1.
Test (assessment)
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A test or examination is an assessment intended to measure a test-takers knowledge, skill, aptitude, physical fitness, or classification in many other topics. A test may be administered verbally, on paper, on a computer, Tests vary in style, rigor and requirements. A test may be administered formally or informally, an example of an informal test would be a reading test administered by a parent to a child. An example of a formal test would be an examination administered by a teacher in a classroom or an I. Q. test administered by a psychologist in a clinic. Formal testing often results in a grade or a test score, a test score may be interpreted with regards to a norm or criterion, or occasionally both. The norm may be established independently, or by analysis of a large number of participants. An exam is meant to test a childs knowledge or willingness to give time to manipulate that subject, a standardized test is any test that is administered and scored in a consistent manner to ensure legal defensibility. Standardized tests are used in education, professional certification, psychology, the military. A non-standardized test is flexible in scope and format, variable in difficulty. Since these tests are developed by individual instructors, the format. A non-standardized test may be used to determine the level of students, to motivate students to study. Finally, the frequency and setting by which a non-standardized tests are administered are highly variable and are constrained by the duration of the class period. A class instructor may for example, administer a test on a basis or just twice a semester. Depending on the policy of the instructor or institution, the duration of each test itself may last for five minutes to an entire class period. In contrasts to non-standardized tests, standardized tests are used, fixed in terms of scope, difficulty and format. Although there is variability between different copies of the same type of standardized test, there is variability between different types of standardized tests. Any test with important consequences for the individual test taker is referred to as a high-stakes test, a test may be developed and administered by an instructor, a clinician, a governing body, or a test provider. In some instances, the developer of the test may not be responsible for its administration
2.
Primary education
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Primary education or elementary education is typically the first stage of compulsory education, coming between early childhood education and secondary education. Primary education usually takes place in a school or elementary school. In some countries, primary education is followed by school, an educational stage which exists in some countries. In order to achieve the goal by 2015, the United Nations estimated that all children at the entry age for primary school would have had to have been attending classes by 2009. This would depend on the duration of the level, as well as how well the schools retain students until the end of the cycle. As of 2010, the number of new teachers needed in sub-Saharan Africa alone, however, the gender gap for children not in education had also been narrowed. Between 1999 and 2008, the number of not in education worldwide had decreased from 57 percent to 53 percent, however it should also be noted that in some regions. According to the United Nations, there are things in the regions that have already been accomplished. The country doubled its enrollment ratio over the same period, other regions in Latin America such as Guatemala and Nicaragua as well as Zambia in Southern Africa broke through the 90 percent towards greater access to primary education. In Australia, students undertake preschool then 13 years of schooling before moving to vocational or higher education, Primary schooling for most children starts after they turn 5 years old. In most states, children can be enrolled earlier at the discretion of individual school principals on the basis of intellectual giftedness, in Victoria, New South Wales, Northern Territory, ACT and Tasmania students then move through Kindergarten/Preparatory School/Reception and Years 1 to 6 before starting high school. Pre-School/Kindergarten,4 to 5 years old Prep, currently, at the age of 6 children attend from the grade 1 to 4 what is called Ensino Primário, and afterwards from grade 5 to 9 the Ensino Fundamental. At the age of 15 the teenagers go to Ensino Médio, which is equivalent High School in other countries, Primary school is mandatory and consists in nine years called Ensino Fundamental, separated in Ensino Fundamental I and Ensino Fundamental II. Primary school is followed by the three years called Ensino Médio. 1st grade, 15- to 16-year-olds, 2nd grade, 16- to 17-year-olds, 3rd grade, in Canada, primary school usually begins at ages three or four, starting with either Kindergarten or Grade 1 and lasts until age 13 or 14. Many places in Canada have a split between primary and elementary schools, in Nova Scotia elementary school is the most common term. The provincial government of Nova Scotia uses the term Primary instead of Kindergarten, most children are pupils in the Danish Folkeskolen, which has the current grades, Kindergarten, 3–6 years https, //meta. wikimedia. The first three grades of school are called Algkool which can be translated as beginning school and can be confused with primary school
3.
Grammar school
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The original purpose of medieval grammar schools was the teaching of Latin. Over time the curriculum was broadened, first to include Ancient Greek, and later English and other European languages, natural sciences, mathematics, history, geography, and other subjects. In the late Victorian era grammar schools were reorganised to provide secondary education throughout England and Wales, Grammar schools of these types were also established in British territories overseas, where they have evolved in different ways. With the move to comprehensive schools in the 1960s and 1970s, some grammar schools became fully independent and charged fees. In both cases, many of these schools kept grammar school in their names, more recently, a number of state grammar schools still retaining their selective intake gained academy status, meaning that they are independent of the Local Education Authority. Some parts of England retain forms of the Tripartite System, some of the remaining grammar schools can trace their histories to before the 16th century. The schools were attached to cathedrals and monasteries, teaching Latin – the language of the church – to future priests, other subjects required for religious work were occasionally added, including music and verse, astronomy and mathematics and law. With the foundation of the ancient universities from the late 12th century, grammar schools became the point to a liberal arts education. Pupils were usually educated in schools up to the age of 14, after which they would look to universities. An example of a grammar school founded by a medieval borough corporation unconnected with church or university is Bridgnorth Grammar School. During the English Reformation in the 16th century, most cathedral schools were closed and replaced by new foundations funded from the dissolution of the monasteries. For example, the oldest extant schools in Wales – Christ College, Brecon, with the increased emphasis on studying the scriptures after the Reformation, many schools added Greek and, in a few cases, Hebrew. The teaching of languages was hampered by a shortage of non-Latin type. Many of these are commemorated in annual Founders Day services and ceremonies at surviving schools. The usual pattern was to create an endowment to pay the wages of a master to instruct boys in Latin. The school day ran from 6 a. m. to 5 p. m. with a two-hour break for lunch, in winter, school started at 7 a. m. Most of the day was spent in the learning of Latin. To encourage fluency, some schoolmasters recommended punishing any pupil who spoke in English, by the end of their studies at age 14, they would be quite familiar with the great Latin authors, and with Latin drama and rhetoric
4.
