1.
Albion, Maine
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Albion is a town in Kennebec County, Maine, United States. The population was 2,041 at the 2010 census, Albion was settled in 1790 as Freetown Plantation by Congregational minister Daniel Lovejoy, father of Presbyterian minister Elijah Parish Lovejoy. It was incorporated as the Town of Fairfax on March 9,1804 and it annexed land from Winslow in 1810, and gave up segments of land in 1813,1816, and 1818 that would eventually become China. The towns name was changed to Ligonia on March 10,1821, and then to Albion on February 25,1824. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 39.46 square miles, of which,38.83 square miles of it is land and 0.63 square miles is water. Albion is served by US Route 202, Maine State Routes 9 and 137. It is bordered on the northwest by Benton, on the north by Unity Township, on the northeast by Unity, on the east by Freedom, on the south by China and Palermo and on the west by Winslow. As of the census of 2010, there were 2,041 people,819 households, the population density was 52.6 inhabitants per square mile. There were 923 housing units at a density of 23.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 97. 8% White,0. 4% African American,0. 3% Native American,0. 4% Asian,0. 1% Pacific Islander,0. 2% from other races, and 0. 7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 3% of the population,23. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and the family size was 2.91. The median age in the town was 42.6 years. 23. 5% of residents were under the age of 18,6. 8% were between the ages of 18 and 24, 24% were from 25 to 44,31. 3% were from 45 to 64, and 14. 6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 49. 5% male and 50. 5% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 1,946 people,719 households, and 545 families residing in the town. The population density was 50.1 people per square mile, there were 805 housing units at an average density of 20.7 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 98. 56% White,0. 05% African American,0. 15% Native American,0. 57% Asian,0. 05% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 41% of the population. 18. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.68 and the average family size was 3.01
2.
Alton, Illinois
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Alton is a city on the Mississippi River in Madison County, Illinois, United States, about 15 miles north of St. Louis, Missouri. The population was 27,865 at the 2010 census and it is a part of the Metro-East region of the Greater St. Louis metropolitan area. It was the site of the last Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas debate in October 1858, the former state penitentiary here was used during the war to hold up to 12,000 Confederate prisoners of war. Although Alton once was growing faster than its city of St. Louis. Many blocks of housing in Alton were built in the Victorian Queen Anne style, at the top of the hill in the commercial area, several stone churches and a fine city hall also represent the citys wealth during its good times based on river traffic and shipping. It was a center for a large agricultural area. Numerous residences on hills have sweeping views of the Mississippi River, the Alton area was home to Native Americans for thousands of years before the 19th-century founding by European Americans of the modern city. Historic accounts indicate occupation of this area by the Illiniwek or Illinois Confederacy at the time of European contact, earlier native settlement is demonstrated by archaeological artifacts and the famous prehistoric Piasa bird painted on a cliff face nearby. The image was first written about in 1673 by French missionary priest Father Jacques Marquette, Alton was developed as a river town in 1818 by Rufus Easton, who named it after his son. Easton ran a ferry service across the Mississippi River to the Missouri shore. Alton is located amid the confluence of three significant navigable rivers, the Illinois, the Mississippi, and the Missouri, Alton grew into a river trading town with an industrial character. The city rises steeply from the waterfront, where massive concrete grain silos and railroad tracks were constructed in the 19th and 20th centuries to aid in shipping the areas grains, brick commercial buildings are located throughout downtown. Once the site of brick factories, Alton has an unusually high number of streets still paved in brick. The lower levels of Alton are subject to floods, many of which have inundated the downtown area. The flood levels of different dates are marked on the grain silos, part of the Ardent Mills. The flood of 93 is the worst in the last 100 years and it became an important town for abolitionists, as Illinois was a free state across from the slave state of Missouri. Pro-slavery activists also lived there and slave catchers often raided the city, escaped slaves would cross the Mississippi to seek shelter in Alton, and proceed to safer places through stations of the Underground Railroad. During the years before the American Civil War, several homes were equipped with tunnels, on November 7,1837, the abolitionist printer Reverend Elijah P. Lovejoy was murdered by a pro-slavery mob while he tried to protect his Alton-based press from being destroyed for the third time
3.
Colby College
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Colby College is a private liberal arts college located near Waterville, Maine, United States. Colby was founded in 1813, and is named after prominent Baptist preacher Gardner Colby, approximately 1,800 students from more than 60 countries are enrolled annually. The college offers 54 major fields of study and 30 minors, among national liberal arts colleges, Colby was ranked 12th by U. S. News & World Report, 19th by Forbes, and 21st by Washington Monthly. Located in central Maine, the 714-acre Neo-Georgian campus sits atop Mayflower Hill and overlooks downtown Waterville, the college competes in the NESCAC conference as the White Mules, and is a member of the Colby-Bates-Bowdoin Consortium, an athletic rivalry and academic exchange program. On February 27,1813, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, led by Baptists, adopted a petition to establish the Maine Literary and it was moved to Waterville, Maine and used 179 acres of land donated by citizens. In 1818, trustees assigned the institution to Rev. Jeremiah Chaplin, after Maine separated from Massachusetts in 1820, the first Maine legislature affirmed the Massachusetts charter for the institution, but made significant changes. The Maine Literary and Theological Institution was renamed Waterville College on February 5,1821, and four years later, in 1833, Rev. Rufus Babcock became Colbys second president, and students formed the nations first college-based anti-slavery society. In 1845, the colleges first Greek Society was formed, a chapter of Delta Kappa Epsilon, during the Civil War, many young men were called away from school to join the fight, from Waterville College, Richard C. Twenty-seven Waterville College students perished in the war, and more than 100 men from the town, in the years following the war, as was the case at many American colleges, Waterville College was left with few students remaining to pay the bills and a depleted endowment. The college was on the verge of closing, Trustees of the college voted to construct a library and chapel to honor the Colby men who died in the war, called the Memorial Hall, it was dedicated at the commencement of 1869. The college remained isolated from neighboring Bates College, and Bowdoin College due to location in Waterville, coupled with socio-economic. At the 1871 commencement, a Martin Milmore sculpture based on the Lion of Lucerne was added as the centerpiece of the building, in the fall of 1871, Colby University was the first all-male college in New England to accept female students. The national Sigma Kappa sorority was founded at Colby in 1874 by the colleges first five female students, however the college resegregated them in 1890. One of the buildings is named after the first woman to attend, Mary Caffrey Low, students published the first issue of The Colby Echo in 1877. On January 25,1899, Colby president Nathaniel Butler Jr.73, in 1920, Colby celebrated its centennial, marking not the date of the original charter, but the date of its charter from the new State of Maine in 1820. Franklin W. Johnson was appointed president of the college in June 1929 and that same year saw the public release of the Maine Higher Education Survey Report, which gave Colbys campus a less than desirable review. Using the report as justification, President Johnson presented a proposal to move the college to an adequate location to the Trustees on June 14,1929. The campaign to raise funds for the move was complicated by the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the Great Depression
4.
Presbyterianism
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Presbyterianism is a part of the Reformed tradition within Protestantism which traces its origins to the British Isles, particularly Scotland. Presbyterian churches derive their name from the form of church government. Presbyterian theology typically emphasizes the sovereignty of God, the authority of the Scriptures, Presbyterian church government was ensured in Scotland by the Acts of Union in 1707 which created the Kingdom of Great Britain. In fact, most Presbyterians found in England can trace a Scottish connection, the Presbyterian denominations in Scotland hold to the theology of John Calvin and his immediate successors, although there are a range of theological views within contemporary Presbyterianism. The roots of Presbyterianism lie in the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, most Reformed churches which trace their history back to Scotland are either presbyterian or congregationalist in government. In the twentieth century, some Presbyterians played an important role in the ecumenical movement, many Presbyterian denominations have found ways of working together with other Reformed denominations and Christians of other traditions, especially in the World Communion of Reformed Churches. Some Presbyterian churches have entered into unions with other churches, such as Congregationalists, Lutherans, Anglicans, Presbyterian history is part of the history of Christianity, but the beginning of Presbyterianism as a distinct movement occurred during the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. As the Catholic Church resisted the reformers, several different theological movements splintered from the Church, the Presbyterian church traces its ancestry back primarily to England and Scotland. In August 1560 the Parliament of Scotland adopted the Scots Confession as the creed of the Scottish Kingdom, Presbyterians distinguish themselves from other denominations by doctrine, institutional organization and worship, often using a Book of Order to regulate common practice and order. The origins of the Presbyterian churches are in Calvinism, many branches of Presbyterianism are remnants of previous splits from larger groups. Presbyterians place great importance upon education and lifelong learning, Presbyterian government is by councils of elders. Teaching and ruling elders are ordained and convene in the lowest council known as a session or consistory responsible for the discipline, nurture, teaching elders have responsibility for teaching, worship, and performing sacraments. Pastors are called by individual congregations, a congregation issues a call for the pastors service, but this call must be ratified by the local presbytery. Ruling elders are usually laymen who are elected by the congregation and ordained to serve with the elders, assuming responsibility for nurture. Often, especially in larger congregations, the elders delegate the practicalities of buildings, finance and this group may variously be known as a Deacon Board, Board of Deacons Diaconate, or Deacons Court. These are sometimes known as presbyters to the full congregation, above the sessions exist presbyteries, which have area responsibilities. These are composed of teaching elders and ruling elders from each of the constituent congregations, the presbytery sends representatives to a broader regional or national assembly, generally known as the General Assembly, although an intermediate level of a synod sometimes exists. The Church of Scotland abolished the Synod in 1993, Presbyterian governance is practised by Presbyterian denominations and also by many other Reformed churches
5.
