1.
Elena Rzhevskaya
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Elena Moiseevna Rzhevskaya is a writer and former Soviet war interpreter of the counter-intelligence agency SMERSH. In April and May,1945, she participated in the Battle of Berlin, according to her memoirs, called in English Memories of a War-time Interpreter, she was a member of the Soviet unit searching for Adolf Hitler in the ruins of the Reich Chancellery. The Führers corpse was, according to her own words, found by soldier Ivan Churakov on 4 May 1945, four days later, on 8 May, Colonel Vassily Gorbushin gave her a small box that allegedly contained Hitlers jawbones. During the identification of the corpse, the Soviet team worked in top secret conditions and it consisted of only three people, Rzhevskaya being one of them. She and Gorbushin allegedly managed to find in Berlin, Käthe Heusermann and she confirmed the identity of the Nazi leader. The information was, however, suppressed by Joseph Stalin, who ordered the facts not to be publicized. Elena Kagan was born to a Jewish family in the Belarusian town of Gomel, the family later moved to Moscow. At the time of the Nazi attack on Soviet Union, she studied philosophy at the Moscow State University and she wanted to join the battlefront, but she was sent to work in a munition factory and later studied to be a nurse. However, her knowledge of German led her to be transferred to a school for war interpreters, in February,1942, she joined Lelyushenkos troops and in the following months, she moved together with the army throughout Belarus and Poland to the West. From February,1945, she worked in Poznań, already as a member of the SMERSH, at the end of April,1945, she was transferred to Berlin. Her troop became a part of the Kuznetsovs 3rd Army, responsible for the attack on the Reichstag, the Soviet troops captured the Reich Chancellery and the subterranean Führerbunker on 2 May. The corpses of Goebbels and his wife Magda were found and identified, and this apparently outraged Stalin, who immediately ordered to keep secret all records related to the search for Adolf Hitler. The contacts with the press and photographers were banned and the information was sent directly to Stalin, in the following days, a lot of speculation and contradictory facts appeared about the alleged death of the Führer. According to Rzhevskaya, Hitlers corpse was found by accident, near to the entrance to the bunker, soldier Churakov found a shell hole filled with unusually fresh soil. After a brief examination, a male and female corpse were found, klimenko and his men were apparently confused, because at that time, an alleged Hitlers corpse was placed in the hall of the Chancellery. They left the place without further investigation, however, the information leaked to Gorbushin and his team and they recovered the previously found human corpses and also dug up the bodies of two dogs. The corpses were moved to an improvised morgue located in Berlin-Buch, the secret transport took place in the night of 5 and 6 May, allegedly in order to prevent Nikolai Berzarin, commander of the city, and his 5th Shock Army to claim a contribution to the findings. According to her, the medical personnel confirmed cyanide poisoning, during the examination, the well-preserved jawbones of the male corpse were removed from the body
2.
Barack Obama
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Barack Hussein Obama II is an American politician who served as the 44th President of the United States from 2009 to 2017. He is the first African American to have served as president and he previously served in the U. S. Senate representing Illinois from 2005 to 2008, and in the Illinois State Senate from 1997 to 2004. Obama was born in Honolulu, Hawaii, two years after the territory was admitted to the Union as the 50th state and he grew up mostly in Hawaii, but also spent one year of his childhood in Washington State and four years in Indonesia. After graduating from Columbia University in 1983, he worked as a community organizer in Chicago, in 1988 Obama enrolled in Harvard Law School, where he was the first black president of the Harvard Law Review. After graduation, he became a civil rights attorney and professor, Obama represented the 13th District for three terms in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004, when he ran for the U. S. Senate. In 2008, Obama was nominated for president, a year after his campaign began and he was elected over Republican John McCain, and was inaugurated on January 20,2009. Nine months later, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate, during his first two years in office, Obama signed more landmark legislation than any Democratic president since LBJs Great Society. Main reforms were the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, after a lengthy debate over the national debt limit, Obama signed the Budget Control and the American Taxpayer Relief Acts. In foreign policy, Obama increased U. S. troop levels in Afghanistan, reduced nuclear weapons with the U. S. -Russian New START treaty, and ended military involvement in the Iraq War. He ordered military involvement in Libya in opposition to Muammar Gaddafi, after winning re-election over Mitt Romney, Obama was sworn in for a second term in 2013. Obama also advocated gun control in response to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, and issued wide-ranging executive actions concerning climate change and immigration. In foreign policy, Obama ordered military intervention in Iraq in response to gains made by ISIL after the 2011 withdrawal from Iraq, Obama left office in January 2017 with a 60% approval rating. He currently resides in Washington, D. C and his presidential library will be built in Chicago. Obama was born on August 4,1961, at Kapiʻolani Maternity & Gynecological Hospital in Honolulu and he is the only President to have been born in Hawaii. He was born to a mother and a black father. His mother, Ann Dunham, was born in Wichita, Kansas, of mostly English descent, with some German, Irish, Scottish, Swiss and his father, Barack Obama Sr. was a married Luo Kenyan man from Nyangoma Kogelo. Obamas parents met in 1960 in a Russian language class at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, the couple married in Wailuku, Hawaii on February 2,1961, six months before Obama was born. In late August 1961, Obamas mother moved him to the University of Washington in Seattle for a year
3.
John Paul Stevens
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John Paul Stevens is a retired associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, who served from December 19,1975, until his retirement on June 29,2010. At the time of his retirement, he was the oldest justice then serving, the second-oldest serving justice in the history of the Court, and he was nominated by President Gerald Ford to replace the Courts longest-serving justice, William O. Douglas. Stevens is widely considered to have been on the side of the Court at the time of his retirement. Stevens served with three Chief Justices, Stevens was born on April 20,1920, in Hyde Park, Chicago, Illinois, to a wealthy family. His paternal grandfather had formed a company and held real estate in Chicago. His father, Ernest James Stevens, was a lawyer who became a hotelier. He lost ownership of the hotels during the Great Depression and was convicted of embezzlement and his mother, Elizabeth Maude Stevens, was a high-school English teacher. Two of his three brothers also became lawyers. As a boy, Stevens attended the 1932 World Series baseball game in Chicagos Wrigley Field in which Babe Ruth called his shot, Stevens later recalled, Ruth did point to the center-field scoreboard. And he did hit the ball out of the park after he pointed with his bat, so it really happened. He also had the opportunity to meet several people of the era, including the famed aviators Amelia Earhart and Charles Lindbergh. The family lived in Hyde Park, and John Paul Stevens attended the University of Chicago Laboratory School. He subsequently obtained a bachelor of arts in English from the University of Chicago in 1941, while in college and he began work on his masters degree in English at the university in 1941, but soon decided to join the United States Navy. He enlisted on December 6,1941, one day before the attack on Pearl Harbor, Stevens was awarded a Bronze Star for his service in the codebreaking team whose work led to the downing of Japanese Admiral Isoroku Yamamotos plane in 1943. Stevens married Elizabeth Jane Shereen in June 1942, divorcing her in 1979, he married Maryan Mulholland Simon that December. He has four children, John Joseph, Kathryn, Elizabeth, with the end of World War II, Stevens returned to Illinois, intending to return to his studies in English, but was persuaded by his brother Richard, who was a lawyer, to attend law school. Stevens enrolled in the Northwestern University School of Law in 1945 and he was a brilliant student, earning the highest GPA in the history of the law school. He received his J. D. in 1947, graduating cum laude
4.
Solicitor General of the United States
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The United States Solicitor General is the third-highest-ranking official in the U. S. Department of Justice. The United States Solicitor General is the appointed to represent the federal government of the United States before the Supreme Court of the United States. The current Acting Solicitor General, Jeffrey Wall, took office on March 10,2017, the Solicitor General determines the legal position that the United States will take in the Supreme Court. In the federal courts of appeal, the Office of the Solicitor General reviews cases decided against the United States and determines whether the government will seek review in the Supreme Court. The Office of the Solicitor General also reviews cases decided against the United States in the district courts. The Solicitor General is assisted by four Deputy Solicitors General and seventeen Assistants to the Solicitor General, three of the deputies are career attorneys in the Department of Justice. The remaining deputy is known as the Principal Deputy, sometimes called the deputy and, like the Solicitor General. The current Principal Deputy is Jeffrey B, Wall, who succeeded Noel J. Francisco after Francisco was nominated to be Solicitor General in March 2017. The other deputies currently are Michael Dreeben, Edwin Kneedler, the Solicitor General or one of the deputies typically argues the most important cases in the Supreme Court. Cases not argued by the Solicitor General may be argued by one of the assistants or another government attorney, the Solicitors General tend to argue 6–9 cases per Supreme Court term, while deputies argue 4–5 cases and assistants each argue 2–3 cases. As the most frequent advocate before the Court, the Office of the Solicitor General generally argues dozens of each term. As a result, the Solicitor General tends to remain particularly comfortable during oral arguments that other advocates would find intimidating, other than the justices themselves, the Solicitor General is among the most influential and knowledgeable members of the legal community with regard to Supreme Court litigation. Five Solicitors General have later served on the Supreme Court, William Howard Taft, Stanley Forman Reed, Robert H. Jackson, Thurgood Marshall, some who have had other positions in the office of the Solicitor General have also later been appointed to the Supreme Court. Only one former Solicitor General has been nominated to the Supreme Court unsuccessfully, eight other Solicitors General have served on the United States Courts of Appeals. Within the Justice Department, the Solicitor General exerts significant influence on all appeals brought by the department, the Solicitor General is the only U. S. officer that is statutorily required to be learned in law. Whenever the DOJ wins at the stage and the losing party appeals. However, if the DOJ is the party at the trial stage. For example, should the tort division lose a jury trial in district court
5.