Comprehensive school
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A comprehensive school is a secondary school or middle school that is a state school and does not select its intake on the basis of academic achievement or aptitude. This is in contrast to the school system, where admission is restricted on the basis of selection criteria. The term is used in relation to England and Wales. About 90% of British secondary school pupils now attend comprehensive schools and they correspond broadly to the public high school in the United States and Canada and to the German Gesamtschule. Comprehensive schools are primarily about providing an entitlement curriculum to all children, a consequence of that is a wider ranging curriculum, including practical subjects such as design and technology and vocational learning, which were less common or non-existent in grammar schools. In addition, government initiatives such as the City Technology Colleges, a problem with this is whether the quotas should be taken from a normal distribution or from the specific distribution of attainment in the immediate catchment area. In the selective system, which survives in several parts of the United Kingdom, admission is dependent on selection criteria. Although comprehensive schools were introduced to England and Wales in 1965, in principle, comprehensive schools were conceived as neighbourhood schools for all students in a specified catchment area. Finland has used comprehensive schools after 5th grade since the 1970s, since the 1970s, everyone has been required to complete the same nine grades of peruskoulu, from the ages of 7 to 16. This change was modeled on the British comprehensive school, which goes from the ages of 11 to 16, from the ages of 16 to 19, students go either to vocational school or high school. The division of the peruskoulu into a school and upper school has been discontinued. Germany has a school known as the Gesamtschule. While some German schools such as the Gymnasium and the Realschule have rather strict entrance requirements and they offer college preparatory classes for the students who are doing well, general education classes for average students, and remedial courses for those who arent doing that well. In most cases students attending a Gesamtschule may graduate with the Hauptschulabschluss, the percentage of students attending a Gesamtschule varies by Bundesland. In the State of Brandenburg more than 50% of all students attended a Gesamtschule in 2007, the Mittelschule is a school in some States of Germany that offers regular classes and remedial classes but no college preparatory classes. In some States of Germany, the Hauptschule does not exist, students may be awarded the Hauptschulabschluss or the Mittlere Reife but not the Abitur. There is some controversy about comprehensive schools, Gesamtschule senior students of average mathematical ability found themselves in the upper half of their class and had an average grade of Three Plus. When a central Abitur examination was established in the State of North Rhine-Westphalia, the comprehensives do not help students achieve I am sick and tired of the comprehensive schools blaming their problems on the social class origins of their students
5.
Intelligence quotient
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An intelligence quotient is a total score derived from several standardized tests designed to assess human intelligence. The resulting fraction is multiplied by 100 to obtain the IQ score, by this definition, approximately two-thirds of the population scores between IQ85 and IQ115. About 5 percent of the population scores above 125, and 5 percent below 75, IQ scores have been shown to be associated with such factors as morbidity and mortality, parental social status, and, to a substantial degree, biological parental IQ. While the heritability of IQ has been investigated for nearly a century, there is debate about the significance of heritability estimates. IQ scores are used for placement, assessment of intellectual disability. Even when students improve their scores on standardized tests, they do not always improve their abilities, such as memory, attention. In research contexts they have studied as predictors of job performance. They are also used to study distributions of psychometric intelligence in populations, raw scores on IQ tests for many populations have been rising at an average rate that scales to three IQ points per decade since the early 20th century, a phenomenon called the Flynn effect. Investigation of different patterns of increases in subtest scores can also inform current research on human intelligence, historically, even before IQ tests were invented, there were attempts to classify people into intelligence categories by observing their behavior in daily life. Those other forms of observation are still important for validating classifications based primarily on IQ test scores. The English statistician Francis Galton made the first attempt at creating a standardized test for rating a persons intelligence and he hypothesized that there should exist a correlation between intelligence and other observable traits such as reflexes, muscle grip, and head size. He set up the first mental testing centre in the world in 1882 and he published Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development in 1883, after gathering data on a variety of physical variables, he was unable to show any such correlation, and he eventually abandoned this research. French psychologist Alfred Binet, together with Victor Henri and Théodore Simon had more success in 1905, when published the Binet-Simon test. The score on the Binet-Simon scale would reveal the childs mental age, for example, a six-year-old child who passed all the tasks usually passed by six-year-olds—but nothing beyond—would have a mental age that matched his chronological age,6.0. Binet thought that intelligence was multifaceted, but came under the control of practical judgment, American psychologist Henry H. Goddard published a translation of it in 1910. American psychologist Lewis Terman at Stanford University revised the Binet-Simon scale and it became the most popular test in the United States for decades. The many different kinds of IQ tests include a variety of item content. Some test items are visual, while many are verbal, test items vary from being based on abstract-reasoning problems to concentrating on arithmetic, vocabulary, or general knowledge
6.
Education Act 1944
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The Education Act 1944 made numerous major changes in the provision and governance of secondary schools in England and Wales. It is also known as the Butler Act after the Conservative politician R. A. Butler, historians consider it a triumph for progressive reform, and it became a core element of the Post-war consensus supported by all major parties. The Act was repealed in steps with the last parts repealed in 1996, the Education Act of 1944 was an answer to surging social and educational demands created by the war and the widespread demands for social reform. It passed after Butler consulted with spokesman for all positions by sending around a detailed proposal drawn up by his predecessor, Education After the War. He worked out compromises with local authorities, and cut spending goals to assuage the Treasury, the bill reflected Butlers priorities, and incorporated proposals developed by leading specialists in the 1920s and 1930s such as R. H. Tawney and William Henry Hadow. The Green Book text was drafted by his staff, Griffiths G. Williams, William Cleary, wallis, S. H. Wood, Robert S. Wood, and Maurice Holmes. Butler wanted to keep the churches involved in education but they could not on their own afford to modernize and his act left a third of the Anglican church schools in place with enhanced subsidies, increasing public and teacher control over them. It encouraged nonsectarian religious teaching in secular schools, the bill was enacted in 1944, but its changes were designed to take effect after the war, thus allowing for additional pressure groups to have their influence. Butler designed the Act as an expression of One Nation Conservatism in the tradition of Disraeli and it abolished fees on parents for state secondary schools. It brought a more equitable funding system to localities and to different school sectors, the Act renamed the Board of Education as the Ministry of Education, giving it greater powers and a bigger budget. It also brought in a new system for setting teacher salaries, the new Tripartite System consisted of three different types of secondary school, grammar schools, secondary technical schools and secondary modern schools. It allowed for the creation of schools which would combine these strands. To assess which pupils should attend school, they took an exam known as the 11-plus. As a result, most pupils went to secondary schools, whether they were suitable or not. One of the results of the Act was to opened secondary schools to girls, another result was that the percentage of children attending higher education tripled from 1% to 3%. Anglican schools were continued, but brought under increased state funding, every state-funded school was required to begin the day with a nondenominational religious prayer into all schools. The amendment also specified that the act of worship could now take place in classes, the Act was supported by HORSA a building programme to provide hut-style accommodation to meet the additional educational demand. The Education Act 1944 made it a duty of local authorities to provide school meals
7.