Minister (Christianity)
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The term is taken from Latin minister, which itself was derived from minus. In Catholic churches, the concept of a priesthood is emphasised, many ministers are styled as The Reverend, however some use Pastor as a title, and others do not use any specific form of address. The Church of England defines the ministry of priests as follows, Priests are called to be servants, with their Bishop and fellow ministers, they are to proclaim the word of the Lord and to watch for the signs of Gods new creation. Formed by the word, they are to call their hearers to repentance and to declare in Christs name the absolution, with all Gods people, they are to tell the story of Gods love. They are to baptize new disciples in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit and they are to unfold the Scriptures, to preach the word in season and out of season, and to declare the mighty acts of God. They are to preside at the Lords table and lead his people in worship, offering them a spiritual sacrifice of praise. They are to bless the people in Gods name and they are to resist evil, support the weak, defend the poor, and intercede for all in need. They are to minister to the sick and prepare the dying for their death, guided by the Spirit, they are to discern and foster the gifts of all Gods people, that the whole Church may be built up in unity and faith. All denominations require that the minister has a sense of calling. One of the clearest references is found in 1 Timothy 3, 1-16, moreover he must have a good report of them which are without, lest he fall into reproach and the snare of the devil. Likewise must the deacons be grave, not doubletongued, not given to wine, not greedy of filthy lucre. And let these also first be proved, then let them use the office of a deacon, even so must their wives be grave, not slanderers, sober, faithful in all things. Let the deacons be the husbands of one wife, ruling their children, the churches have three orders of ordained clergy, Bishops are the primary clergy, administering all sacraments and governing the church. Priests administer the sacraments and lead local congregations, they cannot ordain other clergy, however, in some denominations, deacons play a non-sacramental and assisting role in the liturgy. Until the Reformation, the clergy were the first estate but were relegated to the estate in Protestant Northern Europe. After compulsory celibacy was abolished during the Reformation, the formation of an hereditary priestly class became possible, whereby wealth. Higher positioned clergy formed this clerical educated upper class, High Church Anglicanism and High Church Lutheranism tend to emphasise the role of the clergy in dispensing the Christian Sacrament. Bishops, priests and deacons have traditionally officiated over of acts worship, reverence, rituals, among these central traditions have been baptism, Confirmation, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, marriage, the Mass or the Divine Service, and coronations
6.
Editing
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Editing is the process of selecting and preparing written, visual, audible, and film media used to convey information. The editing process can involve correction, condensation, organization, and many other modifications performed with an intention of producing a correct, consistent, accurate and complete work. The editing process begins with the authors idea for the work itself. As such, editing can involve creative skills, human relations, there are various editorial positions in publishing. Typically, one finds editorial assistants reporting to the editorial staff. Senior executive editors are responsible for developing a product for its final release, the smaller the publication, the more these roles overlap. The top editor at many publications may be known as the chief editor, a frequent and highly regarded contributor to a magazine may acquire the title of editor-at-large or contributing editor. Mid-level newspaper editors often manage or help to manage sections, such as business, sports, in U. S. newspapers, the level below the top editor is usually the managing editor. Obtaining manuscripts or recruiting authors is the role of an editor or a commissioning editor in a publishing house. Finding marketable ideas and presenting them to appropriate authors are the responsibilities of a sponsoring editor, copy editors correct spelling, grammar and align writings to house style. Changes to the industry since the 1980s have resulted in nearly all copy editing of book manuscripts being outsourced to freelance copy editors. At newspapers and wire services, copy editors write headlines and work on substantive issues, such as ensuring accuracy, fairness. In some positions, they design pages and select news stories for inclusion, at U. K. and Australian newspapers, the term is sub-editor. They may choose the layout of the publication and communicate with the printer and these editors may have the title of layout or design editor or makeup editor. However, another editor is sometimes involved in the creation of research articles. Called the authors editor, this works with authors to get a manuscript fit for purpose before it is submitted to a scholarly journal for publication. The primary difference between copy editing scholarly books and journals and other sorts of copy editing lies in applying the standards of the publisher to the copy. K, technical editing involves reviewing text written on a technical topic, identifying usage errors and ensuring adherence to a style guide. Large companies dedicate experienced writers to the editing function
7.
Abolitionism in the United States
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Abolitionism in the United States was the movement before and during the American Civil War to end slavery in the United States. In the Americas and western Europe, abolitionism was a movement to end the Atlantic slave trade, in the 17th century, English Quakers and Evangelicals condemned slavery as un-Christian. At that time, most slaves were Africans, but thousands of Native Americans were also enslaved, in the 18th century, as many as six million Africans were transported to the Americas as slaves, at least a third of them on British ships to North America. Abolition was part of the message of the First Great Awakening of the 1730s and 1740s in the Thirteen Colonies, in the same period, rationalist thinkers of the Enlightenment criticized slavery for violating human rights. A member of the British Parliament, James Edward Oglethorpe, was among the first to articulate the Enlightenment case against slavery, founder of the Province of Georgia, Oglethorpe banned slavery on humanistic grounds. He argued against it in Parliament and eventually encouraged his friends Granville Sharp, soon after his death in 1785, Sharp and More joined with William Wilberforce and others in forming the Clapham Sect. Although anti-slavery sentiments were widespread by the late 18th century, colonies and emerging nations, notably in the southern United States, continued to use and uphold traditions of slavery. Massachusetts ratified a constitution that declared all men equal, freedom suits challenging slavery based on this principle brought an end to slavery in the state, in other states, such as Virginia, similar declarations of rights were interpreted by the courts as not applicable to Africans. During the ensuing decades, the abolitionist movement grew in Northern states, britain banned the importation of African slaves in its colonies in 1807 and abolished slavery in the British Empire in 1833. The United States criminalized the international trade in 1808 and made slavery unconstitutional in 1865 as a result of the American Civil War. Historian James M. McPherson defines an abolitionist as one who before the Civil War had agitated for the immediate, unconditional and total abolition of slavery in the United States. He does not include antislavery activists such as Abraham Lincoln, U. S. President during the Civil War, or the Republican Party, the first Americans who made a public protest against slavery were the Mennonites of Germantown, Pennsylvania. Soon after, in April 1688, Quakers in the town wrote a two-page condemnation of the practice and sent it to the governing bodies of their Quaker church. The Quaker establishment never took action, the Quaker Quarterly Meeting of Chester, Pennsylvania, made its first protest in 1711. Within a few decades the entire slave trade was under attack, being opposed by leaders as William Burling, Benjamin Lay, Ralph Sandiford, William Southby. Slavery was banned in the Province of Georgia soon after its founding in 1733, the colonys founder, James Edward Oglethorpe, fended off repeated attempts by South Carolina merchants and land speculators to introduce slavery to the colony. In 1739, he wrote to the Georgia Trustees urging them to hold firm, If we allow slaves we act against the principles by which we associated together. Whereas, now we should occasion the misery of thousands in Africa, by setting men upon using arts to buy, the struggle between Georgia and South Carolina led to the first debates in Parliament over the issue of slavery, occurring between 1740 and 1742
8.
Maine
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Maine is the northernmost state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Maine is the 39th most extensive and the 41st most populous of the U. S. states and territories and it is bordered by New Hampshire to the west, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec to the north. Maine is the easternmost state in the contiguous United States, and it is known for its jagged, rocky coastline, low, rolling mountains, heavily forested interior, and picturesque waterways, and also its seafood cuisine, especially clams and lobster. There is a continental climate throughout the state, even in areas such as its most populous city of Portland. For thousands of years, indigenous peoples were the inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine. At the time of European arrival in what is now Maine, the first European settlement in the area was by the French in 1604 on Saint Croix Island, by Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons. The first English settlement was the short-lived Popham Colony, established by the Plymouth Company in 1607, as Maine entered the 18th century, only a half dozen European settlements had survived. Loyalist and Patriot forces contended for Maines territory during the American Revolution, Maine was part of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts until 1820, when it voted to secede from Massachusetts to become an independent state. On March 15,1820, it was admitted to the Union as the 23rd state under the Missouri Compromise, there is no definitive explanation for the origin of the name Maine, but the most likely origin is the name given by early explorers after a province in France. Whatever the origin, the name was fixed for English settlers in 1665 when the English Kings Commissioners ordered that the Province of Maine be entered from then on in official records. The state legislature in 2001 adopted a resolution establishing Franco-American Day, other theories mention earlier places with similar names, or claim it is a nautical reference to the mainland. Attempts to uncover the history of the name of Maine began with James Sullivans 1795 History of the District of Maine. He made the allegation that the Province of Maine was a compliment to the queen of Charles I, Henrietta Maria. MAINE appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 in reference to the county of Dorset, the view generally held among British place name scholars is that Mayne in Dorset is Brythonic, corresponding to modern Welsh maen, plural main or meini. Some early spellings are, MAINE1086, MEINE1200, MEINES1204, mason had served with the Royal Navy in the Orkney Islands where the chief island is called Mainland, a possible name derivation for these English sailors. Initially, several tracts along the coast of New England were referred to as Main or Maine, Maine is the only state whose name has exactly one syllable. The original inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine were Algonquian-speaking Wabanaki peoples, including the Abenaki, Passamaquoddy, Maliseet and Penobscot, who had a loose confederacy. European contact with what is now called Maine started around 1200 CE when Norwegians interacted with the native Penobscot in present-day Hancock County, most likely through trade
9.
St. Louis
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St. Louis is an independent city and major U. S. port in the state of Missouri, built along the western bank of the Mississippi River, on the border with Illinois. Prior to European settlement, the area was a regional center of Native American Mississippian culture. The city of St. Louis was founded in 1764 by French fur traders Pierre Laclède and Auguste Chouteau, in 1764, following Frances defeat in the Seven Years War, the area was ceded to Spain and retroceded back to France in 1800. In 1803, the United States acquired the territory as part of the Louisiana Purchase, during the 19th century, St. Louis developed as a major port on the Mississippi River. In the 1870 Census, St. Louis was ranked as the 4th-largest city in the United States and it separated from St. Louis County in 1877, becoming an independent city and limiting its own political boundaries. In 1904, it hosted the Louisiana Purchase Exposition and the Summer Olympics, the economy of metro St. Louis relies on service, manufacturing, trade, transportation of goods, and tourism. This city has become known for its growing medical, pharmaceutical. St. Louis has 2 professional sports teams, the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball, the city is commonly identified with the 630-foot tall Gateway Arch in Downtown St. Louis. The area that would become St. Louis was a center of the Native American Mississippian culture and their major regional center was at Cahokia Mounds, active from 900 AD to 1500 AD. Due to numerous major earthworks within St. Louis boundaries, the city was nicknamed as the Mound City and these mounds were mostly demolished during the citys development. Historic Native American tribes in the area included the Siouan-speaking Osage people, whose territory extended west, European exploration of the area was first recorded in 1673, when French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette traveled through the Mississippi River valley. Five years later, La Salle claimed the region for France as part of La Louisiane. The earliest European settlements in the area were built in Illinois Country on the east side of the Mississippi River during the 1690s and early 1700s at Cahokia, Kaskaskia, migrants from the French villages on the opposite side of the Mississippi River founded Ste. In early 1764, after France lost the 7 Years War, Pierre Laclède, the early French families built the citys economy on the fur trade with the Osage, as well as with more distant tribes along the Missouri River. The Chouteau brothers gained a monopoly from Spain on the fur trade with Santa Fe, French colonists used African slaves as domestic servants and workers in the city. In 1780 during the American Revolutionary War, St. Louis was attacked by British forces, mostly Native American allies, the founding of St. Louis began in 1763. Pierre Laclede led an expedition to set up a fur-trading post farther up the Mississippi River, before then, Laclede had been a very successful merchant. For this reason, he and his trading partner Gilbert Antoine de St. Maxent were offered monopolies for six years of the fur trading in that area
10.