Neal Katyal
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Neal Kumar Katyal is an American lawyer and partner at Hogan Lovells, as well as Paul and Patricia Saunders Professor of National Security Law at Georgetown University Law Center. Katyal served as Acting Solicitor General of the United States from May 2010 until June 2011, previously, Katyal served in as an attorney in the Solicitor Generals office as Principal Deputy Solicitor General, as well as in the U. S. Justice Department. Katyal has argued more Supreme Court cases than any minority group lawyer in American history. Katyal was born in the United States on March 12,1970 and his mother is a pediatrician and his father, who died in 2005, was an engineer. Katyals sister, Sonia Katyal, is also an attorney, she teaches law at University of California and he was born in a Hindu household and studied at Loyola Academy, a Jesuit Catholic school in Wilmette, Illinois. He graduated in 1991 from Dartmouth College, where he was a member of Phi Beta Kappa, Sigma Nu fraternity, in 1990 and 1991, while a member of the Dartmouth Forensic Union, he reached the semi-final round of the National Debate Tournament, colleges national championship tournament. Katyal then attended Yale Law School, after graduating in 1995, Katyal clerked for Judge Guido Calabresi of the U. S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, and then Supreme Court Justice Stephen Breyer. President Bill Clinton commissioned him to write a report on the need for more legal pro bono work, Katyal is also the only head of the Solicitor Generals office to argue in the U. S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit. As Acting Solicitor General, Katyal succeeded Elena Kagan, whom President Barack Obama chose to replace the retiring Associate U. S. Supreme Court Justice John Paul Stevens. On May 24,2011, speaking as Acting Solicitor General, Katyal delivered the speech at the Department of Justices Great Hall marking Asian American. Katyal also lectured at Fordham Law School concerning that decision, Katyal was critical of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp. Upon leaving the Obama Administration, Katyal returned to Georgetown Law School and he specializes in constitutional law, national security, criminal defense and intellectual property, as well as runs the appellate practice once run by John Roberts. During law school Katyal clerked one summer at Hogan Lovells, where he worked for Roberts before Robertss nomination to the U. S. Supreme Court, Katyal appeared on The Colbert Report on July 26,2006, June 17,2008, and February 27,2013. He appeared on a 2015 episode of the US television drama House of Cards, portraying himself, Katyal endorsed President Trumps nomination of Neil Gorsuch to the Supreme Court in an op-ed to The New York Times. Katyal formally introduced Judge Gorsuch at the Senate Judiciary Committee confirmation hearings, the U. S. Justice Department awarded Katyal the Edmund Randolph Award, the highest honor the Department can bestow on a civilian. The National Law Journal named Katyal its Runner up for Lawyer of the Year in 2006, American Lawyer Magazine considered him one of the top 50 Litigators nationally. Washingtonian Magazine named him one of the 30 best living Supreme Court advocates, Katyal has been married to Joanna Rosen, an internist, since 2011. His brother-in-law is Jeffrey Rosen, professor of law at George Washington University and his sister Sonia is the Chancellors Professor of Law and co-director of the Berkeley Center for Law & Technology at UC Berkeley
6.
Gregory G. Garre
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Gregory G. Garre served as the 44th United States Solicitor General from June 19,2008, to January 16,2009. He is currently a partner at Latham & Watkins, a law firm. Gregory G. Garre was born in Berwyn, Pennsylvania, and grew up in Barrington, Illinois and he graduated cum laude in 1987 from Dartmouth College, where he was a Rufus Choate Scholar, with a B. A. in government. In 1991, he graduated with honors from George Washington University Law School. Garre clerked for Chief Judge Anthony Joseph Scirica of the U. S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit and he served as a pallbearer at Rehnquists funeral in September 2005. He then went into practice with the Washington, D. C. law firm Hogan & Hartson from 1993 to 2000. In September 2000 Garre joined the Office of the Solicitor General at the Department of Justice as Assistant to the Solicitor General, in this capacity, in August 2002, he represented the government at Hamdi v. Rumsfeld 243 F. Supp. He also argued Dastar Corp. v. Twentieth Century Fox Film Corp and he returned to Hogan & Hartson in July 2004. Garre returned to government in September 2005 as Principal Deputy Solicitor General and he also won Baze v. Rees. He became Acting Solicitor General on June 19,2008, when his predecessor Paul Clement resigned, the same day, President George W. Bush nominated him to be Solicitor General. He was confirmed by the U. S. Senate unanimously on October 2,2008, according his bio on the Latham & Watkins website, he is the only person to have held all of those positions. As Acting Solicitor General, he argued on behalf of the government in the first adversarial appeal heard by the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court in its 30-year history. On September 8,2009, he joined the law firm Latham & Watkins, in 2014, Garre was elected to both the American Law Institute and the American Academy of Appellate Lawyers. In October 2011 he successfully argued Maples v. Thomas, in October 2012, he unsuccessfully represented the University of Texas at Austin in Fisher v. List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States
7.
Donald B. Verrilli Jr.
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Donald Beaton Verrilli Jr. is an American lawyer who served as the Solicitor General of the United States from 2011 into 2016. He was sworn into the post on June 9,2011, on June 6,2011, the United States Senate confirmed Verrilli in a 72–16 vote. President Barack Obama had nominated Verrilli to the post on January 26,2011, Verrilli previously served in the Obama administration as the Associate Deputy United States Attorney General, and as Deputy Counsel to the President. Verrilli was born in New Rochelle, New York in 1957 to Donald, Verrilli graduated from Wilton High School in Wilton, Connecticut in 1975. Verrilli was a fellow at Columbia University Law School from 1985 to 1986 and he then joined Ennis Friedman & Bersoff in Washington, working there from 1986 to 1988. He joined Jenner & Block LLP in 1988 as an associate, while working at Jenner & Block, Verrilli also was an adjunct professor at American Universitys Washington College of Law and Georgetown University Law Center. At Jenner & Block, Verrilli specialized in telecommunications, media, in 2005, he represented the Recording Industry Association of America before the Supreme Court in MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd. In 2007, he represented Viacom in Viacom International Inc. v. YouTube, during the same year, he also represented RIAA in Capitol v. Thomas and opposed the retrial of the case. Verrilli was appointed by President Barack Obama to become associate deputy attorney general at the U. S. Department of Justice, in February 2010, Verrilli joined the Office of White House Counsel as a senior and deputy counsel to the president. By 2012, Verrilli had participated in more than 100 cases before the Supreme Court, in addition to Grokster, these include two pro bono cases that were notable in the area of defendants rights. In Wiggins v. Smith, Verrilli successfully argued that his client had been denied assistance of counsel. In Montejo v. Louisiana, he argued that his clients Sixth Amendment rights had been violated when he was questioned after having counsel appointed for him. On January 26,2011, President Obama nominated Verrilli to succeed Elena Kagan as Solicitor General of the United States, on May 12,2011, the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary voted 17-1 to forward Verrillis nomination to the full Senate. On May 26,2011, Senate Democrats filed for cloture on Verrillis nomination, a cloture vote was withdrawn right before it was scheduled. Instead, the Senate on June 6 proceeded straight to a vote on Verrillis nomination. Senators then confirmed Verrilli in a 72–16 vote, Verrilli was sworn in on June 9,2011 and became the 46th Solicitor General. He finished his position in June 2016, his day on the job was Friday 25 June. On March 26,27 and 28,2012, Verrilli argued the Patient Protection and his performance on the 27th, the first involving substantive arguments regarding the constitutionality of the PPACA, was widely panned as a disaster for the Obama administration
8.
Dean of Harvard Law School
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The Dean of Harvard Law School is the head of Harvard Law School. The current Dean is Martha Minow, the 12th person, Minow announced that she would step down as Dean in Summer 2017. Founded in 1817, Harvard Law School is the oldest continuously operating law school in the United States, since its founding,12 people have officially served as Dean. Several individuals have served as acting dean at one time or another
9.
Martha Minow
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Martha Louise Minow is the Morgan and Helen Chu Professor of Law and the Dean of Harvard Law School. She has taught at Harvard Law School since 1981, Minow was one of the candidates mentioned to replace U. S. Supreme Court Associate Justice John Paul Stevens upon his retirement. President Obama ended up nominating then-Solicitor General Elena Kagan, Minows predecessor as dean of Harvard Law School, Minow is the daughter of former Federal Communications Commission chairman Newton Minow, and his wife, Josephine Minow. She graduated from New Trier Township High School in 1972 and she became Dean of Harvard Law School July 1,2009. She is also a lecturer in the Harvard Graduate School of Education and she has worked on the Divided Cities initiative which is building an alliance of global cities dealing with ethnic, religious, or political divisions. During the 2008 Presidential campaign, then-Senator Obama said, When I was at Harvard Law School I had a teacher who changed my life -- Martha Minow. The U. S. Senate confirmed her appointment on March 19,2010 and she has delivered more than 70 named or endowed lectures and key-note addresses
10.
Domestic Policy Council
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The council forms part of the Office of White House Policy which contains the DPC, the National Economic Council and various subordinate offices, such as the Office of National AIDS Policy. The Director of the DPC is titled the Assistant to the President, the Domestic Policy Council was established on April 11,1985 by President Ronald Reagan. The first Executive Director of the Council was Dr. Ralph Bledsoe, President George H. W. Bush re-established the Council on February 8,1989, appointing Dr. Kenneth Yale as Executive Director of the Council. On August 16,1993, the Council was expanded by Executive Order 12859, the Council oversees development and implementation of the President’s domestic policy agenda and ensures coordination and communication among the heads of relevant Federal offices and agencies. Even before the creation of the DPC, some form of a domestic policy staff had existed in the White House since the 1960s. President Lyndon B. Johnson assigned a senior-level aide to organize staff, in 1970, President Richard M. Nixon issued an executive order that created the Office of Policy Development, a large White House office with jurisdiction over economic and domestic policy
11.
