personal grievance against the future commander-in-chief of the British Army, Prince George, Duke of Cambridge. Joseph Moses Levy, the owner of The Sunday Times, agreed to print the newspaper, the paper cost 2d and was four pages long. Nevertheless, the first edition stressed the quality and independence of its articles and journalists, however, the paper was not a success, and Sleigh was unable to pay Levy the printing bill. Levy took over the newspaper, his aim being to produce a newspaper than his main competitors in London. The same principle should apply to all other events—to fashion, to new inventions, in 1876, Jules Verne published his novel Michael Strogoff, whose plot takes place during a fictional uprising and war in Siberia. In 1937, the newspaper absorbed The Morning Post, which espoused a conservative position. Originally William Ewart Berry, 1st Viscount Camrose, bought The Morning Post with the intention of publishing it alongside The Daily Telegraph, for some years the paper was retitled The Daily Telegraph and Morning Post before it reverted to just The Daily Telegraph. As an result, Gordon Lennox was monitored by MI5, in 1939, The Telegraph published Clare Hollingworths scoop that Germany was to invade Poland. In November 1940, with Fleet Street subjected to almost daily bombing raids by the Luftwaffe, The Telegraph started printing in Manchester at Kemsley House, Manchester quite often printed the entire run of The Telegraph when its Fleet Street offices were under threat. The name Kemsley House was changed to Thomson House in 1959, in 1986 printing of Northern editions of the Daily and Sunday Telegraph moved to Trafford Park and in 2008 to Newsprinters at Knowsley, Liverpool. During the Second World War, The Daily Telegraph covertly helped in the recruitment of code-breakers for Bletchley Park, the ability to solve The Telegraphs crossword in under 12 minutes was considered to be a recruitment test. The competition itself was won by F. H. W. Hawes of Dagenham who finished the crossword in less than eight minutes, both the Camrose and Burnham families remained involved in management until Conrad Black took control in 1986
The Daily Telegraph
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The Sunday Telegraph
The Daily Telegraph
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The Daily Telegraph front page on 29 June 2015
The Daily Telegraph
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In 1882 The Daily Telegraph moved to new
Fleet Street premises, which were pictured in the
Illustrated London News.
The Daily Telegraph
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The Daily Telegraph building in 1974
19.
Archaeological sites in Peru
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Archaeological sites in Peru are numerous and diverse, representing different aspects including temples and fortresses of the various cultures of ancient Peru, such as the Moche and Nazca. The sites vary in importance from small local sites to UNESCO World Heritage sites of global importance and their nature and complexity of the sites vary from small single-featured sites such as pyramids to entire cities, such as Chan Chan and Machu Picchu. Preservation and investigation of sites are controlled mainly by the National Institute for Culture. The lack of funding to protect sites and enforce existing laws, results in large scale looting, the following is an alphabetical list of archaeological sites in Peru, it lists the main archaeological sites of touristic importance as published by the Ministry of Foreign Commerce and Tourism. Cultural periods of Peru List of pre-Columbian cultures National Institute for Culture Archaeological sites in Peru Peruvian Archaeology News
Archaeological sites in Peru
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Acaray
Archaeological sites in Peru
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El Brujo
Archaeological sites in Peru
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Cahuachi
Archaeological sites in Peru
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Caral
20.
Acaray
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Radio carbon dating has established it was built about 900-200BC and abandoned 1000–1470AD. Surrounding the hilltop fortress are lower-lying areas of occupation and extensive cemeteries, attention was called to the site early on by the German archaeologist Hans Horkheimer, who wrote about Acaray in 1962 in the Peruvian magazine, Caretas, published in Lima. Horkheimer noted the abundance of rolled river cobbles on the surface of the site, during the 1970s interest in Acaray increased, and the first work by archaeologists was initiated at the fortress. She led a team that surveyed the Huaura Valley and excavated at several sites and she estimated that it was built about 900-200BC and abandoned 1000–1470AD. According to Brown Vega, Acaray early megalithic wall constructions may be similar to those of Chankillo from the same period, war and social life in prehispanic Perú, ritual, defense, and communities at the Fortress of Acaray, Huaura Valley. PhD dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana-Champaign, conflict in the early horizon and late intermediate period, new dates from the fortress of Acaray, Huaura valley, Perú. 30, 38B Ruiz Estrada, Arturo, Torero, M. Domingo, Acaray, huacho, Perú, Comite de Educacion de la Cooperative de Ahorro y Credito San Bartolome
Acaray
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Fortified hilltop at Acaray
21.