Andrew Jackson
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Andrew Jackson was an American soldier and statesman who served as the seventh President of the United States from 1829 to 1837 and was the founder of the Democratic Party. Before being elected to the presidency, Jackson served in Congress, as president, Jackson sought to advance the rights of the common man against what he saw as a corrupt aristocracy and to preserve the Union. Jackson was born in 1767 somewhere near the border between North and South Carolina, into a recently immigrated Scots-Irish farming family. During the American Revolutionary War, Jackson acted as a courier, at age 13, he was captured and mistreated by the British. He moved to Tennessee and practiced as a lawyer, in 1791, he married Rachel Donelson Robards. The couple later learned that Rachels previous husband had failed to finalize their divorce, Jackson served briefly in the U. S. House of Representatives and the U. S. Senate. Upon returning to Tennessee, he was appointed a judge on the Tennessee Supreme Court, in 1801, Jackson was appointed colonel in the Tennessee militia, and was elected its commander the following year. He built the Hermitage plantation in 1804, in 1806, he killed a man in a duel over a matter of honor regarding his wife. He led Tennessee militia and U. S. Army regulars during the Creek War of 1813-1814, Jackson won a decisive victory in the War of 1812 over the British army at the Battle of New Orleans, making him into a national hero. Because Spanish Florida was a refuge for blacks escaping slavery, who allied with the Seminole Indians, Jackson invaded the territory in 1816 to destroy the Negro Fort. He led an invasion in 1818, as part of the First Seminole War, resulting in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819. Jackson briefly served as Floridas first Territorial Governor in 1821, Jackson was nominated by several state legislatures to be a candidate for president in 1824. Although he earned a plurality in both the electoral and popular vote against three major candidates, Jackson failed to get a majority and lost in the House of Representatives to John Quincy Adams, Jacksons supporters founded what became the Democratic Party. He ran again for president in 1828 against Adams, building and expanding upon his base of support in the West and South, he won in a landslide. He blamed the death of his wife, Rachel, which occurred after the election, on the Adams campaigners, as president, Jackson faced a threat of secession by South Carolina over the Tariff of Abominations, which Congress had enacted under Adams. In contrast to several of his successors, he denied the right of a state to secede from the union or to nullify federal law. The Nullification Crisis was defused when the tariff was amended and Jackson threatened the use of force if South Carolina attempted to secede. Jackson believed strongly in majority rule and he supported direct election of senators and abolition of the Electoral College, believing that these reforms would provide average citizens with greater power
11.
Princeton Theological Seminary
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Princeton Theological Seminary is an independent school of theology in Princeton, New Jersey and the largest of ten seminaries associated with the Presbyterian Church. Princeton Seminary has long been influential in theological scholarship, with many leading scholars, theologians. It houses one of the largest theological seminaries in the world and hosts a number of special collections, Today, the seminary enrolls approximately 500 students. The institution also has a relationship with the Center of Theological Inquiry. The plan to establish a seminary in Princeton was in the interests of advancing and extending the theological curriculum. The educational intention was to go beyond the arts course by setting up a postgraduate. The Seminary remains an institution of the Presbyterian Church, being the largest of the ten theological seminaries affiliated with the 1. 6-million-member denomination, in 1812, the Seminary boasted three students and the Reverend Dr. Archibald Alexander as its first professor. By 1815 the number of students had increased and work began on a building, Alexander Hall was designed by John McComb, Jr. a New York architect. The original cupola was added in 1827, but it burned in 1913 and was replaced in 1926, the building was simply called Seminary until 1893, when it was officially named Alexander Hall. Some of the institutions active in this movement included Charles Hodge, B. B. Warfield, J. Gresham Machen. The college was later the center of the Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy of the 1920s and 1930s, the library has over 1,252,503 bound volumes, pamphlets, and microfilms. It currently receives about 2,100 journals, annual reports of bodies and learned societies, bulletins, transactions, and periodically issued indices, abstracts. The Libraries are, Princeton Theological Seminary Library was opened in 2013, ashbel Green, Dr. William Buell Sprague, Prof. Joseph Addison Alexander, Dr. Alexander Balloch Grosart, Prof. William Henry Green, Prof. Samuel Miller, and Prof. B. B. Speer Library, opened in 1957 and named in honor of the missionary statesman Robert E. Speer. It was closed in late 2010 and was replaced by the new library, Henry Luce III Library, dedicated in 1994 and named in honor of a distinguished trustee, Henry Luce III,350,000 volumes and 250 readers. This library was closed for renovation in 2013, in 2015, the U. S. News & World Report placed Princeton Seminary among the top 50 graduate programs for the field of history in the United States. Built in 1834, Princetons chapel was named to honor Samuel Miller and it was designed in the Greek Revival style by Charles Steadman, who also designed the nearby Nassau Presbyterian Church. Originally located beside Alexander Hall, it was moved in 1933 toward the center of the campus, Miller Chapel underwent a complete renovation in 2000, with the addition of the Joe R. Engle Organ
12.
Slave states and free states
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Historically, slavery had been practiced in all the British colonies. The division between slave and free states began during the American Revolution, slavery was a divisive issue and was the primary cause of the American Civil War. The Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1865, abolished slavery throughout the United States, slavery was legal and practiced in each of the Thirteen Colonies that became the US. During British colonization, the population expanded, primarily drawn from the Atlantic slave trade. Organized political and social movements to end slavery began in the mid-18th century, the sentiments of the American Revolution and the equality evoked by the Declaration of Independence stood in contrast to the status of most black Americans. Despite this, thousands of black Americans fought against the British in hopes of a new order, thousands also joined the British army, encouraged by British offers of freedom in exchange for military service. In the 1770s, blacks throughout New England began sending petitions to northern legislatures demanding freedom, five of the Northern self-declared states adopted policies to at least gradually abolish slavery, Pennsylvania, New Hampshire and Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island. Vermont abolished slavery in 1777, while it was independent. These state jurisdictions enacted the first abolition laws in the Americas. By 1804, all of the states had abolished slavery or set measures in place to gradually reduce it. In the south, Kentucky was created a state from Virginia. By 1804, before the creation of new states from the western territories. In popular usage, the divide between the slave and free states was called the Mason–Dixon line. The 1787, United States Constitutional Convention debated slavery and for a time slavery was an impediment to passage of the new constitution. As a compromise the institution was acknowledged though never mentioned directly in the constitution, in 1808, the United States outlawed the international slave import trade but the domestic trade in half the states continued. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787, passed just before the U. S, Constitution was ratified, prohibited slavery in the federal Northwest Territory. The southern boundary of the territory was the Ohio River, which was regarded as a extension of the Mason–Dixon line. The territory was settled by New Englanders and American Revolutionary War veterans granted land there
13.
Alton Observer
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The Alton Observer was an abolitionist newspaper established in Alton, Illinois by the journalist and newspaper editor Elijah Lovejoy after he was forced to flee St. Louis, Missouri. Lovejoy left St. Louis, where he edited the St. Louis Observer, after his press was destroyed for the third time. Although Illinois was a state and Alton was linked to the Underground Railroad. The former earned money by their capture of slaves escaping across the Mississippi from Missouri, southern Illinois had numerous slavery supporters, where farmers used slave labor for cultivation. On November 7,1837 abolition opponents mobbed the warehouse where Lovejoy had his press, Lovejoy and his supporters killed one man in the mob, named Bishop, and wounded others. While they were trying to prevent the burning of the warehouse, Lovejoy and Royal Weller were shot, the mob threw the press out the window and into the river. Publication of the Alton Observer ended after Lovejoys murder, but his brother Owen Lovejoy became a leader of the abolitionists in Illinois, Elijah Lovejoy was considered a martyr by abolitionists across the country. Abolitionism in the United States Elijah P. Lovejoy Monument St. Louis Observer Vaughn, Stephen L. Encyclopedia of American Journalism p.5
14.
Gunshot
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A gunshot is the discharge of a firearm, producing a mechanical sound effect and a chemical gunshot residue. The term can refer to a gunshot wound caused by such a discharge. Multiple discharges of a firearm or firearms are referred to as gunfire, the word can connote either the sound of a gun firing, the projectiles that were fired, or both. For example, the statement gunfire came from the street could either mean the sound of discharge. It is better to be a bit more specific while writing however, the sound of gunfire or we came under gunfire would be more descriptive and prevent confusion. In the latter phrase, in particular, fire is more commonly used, a typical muzzle blast generates an impulse sound wave with a sound pressure level of 140db or louder. A “snap” or “crack” caused by the boom that occurs as a projectile moves through the air at supersonic speeds. Gunfire can be confused with other sounds that can sound similar, such as firework explosions, the sounds may be heard at greater distances in the direction of bullet travel than behind or beside the firearm. Urban areas typically exhibit diurnal noise patterns where background noise is higher during the daytime and lower at night, firearm muzzle blast may be masked by ambient noise during daytime, but may be detected at greater distances during the quieter hours of darkness. A popular urban gunfire locator system typically uses six to ten audio sensors per square mile for trilateration, a silencer can be attached to the muzzle of a firearm to decrease the audio signature of high velocity gas released from the muzzle when firing the weapon. The sound of firing is only decreased and is still considerable, silencers attached to the muzzle will not reduce the sound of high velocity gas released from other locations like the gap between the cylinder and barrel of a revolver. A muzzle silencer is similarly ineffective in reducing the snap of a supersonic bullet, use of silencers is rare in United States crimes
15.