Bill Clinton
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William Jefferson Clinton is an American politician who served as the 42nd President of the United States from 1993 to 2001. Prior to the Presidency he was the 40th Governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981, before that, he served as Arkansas Attorney General from 1977 to 1979. A member of the Democratic Party, Clinton was ideogically a New Democrat, Clinton is married to Hillary Clinton, who served as United States Secretary of State from 2009 to 2013 and U. S. Senator from New York from 2001 to 2009, and served the Democratic nominee for President in 2016, Bill Clinton and Hillary Rodham both earned degrees from Yale Law School, where they met and began dating. As Governor of Arkansas, Clinton overhauled the states education system, Clinton was elected President of the United States in 1992, defeating incumbent George H. W. Bush. At age 46, he was the third-youngest president and the first from the Baby Boomer generation, Clinton presided over the longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history and signed into law the North American Free Trade Agreement. After failing to pass health care reform, the Democratic House was ousted when the Republican Party won control of the Congress in 1994. Two years later, in 1996, Clinton became the first Democrat since Franklin D. Roosevelt to be elected to a second term, Clinton passed welfare reform and the State Childrens Health Insurance Program, providing health coverage for millions of children. Clinton was acquitted by the U. S. Senate in 1999, the Congressional Budget Office reported a budget surplus between the years 1998 and 2000, the last three years of Clintons presidency. In foreign policy, Clinton ordered U. S. Clinton left office with the highest end-of-office approval rating of any U. S. President since World War II, since then, Clinton has been involved in public speaking and humanitarian work. He created the William J. Clinton Foundation to address international causes, such as the prevention of AIDS, in 2004, Clinton published his autobiography, My Life. In 2009, Clinton was named the United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti, since leaving office, Clinton has been rated highly in public opinion polls of U. S. Presidents. Clinton was born on August 19,1946, at Julia Chester Hospital in Hope, Arkansas and he was the son of William Jefferson Blythe Jr. a traveling salesman who had died in an automobile accident three months before his birth, and Virginia Dell Cassidy. His parents had married on September 4,1943, but this later proved to be bigamous. Soon after their son was born, his mother traveled to New Orleans to study nursing, leaving her son in Hope with her parents Eldridge and Edith Cassidy, who owned and ran a small grocery store. At a time when the Southern United States was segregated racially, in 1950, Bills mother returned from nursing school and married Roger Clinton Sr. who owned an automobile dealership in Hot Springs, Arkansas, with his brother and Earl T. Ricks. The family moved to Hot Springs in 1950, although he immediately assumed use of his stepfathers surname, it was not until Clinton turned fifteen that he formally adopted the surname Clinton as a gesture toward his stepfather. In Hot Springs, Clinton attended St. Johns Catholic Elementary School, Ramble Elementary School, and Hot Springs High School—where he was a student leader, avid reader
12.
Eric Liu
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Eric P. Liu is an American writer and founder of Citizen University. Liu served as Deputy Assistant to President Clinton for Domestic Policy at the White House between 1999 and 2000 and he served as Speechwriter and Director of Legislative Affairs for the National Security Council at the White House from 1993 to 1994. Liu is currently a Senior Law Lecturer at the University of Washington School of Law, President Obama nominated him in January 2015 to serve on the board of directors of the federal Corporation for National and Community Service, his term will expire in December 2017. Liu was born in Poughkeepsie, New York, to parents born in China who had emigrated from Taiwan and his uncle is the former Premier of Taiwan Liu Chao-shiuan. He studied history at Yale University and is a graduate of Harvard Law School, Liu today is CEO of Citizen University, a non-profit organization that promotes what it calls powerful citizenship. His TED talk on this topic has been viewed more than one million times, in 2014 he launched the Aspen Institute Program on Citizenship and American Identity to advance national conversation about the core American question, Who is us. Liu is a regular columnist for CNN. com and a correspondent for TheAtlantic. com and he wrote the Teachings column for Slate magazine from 2002 to 2005. His most recent book, A Chinamans Chance, explores being Chinese American in the age of China and his book Imagination First, co-authored with Scott Noppe-Brandon of the Lincoln Center Institute, explores ways to unlock imagination in education, politics, business and the arts. Liu lives in Seattle, where he serves on boards, teaches civic leadership courses at the University of Washington. List of Asian American writers Critical studies David Leiwei Li, On Ascriptive and Acquisitional Americanness, The Accidental Asian and the Illogic of Assimilation
13.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
14.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
15.
Princeton University
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Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States. The university has graduated many notable alumni, two U. S. Presidents,12 U. S. Supreme Court Justices, and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in order to train ministers, the college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governors interest, gov. Jonathan Belcher replied, What a name that would be. In 1756, the moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England, following the untimely deaths of Princetons first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college, in 1812, the eighth president the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green, helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey. Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include such as cross-registration. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17,1754, during the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the countrys capital for four months. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, Nassau Halls bell rang after the halls construction, however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855, James McCosh took office as the colleges president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. McCosh Hall is named in his honor, in 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D. was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides
16.
Bachelor of Arts
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
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Worcester College, Oxford
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Worcester College /ˈwʊstər/ is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in England. The college was founded in 1714 by the benefaction of Sir Thomas Cookes and its predecessor, Gloucester College, had been an institution of learning on the same site since the late 13th century until the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1539. As of July 2010, Worcester had an endowment of £16.7 million. After a lapse of 20 years, the buildings of the old Gloucester College were used in the foundation of Gloucester Hall and this was a going concern from 1699 to 1705, although only 15 Greeks are recorded as members. In 1714, thanks to a benefaction from a Worcestershire baronet, Sir Thomas Cookes. Even then, there were sufficient funds to rebuild the Chapel, Hall and Library. The designs were by Dr. George Clarke, who had consulted Nicholas Hawksmoor, in 1736, Clarke generously left to the College his great collection of books and manuscripts. These included the papers of his father William Clarke and a proportion of the surviving drawings of Inigo Jones. Owing to lack of funds, Worcesters eighteenth-century building programme proceeded by fits and starts, the west end of the Terrace and the Provosts Lodgings were added in 1773–76. In more recent years new residential blocks for undergraduates and graduates have been added. The latest of these include the Earl building, Sainsbury Building, Linbury Building, Canal Building, Ruskin Lane Building, and the Franks Building. A modern addition to Worcester College, the Canal Building, sits next to the entrance to the college and, as the name suggests. It houses 50 students in large single rooms. The accommodation is usually reserved for third and fourth year undergraduates, the College Chapel was built in the 18th century. Dr George Clarke, Henry Keene and James Wyatt were responsible for different stages of its lengthy construction, the interior columns and pilasters, the dome and the delicate foliage plastering are all Wyatts work. His classical interior was insufficiently emphatic for the tastes of militant Victorian churchmen and its stained glass windows were to have been designed by John Everett Millais, but Burges rejected his designs and entrusted the work to Henry Holiday. Oscar Wilde said of the Chapel, As a piece of decorative and beautiful art it is perfect. Worcester is unique among the Oxford colleges in that it has not one, there is a mixed-voice choir constituted of auditioned choral scholars and volunteers, which sings twice a week, weekly on Thursday and on alternating Sunday and Monday evenings
18.
Harvard University
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Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
19.
Juris Doctor
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The Juris Doctor degree, also known as the Doctor of Jurisprudence degree, is a graduate-entry professional degree in law and one of several Doctor of Law degrees. It is earned by completing law school in Australia, Canada and the United States and it has the academic standing of a second-entry, professional baccalaureate degree in Canada, a masters degree in Australia and a professional doctorate in the United States. The degree was first awarded in the United States in the early 20th century and was created as a version of the old European doctor of law degree. Originating from the 19th century Harvard movement for the study of law. It involves a program in most jurisdictions. To be authorized to practice law in the courts of a state in the United States. Lawyers must, however, be admitted to the bar of the court before they are authorized to practice in that court. Admission to the bar of a district court includes admission to the bar of the related bankruptcy court. In the United States, the doctorate in law may be conferred in Latin or in English, as Juris Doctor and at some law schools Doctor of Law. Juris Doctor literally means Teacher of Law, while the Latin for Doctor of Jurisprudence—Jurisprudentiae Doctor—literally means Teacher of Legal Knowledge, the J. D. is not to be confused with Doctor of Laws or Legum Doctor. In institutions where the latter can be earned, e. g. D, the LL. D. is invariably an honorary degree in the United States. The first university in Europe, the University of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 11th century who were students of the school in that city. This served as the model for law schools of the Middle Ages. While Bologna granted only doctorates, preparatory degrees were introduced in Paris, the nature of the J. D. can be better understood by a review of the context of the history of legal education in England. The teaching of law at Cambridge and Oxford Universities was mainly for philosophical or scholarly purposes, the universities taught only civil and canon law but not the common law that applied in most jurisdictions. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, by the fifteenth century, the Inns functioned like a university akin to the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, though very specialized in purpose. With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the role grew tremendously. The apprenticeship program for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades
20.
Supreme Court of the United States
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
21.