Berkshire
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Berkshire is a county in south east England, west of London. It was recognised as the Royal County of Berkshire because of the presence of Windsor Castle by the Queen in 1957, Berkshire is a county of historic origin and is a home county, a ceremonial county and a non-metropolitan county without a county council. Berkshire County Council was the main county governance from 1889 to 1998 except for the separately administered County Borough of Reading, in 1974, significant alterations were made to the countys administrative boundaries although the traditional boundaries of Berkshire were not changed. The towns of Abingdon, Didcot and Wantage were transferred to Oxfordshire, Slough was gained from Buckinghamshire, since 1998, Berkshire has been governed by the six unitary authorities of Bracknell Forest, Reading, Slough, West Berkshire, Windsor and Maidenhead and Wokingham. It borders the counties of Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Greater London, Surrey, according to Asser, it takes its name from a large forest of box trees that was called Bearroc. Berkshire has been the scene of notable battles through its history. Alfred the Greats campaign against the Danes included the Battles of Englefield, Ashdown, Newbury was the site of two English Civil War battles, the First Battle of Newbury in 1643 and the Second Battle of Newbury in 1644. The nearby Donnington Castle was reduced to a ruin in the aftermath of the second battle, another Battle of Reading took place on 9 December 1688. It was the only military action in England during the Glorious Revolution. Reading became the new county town in 1867, taking over from Abingdon, boundary alterations in the early part of the 20th century were minor, with Caversham from Oxfordshire becoming part of the Reading county borough, and cessions in the Oxford area. On 1 April 1974 Berkshires boundaries changed under the Local Government Act 1972, Berkshire took over administration of Slough and Eton and part of the former Eton Rural District from Buckinghamshire. 94 Signal Squadron still keep the Uffington White Horse in their insignia, the original Local Government White Paper would have transferred Henley-on-Thames from Oxfordshire to Berkshire, this proposal did not make it into the Bill as introduced. On 1 April 1998 Berkshire County Council was abolished under a recommendation of the Banham Commission, unlike similar reforms elsewhere at the same time, the non-metropolitan county was not abolished. Berkshire divides into two distinct sections with the boundary lying roughly on a north-south line through the centre of Reading. The eastern section of Berkshire lies largely to the south of the River Thames, in two places the county now includes land to the north of the river. Tributaries of the Thames, including the Loddon and Blackwater, increase the amount of low lying land in the area. Beyond the flood plains, the land rises gently to the county boundaries with Surrey, much of this area is still well wooded, especially around Bracknell and Windsor Great Park. In the west of the county and heading upstream, the Thames veers away to the north of the county boundary, leaving the county behind at the Goring Gap
8.
Buckinghamshire
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Development in this region is restricted by the Metropolitan Green Belt. Other large settlements include the county town of Aylesbury, Marlow in the south near the Thames and Princes Risborough in the west near Oxford. Some areas without rail links to London, such as around the old county town of Buckingham. The largest town is Milton Keynes in the northeast, which with the area is administered as a unitary authority separately to the rest of Buckinghamshire. The remainder of the county is administered by Buckinghamshire County Council as a non-metropolitan county, in national elections, Buckinghamshire is considered a reliable supporter of the Conservative Party. A large part of the Chiltern Hills, an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, runs through the south of the county and attracts many walkers, in this area older buildings are often made from local flint and red brick. Chequers, an estate owned by the government, is the country retreat of the incumbent Prime Minister. To the north of the county lies rolling countryside in the Vale of Aylesbury, the Thames forms part of the county’s southwestern boundary. Notable service amenities in the county are Pinewood Film Studios, Dorney rowing lake, many national companies have offices in Milton Keynes. Heavy industry and quarrying is limited, with agriculture predominating after service industries, the name Buckinghamshire is Anglo-Saxon in origin and means The district of Buccas home. Buccas home refers to Buckingham in the north of the county, the county has been so named since about the 12th century, however, the county has existed since it was a subdivision of the kingdom of Mercia. Historically, the biggest change to the county came in the 19th century, Buckinghamshire is a popular home for London commuters, leading to greater local affluence, however, some pockets of relative deprivation remain. As a result, most county institutions are now based in the south of the county or Milton Keynes, the county can be split into two sections geographically. The county includes parts of two of the four longest rivers in England, the River Thames forms the southern boundary with Berkshire, which has crept over the border at Eton and Slough so that the river is no longer the sole boundary between the two counties. The River Great Ouse rises just outside the county in Northamptonshire and flows east through Buckingham, Milton Keynes, the main branch of the Grand Union Canal passes through the county as do its arms to Slough, Aylesbury, Wendover and Buckingham. The canal has been incorporated into the landscaping of Milton Keynes, the southern part of the county is dominated by the Chiltern Hills. The two highest points in Buckinghamshire are Haddington Hill in Wendover Woods at 267 metres above sea level, quarrying has taken place for chalk, clay for brickmaking and gravel and sand in the river valleys. Flint, also extracted from quarries, was used to build older local buildings
9.
Mathematics
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Mathematics is the study of topics such as quantity, structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope, Mathematicians seek out patterns and use them to formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof, when mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic, mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, practical mathematics has been a human activity from as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry, rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclids Elements. Galileo Galilei said, The universe cannot be read until we have learned the language and it is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these, one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth, carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as the Queen of the Sciences. Benjamin Peirce called mathematics the science that draws necessary conclusions, David Hilbert said of mathematics, We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules, rather, it is a conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise. Albert Einstein stated that as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics, Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, the history of mathematics can be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions. The earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement, painting and weaving patterns, in Babylonian mathematics elementary arithmetic first appears in the archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral systems have many and diverse. Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a study of mathematics in its own right with Greek mathematics. Mathematics has since been extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today, the overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs. The word máthēma is derived from μανθάνω, while the modern Greek equivalent is μαθαίνω, in Greece, the word for mathematics came to have the narrower and more technical meaning mathematical study even in Classical times
10.
London Borough of Bexley
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The London Borough of Bexley /ˈbɛksli/ is a London borough in south-east London, England. There is a border with Dartford borough to the east and Sevenoaks district to the south-east, the London Borough of Bexley is within the Thames Gateway, an area designated as a national priority for urban regeneration. The local authority is Bexley London Borough Council, Erith was a port on the River Thames until the 17th century, the opening of the sewage works at nearby Crossness in the late 19th century turned it into an industrial town. Todays settlement pattern is the result of the extension of the London influence. Until the 19th century it was an area with a few isolated buildings such as the Georgian Danson House, with the coming of the railways building began apace, although the area is still composed of many disconnected settlements, interspersed with area of open ground and parks. The town of Bexley, Ohio, a suburb of the city of Columbus, was named at the suggestion of a resident, Mr. Kilbourne, whose familys roots were in Bexley. In addition, a suburb of Sydney, Australia bears the name of Bexley, the London Borough of Bexley itself also derived its name from the village of Bexley. The village currently lies within the London Borough, the coat of arms of the borough includes symbols for the main rivers in the area, the industry and the border to Kent. The administrative centre of the Borough is in Bexleyheath, there are 21 wards represented on Bexley Council, each ward elects three councillors,63 in all. The wards are shown on the accompanying map and this high land, whose geology is the sand and pebbles of the Blackheath beds, and which results in heathland, provided the line on the old Roman road ran between Crayford and Welling. The land falls away to the north of the ground, across the Erith Marshes to the River Thames. There is further ridge of higher ground from the west terminating at Sidcup. The major centres of settlement can be considered in two parts, the older established erstwhile villages, and the areas of suburban houses and centres. Among the former are Erith, in the 17th century a port on the Thames, by the earlier 20th century, both were created Urban District Councils, as was Foots Cray. Thamesmead, the new town built on what was the Erith Marshes, extends into the Borough, Crayford was mentioned in the Domesday Book, and its parish later included the hamlets of North End and Slade Green. The map of Bexley shows that a proportion of its area comprises suburbia. Some named places, like Albany Park and Barnehurst, are given to developments engendered by the building of the railways. Some came into being when large estates and farmland were broken up for the purpose of suburban building
11.