Martyr
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A martyr is somebody who suffers persecution and death for advocating, renouncing, refusing to renounce, or refusing to advocate a belief or cause as demanded by an external party. This refusal to comply with the presented demands results in the punishment or execution of the martyr by the oppressor, originally applied only to those who suffered for their religious beliefs, the term is now often used in connection with people imprisoned or killed for espousing a political cause. Most martyrs are considered holy or are respected by their followers, becoming symbols of exceptional leadership, Martyrs play significant roles in religions. Similarly, martyrs have had effects in secular life, including specific figures such as Socrates, as well as in politics. In its original meaning, the martyr, meaning witness, was used in the secular sphere as well as in the New Testament of the Bible. The term, in this sense, entered the English language as a loanword. The death of a martyr or the value attributed to it is called martyrdom, the early Christians who first began to use the term martyr in its new sense saw Jesus as the first and greatest martyr, on account of his crucifixion. The early Christians appear to have seen Jesus as the archetypal martyr, the word martyr is used in English to describe a wide variety of people. However, the table presents a general outline of common features present in stereotypical martyrdoms. Examples of this are found in the Mahabharata, during the great war which commenced, even Arjuna was brought down with doubts, e. g. attachment, sorrow, fear. This is where Krishna instructs Arjuna how to carry out his duty as a righteous warrior, Martyrdom in Judaism is one of the main examples of Kiddush Hashem, meaning sanctification of Gods name through public dedication to Jewish practice. Religious martyrdom is considered one of the significant contributions of Hellenistic Judaism to Western Civilization. Frend, Judaism was itself a religion of martyrdom and it was this Jewish psychology of martyrdom that inspired Christian martyrdom. In Christianity, a martyr, in accordance with the meaning of the original Greek martys in the New Testament, is one who brings a testimony, in particular, the testimony is that of the Christian Gospel, or more generally, the Word of God. A Christian witness is a biblical witness whether or not death follows, however, over time many Christian testimonies were rejected, and the witnesses put to death, and the word martyr developed its present sense. Where death ensues, the follow the example of Jesus in offering up their lives for truth. The concept of Jesus as a martyr has recently received greater attention, analyses of the Gospel passion narratives have led many scholars to conclude that they are martyrdom accounts in terms of genre and style. Several scholars have concluded that Paul the Apostle understood Jesus death as a martyrdom
16.
Owen Lovejoy
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Owen Lovejoy was an American lawyer, Congregational minister, abolitionist, and Republican congressman from Illinois. He was also a conductor on the Underground Railroad, born in Albion, Maine in 1811, Lovejoy was one of five brothers born to Emma and Patee Lovejoy, a Congregational minister and farmer. He worked with his family on the farm until he was 18 and his father was a Congregational minister and his mother was very devout. Lovejoy graduated from Bowdoin College in 1832 and he studied law, but never practiced. Lovejoy migrated to Alton, Illinois, where his older brother Elijah Parish Lovejoy had moved in 1836 from St. Louis, the older Lovejoy was by then an anti-slavery Presbyterian minister who edited the Alton Observer, an abolitionist newspaper. The younger brother studied theology there, Owen was present on the night of November 7,1837 when his brother Elijah was murdered while trying to defend the printing press of the Illinois Anti-Slavery Society from an angry mob. He is reported to have sworn on his brothers grave to never forsake the cause that had been sprinkled with my brothers blood, Lovejoy served as pastor of the Congregational Church in Princeton, Illinois from 1838–1856. During these years, he organized a number of the 115 anti-slavery Congregational churches in Illinois begun by the American Missionary Association. His activities brought him increasing public prominence, in 1854 Lovejoy was elected a member of the Illinois State Legislature. He worked with Abraham Lincoln and others to form the Republican Party in the state, in 1856, he was elected as a Republican from Illinois as Representative to the 35th United States Congress and succeeding Congresses, serving from March 4,1857, until his death. Write it upon every leaf that trembles in the forest, make it blaze from the sun at high noon and shine forth in the radiance of every star that bedecks the firmament of God. Let it echo through all the arches of heaven, and reverberate and bellow through all the deep gorges of hell, where slave catchers will be very likely to hear it. Owen Lovejoy lives at Princeton, Illinois, three-quarters of a mile east of the village, dost thou think to cross my humble threshold, and forbid me to give bread to the hungry and shelter to the houseless. I bid you defiance in the name of my God, Lovejoy was a platform speaker in support of Abraham Lincoln in the famous debates with Stephen A. Douglas. While in Congress, he introduced the bill to end slavery in the District of Columbia. He also helped gain passage of legislation prohibiting slavery in the territories and he was one of the few steadfast Congressional supporters of Lincoln during the American Civil War. Lincoln wrote, To the day of his death, it would scarcely wrong any other to say, he was my most generous friend. If a man is a cripple, trip him up, if he is old and weak, and bowed with the weight of years, strike him, for he cannot strike back, if idiotic, take advantage of him, and if a child, deceive him
17.
Congregational
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Congregational or Congregationalist churches are Protestant churches practicing congregationalist church governance, in which each congregation independently and autonomously runs its own affairs. Congregationalism is often considered to be a part of the wider Reformed tradition, ideas of nonconforming Protestants during the Puritan Reformation of the Church of England laid foundation for these churches. Congregationalists also differed with the Reformed churches using episcopalian church governance, within the United States, the model of Congregational churches was carried by migrating settlers from New England into New York, then into the Old North West, and further. With their insistence on independent local bodies, they became important in social reform movements, including abolitionism, temperance. Congregationalist tradition has a presence in the United States, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and it has been introduced either by immigrant dissenter Protestants or by missionary organization such as the London Missionary Society. Congregationalists believe their model of church governance fulfils the description of the early church, Congregationalism is more easily identified as a movement than a single denomination, given its distinguishing commitment to the complete autonomy of the local congregation. The early Congregationalists shared with Anabaptist theology the ideal of a pure church and they believed the adult conversion experience was necessary for an individual to become a full member in the church, unlike other Reformed churches. As such, the Congregationalists were an influence on the Baptists. They differed in counting the children of believers in some members of the church. On the other hand, the Baptists required each member to experience conversion, in England, the Anglican system of church government was taken over by King Henry VIII. It declared the sovereign of England to be the only supreme head on earth of the Church in England. In the reign of Elizabeth I, this title was changed to Supreme Governor of the Church of England, an act still in effect. Robert Browne, Henry Barrow, John Greenwood, John Penry, William Brewster, Thomas Jollie, the underground churches in England and exiles from Holland provided about 35 out of the 102 passengers on the Mayflower, which sailed from London in July 1620. They became known in history as the Pilgrim Fathers, the early Congregationalists sought to separate themselves from the Anglican church in every possible way and even eschewed having church buildings. They met in homes for many years, in 1639 William Wroth, then Rector of the parish church at Llanvaches in Monmouthshire, established the first Independent Church in Wales according to the New England pattern, i. e. Congregational. The Tabernacle United Reformed Church at Llanvaches survives to this day, during the English Civil War, those who supported the Parliamentary cause were invited by Parliament to discuss religious matters. This government would last until 1660 when the monarch was restored, in 1658 the Congregationalists created their own version of the Westminster Confession, called the Savoy Declaration, which remains the principal subordinate standard of Congregationalism. The work in South America began in 1921 when four Argentine churches urgently requested that denominational recognition be given to George Geier, the Illinois Conference licensed Geier, who worked among Germans from Russia who were very similar to their kin in the United States and in Canada
18.
China, Maine
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China is a town in Kennebec County, Maine, United States. The population was 4,328 at the 2010 census, China is included in the Augusta, Maine micropolitan New England City and Town Area. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 56.86 square miles. Bodies of water in the town include China Lake, Three Mile Pond, China is bordered on the northwest by Winslow, the northeast by Albion, on the east by Palermo, on the south by Windsor on the west by Vassalboro. It is served by US Route 202, State Routes 32,9 and 3, China Lake is a lake in the town. China Lake has two basins connected by a narrow neck. The elongated eastern basin with a depth of less than 30 feet is entirely within the town of China. This climatic region is typified by large temperature differences, with warm to hot summers. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, China has a continental climate. In 1774 a family named Clark settled in the area and established Jones Plantation, in 1796 Jones Plantation was incorporated as Harlem. On June 25,1818, the Town of China was incorporated by combining Harlem, Fairfax, the name of the town was chosen by Japheth Washburn. He wanted to call the town Bloomville, but people from the town of Bloomfield objected, mr. Washburn settled on the name China, because it was the name of one of his favorite hymns. This widely sung hymn was written by Timothy Swan of Northfield Massachusetts in 1790 and was published in Swans New England Harmony in 1801. China actually had a district located at the height of land between Palermo and Albion, part of which is located today in what is known as Thurston Park. It was in area that numerous families of African-American descent settled. Their history, spanning roughly 1790 to 1860, can be itemized in the Maine state archives. If you have a guide, you can still locate some cemetery plots including a large stone in memory of Tolbot on a high wooded ridge which was also the location of an early shingle mill. Other burial and foundation sites are present and can best be located by using early census maps
19.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
20.
Mathematics
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Mathematics is the study of topics such as quantity, structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope, Mathematicians seek out patterns and use them to formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof, when mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic, mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, practical mathematics has been a human activity from as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry, rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclids Elements. Galileo Galilei said, The universe cannot be read until we have learned the language and it is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these, one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth, carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as the Queen of the Sciences. Benjamin Peirce called mathematics the science that draws necessary conclusions, David Hilbert said of mathematics, We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules, rather, it is a conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise. Albert Einstein stated that as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics, Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, the history of mathematics can be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions. The earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement, painting and weaving patterns, in Babylonian mathematics elementary arithmetic first appears in the archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral systems have many and diverse. Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a study of mathematics in its own right with Greek mathematics. Mathematics has since been extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today, the overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs. The word máthēma is derived from μανθάνω, while the modern Greek equivalent is μαθαίνω, in Greece, the word for mathematics came to have the narrower and more technical meaning mathematical study even in Classical times
21.
Waterville, Maine
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Waterville is a city in Kennebec County of the U. S. state of Maine, United States, on the west bank of the Kennebec River. Home to Colby College and Thomas College, the population was 15,722 at the 2010 census, Waterville is also the second city which makes up the Augusta-Waterville, ME Micropolitan Statistical Area. Waterville has a Mayor and council-manager form of government, led by a mayor, the city council is the governing board, and the city manager is the chief administrative officer of the City, responsible for the management of all City affairs.3 FM. The film Wet Hot American Summer is set in Waterville, the area now known as Waterville was once inhabited by the Canibas tribe of Abenaki Indians. Called Taconnet after Chief Taconnet, the village was located on the east bank of the Kennebec River at its confluence with the Sebasticook River at what is now Winslow. Known as Ticonic by English settlers, it was burned in 1692 during King Williams War, fort Halifax was built by General John Winslow in 1754, and the last skirmish with Indians occurred on May 18,1757. The township would be organized as Kingfield Plantation, then incorporated as Winslow in 1771, when residents on the west side of the Kennebec found themselves unable to cross the river to attend town meetings, Waterville was set off from Winslow and incorporated on June 23,1802. In 1824 a bridge was built joining the communities, early industries included fishing, lumbering, agriculture and ship building, with larger boats launched in spring during freshets. By the early 1900s, there were five shipyards in the community, Ticonic Falls blocked navigation farther upriver, so Waterville developed as the terminus for trade and shipping. The Kennebec River and Messalonskee Stream provided water power for mills, including sawmills, a gristmill, a sash and blind factory, a furniture factory. There was also a carriage and sleigh factory, boot shop, brickyard, on September 27,1849, the Androscoggin and Kennebec Railroad opened to Waterville. It would become part of the Maine Central Railroad, which in 1870 established locomotive, west Waterville was set off as a town in 1873. Waterville was incorporated as a city on January 12,1888, the Ticonic Water Power & Manufacturing Company was formed in 1866 and soon built a dam across the Kennebec. After a change of ownership in 1873, the company began construction on what would become the Lockwood Manufacturing Company, a second mill was added, and by 1900 the firm dominated the riverfront and employed 1,300 workers. Lockwood Mills survived until the mid-1950s, rebuilt in 1903, it would be called the Two Cent Bridge because of its toll. In 1902, the Beaux-Arts style City Hall and Opera House designed by George Gilman Adams was dedicated, in 2002, the C. F. Waterville also developed as an educational center. In 1813, The Maine Literary and Theological Institution was established and it would be renamed Waterville College in 1821, then Colby College in 1867. Thomas College was established in 1894, the first public high school was built in 1877, while the current Waterville Senior High School was built in 1961
22.