Harvard Law School
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Harvard Law School is one of the professional graduate schools of Harvard University, located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1817, it is the oldest continually-operating law school in the United States and is considered to be one of the most prestigious in the world. The school is ranked third by the U. S. News & World and its acceptance rate was 15. 4% in the 2013–14 admissions cycle, and its yield rate of 66. 2% was the second-highest of any law school in the United States. It is ranked first in the 2016 QS World University Rankings, Harvard Law admitted 16. 5% of applicants in its most recent class, compared to 9. 2% at Yale and 11. 2% at Stanford. With a current enrollment of 1,990, HLS has about as many students as its three closest-ranked peer institutions, first-ranked Yale, second-ranked Stanford, and fourth-ranked Chicago, combined. The first-year class is broken into seven sections of approximately 80 students, Harvards uniquely large class size and its prestige have led the law school to graduate a great many distinguished alumni in the judiciary, government, and the business world. According to Harvard Laws 2015 ABA-required disclosures,95. 33% of the Class of 2014 passed the Bar exam. Harvard Law Schools founding is linked to the funding of Harvards first professorship in law, paid for from a bequest from the estate of Isaac Royall. Today, it is home to the largest academic law library in the world, the current dean of Harvard Law School is Martha Minow, who assumed the role on July 1,2009. The law school has 328 faculty members, Harvard Law Schools founding is traced to the establishment of a law department at Harvard in 1817. Dating the founding to the year of the creation of the law department makes Harvard Law the oldest continuously-operating law school in the nation, William & Mary Law School opened first in 1779, but closed due to the American Civil War, reopening in 1920. The University of Maryland School of Law was chartered in 1816, but did not begin classes until 1824, and also closed during the Civil War. Or a Professor of Physick and Anatomy, whichever the said overseers and Corporation shall judge to be best. ”The value of the land, when fully liquidated in 1809, was $2,938, the Harvard Corporation allocated $400 from the income generated by those funds to create the Royall Professorship of Law in 1815. The dean of the law school traditionally held the Royall chair, deans Elena Kagan, royalls Medford estate, the Isaac Royall House, is now a museum which features the only remaining slave quarters in the northeast United States. The Royall family coat-of-arms, which shows three stacked wheat sheaves, was adopted as the school crest in 1936, topped with the university motto, in March 2016, following requests by students, the school decided to remove the emblem because of its association with slavery. By 1827, the school, with one faculty member, was struggling, nathan Dane, a prominent alumnus of the college, then endowed the Dane Professorship of Law, insisting that it be given to then Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story. For a while, the school was called Dane Law School, in 1829, John H. Ashmun, son of Eli Porter Ashmun and brother of George Ashmun, accepted a professorship and closed his Northampton Law School, with many of his students following him to Harvard. Enrollment remained low through the 19th century as university legal education was considered to be of little added benefit to apprenticeships in legal practice, at Harvard, Langdell also developed the case method of teaching law, now the dominant pedagogical model at U. S. law schools
22.
University of Chicago Law School
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The University of Chicago Law School is the graduate school of law at the University of Chicago. It was founded in 1902 by a coalition of donors led by John D. Rockefeller, U. S. News & World Report ranks Chicago fourth among U. S. law schools, and it is noted for its influence on the economic analysis of law. It is ranked 12th in the 2016 QS World University Rankings, the ABA disclosures indicate that 75% of Chicago graduates earned starting salaries of $160,000 or greater upon graduation. The law school was ranked #3 of all law schools nationwide by the National Law Journal in terms of sending the highest percentage of 2015 graduates to the largest 100 law firms in the US. During that time Beale hired many of the first members of the law school faculty, the Law School experienced a period of profound growth and expansion under the leadership of Dean Edward Hirsch Levi, AB1932, JD1935. Levi later served as university Provost and President, and then as United States Attorney General under President Gerald Ford, during his time at the Law School, Levi brought scholars to the faculty and supported the Committee on Social Thought graduate program. Legal History Program The John M. Renovated in 2006, it features a reading room. The Law Library is open 90 hours per week and employs the equivalent of 10 full-time librarians and it has study space for 483, a wireless network, and 26 networked computers. Admission to The University of Chicago Law School is highly selective, for the class entering in the fall of 2015,900 out of 4,111 applicants were offered admission, with 183 matriculating. The 25th and 75th LSAT percentiles for the 2016 entering class were 166 and 172, respectively, the 25th and 75th undergraduate GPA percentiles were 3.69 and 3.97, respectively, with a median of 3.90. The University of Chicago Law School employs a system that places students on a scale of 155-186. The scale was 55-86 prior to 2003, but since then the school has utilized a prefix of 1 to eliminate confusion with the traditional 100 point grading scale. These numerical grades convert to the more familiar alphabetical scale roughly as follows, 155-159 = F, 160-167 = D, 168-173 = C, 174-179 = B, 180-186 = A. For classes of more than 10 students, professors are required to set the grade at 177. A student graduates with honors if an average of 179 is attained, with high honors if a final average of 180.5 is attained. The last of these achievements is rare, typically only one student every few years will attain the requisite 182 average, additionally, the Law School awards two honors at graduation that are based on class rank. Of the students who earned at the Law School at least 79 of the 105 credits required to graduate, Students finishing their first or second years in the top 5% of their class, or graduating in the top 10%, are honored as Kirkland and Ellis Scholars. According to the Law Schools official 2015 ABA-required disclosures,92. 1% of the Class of 2013 obtained full-time, long-term, JD-required employment nine months after graduation
23.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
24.
Elena Kagan Supreme Court nomination
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On May 10,2010, President Barack Obama announced his selection of Elena Kagan for Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, to replace retiring Justice John Paul Stevens. Kagans nomination was confirmed by a 63–37 vote of the United States Senate on August 5,2010, when nominated, Kagan was Solicitor General of the United States, to which she had been appointed by Barack Obama. She had previously been a contender for the retiring David Souters seat in 2009, prior to her reported selection as Obamas nominee, Kagan had been appointed as Solicitor General of the United States. In May 2009, she was speculated to be a nominee acceptable to fill the seat of retiring Supreme Court Justice David Souter. The seat was filled by Judge Sonia Sotomayor of the Second Circuit. In the Senate, Kagans nomination was received positively by most Democrats, who praised her abilities, the deans of over one-third of the countrys law schools,69 people in total, endorsed Elena Kagans nomination in an open letter in early June. The letter lauded what it considered her skills and understanding of both doctrine and policy as well as her written record of legal analysis. At the same time, the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence announced its support for Kagans nomination, Confirmation hearings began on June 28,2010, the final day of the Courts term. From the 28th through the 30th, Kagan underwent two rounds of questioning by each member of the Senate Judiciary Committee, several witnesses were called to give testimony before the Judiciary Committee at the hearings. These witnesses included Kim Askew and William J. Kayatta, Jr. of the American Bar Association, the Democratic members of the committee called witnesses that included, Professor Robert C. Lilly Ledbetter, plaintiff, Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co, Professor Ronald Sullivan, Edward R. Gen. William Jerry Boykin, United States Army Capt. Pete Hegseth, Army National Guard Commissioner Peter Kirsanow, Benesch Law Firm David Kopel, Esq. Research Director, Independence Institute Colonel Thomas N. Moe, United States Air Force David Norcross, blank Rome William J. Olson, Esq. Charmaine Yoest, President & CEO, Americans United for Life Capt, at the time, it was also possible for a nominee to be filibustered, which would have required 60 votes to overcome, as occurred during the nomination of Abe Fortas to the Supreme Court in 1968. There were 41 Republican senators at the time of Kagans confirmation, however, five Republicans—Richard Lugar, Lindsey Graham, Judd Gregg, Olympia Snowe, and Susan Collins—expressed support for her. In addition, minority whip Jon Kyl said, The filibuster should be relegated to extreme circumstances, in the full Senate, a simple majority is required for confirmation. With all 100 senators present and voting,50 votes would have been sufficient to confirm Kagan’s nomination, the full senate confirmed the nomination on Thursday, August 5,2010, by a vote of 63-37. 56 of the 57 Senate Democrats voted to confirm Kagan, the only Democrat who rejected the confirmation was Ben Nelson. Both of the Senate independents, Joe Lieberman and Bernie Sanders, additionally, five Senate Republicans broke party lines and voted to confirm Kagan, these were Richard Lugar, Susan Collins, Olympia Snowe, Judd Gregg, and Lindsey Graham
25.
Chief Justice of the United States
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The Chief Justice of the United States is the head of the United States federal court system and the chief judge of the Supreme Court of the United States. The Chief Justice is one of nine Supreme Court justices, the eight are the Associate Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States. From 1789 until 1866, the office was known as the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, the Chief Justice also serves as a spokesperson for the judicial branch. The Chief Justice leads the business of the Supreme Court and presides over oral arguments, when the court renders an opinion, the Chief Justice—when in the majority—decides who writes the courts opinion. The Chief Justice also has significant agenda-setting power over the courts meetings, in the case of an impeachment of a President of the United States, which has occurred twice, the Chief Justice presides over the trial in the Senate. In modern tradition, the Chief Justice also has the duty of administering the oath of office of the President of the United States. The first Chief Justice was John Jay, the 17th and current Chief Justice is John G. Roberts, Jr. The office was known as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and is still informally referred to using that title. However,28 U. S. C. §1 specifies that the title is Chief Justice of the United States, the title was changed from Chief Justice of the Supreme Court by Congress in 1866 at the suggestion of the sixth Chief Justice, Salmon P. Chase. Chase wished to emphasize the Supreme Courts role as a branch of government. The first Chief Justice commissioned using the new title was Melville Fuller in 1888, use of the previous title when referring to Chief Justices John Jay through Roger B. Taney is technically correct, as that was the title during their time on the court. The other eight members of the court are officially Associate Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States, the Chief Justice is the only member of the court to whom the Constitution refers as a Justice, and only in Article I. Article III of the Constitution refers to all members of the Supreme Court simply as Judges, the Chief Justice is nominated by the President of the United States and confirmed to sit on the Court by the United States Senate. The salary of the Chief Justice is set by Congress, the Constitution prohibits Congress from lowering the salary of any judge, including the Chief Justice, while that judge holds office. As of 2015, the salary is $258,100 per year, which is higher than that of the Associate Justices. Three serving Associate Justices have received promotions to Chief Justice, Edward Douglass White in 1910, Harlan Fiske Stone in 1941, Associate Justice Abe Fortas was nominated to the position of Chief Justice of the United States, but his nomination was filibustered by Senate Republicans in 1968. Despite the failed nomination, Fortas remained an Associate Justice until his resignation the following year, there have been 21 individuals nominated for Chief Justice, of whom 17 have been confirmed by the Senate, although a different 17 have served
26.