Essex
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Essex /ˈɛsᵻks/ is a county in England immediately north-east of London. It borders the counties of Suffolk and Cambridgeshire to the north, Hertfordshire to the west, Kent across the estuary of the River Thames to the south, the county town is Chelmsford, which is the only city in the county. Essex occupies the part of the old Kingdom of Essex, before this. As well as areas, the county also includes London Stansted Airport, the new towns of Basildon and Harlow, Lakeside Shopping Centre, the port of Tilbury. Originally recorded in AD527, Essex occupied territory to the north of the River Thames, incorporating all of what later became Middlesex and its territory was later restricted to lands east of the River Lea. In changes before the Norman conquest the East Saxons were subsumed into the Kingdom of England and, following the Norman conquest, Essex became a county. During the medieval period, much of the area was designated a Royal forest, including the county in a period to 1204. Gradually, the subject to forest law diminished, but at various times included the forests of Becontree, Chelmsford, Epping, Hatfield, Ongar. County-wide administration Essex County Council was formed in 1889, however County Boroughs of West Ham, Southend-on-Sea and East Ham formed part of the county but were unitary authorities. 12 boroughs and districts provide more localised services such as rubbish and recycling collections, leisure and planning, parish-level administration – changes A few Essex parishes have been transferred to other counties. Before 1889, small areas were transferred to Hertfordshire near Bishops Stortford, Essex became part of the East of England Government Office Region in 1994 and was statistically counted as part of that region from 1999, having previously been part of the South East England region. Two unitary authorities In 1998 the boroughs of Southend-on-Sea and Thurrock were granted autonomy from the county of Essex after successful requests to become unitary authorities. Essex Police covers the county and the two unitary authorities. The county council chamber and main headquarters is at the County Hall in Chelmsford, before 1938 the council regularly met in London near Moorgate, which with significant parts closer to that point and the dominance of railways had been more convenient than any place in the county. It currently has 75 elected councillors, before 1965, the number of councillors reached over 100. The highest point of the county of Essex is Chrishall Common near the village of Langley, close to the Hertfordshire border, the pattern of settlement in the county is diverse. Epping Forest also acts as a barrier to the further spread of London. Part of the southeast of the county, already containing the population centres of Basildon, Southend and Thurrock, is within the Thames Gateway
12.
North Yorkshire
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North Yorkshire is a non-metropolitan county and larger ceremonial county in England. It is located primarily in the region of Yorkshire and the Humber, created by the Local Government Act 1972, it covers an area of 8,654 square kilometres, making it the largest county in England. The majority of the Yorkshire Dales and the North York Moors lie within North Yorkshires boundaries, the largest settlements are York, Middlesbrough, Harrogate and Scarborough, the county town, Northallerton, has a population of 16,832. The area under the control of the county council, or shire county, is divided into a number of local government districts, Craven, Hambleton, Harrogate, Richmondshire, Ryedale, Scarborough, the changes were planned to be implemented no later than 1 April 2009. This was rejected on 25 July 2007 so the County Council, the largest settlement in the administrative county is Harrogate, the second largest is Scarborough, while in the ceremonial county, the largest is York. The largest urban area within the county is the Middlesbrough built-up area sub-division of Teesside. Uniquely for a district in England, Stockton-on-Tees is split between North Yorkshire and County Durham for this purpose, Middlesbrough, Stockton-on-Tees, and Redcar and Cleveland boroughs form part of the North East England region. The ceremonial county area, including the authorities, borders East Riding of Yorkshire, South Yorkshire, West Yorkshire, Lancashire, Cumbria. The geology of North Yorkshire is closely reflected in its landscape, within the county are the North York Moors and most of the Yorkshire Dales, two of eleven areas of countryside within England and Wales to be officially designated as national parks. Between the North York Moors in the east and the Pennine Hills in the west lie the Vales of Mowbray, the Tees Lowlands lie to the north of the North York Moors and the Vale of Pickering lies to the south. Its eastern border is the North sea coast, the highest point is Whernside, on the Cumbrian border, at 736 metres. The two major rivers in the county are the River Swale and the River Ure, the Swale and the Ure form the River Ouse which flows through York and into the Humber estuary. The River Tees forms part of the border between North Yorkshire and County Durham and flows from upper Teesdale to Middlesbrough and Stockton and to the coast, North Yorkshire is a non-metropolitan county that operates a cabinet-style council, North Yorkshire County Council. The full council of 72 elects a council leader, who in turn appoints up to 9 more councillors to form the executive cabinet, the cabinet is responsible for making decisions in the County. The county council have their offices in the County Hall in Northallerton, the county is affluent and has above average house prices. Unemployment is below average for the UK and claimants of Job Seekers Allowance is also very low compared to the rest of the UK at 2. 7%, agriculture is an important industry, as are mineral extraction and power generation. The county also has high technology, service and tourism sectors. This is a chart of trend of gross value added for North Yorkshire at current basic prices with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling
13.
Harrogate
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Harrogate is a spa town in North Yorkshire, England. Historically in the West Riding of Yorkshire, the town is a tourist destination and its attractions include its spa waters. Nearby is the Yorkshire Dales national park and the Nidderdale AONB, Harrogate grew out of two smaller settlements, High Harrogate and Low Harrogate, in the 17th century. Since 2013, polls have consistently voted the town as the happiest place to live in Britain, Harrogate spa water contains iron, sulphur and common salt. The town became known as The English Spa in the Georgian era, in the 17th and 18th centuries its chalybeate waters were a popular health treatment, and the influx of wealthy but sickly visitors contributed significantly to the wealth of the town. Harrogate railway station and Harrogate bus station in the town centre provide transport connections, Leeds Bradford International Airport is 10 miles south-west of Harrogate. The main roads through the town are the A61, connecting Harrogate to Leeds and Ripon, Harrogate is also connected to Wetherby and the A1, by the A661. The town motto is Arx celebris fontibus, which means a citadel famous for its springs, the name Harrogate is first attested in the 1330s as Harwegate, Harougat and Harrowgate. The origin of the name is uncertain and it may derive from Old Norse hǫrgr a heap of stones, cairn + gata street, in which case the name presumably meant road to the cairn. Another possibility is that the means the way to Harlow. The form Harlowgate is known from 1518, and apparently in the rolls of Edward II. In medieval times Harrogate was a place on the borders of the township of Bilton with Harrogate in the ancient Parish of Knaresborough, and the parish of Pannal, also known as Beckwith with Rossett. The part within the township of Bilton developed into the community of High Harrogate, both communities were within the Royal Forest of Knaresborough. In 1372 King Edward III granted the Royal Forest to his son John, Duke of Lancaster, Harrogates development is owed to the discovery of its chalybeate and sulphur rich spring water from the 16th century. The medicinal properties of the waters were publicised by Edmund Deane and his book, Spadacrene Anglica, or the English Spa Fountain was published in 1626. In the 17th and 18th centuries further chalybeate springs were discovered in High Harrogate, the two communities attracted many visitors. A number of inns were opened for visitors in High Harrogate in the 17th century In Low Harrogate the Crown was open by the mid 18th century, in accordance with an Enclosure Act of 1770, promoted by the Duchy of Lancaster, the Royal Forest of Knaresborough was enclosed. The Enclosure Award of 1778 clarified ownership of land in the Harrogate area, under the Award 200 acres of land, which included the springs known at that time, were reserved as a public common, the Stray, which has remained public open space
14.