Benjamin Tappan
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Benjamin Tappan was an Ohio judge and Democratic politician who served in the Ohio State Senate and the United States Senate. He was a settler of the Connecticut Western Reserve in northeastern Ohio and was one of the first settlers in Portage County. Tappan was born in Northampton, Massachusetts, the child and oldest son of Benjamin Tappan and Sarah Tappan. Two of his brothers were abolitionists Arthur and Lewis Tappan. He attended the schools in Northampton and traveled to the West Indies in his youth. He apprenticed as a printer and engraver, also studying painting with Gilbert Stuart and he read law to be admitted to the bar in Hartford, Connecticut, in 1799. Later that year, he moved to the Connecticut Western Reserve and founded what is now Ravenna, Ohio and he married, March 20,1801, Nancy Wright, sister of John C. Wright, afterwards a Congressman from Ohio and they had one son, Benjamin, born in 1812. Elected to the second Ohio State Senate, Tappan served from 1803 to 1804 and he moved to Steubenville, Jefferson County, in 1809 where he continued his law practice. After serving in the United States Army during the War of 1812, achieving the rank of Major and he served as county judge, judge of the fifth Ohio Circuit Court of Common Pleas from 1816 to 1823. His first wife having died, Benjamin was married a second time, in 1823, to Betsy Frazer and they had one son, Eli Todd Tappan, later president of Kenyon College. Tappan was a Presidential elector on the Democratic ticket in 1832, formally nominated on January 20,1834, Tappans service was terminated on May 29,1834, after his nomination was not confirmed by the Senate. In October 1838, he formed a law partnership with Edwin Stanton, in 1838 he was elected as a Democrat to the U. S. Senate, in which he served from 1839 to 1845. As senator he served on the Committee on the Library and was chairmain of the Committee to Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses. Tappan was censured on May 10,1844 for disclosing the terms of a message from President John Tyler detailing the possible terms of the annexation of Texas to the New York Evening Post. Tappan died April 20,1857 in Steubenville, and was interred in Union Cemetery, Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Benjamin Tappan at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a public domain publication of the Federal Judicial Center, tappan-Toppan Genealogy, Arlington, Massachusetts,1915, pp. 24–25. Brown, R. C. and Norris, J. E, history of Portage County Ohio, Chicago, Illinois,1885,1972 rev. pp. 521–522
23.
Nathan A. Farwell
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Nathan Allen Farwell was a politician, businessman and United States Senator from Maine. Born in Unity, Maine, he attended the common schools and he moved to East Thomaston, Maine, in 1834 and engaged in the manufacture of lime and in shipbuilding. Farwell subsequently became a mariner and trader. He then studied law and moved to Rockland, Maine, where he founded the Rockland Marine Insurance Co. and served as president and he traveled in Europe from 1845 until 1847. He was a member of the Maine State Senate from 1853 to 1854 and again from 1861 to 1862 and he was a member of the Maine House of Representatives in 1860 and again from 1863 to 1864. He was a delegate to the Baltimore Republican National Convention in 1864 and he served in that body from October 27,1864, to March 3,1865, but was not a candidate for reelection in 1865. At that time he resumed his activities in the insurance business and he was delegate to the National Union Convention in Philadelphia in 1866. Farwell died in Rockland, Maine, and is buried in Achorn Cemetery and he was the cousin of Owen Lovejoy and Elijah P. Lovejoy. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, retrieved on 2009-5-13 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Wilson, James Grant, Fiske, John, eds
24.
Valedictorian
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The chosen valedictorian is often the student with the highest ranking among their graduating class. So the valedictory address generally is considered a farewell to classmates. In Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Ireland, India, and the United Kingdom, in Australia, the title is sometimes awarded to a member of a graduating university class on the basis of contribution to the school rather than academic success. The highest-ranking student in a class is often referred to as dux. In France the term Major de promotion is used, although the term is not related to any ceremonial role, how an individual school confers the title is typically based upon the highest grade point average. Some institutions confer the title on the class chosen to deliver the final graduation address, regardless of the speakers academic credentials. Generally, the graduate deemed to be the highest academically ranked student in the class, historically and traditionally, however, schools confer the title upon the highest ranking graduate of the class, who thereby earns the honor of delivering the valedictory address. In other schools, the position may be elected by the body or appointed directly by the school administration based on various systems of merit. Some schools may feature co-valedictorians in lieu of conferring the title on an individual from among the graduating class. This may occur in the case of a tie in grade point averages. The awarding of the valedictorian honor may be the subject of heated controversy, some schools have dropped the honor or changed the rules to allow multiple recipients. In turn, such changes have led to complaints that it is unfair to change the rules after a competition has begun. The New Jersey Commissioner of Education, for example, required schools to make changes to valedictorian award policy effective only for the freshman class. Another New Jersey case raised the question of whether accommodations for students under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act and related laws should affect valedictorian honors. In Hornstine v. Township of Moorestown, a U. S. District Court judge blocked the Moorestown Superintendent of Schools from retroactively changing school policy to deny a disabled student sole honors. The valedictory address, or valediction, is the closing or farewell statement delivered at a graduation ceremony and it is an oration at commencement exercises in U. S. and some Canadian high schools, colleges, and universities delivered by one of the graduates. The mode of discourse generally is inspirational and persuasive, the various aims of this address are to inspire the graduates and to thank individuals responsible for their successes while reflecting on youthful frivolity and the accomplishments of the class. Class rank Dux Grade inflation Latin honors Salutatorian
25.
Southern United States
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The Southern United States, commonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South, is a region of the United States of America. The South does not fully match the geographic south of the United States, arizona and New Mexico, which are geographically in the southern part of the country, are rarely considered part, while West Virginia, which separated from Virginia in 1863, commonly is. Some scholars have proposed definitions of the South that do not coincide neatly with state boundaries, while the states of Delaware and Maryland, as well as the District of Columbia permitted slavery prior to the start of the Civil War, they remained with the Union. However, the United States Census Bureau puts them in the South, usually, the South is defined as including the southeastern and south-central United States. The region is known for its culture and history, having developed its own customs, musical styles, and cuisines, the Southern ethnic heritage is diverse and includes strong European, African, and some Native American components. Since the late 1960s, black people have many offices in Southern states, especially in the coastal states of Virginia. Historically, the South relied heavily on agriculture, and was rural until after 1945. It has since become more industrialized and urban and has attracted national and international migrants, the American South is now among the fastest-growing areas in the United States. Houston is the largest city in the Southern United States, sociological research indicates that Southern collective identity stems from political, demographic, and cultural distinctiveness from the rest of the United States. The region contains almost all of the Bible Belt, an area of high Protestant church attendance and predominantly conservative, indeed, studies have shown that Southerners are more conservative than non-Southerners in several areas, including religion, morality, international relations and race relations. Apart from its climate, the experience in the South increasingly resembles the rest of the nation. The arrival of millions of Northerners and millions of Hispanics meant the introduction of cultural values, the process has worked both ways, however, with aspects of Southern culture spreading throughout a greater portion of the rest of the United States in a process termed Southernization. The question of how to define the subregions in the South has been the focus of research for nearly a century, as defined by the United States Census Bureau, the Southern region of the United States includes sixteen states. As of 2010, an estimated 114,555,744 people, or thirty-seven percent of all U. S. residents, lived in the South, the nations most populous region. Other terms related to the South include, The Old South, the New South, usually including the South Atlantic States. The Solid South, region largely controlled by the Democratic Party from 1877 to 1964, before that, blacks were elected to national office and many to local office through the 1880s, Populist-Republican coalitions gained victories for Fusionist candidates for governors in the 1890s. Includes at least all the 11 former Confederate States, Southeastern United States, usually including the Carolinas, the Virginias, Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida. The Deep South, various definitions, usually including Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, occasionally, parts of adjoining states are included
26.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
27.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
28.