John G. Roberts
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John Glover Roberts Jr. is the 17th and current Chief Justice of the United States. He took his seat on September 29,2005, having been nominated by President George W. Bush after the death of Chief Justice William Rehnquist and he has been described as having a conservative judicial philosophy in his jurisprudence. Roberts grew up in northwest Indiana and was educated in a private school and he then attended Harvard College and Harvard Law School, where he was a managing editor of the Harvard Law Review. During this time, he argued 39 cases before the Supreme Court, during his two-year tenure on the D. C. Circuit, Roberts authored 49 opinions, eliciting two dissents from other judges, and authoring three dissents of his own, notably, he represented 19 states in United States v. Microsoft. When Chief Justice Rehnquist died before Robertss confirmation hearings began, Bush instead nominated Roberts to fill the Chief Justice position, Roberts has authored the majority opinion in many landmark cases, including Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1, Shelby County v. Holder, and National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius, John Glover Roberts was born in Buffalo, New York, the son of Rosemary and John Glover Jack Roberts Sr. His father was a plant manager with Bethlehem Steel and he has Irish, Welsh, and Czech ancestry. When Roberts was in grade, his family moved to Long Beach. He grew up with three sisters, Kathy, Peggy, and Barbara, Roberts attended Notre Dame Elementary School, a Roman Catholic grade school in Long Beach. In 1973, he graduated from La Lumiere School, a Roman Catholic boarding school in La Porte, Indiana and he studied five years of Latin, some French, and was known generally for his devotion to his studies. He was captain of the team, and was a regional champion in wrestling. He participated in choir and drama, co-edited the school newspaper, and served on the athletic council and he attended Harvard College, graduating in 1976 with an A. B. summa cum laude in history in three years. He then attended Harvard Law School where he was an editor of the Harvard Law Review. He graduated from law school with a J. D. magna cum laude in 1979, after graduating from law school, Roberts served as a law clerk for Judge Henry Friendly on the Second Circuit Court of Appeals for one year. Roberts frequently cites Judge Friendly in his opinions, from 1980 to 1981, he clerked for then-Associate Justice William Rehnquist on the United States Supreme Court. From 1981 to 1982, he served in the Reagan administration as a Special Assistant to U. S. Attorney General William French Smith, from 1982 to 1986, Roberts served as Associate Counsel to the President under White House Counsel Fred Fielding. Roberts entered private law practice in 1986 as an associate at the Washington, D. C. -based law firm of Hogan & Hartson, Roberts also argued on behalf of the homeless, a case which became one of Roberts few appellate losses
27.
Upper West Side
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The Upper West Side is sometimes also considered by the real estate industry to include the neighborhood of Morningside Heights. Like the Upper East Side, the Upper West Side is an affluent, primarily residential area with many of its residents working in areas of Midtown. Conversely, the Upper East Side is traditionally perceived to be home to commercial, the Upper West Side, along with the Upper East Side, is considered to be among New York Citys wealthiest neighborhoods. Upper West Side is bounded on the south by 59th Street, Central Park to the east, and its northern boundary is somewhat less obvious. Although it has historically been cited as 110th Street, which fixes the neighborhood alongside Central Park, it is now considered to be 125th Street. The area north of West 96th Street and east of Broadway is also identified as Manhattan Valley, the overlapping area west of Amsterdam Avenue to Riverside Park was once known as the Bloomingdale District. From west to east, the avenues of the Upper West Side are Riverside Drive, West End Avenue, Broadway, Amsterdam Avenue, Columbus Avenue, with the building of Lincoln Center, its name, though perhaps not the reality, was stretched south to 58th Street. This is a reversion to the historical name. The long high bluff above useful sandy coves along the North River was little used or traversed by the Lenape people, in the eighteenth and early nineteenth century, the Upper West Side-to-be contained some of colonial New Yorks most ambitious houses, spaced along Bloomingdale Road. It became increasingly infilled with smaller, more villas in the first half of the nineteenth century. Its name was a derivation of the given to the area by Dutch settlers to New Netherland, likely from Bloemendaal. The Dutch Anglicized the name to Bloomingdale or the Bloomingdale District and it consisted of farms and villages along a road known as the Bloomingdale Road. Bloomingdale Road was renamed The Boulevard in 1868, as the farms and villages were divided into building lots, by the 18th century it contained numerous farms and country residences of many of the citys well-off, a major parcel of which was the Apthorp Farm. Within the confines of the modern-day Upper West Side, the road passed through areas known as Harsenville, Stryckers Bay, Bloomingdale, in the latter half of the 19th century, was the name of a village that occupied the area just south of 110th street. Much of the riverfront of the Upper West Side was a shipping, transportation, the Hudson River Railroad line right-of-way was granted in the late 1830s to connect New York City to Albany, and soon ran along the riverbank. One major non-industrial development, the creation of Central Park in the 1850s and 60s, parts of the neighborhood became a ragtag collection of squatters housing, boarding houses, and rowdy taverns. In 1868, the city began straightening and grading the section of the Bloomingdale Road from Harsenville north and it retained that name until the end of the century, when the name Broadway finally supplanted it. Development of the neighborhood lagged even while Central Park was being out in the 1860s and 70s
28.
Manhattan
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Manhattan is the most densely populated borough of New York City, its economic and administrative center, and the citys historical birthplace. The borough is coextensive with New York County, founded on November 1,1683, Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters. Many multinational media conglomerates are based in the borough and it is historically documented to have been purchased by Dutch colonists from Native Americans in 1626 for 60 guilders which equals US$1062 today. New York County is the United States second-smallest county by land area, on business days, the influx of commuters increases that number to over 3.9 million, or more than 170,000 people per square mile. Manhattan has the third-largest population of New York Citys five boroughs, after Brooklyn and Queens, the City of New York was founded at the southern tip of Manhattan, and the borough houses New York City Hall, the seat of the citys government. The name Manhattan derives from the word Manna-hata, as written in the 1609 logbook of Robert Juet, a 1610 map depicts the name as Manna-hata, twice, on both the west and east sides of the Mauritius River. The word Manhattan has been translated as island of hills from the Lenape language. The United States Postal Service prefers that mail addressed to Manhattan use New York, NY rather than Manhattan, the area that is now Manhattan was long inhabited by the Lenape Native Americans. In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano – sailing in service of King Francis I of France – was the first European to visit the area that would become New York City. It was not until the voyage of Henry Hudson, an Englishman who worked for the Dutch East India Company, a permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island. In 1625, construction was started on the citadel of Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, later called New Amsterdam, the 1625 establishment of Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of Manhattan Island is recognized as the birth of New York City. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 to US$23, variable-rate myth being a contradiction in terms, the purchase price remains forever frozen at twenty-four dollars, as Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace remarked in their history of New York. Sixty guilders in 1626 was valued at approximately $1,000 in 2006, based on the price of silver, Straight Dope author Cecil Adams calculated an equivalent of $72 in 1992. In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was appointed as the last Dutch Director General of the colony, New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1653. In 1664, the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it New York after the English Duke of York and Albany, the Dutch Republic regained it in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships, renaming the city New Orange. Manhattan was at the heart of the New York Campaign, a series of battles in the early American Revolutionary War. The Continental Army was forced to abandon Manhattan after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16,1776. The city, greatly damaged by the Great Fire of New York during the campaign, became the British political, British occupation lasted until November 25,1783, when George Washington returned to Manhattan, as the last British forces left the city
29.
Hunter College Elementary School
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Hunter College Elementary School is a New York City elementary school for intellectually gifted students, located on Manhattans Upper East Side. It is administered by Hunter College, a college of the City University of New York or CUNY. It is sometimes said that it is harder to get into this elementary school than into Ivy League colleges, Hunter College Elementary School was created in 1940 as an experimental school for gifted students. It grew out of the Hunter College Model School and assumed its current name in 1941, from its inception until 1973, Hunter College Elementary School was located at the Hunter College campus at 68th Street and Lexington Avenue. Its current location is at 71 East 94th Street in New York City, the school has enjoyed tremendous success over the years and in the 1950s and 1960s was recognized worldwide for its groundbreaking approach to the education of gifted students. Independent review sites regularly reference the schools academic and extracurricular programs. Students from the school generally continue from Kindergarten to 6th grade. The Wall Street Journal published a study in 2007 that showed Hunter among the top 20 feeder schools to top universities in the United States, and the only public school listed in the top 20. One of its most notable principals was Dr. Florence Brumbaugh, educator and author of childrens literature, the current principal is Lisa Siegmann. Students are accepted only from the Manhattan region of New York City, fifty students are accepted each year, up from 48, an equal number of boys and girls, from varying backgrounds. Prior to 1970, boys could attend the school through sixth grade. The application process requires the completed application packet sent with a copy of the prospective students birth certificate, prospective students undergo two rounds of testing, as part of a process to determine a students eligibility. The first test is an assessment with a school-approved child psychologist to administer a modified Stanford-Binet, Fifth Edition test on intellectual reasoning. It is from this session that students are drawn for the wait-list. Students are selected based on these observations, genius Revisited, High IQ Children Grown Up
30.