York
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York is a historic walled city at the confluence of the rivers Ouse and Foss in North Yorkshire, England. The municipality is the county town of Yorkshire to which it gives its name. The city has a heritage and has provided the backdrop to major political events in England throughout much of its two millennia of existence. The city offers a wealth of attractions, of which York Minster is the most prominent. The city was founded by the Romans as Eboracum in 71 AD and it became the capital of the Roman province of Britannia Inferior, and later of the kingdoms of Northumbria and Jórvík. In the Middle Ages, York grew as a wool trading centre and became the capital of the northern ecclesiastical province of the Church of England. In the 19th century, York became a hub of the railway network, in recent decades, the economy of York has moved from being dominated by its confectionery and railway-related industries to one that provides services. The University of York and health services have become major employers, from 1996, the term City of York describes a unitary authority area which includes rural areas beyond the old city boundaries. In 2011 the urban area had a population of 153,717, the word York derives from the Latinised name for the city, variously rendered as Eboracum, Eburacum or Eburaci. The first mention of York by this name is dated to circa 95–104 AD as an address on a wooden stylus tablet from the Roman fortress of Vindolanda in Northumberland, the toponymy of Eboracum is uncertain because the language of the pre-Roman indigenous population was never recorded. They are thought to have spoken a Celtic language related to modern Welsh, in his Historia Regum Britanniae the 12th century chronicler, Geoffrey of Monmouth, suggests the name derives from that of a pre-Roman city founded by the legendary king Ebraucus. Alternatively, the word already existed as an Old English word for wild swine. The Anglo-Saxon newcomers probably interpreted the part as eofor, and -rac as ric, while -um was a common abbreviation of the Saxon -heem. To them, it sounded as a home rich in boar, as is common in Saxon place names, the -um part gradually faded, eoforic. When the Danish army conquered the city in 866, its name became Jórvík, the Old French and Norman name of the city following the Norman Conquest was recorded as Everwic in works such as Waces Roman de Rou. The form York was first recorded in the 13th century, many company and place names, such as the Ebor race meeting, refer to the Roman name. The Archbishop of York uses Ebor as his surname in his signature, archaeological evidence suggests that Mesolithic people settled in the region of York between 8000 and 7000 BC, although it is not known whether their settlements were permanent or temporary. By the time of the Roman conquest of Britain, the area was occupied by a known to the Romans as the Brigantes
15.
Public school (United Kingdom)
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A public school in England and Wales is an older, student selective and expensive fee-paying independent secondary school which caters primarily for children aged between 11 or 13 and 18. The term public should not be misunderstood to mean that these are public sector schools, traditionally, public schools were all-male boarding schools, although most now allow day pupils, and many have become either partially or fully co-educational. The origins of schools in the UK were primarily religious until 1640 and it was intended that by-products of this would be the publication of universal books and the setting up of schools for boys and girls. Henceforth each of these schools was to be managed by a board of governors, Public schools have had a strong association with the ruling classes. Historically they educated the sons of the English upper and upper-middle classes, the sons of officers and senior administrators of the British Empire were educated in England while their parents were on overseas postings. In 2010, over half of Cabinet Ministers had been educated at public schools, in 2014, annual fees at Canford School and Eton College were more than £33,000 for boarders. The name dates back to the time when schools founded for local children went public and it is also used to describe the some 230 girls senior schools belonging to the Girls Schools Association. Until the late medieval period most schools were controlled by the church and had specific entrance criteria, others were restricted to the sons of members of guilds, trades or livery companies. The need for professional trades in an increasingly secularised society required schools for the sons of the gentry that were independent from ecclesiastical authority, from the 16th century onward, boys boarding schools were founded or endowed for public use. Traditionally, most of public schools were all boys and full boarding. Separate preparatory schools for younger boys developed from the 1830s, with entry to the schools becoming limited to boys of at least 12 or 13 years old. The first of these was Windlesham House School, established with support from Thomas Arnold, many of the schools, including Rugby School, Harrow School and the Perse School fell into decline during the 18th century and nearly closed in the early 19th century. Protests in the local newspaper forced governors of the Perse School to keep it open, a Royal Commission, the Clarendon Commission, investigated nine of the more established schools, including seven boarding schools and two day schools. St Pauls School and the Merchant Taylors School claimed successfully that their constitutions made them private schools, in 1887 the Divisional Court and the Court of Appeal determined that the City of London School was a public school. In the first year only 12 headmasters attended, but in the following year 34 did, the Headmasters Conference has since grown steadily to over 200 schools. The Public Schools Yearbook was published for the first time in 1889, listing 30 schools, mostly boarding schools except for St Pauls School, some academically successful grammar schools were added in later editions. The 1902 edition included all schools whose principals qualified for membership of the Headmasters Conference, the Fleming Report defined a public school as a member of the Governing Bodies Association or the Headmasters Conference. Based on the recommendations of this report, the Education Act 1944 offered a new status to endowed grammar schools receiving a grant from central government
16.
Normal distribution
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In probability theory, the normal distribution is a very common continuous probability distribution. Normal distributions are important in statistics and are used in the natural and social sciences to represent real-valued random variables whose distributions are not known. The normal distribution is useful because of the limit theorem. Physical quantities that are expected to be the sum of independent processes often have distributions that are nearly normal. Moreover, many results and methods can be derived analytically in explicit form when the relevant variables are normally distributed, the normal distribution is sometimes informally called the bell curve. However, many other distributions are bell-shaped, the probability density of the normal distribution is, f =12 π σ2 e −22 σ2 Where, μ is mean or expectation of the distribution. σ is standard deviation σ2 is variance A random variable with a Gaussian distribution is said to be distributed and is called a normal deviate. The simplest case of a distribution is known as the standard normal distribution. The factor 1 /2 in the exponent ensures that the distribution has unit variance and this function is symmetric around x =0, where it attains its maximum value 1 /2 π and has inflection points at x = +1 and x = −1. Authors may differ also on which normal distribution should be called the standard one, the probability density must be scaled by 1 / σ so that the integral is still 1. If Z is a normal deviate, then X = Zσ + μ will have a normal distribution with expected value μ. Conversely, if X is a normal deviate, then Z = /σ will have a standard normal distribution. Every normal distribution is the exponential of a function, f = e a x 2 + b x + c where a is negative. In this form, the mean value μ is −b/, for the standard normal distribution, a is −1/2, b is zero, and c is − ln /2. The standard Gaussian distribution is denoted with the Greek letter ϕ. The alternative form of the Greek phi letter, φ, is used quite often. The normal distribution is often denoted by N. Thus when a random variable X is distributed normally with mean μ and variance σ2, some authors advocate using the precision τ as the parameter defining the width of the distribution, instead of the deviation σ or the variance σ2
17.