Jeremiah Chaplin
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Jeremiah Chaplin was a Reformed Baptist theologian who served as the first president of Colby College in Maine. Chaplin was born in Rowley, Massachusetts in 1776 and he worked on the family farm, and in 1799 he graduated from Brown University, a school with an historical Baptist affiliation. Chaplin spent a year at Brown as a tutor and then studied theology eventually becoming pastor of a Baptist church in Danvers and he left this pastorate in 1817 to become president of the new Waterville College at which he served until 1833. Chaplin first met Gardner Colby during this period while Colby was still a child, during the remainder of his life, Chaplin preached in Rowley, Massachusetts and Willington, Connecticut, and then moved to Hamilton, New York where he died in 1841. Chaplin held to a Calvinist Baptist theology throughout his life, a Liberty ship constructed in 1943, the SS Jeremiah L. Chaplin was named in his honor. Life of Henry Dunster, first president of Harvard College, duncan Dunbar, the record of an earnest ministry, a sketch of the life of the late pastor of the McDougal St. Baptist Church, New York. Chips from the White House, or, Selections from the speeches, conversations, diaries, letters, words of our hero, Ulysses S. Grant. The evening of life, or, Light and comfort amid the shadows of declining years
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Hillsboro, Illinois
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Hillsboro is a city in Montgomery County, Illinois, United States. The population was 6,207 at the 2010 census and it is the county seat of Montgomery County. The community was founded in 1823 and incorporated on March 26,1913, there is some doubt about the origin of the citys name. The local terrain is hilly, as a result of the drainage of the Shoal Creek watershed. Alternatively, there is the belief that it was named for Hillsborough, North Carolina, Hillsboro is located at 39°9′54″N 89°29′4″W. According to the 2010 census, Hillsboro has an area of 8.322 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 4,359 people,1,800 households, the population density was 1,214.9 people per square mile. There were 1,944 housing units at a density of 541.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 97. 22% White,1. 10% African American,0. 32% Native American,0. 37% Asian,0. 07% Pacific Islander,0. 39% from other races, and 0. 53% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 19% of the population,30. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 14. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.36 and the family size was 2.91. In the city, the population was out with 25. 8% under the age of 18,8. 4% from 18 to 24,27. 2% from 25 to 44,21. 0% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38 years, for every 100 females there were 85.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80.3 males, the median income for a household in the city was $33,075, and the median income for a family was $40,135. Males had an income of $31,821 versus $18,668 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,458, about 14. 3% of families and 17. 2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 24. 9% of those under age 18 and 11. 9% of those age 65 or over. Phillips, Chief Justice of the Illinois Supreme Court John H. com
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Montgomery County, Illinois
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Montgomery County is a county located in the U. S. state of Illinois. According to the 2010 census, it had a population of 30,104, Montgomery County was formed in 1821 out of Bond and Madison counties. It was named in honor of Richard Montgomery, an American Revolutionary War general killed in 1775 while attempting to capture Quebec City, Canada. Perrins 1882 History of Montgomery County relates that the County was named in honor of Gen. Montgomery, but goes on to say that others are dubious as to whence it received its name. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 710 square miles. Average monthly precipitation ranged from 2.00 inches in February to 4.31 inches in May, as of the 2010 United States Census, there were 30,104 people,11,652 households, and 7,806 families residing in the county. The population density was 42.8 inhabitants per square mile, there were 13,080 housing units at an average density of 18.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 95. 1% white,3. 2% black or African American,0. 4% Asian,0. 2% American Indian,0. 5% from other races, and 0. 7% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 1. 5% of the population, in terms of ancestry,27. 8% were German,11. 2% were Irish,10. 1% were English, and 9. 8% were American. The average household size was 2.38 and the family size was 2.87. The median age was 41.9 years, the median income for a household in the county was $40,864 and the median income for a family was $56,945. Males had an income of $40,749 versus $29,426 for females. The per capita income for the county was $21,700, about 10. 9% of families and 14. 0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22. 7% of those under age 18 and 7. 4% of those age 65 or over. When he died in 1934 at the age of 65, he was accorded the biggest funeral in the history of Montgomery County
31.
Edward Bates
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Edward Bates was a U. S. lawyer and statesman. He served as the first attorney general of Missouri after it was admitted as a state and he served as the United States Attorney General under President Abraham Lincoln from 1861 to 1864, and was notable as the first cabinet member to be appointed from west of the Mississippi River. He was the brother of Frederick Bates, second governor of Missouri, and James Woodson Bates. Born to Thomas and Caroline Bates in Goochland County, Virginia, on his familys Belmont plantation, when older, he attended Charlotte Hall Military Academy in Maryland. Edward Bates served in the War of 1812 before moving to St. Louis, Missouri Territory, in 1814 with his older brother James, who started working as an attorney. Their eldest brother Frederick Bates was already in St. Louis by that time, Edward Bates studied the law with Rufus Easton and boarded with his family. Easton was Judge of the Louisiana Territory, the largest jurisdiction in U. S. history since the Louisiana Purchase, after being admitted to the bar, Bates worked as a partner with Easton. In 1817, the two organized the James Ferry, which ran from St. Charles, Missouri to Alton, Easton had founded the latter town, naming it after his first son Alton. Batess private practice partner was Joshua Barton, who was appointed as the first Missouri Secretary of State, Barton became infamous for fighting duels on Bloody Island. In 1816 Bates was the second to Barton in a duel with Thomas Hempstead, brother of Edward Hempstead, Barton was killed in a duel on the island in 1823. Batess first foray into politics came in 1820, with election as a member of the constitutional convention. He wrote the preamble to the state constitution—an honor that later influenced his fight against the radical Missouri Constitution of 1865 and he next was appointed as the new states Attorney General. In 1822, Bates was elected to the Missouri House of Representatives and he was elected to the United States House of Representatives for a single term. Next, he was elected to the State Senate from 1831 to 1835 and he ran for the U. S. Senate, but lost to Democrat Thomas Hart Benton. Bates became a prominent member of the Whig Party during the 1840s, after she gained her freedom, she enlisted Bates support as her attorney in the separate freedom suit she filed for her daughter Lucy Ann Berry, then about age 14. According to the principle of partus sequitur ventrem, since the mother had been proved a woman at the time of her daughters birth. During this time, Orion Clemens, brother of Mark Twain, in 1850, President Millard Fillmore asked Bates to serve as U. S. Secretary of War, but he declined. Charles Magill Conrad accepted the position and he received support from Horace Greeley, who later switched to support Abraham Lincoln
32.
Hamilton Rowan Gamble
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Hamilton Gamble was born in Winchester, Virginia, the youngest of seven children of Joseph and Anne Hamilton Gamble, Scots-Irish who immigrated to Virginia in 1784 from northern Ireland. Gamble studied at schools and at age 13 went to Hampden-Sydney College. He read the law with a firm and by 1817 was accepted to the bar in Virginia. In 1818 as a man of 20, he moved to St. Louis, Missouri to join his older brother Archibald Gamble. In 1827, Gamble married Caroline J. Coalter of Columbia and he likely met her when she was visiting St. Louis, as both her brother David Coalter and a sister lived there. Her sister was married to the attorney Edward Bates of St. Louis, Hamilton and Caroline had three children, Hamilton, David, and Mary Coalter Gamble. After practicing in Franklin in the middle of the state, Gamble became prosecuting attorney of the Circuit Court of Howard County, in 1824, Governor Frederick Bates appointed him as Missouri Secretary of State and he moved to the capital, then located at St. Charles, Missouri. When the capital was moved to Jefferson City, Gamble returned to St. Louis in 1826 and he set up a private legal practice there. Although a slaveholder, he defended slaves in court and he became a member of the American Colonization Society, which supported the resettlement of free blacks in Liberia. In 1846, Gamble was elected to the Missouri Supreme Court by the Whig Party and he was quickly elected chief justice, on a rotating term. Though a slaveholder, he dissented in the Missouri Supreme Court decision of the Dred Scott v. Emerson case, Gamble resigned his judgeship in 1855 due to failing health, and in 1858 moved to Pennsylvania. As the secession crisis deepened, Missouri attempted to follow a policy of armed neutrality, in which the state would not support either side in the war, a special election in February established a Missouri Constitutional Convention to determine the relationship between Missouri and the United States. The convention voted against secession and affirmed the states neutrality, the outbreak of hostilities at Fort Sumter led to unrest in Missouri. Secessionists seized the Liberty Arsenal a week later, Governor Claiborne Jackson called up the state militia for drill in St. Louis and to receive some arms clandestinely obtained from the Confederacy. This resulted in a confrontation with the aggressive Union commander Nathaniel Lyon, after a deadly riot ensued, the Missouri legislature authorized the reorganization of the militia into the Missouri State Guard, controlled by the governor. General William Harney reached an agreement with the new Missouri State Guard commander Sterling Price, Lincoln appointed Lyon to replace Harney as commander of the Department of the West. During negotiations among the governor, Lyon, and Price, Lyon would not accept the governors proposed limitations on Federal troops, the meeting ended abruptly with Lyon declaring, This means war. In and hour one of my officers will call for you, as the Missouri government fled into exile Lyon moved rapidly capturing the capitol at Jefferson City, Missouri a few days later in mid-June 1861
33.
William Wells Brown
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William Wells Brown was a prominent African-American abolitionist lecturer, novelist, playwright, and historian in the United States. Born into slavery in Montgomery County, Kentucky, near the town of Mount Sterling and he settled in Boston, where he worked for abolitionist causes and became a prolific writer. Amongst working for abolitionist causes, Brown also supported causes including, temperance, womens suffrage, pacifism, prison reform, and anti-tobacconism. His novel Clotel, considered the first novel written by an African American, was published in London, Brown was a pioneer in several different literary genres, including travel writing, fiction, and drama. In 1858 he became the first published African-American playwright, and often read from this work on the lecture circuit, following the Civil War, in 1867 he published what is considered the first history of African Americans in the Revolutionary War. He was among the first writers inducted to the Kentucky Writers Hall of Fame, a public school was named for him in Lexington, Kentucky. Brown was lecturing in England when the 1850 Fugitive Slave Law was passed in the US, as its provisions increased the risk of capture and re-enslavement, he stayed overseas for several years. After his freedom was purchased in 1854 by a British couple, he, a contemporary of Frederick Douglass, Wells Brown was overshadowed by the charismatic orator and the two feuded publicly. William was born into slavery in 1814 near Lexington, Kentucky and she was held by Dr. John Young and had seven children, each by different fathers. Williams father was George W. Higgins, a white planter, Higgins had formally acknowledged William as his son and made his cousin Young promise not to sell the boy. But Young did sell him with his mother, William was sold several times before he was twenty years old. William spent the majority of his youth in St. Louis and his masters hired him out to work on steamboats on the Missouri River, then a major thoroughfare for steamships and the slave trade. His work allowed him to see new places. In 1833, he and his mother escaped together across the Mississippi River, in 1834, Brown made a second escape attempt, successfully slipping away from a steamboat when it docked in Cincinnati, Ohio, a free state. In freedom, he took the names of Wells Brown, a Quaker friend who helped him after his escape by providing food, clothes and he learned to read and write, and eagerly sought more education, reading extensively to make up for what he had been deprived. Around this time he was hired by Elijah Lovejoy and worked with the famed abolitionist in his printing office, in 1834, his first year of freedom, at age 20 Brown married Elizabeth Schooner, with whom he had two surviving daughters, Clarissa and Josephine. William and Elizabeth later became estranged, in 1851, Elizabeth died in the United States. Brown had been in England since 1849 with their daughters, lecturing on the abolitionist circuit, after his freedom was purchased in 1854 by a British couple, Brown returned with his daughters to the US, settling in Boston
34.