West End Avenue
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Eleventh Avenue is a north-south thoroughfare on the far West Side of the borough of Manhattan in New York City, located near the Hudson River. Eleventh Avenue originates in the Meatpacking District in the Greenwich Village/West Village neighborhoods at Gansevoort Street, where Eleventh Avenue, Tenth Avenue and it is considered part of the West Side Highway between 22nd and Gansevoort Streets. Between 59th and 107th Streets, the avenue is known as West End Avenue, both West End Avenue and Eleventh Avenue are considered to be part of the same road. Between Gansevoort Street and West 22nd Street, Eleventh Avenue is part of the West Side Highway, at a split with Twelfth Avenue/West Side Highway at West 22nd Street, Eleventh Avenue continues as a standard-width avenue. Following the split, Eleventh Avenue is two-way traffic for access to 23rd Street, north of 24th Street, Eleventh Avenue is one-way southbound from 24th to 44th Streets, where two-way traffic resumes. The segment between approximately 39th and 59th Streets is home to the largest concentration of auto dealerships in Manhattan, two-way traffic resumes at 44th Street. The portion north of 59th Street is called West End Avenue, the northern 2 miles are a sedate Upper West Side residential street ending at Straus Park, 107th Street, and Broadway. Traffic is bidirectional, except for the northernmost block, north of 106th Street, in 1934, a bill was passed for the Henry Hudson Parkway to be constructed, meant to be an alternative route to Death Avenue. Seeking to distinguish the area from the factories and tenements below 59th Street, portions of both West End Avenue and Eleventh Avenue were run down in the mid-20th century, with single room occupancy hotels, prostitutes and drug addicts a common sight. The citys economic comeback in the 1980s brought recovery and gentrification, the near total absence of retail on that part of the street marks its quiet, residential character, as opposed to the high-traffic, noisy character of Eleventh Avenue. The architecture of buildings on Eleventh and West End Avenues differs significantly, Manhattan Motorcars at 270 Eleventh Avenue sells many brands of luxury and sports cars. Other companies with dealerships on the avenue include Audi, Honda, Jaguar, Jeep/Chrysler/Dodge, Mazda, Nissan, as well, numerous vehicle service stations, car washes, and car rental lots are found along this stretch. It is not uncommon to hear the clip clop of horses in the vicinity, as horses always have in densely populated urban areas, the carriage horses live upstairs in their stables while the carriages are parked below on the ground floor. One historic district lies on Eleventh Avenue, the West Chelsea Historic District, the High Line The Hudson River Park IAC Building The Jacob K. Javits Convention Center Michael J. The New York City Buss M12 route has served the avenue since September 2014, notable current and former residents include, Judy Collins, folk singer and song writer resides at 845 West End Avenue. Domenico Dolce is a resident of 200 Eleventh Avenue. Tina Fey, former SNL cast member and creator of NBCs 30 Rock lives on West End Avenue near 80th Street Joseph Heller, elena Kagan, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, grew up on West End Avenue and 75th Street. Nicole Kidman and Keith Urban live at 200 Eleventh Avenue, economist Ludwig von Mises lived at 777 West End Avenue
31.
Lincoln Square Synagogue
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The Lincoln Square Synagogue is located at 180 Amsterdam Avenue between West 68th and 69th Streets in the Lincoln Square neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City. Founded in 1964, the location of the congregation has changed several times. The most recent move took place in January 2013, the new building is the largest synagogue to be built in New York City in over 50 years. The current senior Rabbi is Rabbi Shaul Robinson, the Lincoln Square Synagogue was founded as a congregation in 1964 by Rabbi Shlomo Riskin. In the late 1960s, the first Orthodox Jewish womens tefillah group was created, the travertine building it formerly occupied at 200 Amsterdam Avenue, just 250 feet from its current building, was built in 1970, and was designed by the firm of Hausman & Rosenberg. Because it had outgrown that building, the moved to a new building designed by Cetra/Ruddy in mid-January 2013. The old building at 200 Amsterdam will be replaced by an apartment building, the new building, the largest new synagogue in New York City in 50 years, is five stories tall and comprises 52,000 square feet, including a sanctuary able to hold 429 people. The horseshoe shape of the seating in the sanctuary of the old building was kept, the building won Architectural Lightings 2015 award for interior lighting. Rabbi Shaul Robinson is currently the rabbi at Lincoln Square Synagogue. Robinson has held the position since September 1,2005 and he is credited with setting up and directing the first ever Department for Professional Rabbinic Development in the United Kingdom. Cantor Sherwood Goffin has served the synagogue since its founding in 1965, Cantor Goffin has been only Principal of the Lincoln Square Synagogue Feldman Hebrew School since 1965. He obtained Cantor for Life tenure in 1986, Cantor Goffin currently works with Cantor Yaakov Lemmer. Kenneth Brander Supreme Court justice Elena Kagan had her bat mitzvah at the synagogue
32.
Orthodox Judaism
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Orthodox Judaism includes movements such as Modern Orthodox Judaism and Ultra-Orthodox or Haredi Judaism. As of 2001, Orthodox Jews and Jews affiliated with an Orthodox synagogue accounted for approximately 50% of British Jews,26. 5% of Israeli Jews, among those affiliated to a synagogue body, Orthodox Jews represent 70% of British Jewry, and 27% of American Jewry. Orthodoxy is not one single movement or school of thought, there is no single rabbinical body to which all rabbis are expected to belong, or any one organization representing member congregations. In the 20th century, a segment of the Orthodox population disagreed with Modern Orthodoxy, such rabbis viewed innovations and modifications within Jewish law and customs with extreme care and caution. This form of Judaism may be referred to as Haredi Judaism or Ultra-Orthodox Judaism, several local Jewish papers, including New Yorks Jewish Week and Philadelphias Jewish Exponent have also dropped use of the term. According to Rabbi David Bar-Hayim, the term Orthodox Judaism was coined as a response to the rise of Reform Judaism in early 19th century Germany, some researchers attempted to argue that the importance of daily practice and punctilious adherence to Jewish Law relegated theoretical issues to an ancillary status. Others dismissed this view entirely, citing the many debates in ancient rabbinic sources which castigated various heresies without any reference to observance, however, while lacking a uniform doctrine, Orthodox Judaism is basically united in affirming several core beliefs, disavowal of which is considered major blasphemy. As in other aspects, Orthodox positions reflect the mainstream of traditional Rabbinic Judaism through the ages, attempts to codify these were undertaken by several medieval authorities, including Saadia Gaon and Joseph Albo. Yet the 13 Fundamentals expounded by Maimonides in his Commentary on the Mishnah, but in recent centuries the 13 Principles became standard, and are considered binding and cardinal by Orthodox authorities in a virtually universal manner. More specific doctrines refer to the times of Godly salvation and afterlife – in Judaism, Olam haBa and these include belief in divine reward for those who observe the Lords commandments and likewise, punishment meted unto the transgressors. Maimonides reserved one article for this tenet, oft mentioned in sources, stating merely that God rewards. This issue has been subject to debate and interpretation. Nahmanides offered a comprehensive system, with divine remuneration for better or worse both in this world, via natural means, and in a celestial heaven and hell. One of the most important teachings concerning afterlife in Judaism is the Resurrection of the Dead, the Talmud listed deniers of this faith as heretics who shall have no part in the World to Come. Maimoindes specified it apart as a separate article and this particular notion is closely linked with Reward and Punishment. They will live ordinary, corporeal life but will not die, then all mankind shall be resuscitated and be given each his just due. The eternal reward shall be preserved for their soul, as beforehand, preceding the miraculous events linked with afterlife is the Advent of the Messiah, also independently listed among Maimonides Thirteen as a tenet of faith. Orthodox Judaism maintains the historical understanding of Jewish identity, a Jew is someone who was born to a Jewish mother, or who converts to Judaism in accordance with Jewish law and tradition
33.
Rabbi
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In Judaism, a rabbi /ˈræbaɪ/ is a teacher of Torah. This title derives from the Hebrew word רַבִּי rabi, meaning My Master, the word master רב rav literally means great one. The basic form of the rabbi developed in the Pharisaic and Talmudic era, the first sage for whom the Mishnah uses the title of rabbi was Yohanan ben Zakkai, active in the early to mid first century CE. Within the various Jewish denominations there are different requirements for rabbinic ordination, for example, Orthodox Judaism does not ordain women as rabbis, but other movements have chosen to do so for halakhic reasons as well as ethical reasons. Although the usage rabbim many the majority, the multitude occurs for the assembly of the community in the Dead Sea scrolls there is no evidence to support an association with the later title Rabbi, the root is cognate to Arabic ربّ rabb, meaning lord. As a sign of respect, some great rabbis are simply called The Rav. The titles Rabban and Rabbi are first mentioned in the Mishnah, the term was first used for Rabban Gamaliel the elder, Rabban Simeon his son, and Rabban Johanan ben Zakkai, all of whom were patriarchs or presidents of the Sanhedrin. The title Rabbi occurs in the books of Matthew, Mark, and John in the New Testament, other variants are rəvī and, in Yiddish, rebbə. The word could be compared to the Syriac word ܪܒܝ rabi, in ancient Hebrew, rabbi was a proper term of address while speaking to a superior, in the second person, similar to a vocative case. While speaking about a superior, in the person one could say ha-rav or rabbo. Later, the term evolved into a title for members of the Patriarchate. Thus, the title gained an irregular form, רַבָּנִים rabbanim. Rabbi as a title does not appear in the Hebrew Bible. All of the above personalities would have expected to be steeped in the wisdom of the Torah and the commandments. And honor is due only for Torah, as it is said, The wise shall inherit honor, and only Torah is truly good, as it is said, I have given you a good teaching, do not forsake My Torah. This was eventually encoded and codified within the Mishnah and Talmud and subsequent rabbinical scholarship, the title Rabbi was borne by the sages of ancient Israel, who were ordained by the Sanhedrin in accordance with the custom handed down by the elders. They were titled Ribbi and received authority to judge penal cases, Rab was the title of the Babylonian sages who taught in the Babylonian academies. After the suppression of the Patriarchate and Sanhedrin by Theodosius II in 425, a recognised scholar could be called Rab or Hacham, like the Babylonian sages
34.