Standard deviation
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In statistics, the standard deviation is a measure that is used to quantify the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of data values. The standard deviation of a variable, statistical population, data set. It is algebraically simpler, though in practice less robust, than the absolute deviation. A useful property of the deviation is that, unlike the variance. There are also other measures of deviation from the norm, including mean absolute deviation, in addition to expressing the variability of a population, the standard deviation is commonly used to measure confidence in statistical conclusions. For example, the margin of error in polling data is determined by calculating the standard deviation in the results if the same poll were to be conducted multiple times. This derivation of a deviation is often called the standard error of the estimate or standard error of the mean when referring to a mean. It is computed as the deviation of all the means that would be computed from that population if an infinite number of samples were drawn. It is very important to note that the deviation of a population. The reported margin of error of a poll is computed from the error of the mean and is typically about twice the standard deviation—the half-width of a 95 percent confidence interval. The standard deviation is also important in finance, where the standard deviation on the rate of return on an investment is a measure of the volatility of the investment. For a finite set of numbers, the deviation is found by taking the square root of the average of the squared deviations of the values from their average value. For example, the marks of a class of eight students are the eight values,2,4,4,4,5,5,7,9. These eight data points have the mean of 5,2 +4 +4 +4 +5 +5 +7 +98 =5 and this formula is valid only if the eight values with which we began form the complete population. If the values instead were a sample drawn from some large parent population. In that case the result would be called the standard deviation. Dividing by n −1 rather than by n gives an estimate of the variance of the larger parent population. This is known as Bessels correction, as a slightly more complicated real-life example, the average height for adult men in the United States is about 70 inches, with a standard deviation of around 3 inches
18.
Department of Education (Northern Ireland)
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The Department of Education is a devolved Northern Irish government department in the Northern Ireland Executive. The minister with responsibility for the department is the Minister of Education. The departments overall vision is to ensure that every learner fulfils her or his potential at each stage of development, the incumbent Minister is Peter Weir. Further and higher education are now the responsibility of the Department for the Economy, through the Education and Training Inspectorate, it evaluates and reports on the quality of teaching and learning and teacher education. The main counterpart in the Irish Government is the Department of Education, a Ministry of Education was established at the foundation of Northern Ireland in June 1921 and was subsequently renamed the Department of Education under direct rule, introduced in March 1972. An education ministry was also included in the Northern Ireland Executive briefly formed in 1974, the departments remit under direct rule was much wider, incorporating cultural and sport policy and further and higher education. A devolved minister took office on 2 December 1999, since 8 May 2007, devolution has operated without interruption. On 11 January 2012, the First Minister and deputy First Minister, Peter Robinson and Martin McGuinness respectively, announced their intention to abolish the Department for Employment and Learning. Its functions would be divided principally between the Department of Education and the Department of Enterprise, Trade and Investment in an agreed manner. The proposal was resisted by the Alliance Party, which viewed it as power grab by the Democratic Unionist Party and Sinn Féin, no timescale for the abolition was outlined and the department remained in operation, as of late March 2012
19.
Northern Ireland Assembly
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The Northern Ireland Assembly is the devolved legislature of Northern Ireland. It has power to legislate in a range of areas that are not explicitly reserved to the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It sits at Parliament Buildings at Stormont in Belfast, the Assembly is one of two mutually inter-dependent institutions created under the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, the other being the North/South Ministerial Council with the Republic of Ireland. The Agreement aimed at bringing an end to Northern Irelands violent 30-year Troubles, the Assembly is a unicameral, democratically elected body comprising 90 members known as Members of the Legislative Assembly, or MLAs. Members are elected under the single transferable vote form of proportional representation, the Assembly has been suspended on several occasions, the longest suspension being from 14 October 2002 until 7 May 2007. When the Assembly was suspended, its powers reverted to the Northern Ireland Office, powers in relation to policing and justice were transferred to the Assembly on 12 April 2010. The third assembly was dissolved on 24 March 2011 in preparation for the elections to be held on Thursday 5 May 2011 and this was the first assembly since the Good Friday Agreement to complete a full term. This was followed by a fourth term. After the May 2016 elections, the Assembly convened for a fifth term and that assembly dissolved on 26 January 2017, and a fresh election for a reduced Assembly was held on 2 March 2017. The Parliament was suspended on 30 March 1972 and formally abolished in 1973 under the Northern Ireland Constitution Act 1973, shortly after this first parliament was abolished, attempts began to restore devolution on a new basis that would see power shared between Irish nationalists and unionists. To this end a new parliament, the Northern Ireland Assembly, was established in 1973, however, this body was brought down by the Ulster Workers Council strike and was abolished in 1974. It received little support from Irish nationalists and was dissolved in 1986. The current incarnation of the Northern Ireland Assembly was first elected on 25 June 1998, however, it only existed in shadow form until 2 December 1999 when full powers were devolved to the Assembly. On 8 December 2005, three Belfast men at the centre of the alleged IRA spying incident were acquitted of all charges, the prosecution offered no evidence in the public interest. Afterwards Denis Donaldson, one of those arrested, said that the charges should never have been brought as the action was political. On 17 December 2005, Donaldson publicly confirmed that he had been a spy for British intelligence since the early 1980s, mr Donaldson was killed on 4 April 2006 by the Real IRA. Eileen Bell was appointed by the Secretary of State Peter Hain to be the Speaker of the Assembly, with Francie Molloy, the Northern Ireland Act 2006 repealed the Northern Ireland Act 2006 and thus disbanded the Assembly. The Northern Ireland Act 2006 provided for a Transitional Assembly to take part in preparations for the restoration of devolved government in Northern Ireland, a person who was a member of the Northern Ireland Assembly was also a member of the Transitional Assembly
20.