Revivalism
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Revivalism is increased spiritual interest or renewal in the life of a church congregation or society, with a local, national or global effect. This should be distinguished from the use of the revival to refer to an evangelistic meeting or series of meetings. Revivals are seen as the restoration of the church itself to a vital, Mass conversions of non-believers are viewed by church leaders as having positive moral effects. Within Christian studies the concept of revival is derived from biblical narratives of national decline, in particular, narrative accounts of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah emphasise periods of national decline and revival associated with the rule of various righteous and wicked kings. Josiah is notable within this biblical narrative as a figure who reinstituted temple worship of Yahweh while destroying pagan worship, within modern Church history, church historians have identified and debated the effects of various national revivals within the history of the USA and other countries. During the 18th and 19th centuries American society experienced a number of Awakenings around the years 1727,1792,1830,1857 and 1882, the Bible narrative records a number of revivals within the history of the Israelites. In particular, following the development of temple worship based in Jerusalem the Bible records periods of decline and revival associated with the rule of righteous. Within this historical narrative the reign of Josiah epitomises the effect of revival on Israelite society in reinstituting temple worship of Yahweh and its character formed part of the mental framework that led to the American War of Independence and the Civil War. The philosophy of Earl of Shaftesbury III led to a Proto-Romanticism that mixed with Christian worship to produce a tertium quid, a similar revival in Scotland took place at Cambuslang, then a village and is known as the Cambuslang Work. It resulted from powerful preaching that deeply affected listeners with a sense of personal guilt. Pulling away from ancient ritual and ceremony, the Great Awakening made religion intensely emotive to the person by creating a deep sense of spiritual guilt. Historian Sydney E. Ahlstrom sees it as part of a great international Protestant upheaval that also created Pietism in Germany and it brought Christianity to the slaves and was an apocalyptic event in New England that challenged established authority. It had little impact on Anglicans and Quakers, unlike the Second Great Awakening that began about 1800 and which reached out to the unchurched, the First Great Awakening focused on people who were already church members. It changed their rituals, their piety, and their self-awareness, the Hungarian Baptist church sprung out of revival with the perceived liberalism of the Hungarian reformed church during the late 1800s. Many thousands of people were baptized in a revival that was led primarily by uneducated laymen, special efforts were made to attract children and to generate literature to spread the revivalist message. Halévy suggested that a politically conservative Methodism forestalled revolution among the uneducated working class by redirecting its energies toward spiritual rather than temporal affairs. The thesis has engendered strong debate among historians, and several have adopted and modified Halévys thesis, some historians, such as Robert Wearmouth, suggest that evangelical revivalism directed working-class attention toward moral regeneration, not social radicalism. Others, including E. P. Thompson, claim that Methodism, some historians question the Halévy thesis
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Presbyterian Church (USA)
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The Presbyterian Church, or PC, is a mainline Protestant Christian denomination in the United States. A part of the Reformed tradition, it is the largest Presbyterian denomination in the U. S. the denomination had 1,572,660 active members and 20,077 ordained ministers in 9,642 congregations at the end of 2015. This number does not include the members also affiliated. Its membership has been declining over the past several decades, the PC remains the largest Presbyterian denomination in the United States. In 2015, Pew Research estimated that 1% of the U. S population self-identify as PC, in 2012–14, when all members were included, it was reported to have 2.8 million total. The PC is a member of the National Council of Churches, the World Communion of Reformed Churches, the World Council of Churches, denominational offices are located in Louisville, Kentucky. The WCC reports that the PC has a possible number of 1.9 million members. Presbyterians trace their history to the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century, from Calvins headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, the Reformed movement spread to other parts of Europe. John Knox, a former Roman Catholic Priest from Scotland who studied with Calvin in Geneva, took Calvins teachings back to Scotland, because of this reform movement, the Church of Scotland embraced Reformed theology and presbyterian polity. The Ulster Scots brought their Presbyterian faith with them to Ireland, immigrants from Scotland and Ireland brought Presbyterianism to America as early as 1640, and immigration would remain a large source of growth throughout the colonial era. Another source of growth were a number of New England Puritans who left the Congregational churches because they preferred presbyterian polity. In 1706, seven ministers led by Francis Makemie established the first American presbytery at Philadelphia, the First Great Awakening and the revivalism it generated had a major impact on American Presbyterians. Ministers such as William and Gilbert Tennent, a friend of George Whitefield, emphasized the necessity of a conversion experience. Disagreements over revivalism, itinerant preaching, and educational requirements for clergy led to a known as the Old Side–New Side Controversy that lasted from 1741 to 1758. In the South, the Presbyterians were evangelical dissenters, mostly Scotch-Irish, spangler argues they were more energetic and held frequent services better atuned to the frontier conditions of the colony. Presbyterianism grew in areas where the Anglicans had made little impression. Uneducated whites and blacks were attracted to the worship of the denomination, its emphasis on biblical simplicity. Some local Presbyterian churches, such as Briery in Prince Edward County, the Briery church purchased five slaves in 1766 and raised money for church expenses by hiring them out to local planters
36.
Steamboat
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A steamboat is a boat that is propelled primarily by steam power, typically driving propellers or paddlewheels. Steamboats sometimes use the prefix designation SS, S. S. or S/S or PS, the term steamboat is used to refer to smaller, insular, steam-powered boats working on lakes and rivers, particularly riverboats. As using steam became more reliable, steam power became applied to larger, Early attempts at powering a boat by steam were made by the French inventor Denis Papin and the English inventor Thomas Newcomen. Papin invented the steam digester and experimented with closed cylinders and pistons pushed in by atmospheric pressure, Papin proposed applying this steam pump to the operation of a paddlewheel boat and tried to market his idea in Britain. He was unable to convert the piston motion into rotary motion. Newcomens design did solve the first problem, but remained shackled to the inherent limitations of the engines of the time, a steamboat was described and patented by English physician John Allen in 1729. In 1736, Jonathan Hulls was granted a patent in England for a Newcomen engine-powered steamboat, William Henry of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, having learned of Watts engine on a visit to England, made his own engine. In 1763 he put it in a boat, the boat sank, and while Henry made an improved model, he did not appear to have much success, though he may have inspired others. At its first demonstration on 15 July 1783, Pyroscaphe travelled upstream on the river Saône for some fifteen minutes before the engine failed, presumably this was easily repaired as the boat is said to have made several such journeys. Following this, De Jouffroy attempted to get the government interested in his work, De Jouffroy did not have the funds for this, and, following the events of the French revolution, work on the project was discontinued after he left the country. Similar boats were made in 1785 by John Fitch in Philadelphia and William Symington in Dumfries and this boat could typically make 7 to 8 miles per hour and traveled more than 2,000 miles during its short length of service. The Fitch steamboat was not a success, as this travel route was adequately covered by relatively good wagon roads. The following year, a boat made 30-mile excursions, and in 1790. Miller sent King Gustav III of Sweden an actual version,100 feet long. Miller then engaged engineer William Symington to build his patent steam engine drove a stern-mounted paddle wheel in a boat in 1785. The boat was successfully tried out on Dalswinton Loch in 1788 and was followed by a steamboat the next year. The boat was built by Alexander Hart at Grangemouth to Symingtons design with a cylinder engine. Trials on the River Carron in June 1801 were successful and included towing sloops from the river Forth up the Carron and thence along the Forth, in 1801, Symington patented a horizontal steam engine directly linked to a crank
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St. Charles, Missouri
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St. Charles is a city in, and the county seat of, St. Charles County, Missouri, United States. The population was 65,794 at the 2010 census, making St. Charles the ninth-largest city in Missouri and it lies to the northwest, and is a suburb of St. Louis, Missouri on the Missouri River. For a time, it played a significant role in the United States westward expansion, the city served as the first Missouri capital from 1821 to 1826, and is the site of the Saint Rose Philippine Duchesne shrine. Native American peoples inhabited the area for at least 7,000 years, when the Europeans arrived the area was inhabited by the Ilini, Osage and Missouri nations. According to Hopewells Romantic Legends of the Missouri and Mississippi, Blanchette met another French Canadian at the site of St. Charles in 1765. Blanchette, determined to settle there, asked if Guillet, who had become a chief of a Dakota tribe, had chosen a name for it, I called the place Les Petites Côtes replied Bernard, from the sides of the hills that you see. By that name shall it be called, said Blanchette Chasseur, Blanchette settled there in about 1769 under the authority of the Spanish governor of Upper Louisiana. He was appointed as the civil and military leader, serving until his death in 1793. Although the settlement was under Spanish jurisdiction, the settlers were primarily Native American, considered to begin in St. Charles, the Boones Lick Trail along the Missouri River lowlands was the major overland route for settlement of central and western Missouri. This area became known as the Boonslick or Boonslick Country, at Franklin, Missouri, the trail ended. Westward progress continued on the Santa Fe Trail, the first church, built in 1791, was Catholic and dedicated to the Italian saint Charles Borromeo, under the Spanish version of his name, San Carlos Borromeo. The town became known as San Carlos del Misuri, St. Charles of the Missouri, the original location of the church is not known but a replica has been built just off Main Street. The fourth St. Charles Borromeo Church now stands on Fifth Street, the name of the town, San Carlos, was anglicized to St. Charles. William Clark arrived in St. Charles on May 16,1804, with him were 40 men and three boats, they made final preparations, as they waited for Meriwether Lewis to arrive from St. Louis. They attended dances, dinners, and a service during this time. Lewis arrived via St. Charles Rock Road on May 20, the expedition launched the next day in a keel boat at 3,30 pm. St. Charles was the last established American town the expedition visited for more than two and a half years. When Missouri was granted statehood in 1821, the decided to build a City of Jefferson to serve as the state capital, in the center of the state
38.
Angry mob
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Mobbing, in the context of human beings, means bullying of an individual by a group, in any context, such as a family, peer group, school, workplace, neighborhood, community, or online. The earliest known usage of formal mobbing techniques began in East Germany in the 1950s and 1960s, East German secret police used mobbing extensively, in the specific formally-named Zersetzung, which was strengthened substantially by the Honecker era in 1971. Konrad Lorenz, in his book entitled On Aggression, first described mobbing among birds and animals, in his view, humans are subject to similar innate impulses but capable of bringing them under rational control. In the 1970s, the Swedish physician Peter-Paul Heinemann applied Lorenzs conceptualization to the aggression of children against a targeted child. In the 1980s, professor and practising psychologist Heinz Leymann applied the term to ganging up in the workplace, Leymann noted that one of the possible side-effects of mobbing is post-traumatic stress disorder and is frequently misdiagnosed. After making this discovery he successfully treated thousands of victims at his clinic in Sweden, british anti-bullying researchers Andrea Adams and Tim Field have used the expression workplace bullying instead of what Leymann called mobbing in a workplace context. They identify mobbing as a type of bullying that is not as apparent as most. It begins when an individual becomes the target of disrespectful and harmful behavior, Harper further challenges the idea that workers are targeted for their exceptional competence. In some cases, she suggests, exceptional workers are mobbed because they are viewed as threatening to someone, rather, Harper contends, some mobbing targets are outcasts or unproductive workers who cannot easily be terminated, and are thus treated inhumanely to push them out. While Harper emphasizes the cruelty and damaging consequences of mobbing, her organizational analysis focuses on the structural, rather than moral, Shallcross, Ramsay and Barker consider workplace mobbing to be a generally unfamiliar term in some English speaking countries. Some researchers claim that mobbing is simply another name for bullying, Workplace mobbing can be considered as a virus or a cancer that spreads throughout the workplace via gossip, rumour and unfounded accusations. It is a attempt to force a person out of their workplace by humiliation, general harassment. Mobbing can be described as being ganged up on, Mobbing is executed by a leader. The leader then rallies others into a systematic and frequent mob-like behaviour toward the victim, Mobbing as downward bullying by superiors is also known as bossing, and upward bullying by colleagues as staffing, in some European countries, for instance, in German-speaking regions. Victims of workplace mobbing frequently suffer from, adjustment disorders, somatic symptoms, psychological trauma, post-traumatic stress disorder, in mobbing targets with PTSD, Leymann notes that the mental effects were fully comparable with PTSD from war or prison camp experiences. Some patients may develop alcoholism or other substance abuse disorders, Workplace targets and witnesses may even develop brief psychotic episodes occupational psychosis generally with paranoid symptoms. Leymann estimated that 15% of suicides in Sweden could be attributed to workplace mobbing. Following on from the work of Heinemann, Elliot identifies mobbing as a phenomenon in the form of group bullying at school
39.