Bar and Bat Mitzvah
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Bar Mitzvah and Bat Mitzvah are Jewish coming of age rituals. Bar is a Jewish Babylonian Aramaic word literally meaning son, while bat means daughter in Hebrew, thus bar mitzvah and bat mitzvah literally translate to son of commandment and daughter of commandment. However, in usage, the word bar means under the category of or subject to. Bar mitzvah therefore translates to an who is subject to the law, although the term is commonly used to refer to the ritual itself, in fact the phrase originally refers to the person. According to Jewish law, when Jewish boys become 13 years old, they become accountable for their actions, a girl becomes a bat mitzvah at the age of 12 according to Orthodox and Conservative Jews, and at the age of 13 according to Reform Jews. Prior to reaching bar mitzvah age, the parents hold the responsibility for the childs actions. After this age, the boys and girls bear their own responsibility for Jewish ritual law, tradition, and ethics, traditionally, the father of the bar mitzvah gives thanks to God that he is no longer punished for the childs sins. Bar mitzvah is mentioned in the Mishnah and in the Talmud, in some classic sources, the age of 13 appears for instance as the age from which males must fast on the Day of Atonement, while females fast from the age of 12. The age of bnai mitzvah roughly coincides with physical puberty, the bar or bat mitzvah ceremony is usually held on the first Shabbat after a boys thirteenth and a girls twelfth birthday. Reaching the age of bar or bat Mitzvah signifies becoming a member of the Jewish community with the responsibilities that come with it. According to Rabbi Mark Washofsky, The Reform Movement in North America has struggled over the bar/bat mitzvah, at one time, this ceremony was on the verge of extinction in Reform congregations. Most of them preferred to replace bar/bat mitzvah with confirmation, which considered a more enlightened. Yet the enduring popularity of bar/bat mitzvah prevailed and today, in our communities and he may also give a dvar Torah and/or lead part or all of the prayer services. In Orthodox circles, the occasion is celebrated during a weekday service that includes reading from the Torah. However, this does not delay the onset of rights and responsibilities of being a Jewish adult which comes about strictly by virtue of age, the obligation to lay tefillin begins when a boy reaches bar mitzvah age. In some Orthodox circles, however, the custom is for the bar mitzvah boy to begin putting on one to three months before his bar mitzvah. This way, by the time he is obligated in the commandment, Bar mitzvah festivities typically include a seudat mitzvah, a celebratory meal with family, friends, and members of the community. Others may celebrate in different ways such as taking the bar or bat mitzvah on a trip or organizing some special event in the celebrants honor
35.
Shlomo Riskin
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He belongs to the Modern Orthodox stream of Judaism. Shlomo Riskin was born on May 28,1940 in Brooklyn, in 1963, Riskin received his Masters Degree in Jewish history, and he completed a Ph. D from New York University in 1982. From 1963 until 1977, he lectured and served as an Associate Professor of Tanakh, at the age of 23, Riskin became the founding rabbi of Lincoln Square Synagogue in New York City and served in that position until 1983. With the full backing of his mentor, Rabbi Joseph B, soloveitchik, Rabbi Riskin transformed a fledgling Conservative minyan into one of New Yorks most innovative and dynamic Orthodox communities. The synagogue became particularly known for its pioneering outreach programs which inspired many secular people to become religiously observant Orthodox Jews. He was the chairman of Student Struggle for Soviet Jewry, the first American national movement to free Russian Jews, in 1983, Riskin immigrated to Efrat, Israel with his family, where he became the founding Chief Rabbi, a position he still holds. Over the years, he was joined by former members of his New York congregation. Riskin has dedicated himself to training a new generation of leaders for the Orthodox Jewish world, Riskin now has hundreds of former students serving as rabbis and educators in Israel and throughout the world. He has also pioneered the rights of women in the world of Orthodox Judaism and he broadened womens participation in public religious practices, and declared that women could hold their own celebration of Simhat Torah. He co-founded a womens college, Midreshet Lindenbaum, a prominent seminary for Orthodox women, in 2014, the first ever book of halachic decisions written by women who were ordained to serve as poskim was published. In 1991, Riskin issued a challenge in Israels High Court to the laws which prevented women from serving as Toanot - advocates in the Rabbinic Courts, Riskin won the case and established the first program for the training of women advocates in the religious courts. Graduates of the program now defend the rights of Agunot in the religious courts, Riskin is an advocate of the Prenuptial agreement idea as a solution for the problem of recalcitrant husbands. Riskin is a spokesperson for Jews and Israel against anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism. As an advocate of religious and cultural tolerance, he has worked to good relations with the leaders of the Palestinian villages surrounding the Efrat settlement. Rabbi Riskin was accused of comparing U. S. President Barack Obama to the antagonist of the Book of Esther, Haman, in April 2015, Riskins launching of the Day to Praise interfaith joint praise initiative caused an uproar within the Haredi Jewish circles. What could possibly be more appropriate, later that year, in September, on the eve of Rosh HaShana, Riskins claim was given further backing by Rabbi Pesach Wolicki. In an article written for The Times of Israel, Wolicki wrote, While discomfort is understandable, we dare not assume that what is uncomfortable, in 2010, Riskin appeared in a video where he referenced Jesus with a title of Rabbi, and called Jesus amodel Rabbi. These standbys are antithetical to Orthodox Judaism, and incompatible with mainstream theologies in other forms of Judaism, Riskin retracted the comments, and explained that a poor edit to the video left out his explanation that explained the fundamental differences between the religions
36.
Torah
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The Torah is the central reference of Judaism. It has a range of meanings and it can most specifically mean the first five books of the twenty-four books of the Tanakh, and it usually includes the rabbinic commentaries. In rabbinic literature the word Torah denotes both the five books and the Oral Torah, the Oral Torah consists of interpretations and amplifications which according to rabbinic tradition have been handed down from generation to generation and are now embodied in the Talmud and Midrash. According to the Midrash, the Torah was created prior to the creation of the world, traditionally, the words of the Torah are written on a scroll by a scribe in Hebrew. A Torah portion is read publicly at least once every three days in the presence of a congregation, reading the Torah publicly is one of the bases for Jewish communal life. The word Torah in Hebrew is derived from the root ירה, the meaning of the word is therefore teaching, doctrine, or instruction, the commonly accepted law gives a wrong impression. Other translational contexts in the English language include custom, theory, guidance, the earliest name for the first part of the Bible seems to have been The Torah of Moses. This title, however, is neither in the Torah itself. It appears in Joshua and Kings, but it cannot be said to refer there to the entire corpus, in contrast, there is every likelihood that its use in the post-Exilic works was intended to be comprehensive. Other early titles were The Book of Moses and The Book of the Torah, Christian scholars usually refer to the first five books of the Hebrew Bible as the Pentateuch, a term first used in the Hellenistic Judaism of Alexandria, meaning five books, or as the Law. The Torah starts from the beginning of Gods creating the world, through the beginnings of the people of Israel, their descent into Egypt, and it ends with the death of Moses, just before the people of Israel cross to the promised land of Canaan. Interspersed in the narrative are the teachings given explicitly or implicitly embedded in the narrative. This is followed by the story of the three patriarchs, Joseph and the four matriarchs, God gives to the patriarchs a promise of the land of Canaan, but at the end of Genesis the sons of Jacob end up leaving Canaan for Egypt due to a regional famine. They had heard there was a grain storage and distribution facility in Egypt. Exodus begins the story of Gods revelation to his people of Israel through Moses, Moses receives the Torah from God, and teaches His laws and Covenant to the people of Israel. It also talks about the first violation of the covenant when the Golden Calf was constructed, Exodus includes the instructions on building the Tabernacle and concludes with its actual construction. Leviticus begins with instructions to the Israelites on how to use the Tabernacle, leviticus 26 provides a detailed list of rewards for following Gods commandments and a detailed list of punishments for not following them. Numbers tells how Israel consolidated itself as a community at Sinai, set out from Sinai to move towards Canaan, even Moses sins and is told he would not live to enter the land
37.
Weekly Torah portion
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The weekly Torah portion, popularly just parashah and also known as a Sidra is a section of the Torah used in Jewish liturgy during a single week. The weekly reading is pre-empted by a reading on major religious holidays. The Saturday morning and holiday readings are followed by a reading from the Book of Prophets, there are 54 weekly parashiyot or parshahs in Judaism, and the full cycle is read over the course of one Jewish year. Each weekly Torah portion takes its name from the first distinctive word in the Hebrew text of the portion in question, in ancient times some Jewish communities practiced a triennial cycle of readings. The parashot read are still consistent with the cycle but the entire Torah is completed over three years. Orthodox Judaism does not follow this practice, due to different lengths of holidays in Israel and the Diaspora, the portion that is read on a particular week will sometimes not be the same inside and outside Israel. Maimonides based his division of the parashot for the Torah on the Masoretic text of the Aleppo Codex
38.
Shabbat
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Shabbat observance entails refraining from work activities, often with great rigor, and engaging in restful activities to honor the day. Judaisms traditional position is that unbroken seventh-day Shabbat originated among the Jewish people, as their first and most sacred institution, variations upon Shabbat are widespread in Judaism and, with adaptations, throughout the Abrahamic and many other religions. According to halakha, Shabbat is observed from a few minutes before sunset on Friday evening until the appearance of three stars in the sky on Saturday night, Shabbat is ushered in by lighting candles and reciting a blessing. Traditionally, three meals are eaten, in the evening, in the early afternoon, and late in the afternoon. The evening meal begins with a blessing called kiddush and another blessing recited over two loaves of challah. Shabbat is closed the evening with a havdalah blessing. Shabbat is a day when Jews exercise their freedom from the regular labors of everyday life. It offers an opportunity to contemplate the spiritual aspects of life, the word Shabbat derives from the Hebrew verb shavat. Although frequently translated as rest, another translation of these words is ceasing. The related modern Hebrew word shevita, has the implication of active rather than passive abstinence from work. The notion of active cessation from labor is also regarded as consistent with an omnipotent Gods activity on the seventh day of Creation according to Genesis. Sabbath is given status as a holy day at the very beginning of the Torah in Genesis 2. It is first commanded after the Exodus from Egypt, in Exodus 16,26 and in Exodus 20, Sabbath is commanded and commended many more times in the Torah and Tanakh, double the normal number of animal sacrifices are to be offered on the day. Sabbath is also described by the prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Amos, the longstanding traditional Jewish position is that unbroken seventh-day Shabbat originated among the Jewish people, as their first and most sacred institution. The Mosaic tradition quotes an origin from the Bible of special creation, though some suggest a later, naturalistic origin. Seventh-day Shabbat did not originate with the Egyptians, to whom it was unknown, the first non-Biblical reference to Sabbath is in an ostracon found in excavations at Mesad Hashavyahu, which is dated 630 BCE. The prohibitions on these days, spaced seven days apart, include abstaining from chariot riding, on these days officials were prohibited from various activities and common men were forbidden to make a wish, and at least the 28th was known as a rest-day. The difficulties of this theory include reconciling the differences between a week and a lunar week, and explaining the absence of texts naming the lunar week as Sabbath in any language
39.