Asana, Peru
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Asana is an archaeological site by the Asana River, a tributary of the Osmore River, in the south-central Andes of southern Peru. The site is situated at an elevation of 3,430 metres, with land use documented from 3, 000–4,800 metres. Asana was occupied over the course of 8,000 years, though the inhabitants were initially mobile foragers, Asana is located on the north bank of the Asana River in the flat fertile valley along 11,270 feet of the river. The geological and geomorphological features are factors for its unique setting. An archaeological study of the Asana river valley was conducted 1986–89, the area studied was along a river length of about 20 kilometres, between Tumilaca Molina and Cueva Quellaveco and from the origin of the minor tributary of the river Charoque to Tala village. The valley floors and hill slopes, covering an area of 4.8 square kilometres, led to the discovery of the Asana site and also six rock shelters. One of the shelters, Qusquri, was discovered on the left bank of the river valley at an elevation of 3,000 metres, in a series of river terraces at an elevation range of 3. Human habitation has been traced to 10,500 BP at Asana, excavations have revealed six stratigraphic zones from 10,500 BP to 3500 BP, before the site became abandoned in 3500 BP. During the settlement period, guanaco and taruka were the local wild herbivores, over the centuries, the guanaco were domesticated. The Asana at the elevation had formed the base camp of the earliest settlers who were hunter gatherers, hunting guanaco. Up to 5000 BP, settlement became more permanent, the gradual change from forager over to the pastoral society was recorded between 4800 and 4400 BP. By Middle Halocene age, guanacos had been domesticated, if these limits increased then they would establish new camps. Human settlement abruptly ended at Asana, lithic material found at the site attests to the shifting of camps and supports links existing between the settlements of the lower and upper elevations. Both residential and non-residential structures were found and indicated a type of growth. Structure were dated between 5500–3600 BP, a ceremonial structure was found in an open air pre-ceramic site during excavations conducted from 1989–90. It is inferred that activities occurred at the site during a 250–500-year period. A feature identified as a ground, dated to 4800 BP, was thought to be used for feasts. Aldenderfer, Mark S. Montane Foragers, Asana and the South-Central Andean Archaic, Iowa City, University of Iowa Press
Asana, Peru
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Taruca (
Hippocamelus antisensis) in the northern
Andean mountains.
Asana, Peru
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Kotosh style of structure of the pre-historic period
22.
Cahuachi
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Cahuachi, in Peru, was a major ceremonial center of the Nazca culture, based from 1 AD to about 500 AD in the coastal area of the Central Andes. It overlooked some of the Nazca lines, the Italian archaeologist Giuseppe Orefici has been excavating at the site for the past few decades. The site contains over 40 mounds topped with adobe structures, the past several years long time researcher Omar Faizi has conducted in depth study of the Nazca lines with startling conclusions to his study. Scholars once thought the site was the capital of the Nazca state but have determined that the permanent population was quite small and they believe that it was a pilgrimage center, whose population increased greatly in relation to major ceremonial events. New research has suggested that 40 of the mounds were natural hills modified to appear as artificial constructions, looting is the greatest problem facing the site today. Most of the burial sites surrounding Cahuachi were not known until recently and are tempting targets for looters, the Cahuachi site is located near the south coast of Peru, and found in the Nazca Valley. Within the Nazca Valley is the Río Grande de Nazca drainage system and is where the Nasca culture developed, the area is ecologically classified as “pre-mountain desert formation. Yunga refers to the Quechua Yungas meaning warm valley, the site itself can be found on the southern side of the Nazca River, one of ten major tributaries that form the Río Grande de Nazca drainage system. The Nazca Valley Grande drainage area is dry in the summer. Precipitation varies between none and 125 mm, the Río Grande regions soils are available for irrigation agriculture with limitations. Cahuachi is located off of the bottom of the treeless hills and terraces beneath Pampa de Atarco. It is on these hills that formed the core majority of artificial constructions at Cahuachi. Dr. Frabee was the first to acknowledge and excavate the site of Cahuachi in the Nazca region in 1922. The following researchers have studied and interpreted the site, Kroeber, Tello, Doering, Strong. Among the most extensive research done at Cahuachi was the conducted by William Strong. Strong was one of the archaeologists who took a broad approach to the site, contextualizing it within Nasca society. He set out to find evidence that would resolve the gap between Paracas and Nasca styles in the region. He also did settlement pattern studies in order to out the kinds of activities that went on at Cahuachi
Cahuachi
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Adobe pyramids at Cahuachi
23.