South West of England
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South West England is one of nine official regions of England. It is the largest in area, covering 9,200 square miles, five million people live in South West England. The region includes the West Country and much of the ancient kingdom of Wessex, other major urban centres include Plymouth, Swindon, Gloucester, Cheltenham, Exeter, Bath, Torbay, and the South East Dorset conurbation. There are eight cities, Salisbury, Bath, Wells, Bristol, Gloucester, Exeter, Plymouth and it includes two entire national parks, Dartmoor and Exmoor, and four World Heritage Sites, including Stonehenge and the Jurassic Coast. The northern part of Gloucestershire, near Chipping Campden, is as close to the Scottish border as it is to the tip of Cornwall, the region has by far the longest coastline in England and many seaside fishing towns. The region is at the first-level of NUTS for Eurostat purposes, key data and facts about the region are produced by the South West Observatory. Following the abolition of the South West Regional Assembly and Government Office, the region is known for its rich folklore, including the legend of King Arthur and Glastonbury Tor, as well as its traditions and customs. Cornwall has its own language, Cornish, and some regard it as a Celtic nation, the South West of England is known for Cheddar cheese, which originated in the Somerset village of Cheddar, Devon cream teas, crabs, Cornish pasties, and cider. It is also home to the Eden Project, Aardman Animations, the Glastonbury Festival, most of the region is located on the South West Peninsula, between the English Channel and Bristol Channel. It has the longest coastline of all the English regions, totalling over 700 miles, much of the coast is now protected from further substantial development because of its environmental importance, which contributes to the region’s attractiveness to tourists and residents. Geologically the region is divided into the largely igneous and metamorphic west and sedimentary east, Cornwall and West Devons landscape is of rocky coastline and high moorland, notably at Bodmin Moor and Dartmoor. These are due to the granite and slate that underlie the area, the highest point of the region is High Willhays, at 2,038 feet, on Dartmoor. In North Devon the slates of the west and limestones of the east meet at Exmoor National Park, the variety of rocks of similar ages seen here have led to the countys name being lent to that of the Devonian period. The east of the region is characterised by wide, flat clay vales and chalk, the vales, with good irrigation, are home to the regions dairy agriculture. The Blackmore Vale was Thomas Hardys Vale of the Little Dairies, another and these downs are the principal area of arable agriculture in the region. Limestone is also found in the region, at the Cotswolds, Quantock Hills and Mendip Hills, all of the principal rock types can be seen on the Jurassic Coast of Dorset and East Devon, where they document the entire Mesozoic era from west to east. The climate of South West England is classed as oceanic according to the Köppen climate classification, the oceanic climate typically experiences cool winters with warmer summers and precipitation all year round, with more experienced in winter. Annual rainfall is about 1,000 millimetres and up to 2,000 millimetres on higher ground, summer maxima averages range from 18 °C to 22 °C and winter minimum averages range from 1 °C to 4 °C across the south-west
21.
Nottinghamshire
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Nottinghamshire is a county in the East Midlands of England, bordering South Yorkshire to the north-west, Lincolnshire to the east, Leicestershire to the south, and Derbyshire to the west. The traditional county town is Nottingham, though the county council is based in West Bridgford in the borough of Rushcliffe, the districts of Nottinghamshire are Ashfield, Bassetlaw, Broxtowe, Gedling, Mansfield, Newark and Sherwood, and Rushcliffe. The City of Nottingham was administratively part of Nottinghamshire between 1974 and 1998 but is now an authority, remaining part of Nottinghamshire for ceremonial purposes. In 2011 the county was estimated to have a population of 785,800, over half of the population of the county live in the Greater Nottingham conurbation. The conurbation has a population of about 650,000, though less than half live within the city boundaries. Nottinghamshire lies on the Roman Fosse Way, and there are Roman settlements in the county, for example at Mansfield, the county was settled by Angles around the 5th century, and became part of the Kingdom, and later Earldom, of Mercia. However, there is evidence of Saxon settlement at the Broxtowe Estate, Oxton, near Nottingham, the name first occurs in 1016, but until 1568 the county was administratively united with Derbyshire, under a single Sheriff. In Norman times the county developed malting and woollen industries, in the 18th and 19th centuries, mechanised deeper collieries opened and mining became an important economic sector, though these declined after the 1984–85 miners strike. Until 1610, Nottinghamshire was divided into eight Wapentakes, sometime between 1610 and 1719 they were reduced to six – Newark, Bassetlaw, Thurgarton, Rushcliffe, Broxtowe and Bingham, some of these names still being used for the modern districts. Oswaldbeck was absorbed in Bassetlaw, of which it forms the North Clay division, Nottinghamshire is famous for its involvement with the legend of Robin Hood. This is also the reason for the numbers of tourists who visit places like Sherwood Forest, City of Nottingham, to reinforce the Robin Hood connection, the University of Nottingham in 2010 has begun the Nottingham Caves Survey with the goal to increase the tourist potential of these sites. The project will use a 3D laser scanner to produce a three dimensional record of more than 450 sandstone caves around Nottingham. Nottinghamshire was mapped first by Christopher Saxton in 1576, the first fully surveyed map of the county was by John Chapman who produced Chapmans Map of Nottinghamshire in 1774. Nottinghamshire, like Derbyshire and South Yorkshire, sits on extensive coal measures, up to 900 metres thick, there is an oilfield near Eakring. These are overlaid by sandstones and limestones in the west and clay in the east, the north of the county is part of the Humberhead Levels lacustrine plain. The centre and south west of the county, around Sherwood Forest, principal rivers are the Trent, Idle, Erewash and Soar. The Trent, fed by the Soar and Erewash, and Idle, composed of many streams from Sherwood Forest, run through wide and flat valleys, the lowest is Peat Carr, east of Blaxton, at sea level, the Trent is tidal below Cromwell Lock. Nottinghamshire is sheltered by the Pennines to the west, so receives relatively low rainfall at 641–740 mm annually, the average temperature of the county is 8. 8–10.1 degrees Celsius
22.
Single-sex education
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Single-sex education, also known as single-gender education, is the practice of conducting education where male and female students attend separate classes or in separate buildings or schools. The practice was common before the century, particularly in secondary education. Single-sex education in many cultures is advocated on the basis of tradition as well as religion, recently, there has been a surge of interest and establishment of single-sex schools due to educational research. Motivations for single sex education range from religious ideas of sex segregation to beliefs that the sexes learn and behave differently, before the 19th century, single-sex schooling was most common. As such, mass education was introduced, and more and more schools were set up. Together with mass education, the practice of coeducation was universalized in many parts, increased secularization in the 20th century also contributed to the acceptance of mixed sex education. In 1917 coeducation was mandated in the Soviet Union, according to Cornelius Riordan, By the end of the nineteenth century, coeducation was all but universal in American elementary and secondary public schools. And by the end of the 20th century, this was largely true across the world, in the UK, Australia, and Ireland the tradition of single sex education remained quite strong until the 1960s. The 1960s and 1970s were a period of social changes. Wiseman shows that by 2003, only a few countries across the globe have greater than one or two percent single sex schools. Recently, however, there has been a resurgence of interest in single sex schools in modern societies across the globe, the topic of single-sex education is controversial. Advocates argue that it aids student outcomes such as test scores, graduation rates, one version of this argument holds that male-female brain differences favor the implementation of gender-specific teaching methods, but such claims have not held up to rigorous scrutiny. A systematic review published in 2005 covering 2221 studies was commissioned by the US Department of Education entitled Single-sex versus coeducational schooling, there is some support for the premise that single-sex schooling can be helpful, especially for certain outcomes related to academic achievement and more positive academic aspirations. For many outcomes, there is no evidence of benefit or harm. There is limited support for the view that single-sex schooling may be harmful or that coeducational schooling is more beneficial for the student, a UCLA report commissioned by the National Coalition of Girls’ Schools used data from a large national survey of U. S. They also argue that single-sex schooling does not adequately prepare students for adult workplaces and society, coeducational schools offer greater opportunity to break down sexist attitudes through purposeful interaction with the other sex. Coeducational schools are said to create greater feelings of safety. He further said that these authors provide no evidence for their claim that gender divisions are made even more salient in SS settings
23.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
24.