Book of Ruth
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It is named after its central figure, Ruth the Moabitess, the great-grandmother of David. The book tells of Ruths accepting the God of the Israelites as her God, in Ruth 1, 16-17, Ruth tells Naomi, her Israelite mother-in-law, Where you go I will go, and where you stay I will stay. Your people will be my people and your God my God, where you die I will die, and there I will be buried. May the Lord deal with me, be it ever so severely, if even death separates you, the book is held in esteem by Jews who fall under the category of Jews-by-choice, as is evidenced by the considerable presence of Boaz in rabbinic literature. The Book of Ruth also functions liturgically, as it is read during the Jewish holiday of Shavuot, Elimelech died, and the sons married two Moabite women, Mahlon married Ruth and Chilion married Orpah. After about ten years, the two sons of Naomi also died in Moab, Naomi decided to return to Bethlehem. She told her daughters-in-law to return to their own mothers and remarry, the two women returned to Bethlehem at the beginning of the barley harvest, and in order to support her mother-in-law and herself, Ruth went to the fields to glean. As it happened, the field she went to belonged to a man named Boaz, Ruth told Naomi of Boazs kindness, and she gleaned in his field through the remainder of barley and wheat harvest. Boaz was a relative of Naomis husbands family. He was therefore obliged by the Levirate law to marry Mahlons widow, Ruth, in order to carry on his familys inheritance. Naomi sent Ruth to the floor at night and told her to go where he slept, and uncover his feet, and lay thee down. Boaz asked her who she was, and she replied, I Ruth thine handmaid, spread therefore thy skirt over thine handmaid, for thou a near kinsman. Boaz blessed her and agreed to do all that is required and he then acknowledged that he was a close relative, but that there was one who was closer, and she remained in submission at his feet until she returned into the city in the morning. Early that day, Boaz went to the city gate to meet with the other male relative before the town elders, the relative is not named, Boaz addresses him as Friend, peloni almoni, literally so and so. The Expanded Bibles editors comment that the man is not named, the unnamed relative was unwilling to jeopardize the inheritance of his own estate by marrying Ruth, and so relinquished his right of redemption, thus allowing Boaz to marry Ruth. They transferred the property and redeemed it, ratified by the nearer kinsman taking off his shoe, Boaz and Ruth were then married and had a son named Obed, who is the father of Jesse, the father of David. The book concludes with an appendix which links Perez, whom Tamar bore to Judah, the book does not name its author. It is traditionally ascribed to the prophet Samuel, but according to Leslie Allen this cannot be correct, a substantial number of scholars date it to the Persian period
40.
Conservative Judaism
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Conservative Judaism is a major Jewish denomination, which views Jewish Law, or Halakha, as both binding and subject to historical development. The movement considers its approach as the authentic and most appropriate continuation of halakhic discourse, worldwide, affiliated communities are united within the umbrella organization Masorti Olami. Conservative Judaism is estimated to represent close to 1,100,000 people, Conservative Judaism, from its earliest stages, was marked by ambivalence and ambiguity in all matters theological. Rabbi Zecharias Frankel, considered its progenitor, believed the very notion of theology was alien to traditional Judaism. He was often accused of obscurity on the subject by his opponents, the American movement largely espoused a similar approach, and its leaders mostly avoided the field. Only in 1985 did a course about Conservative theology open in the JTS, the hitherto sole major attempt to define a clear credo was made in 1988, with the Statement of Principles Emet ve-Emunah, formulated and issued by the Leadership Council of Conservative Judaism. The introduction stated that lack of definition was useful in the past, Conservative Judaism largely upholds the theistic notion of a personal God. Emet ve-Emunah stated that we affirm our faith in God as the Creator and Governor of the universe and his power called the world into being, His wisdom and goodness guide its destiny. Concurrently, the platform also noted that His nature was elusive, a naturalistic conception of divinity, regarding it as inseparable from the mundane world, once had an important place within the denomination, especially represented by Mordecai Kaplan. After Kaplans Reconstructionism fully coalesced into an independent movement, these views were marginalized, a similarly inconclusive position is expressed toward other precepts. Most theologians adhere to the Immortality of the Soul, but while references to the Resurrection of the Dead are maintained, in Emet, it was stated that death is not tantamount to the end of ones personality. The 1988 platform announced that some believe in classic eschathology, the notions of Election of Israel and Gods covenant with it were basically retained as well. Conservative conception of Revelation encompasses an extensive spectrum, Zecharias Frankel himself applied critical-scientific methods to analyze the stages in the development of the Oral Torah, pioneering modern study of the Mishnah. Yet he also vehemently rejected utilizing these disciplines on the Pentateuch, maintaining it was beyond human reach, Frankel never elucidated his beliefs, and the exact correlation between human and divine in his thought is still subject to scholarly debate. Along with other Reconstructionist tenets, it dwindled as the latter consolidated into a separate group, Kaplans views and the permeation of Higher Criticism gradually swayed most Conservative thinkers towards a non-verbal understanding of theophany, which has become dominant in the 1970s. This was en sync with the trend of lowering rates of Americans who accepted the Bible as the Word of God. Dorff categorized the proponents of this into two schools, one maintains that God projected some form of message which inspired the human authors of the Pentateuch to record what they perceived. The other is often influenced by Franz Rosenzweig and other existentialists
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Metropolitan Museum of Art
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The Metropolitan Museum of Art, colloquially the Met, is located in New York City and is the largest art museum in the United States, and is among the most visited art museums in the world. Its permanent collection contains two million works, divided among seventeen curatorial departments. The main building, on the edge of Central Park along Manhattans Museum Mile, is by area one of the worlds largest art galleries. A much smaller second location, The Cloisters at Fort Tryon Park in Upper Manhattan, contains a collection of art, architecture. On March 18,2016, the museum opened the Met Breuer museum at Madison Avenue in the Upper East Side, it extends the museums modern, the Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, Indian, and Islamic art. The museum is home to collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, as well as antique weapons. Several notable interiors, ranging from first-century Rome through modern American design, are installed in its galleries, the Metropolitan Museum of Art was founded in 1870. The founders included businessmen and financiers, as well as leading artists and thinkers of the day and it opened on February 20,1872, and was originally located at 681 Fifth Avenue. The Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, the museum is also home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, and antique weapons and armor from around the world. A number of interiors, ranging from 1st century Rome through modern American design, are permanently installed in the Mets galleries. In addition to its permanent exhibitions, the Met organizes and hosts traveling shows throughout the year. The director of the museum is Thomas P. Campbell, a long-time curator and it was announced on February 28th,2017 that Campbell will be stepping down as the Mets director and CEO, effective June. On March 1st,2017 the BBC reported that Daniel Weiss shall be the acting CEO until a replacement is found, Beginning in the late 19th century, the Met started to acquire ancient art and artifacts from the Near East. From a few tablets and seals, the Mets collection of Near Eastern art has grown to more than 7,000 pieces. The highlights of the include a set of monumental stone lamassu, or guardian figures. The Mets Department of Arms and Armor is one of the museums most popular collections. Among the collections 14,000 objects are many pieces made for and used by kings and princes, including armor belonging to Henry VIII of England, Henry II of France, Rockefeller donated his more than 3, 000-piece collection to the museum. The Mets Asian department holds a collection of Asian art, of more than 35,000 pieces, the collection dates back almost to the founding of the museum, many of the philanthropists who made the earliest gifts to the museum included Asian art in their collections
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Jane Austen
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Jane Austen was an English novelist known primarily for her six major novels, which interpret, critique and comment upon the British landed gentry at the end of the 18th century. Austens plots often explore the dependence of women on marriage in the pursuit of social standing. Her works critique the novels of sensibility of the half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-century literary realism. With the publications of Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice, Mansfield Park and Emma and she wrote two additional novels, Northanger Abbey and Persuasion, both published posthumously in 1818, and began another, eventually titled Sanditon, but died before its completion. Her novels have rarely been out of print, although they were published anonymously, a significant transition in her posthumous reputation occurred in 1869, fifty-two years after her death, when her nephews publication of A Memoir of Jane Austen introduced her to a wider audience. Austen has inspired a number of critical essays and literary anthologies. Her novels have inspired many films, from 1940s Pride and Prejudice to more recent productions, Sense and Sensibility, Jane Austens use of biting irony, along with her realism and social commentary have earned her great and historical importance to critics and scholars. The Bank of England has confirmed that the face of the new plastic £10 note will be Austen, the notes are expected to be released in summer 2017. There is little information about Jane Austens life except the few letters that survive. During her lifetime Austen wrote approximately 3,000 letters but only about 160 survive, many of the letters were written to Austens older sister Cassandra, who in 1843 burned the greater part of them and cut pieces out of those she kept. Cassandra believed that in the interest of tact and Janes penchant for forthrightness, the paucity of record of Austens life leaves modern biographers little to work with. The situation was compounded as successive generations of the family expunged and sanitized the already opaque details of Austens biography, Jane Austen was born in Steventon, Hampshire, on 16 December 1775. She was born a month later than her parents expected, her father wrote of her arrival in a letter that her mother certainly expected to have brought to bed a month ago. He added that her arrival was particularly welcome as a companion to her sister. The winter of 1776 was particularly harsh and it was not until 5 April that she was baptised at the church with the single name Jane. For much of Janes life, George Austen served as the rector of the Anglican parishes at Steventon, and he came from an old, respected, and wealthy family of wool merchants. Over the centuries as each generation of eldest sons received inheritances their wealth was consolidated and he and his two sisters were orphaned as children and had to be taken in by relatives. His sister Philadelphia went to India to find a husband and George entered St Johns College, Oxford on a fellowship and she came from the prominent Leigh family, her father was rector at All Souls College, Oxford, where she grew up among the gentry
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