Caral
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This article is about the archaeological site. Caral is the most ancient city of the Americas and a site of the Norte Chico civilization. Caral was inhabited roughly between the 26th and 20th centuries BCE, enclosing an area of more than 60 hectares. Caral was described by its excavators as the oldest urban center in the Americas, accommodating more than 3000 inhabitants, it is the best studied and one of the largest Norte Chico sites known. Ruth Shady further explored the 4, 000- to 4, 600-year-old city of temples in the Peruvian desert, with its complex of temples. The urban complex is spread out over 150 acres and contains plazas, Caral was a thriving metropolis at roughly the same time that Egypts great pyramids were being built. It is believed that Caral may answer questions about the origins of the Andean civilizations, among the artefacts found at Caral are a knotted textile piece that the excavators have labeled a quipu. Evidence has emerged that the quipu may also have recorded logographic information in the way writing does. Gary Urton has suggested that the quipus used a system which could record phonological or logographic data. The main temple complex is 150 meters long,110 meters wide and 28 meters high, the date of its construction is unknown. No trace of warfare has been found at Caral, no battlements, no weapons, ruth Shadys findings suggest it was a gentle society, built on commerce and pleasure. In one of the temples, they uncovered 32 flutes made of condor and pelican bones and 37 cornetts of deer, one find revealed the remains of a baby, wrapped and buried with a necklace made of stone beads. Caral spawns 19 other temple complexes scattered across the 35 square miles area of the Supe Valley, the find of the quipu indicates that the later Inca Empire preserved some cultural continuity from the Caral civilization. The date of 2627 BCE is based on carbon dating reed and these bags were used to carry the stones that were used for the construction of the temples. The material is an excellent candidate for dating, thus allowing for a high precision, the site may date even earlier as samples from the oldest parts of the excavation have yet to be dated. The town had a population of approximately 3000 people, however, there are 19 other sites in the area, allowing for a possible total population of 20,000 people for the Supe Valley. All of these sites in the Supe valley share similarities with Caral and they had small platforms or stone circles. In 2000, Marco Machacuay and his colleague, Rocío Aramburú and this image, known as a geoglyph, is located on the desert floor just west of the main site at Caral
Caral
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Remains of Caral
Caral
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The Caral pyramids in the arid Supe Valley, some 20 km from the Pacific coast.
Caral
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Caral
Caral
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One of the pyramids of Caral
24.
Chan Chan
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Chan Chan, the largest city of the pre-Columbian era in South America, is now an archaeological site in La Libertad Region 5 kilometres west of Trujillo, Peru. Chan Chan is located in the mouth of the Moche Valley and was the capital of the empire of the Chimor from 900 to 1470. Chimor, a conquest state, developed from the Chimú culture which established itself along the Peruvian coast around 1400 AD, in the Chimú tongue, Quingnam, Chan Chan means Sun Sun, it was named for its sunny climate which is cooled year round by a southerly breeze. Chan Chan is in a particularly arid section of the desert of northern Peru. Due to the lack of rain in this area, the source of water for Chan Chan is in the form of rivers carrying surface runoff from the Andes. This runoff allows for control of land and water through irrigation systems, the city of Chan Chan spanned 20 km² and had a dense urban center of 6 km² which contained extravagant ciudadelas. Ciudadelas were large architectural masterpieces which housed plazas, storerooms, the splendor of these ciudadelas suggests their association with the royal class. Housing for the classes of Chan Chans hierarchical society are known as small. Because the lower classes were often artisans whose role in the empire was to produce crafts, many of these SIARs were used as workshops. In this figure, it can be seen that Verlarde, Laberinto, and Bandelier form the border of Chan Chan while Uhle, Chaiguac, Tschudi. The location chosen for the coordinates is in the center of these cities, the name is probabilly derived from the Quingnam Jiang or Chang which means Sun, from which Chan-Chan would be literally, Sun-Sun. It is hypothesized that its meaning would be, Great sun, resplendent Sun. Another theory says that the name would derive from the term, the Shi voice translates as Moon and An as house, meaning House of the Moon, making known that the Moon was the main deity. Chan Chan is believed to have been constructed around 850 AD by the Chimú and it was the Chimor empire capital city with an estimated population of 40, 000-60,000 people. After the Inca conquered the Chimú around 1470 AD, Chan Chan fell into decline, in 1535 AD, Francisco Pizarro founded the Spanish city of Trujillo which pushed Chan Chan further into the shadows. While no longer a capital city, Chan Chan was still well known for its great riches and was consequently looted by the Spaniards. An indication of the great Chimú wealth is seen in a sixteenth century list of items looted from a tomb in Chan Chan. In 1969, Michael Moseley and Carol J. Mackey began excavations of Chan Chan, the plan was approved by the Peruvian Government
Chan Chan
Chan Chan
Chan Chan
Peru.svg){kind=small}
Trujillo (45km.)