BBC News Online
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BBC News Online is the website of BBC News, the division of the BBC responsible for newsgathering and production. The website is the most frequently accessed news website in the United Kingdom, and forms a part of BBC Online. The website contains international news coverage, as well as British, entertainment, science, BBC News Online is closely linked to its sister department website, that of BBC Sport. Both sites follow similar layout and content options and respective journalists work alongside each other, location information provided by users is also shared with the website of BBC Weather to provide local content. From 1998 to 2001 the site was named best news website at the BAFTA Interactive Entertainment Awards when the category was withdrawn. It has previously won both the Judges award and the Peoples Voice award for best news site at the annual Webby Awards, the website was launched on 4 November 1997, headed by founding editor Mike Smartt and Project Director Bob Eggington. The management team for launch included Dave Brewer, Chris Nuttall, Matthew Karas, Matt Jones, Janet Marsh, Simon George, nic Newman was seconded from BBC World Service to launch and run Talking Point. The broader editorial team was together from within the BBC, from print journalism. A major overhaul in 2003, primarily by Paul Sissons and Maire Flynn, coincided with a relaunch of the BBC News Channel and featured a wider page design. The site launched a set of semi-official RSS0.91 syndication feeds in June 2003, each news index has its own RSS feed, including the in-depth sections. In 2004 the BBC News website partnered with Moreover Technologies, in a response to the 2003 Graf Report, whilst the BBC does not censor or change results the algorithms used tend to give greater weight to national and international sources over regional or local ones. The BBC began providing real-time global user information in June 2006, new features were gradually introduced, including the publicising of video content more prominently, and the introduction of live streaming of the BBC News channel. Beginning on 30 April 2009, some published stories included in-text links, mostly to in-site profile articles on people, the BBC announced on 19 November 2009 that it was to pay more attention to search engine optimisation by extending news headlines. On 14 July 2010 the site was redesigned, with the vertical section headings moved to run horizontally near the top of the page. It was met with mixed opinions, Stephen Fry stated his approval of the redesign, however, there was also criticism, with some stating that the use of white space was too widespread and led to the need for continuous and excessive scrolling. The new design went live on 23 March 2015, there are two different editions of the site, a UK edition, which gives prominence to UK stories, and an international edition, which prioritises international news. Internet users with IP addresses originating from the UK are served the UK edition, the international version contains advertising and an Advertise With Us link at the bottom. All articles are archived indefinitely and can be retrieved via searching or by browsing the extensive Special Reports section, the previous seven days top stories were formerly available through the Week at a Glance section of the website
25.
Education in England
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Education in England is overseen by the United Kingdoms Department for Education. Local government authorities are responsible for implementing policy for public education, England also has a tradition of independent schools and Home schooling, legally, parents may choose to educate their children by any suitable means. At age 16 the students take exams for the General Certificate of Secondary Education or other Level 1/2 qualifications. While education is compulsory until 18, schooling is compulsory to 16, thus post-16 education can take a number of forms. It can also include work-based apprenticeships or traineeships, or volunteering, Higher education often begins with a three-year bachelors degree. Postgraduate degrees include masters degrees, either taught or by research, tuition fees for first degrees are up to £9,000 per academic year for English, Welsh and European Union students, although these are set to rise to £9,250 for students starting from 2017. The Regulated Qualifications Framework covers national school examinations and vocational education qualifications and it is referenced to the European Qualifications Framework, and thus to other qualifications frameworks across the European Union. The Framework for Higher Education Qualifications, which is tied to the RQF, covers degrees and this is referenced to the Qualifications Framework of the European Higher Education Area developed under the Bologna process. The Education Act 1902 allowed local authorities to create secondary schools, the Education Act 1918 abolished fees for elementary schools. Full-time education is compulsory for all children aged 5 to 18, either at school or otherwise, children between the ages of 3 and 5 are entitled to 600 hours per year of optional, state-funded, pre-school education. This can be provided in playgroups, nurseries, community centres or nursery classes in schools. The age at which a student may choose to stop education is known as the leaving age for compulsory education. This age was raised to 18 by the Education and Skills Act 2008, from this time, the school leaving age and the education leaving age have been separated. State-provided schooling and sixth-form education are paid for by taxes, the education leaving age was raised in 2013 to the year in which they turn 17 and in 2015 to their 18th birthday for those born on or after 1 September 1997. The prescribed days are 31 August,31 December and 31 March, the school year begins on 1 September. Below is a table summarizing the most common names of the various schools, Grammar schools are normally state-funded but selective schools, admitting children from 11 years old onward, but there are exceptions such as Manchester Grammar School. Some 93% of children between the ages of 3 and 18 are in education in state-funded schools without charge and they are monitored directly by the Department for Education. Community schools, in which the local authority employs the staff, owns the schools lands and buildings
26.
Preschool
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They may be privately operated or government run, and one option is to subsidize the costs. In 1779, Johann Friedrich Oberlin and Louise Scheppler founded in Strassbourg an early establishment for caring for, at about the same time, in 1780, similar infant establishments were established in Bavaria In 1802, Pauline zur Lippe established a preschool center in Detmold. In 1816, Robert Owen, a philosopher and pedagogue, opened the first British and probably globally the first infant school in New Lanark, Scotland. In conjunction with his venture for cooperative mills Owen wanted the children to be given a moral education so that they would be fit for work. His system was successful in producing obedient children with basic literacy and numeracy, samuel Wilderspin opened his first infant school in London in 1819, and went on to establish hundreds more. He published many works on the subject, and his became the model for infant schools throughout England. Play was an important part of Wilderspins system of education and he is credited with inventing the playground. In 1823, Wilderspin published On the Importance of Educating the Infant Poor and he began working for the Infant School Society the next year, informing others about his views. He also wrote The Infant System, for developing the physical, intellectual, in 1836 she established an institute for the foundation of preschool centers. The idea became popular among the nobility and the class and was copied throughout the Hungarian kingdom. Women trained by Fröbel opened Kindergartens throughout Europe and around the World, the first kindergarten in the United States was founded in Watertown, Wisconsin in 1856 and was conducted in German. Louis in 1873 by Susan Blow, the countrys first public-school kindergartens were established in Berlin, Ontario in 1882 at Central School. In 1885, the Toronto Normal School opened a department for Kindergarten teaching, Head Start was the first publicly funded preschool program in the US, created in 1965 by President Johnson for low-income families—only 10% of children were then enrolled in preschool. Due to large demand, various states subsidized preschool for low-income families in the 1980s, the most important years of learning begin at birth. During these early years, humans are capable of absorbing more information than later on, the brain grows most rapidly in the early years. High quality teachers and preschools can have an effect on improving outcomes for disadvantaged students. The areas of development that preschool education covers varies, however, the following main themes are typically offered. Curriculum is designed for differing ages, for example, counting to 10 is generally after the age of four