American Anti-Slavery Society
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The American Anti-Slavery Society was an abolitionist society founded by William Lloyd Garrison, and Arthur Tappan. Frederick Douglass, a slave, was a key leader of this society who often spoke at its meetings. William Wells Brown was also a slave who often spoke at meetings. By 1838, the society had 1,350 local charters with around 250,000 members, anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Theodore Dwight Weld, Lewis Tappan, James G. Downing, and John Greenleaf Whittier, among others. Headquartered in New York City, from 1840 to 1870 the society published a weekly newspaper, by the 1820s, the controversy surrounding the Missouri Compromise had quieted down considerably, but was revived by a series of events near the end of the decade. Serious debates over abolition took place in the Virginia legislature in 1829 and 1831, in the North discussion began about the possibility of freeing the slaves and then resettling them back in Africa. Nat Turner and more than 70 enslaved and free blacks spontaneously launched a rebellion in Southampton County, Virginia and they moved from farm to farm, indiscriminately killing whites along the way and picking up additional slaves. By the time the militia put down the insurrection, more than 80 slaves had joined the rebellion, while the uprising led some southerners to consider abolition, the reaction in all southern states was to tighten the laws governing slave behavior. President Andrew Jackson swept aside the states rights arguments and threatened to use the army to enforce federal laws. In the face of Jacksons determination, the state backed down, southern anxiety increased in 1833 with the founding of the American Anti-Slavery Society in Philadelphia. The society was considered controversial and sometimes met with violence, according to the Britannica Encyclopedia, The societys antislavery activities frequently met with violent public opposition, with mobs invading meetings, attacking speakers, and burning presses. In the mid-1830s, slavery had become so involved in the U. S. that getting rid of it would cause a major blow to the economy. A convention of abolitionists was called to meet in December 1833 at the Adelphi Building in Philadelphia, the convention had 62 delegates, of which 21 were Quakers. The new American Anti-Slavery Society charged William Lloyd Garrison with writing the new declaration. The document condemns the institution of slavery and accuses slave owners of the sin of being a man-stealer and it calls for the immediate abolition of slavery without terms, and is critical of the efforts of the American Colonization Society. At the same time, it declares the group to be pacifist, in July 1834 the aims of the society appear to have been misrepresented in the prelude to the Farren Riots in New York, which led to attacks on the homes and properties of abolitionists. The black clergyman Theodore S. Wright was a significant founding member, a Presbyterian minister, Wright together with well-known spokesmen such as Tappan and Garrison agitated for temperance, education, black suffrage and land reform. According to Wright, I will say nothing about the inconvenience which I have experienced myself, I will say nothing about the inconvenience of traveling, how we are frowned upon and despised
40.
Panic of 1837
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The Panic of 1837 was a financial crisis in the United States that touched off a major recession that lasted until the mid-1840s. Profits, prices, and wages went down while unemployment went up, the panic had both domestic and foreign origins. On May 10,1837, banks in New York City suspended specie payments, despite a brief recovery in 1838, the recession persisted for approximately seven years. Banks collapsed, businesses failed, prices declined, and thousands of workers lost their jobs, unemployment may have been as high as 25% in some locales. The years 1837 to 1844 were, generally speaking, years of deflation in wages and prices, the crisis followed a period of economic expansion from mid-1834 to mid-1836. The prices of land, cotton, and slaves rose sharply in these years, the origins of this boom had many sources, both domestic and international. Because of the factors of international trade at the time, abundant amounts of silver were coming into the United States from Mexico. Land sales and tariffs on imports were also generating substantial federal revenues, through lucrative cotton exports and the marketing of state-backed bonds in British money markets, the United States acquired significant capital investment from Great Britain. These bonds financed transportation projects in the United States, to compensate, the directors indicated that they would gradually raise interest rates from 3 to 5 percent. Conventional financial theory held that banks should raise interest rates and curb lending when faced with low monetary reserves, raising interest rates, according to the laws of supply and demand, was supposed to attract specie since money generally flows where it will generate the greatest return. S. The result was that as the Bank of England raised interest rates, when New York banks raised interest rates and scaled back on lending, the effects were damaging. Since the price of a bond bears a relationship to the yield. The price of cotton fell by 25% in February and March 1837, the United States economy, especially in the southern states, was heavily dependent on stable cotton prices. Within the United States, there were contributing factors. In July 1832, President Andrew Jackson vetoed the bill to recharter the Second Bank of the United States, as the BUS wound up its operations in the next four years, state-chartered banks in the West and South relaxed their lending standards, maintaining unsafe reserve ratios. Two domestic policies, in particular, exacerbated an already volatile situation, the Specie Circular of 1836 mandated that western lands could be purchased only with gold and silver coin. The circular was an order issued by Andrew Jackson, and favored by Senator Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri. Secondly, the Deposit and Distribution Act of 1836 placed federal revenues in various local banks across the country, Many of these banks were located in western regions
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Partisan (military)
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A partisan is a member of an irregular military force formed to oppose control of an area by a foreign power or by an army of occupation by some kind of insurgent activity. The term can apply to the element of resistance movements. The French term partisan, derived from the Latin, first appeared in the 17th century to describe the leader of a war-party, one of the first manuals of partisan tactics in the 18th century was The Partisan, or the Art of Making War in Detachment. Published in London in 1760 by de Jeney, a Hungarian military officer who served in the Prussian Army as captain of engineers during the Seven Years War of 1756–1763. Johann von Ewald described techniques of warfare in detail in his Abhandlung über den kleinen Krieg. The concept of warfare would later form the basis of the Partisan Rangers of the American Civil War. In that war, Confederate States Army Partisan leaders, such as John S. Mosby, in essence, 19th-century American partisans were closer to commando or ranger forces raised during World War II than to the partisan forces operating in occupied Europe. Mosby-style fighters would have been legally considered uniformed members of their states armed forces, Partisans in the mid-19th century were substantially different from raiding cavalry, or from unorganized/semi-organized guerrilla forces. Russian partisans played a part in the downfall of Napoleon. Their fierce resistance and persistent inroads helped compel the French emperor to flee Russia in 1812, imperial Russia also made use of partisans in World War I, for example Stanisław Bułak-Bałachowicz. The group was the wing of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists—Bandera faction, originally formed in Volyn in the spring. Its official date of creation is 14 October 1942, day of Intercession of the Theotokos feast, the OUNs stated immediate goal was the re-establishment of a united, independent national state on Ukrainian ethnic territory. The organization began as a group and developed into a guerrilla army. Soviet partisans during World War II, especially active in Belarus, effectively harassed German troops. As a result, Soviet authority was re-established deep inside the German-held territories, in some areas partisan kolkhozes raised crops and livestock to produce food. However this was not usually the case and partisans also requisitioned supplies from the local populace, Soviet partisans in Finland were known to have attacked villages and indiscriminately target the populace, killing entire families. The war crimes committed in Finland by Soviet partisans were investigated by the National Bureau since 1999, however, Russia refused access to Soviet archives and the investigation ended in 2003. Partisan warfare was routinely distorted in the Soviet Union, according to historian Veikko Erkkilä the Russian attitude towards civilian atrocities has been marred by the Great Patriotic War propaganda
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Anti-Slavery Society
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The Anti-Slavery Society was the everyday name of two different British organisations. The first was founded in 1823 and was committed to the abolition of slavery in the British Empire and its official name was the Society for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery Throughout the British Dominions. This objective was achieved in 1838 under the terms of the Slavery Abolition Act 1833. The elimination of slavery throughout the world was frequently in the mind of early abolitionists, the Slave Trade Act 1807 made the slave trade illegal in the British Empire. The first British organisation to refer to itself as the Anti-Slavery Society was founded in Britain in 1823, founding members included William Wilberforce and Thomas Clarkson. Its official name was the Society for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery Throughout the British Dominions and its work included supporting the first account of slavery to be published by a Black woman, Mary Prince, The History of Mary Prince, A West Indian Slave. The publishers were sued by the family from which she had escaped, the book was much sought after, running into three editions in the year of its publication. A wide range of views emerged among the members, the latter group, including Joseph Sturge and many others, publicly campaigned throughout Britain. The idea was to engender public pressure for a new act to outlaw slavery, rather than continue the gradualism of Whitehalls negotiations. In 1831 George Stephen and Joseph Sturge formed a group within the Anti-Slavery Society. This campaign, and public pressure, led to the Slavery Abolition Act of 1833, in response to the new legislation, other members of the Anti-Slavery Society considered their work over. The original purpose, as reflected in the name of the society, had, they thought, largely under the guidance of Joseph Sturge, the committee duly formed a new society, British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society on 17 April 1839. It became widely known as the Anti-Slavery Society, as had the earlier society, the first secretary was John Harfield Tredgold, the first treasurer, George William Alexander of Stoke Newington. Thomas Clarkson was the key speaker, and the Convention attracted people from nations around the world where slavery was practiced, Convention leaders refused to seat the women delegates from America, and prominent male abolitionists such as Thomas Knight were outraged. He went on to form his own society, in the 1850s, under Louis Chamerovzow, the society helped John Brown write and publish his autobiography a decade before the American Civil War ended slavery in the United States. In 1909, the society merged with the Aborigines Protection Society to form the Anti-Slavery and Aborigines Protection Society, whose prominent member was Kathleen Simon, in 1990 the name was changed to Anti-Slavery International. American Anti-Slavery Group Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade Anti-Slavery International Anti-Slavery Society Convention 1840 Anti-Slavery Society
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United States Constitution
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The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the United States of America. The Constitution, originally comprising seven articles, delineates the national frame of government, Articles Four, Five and Six entrench concepts of federalism, describing the rights and responsibilities of state governments and of the states in relationship to the federal government. Article Seven establishes the procedure used by the thirteen States to ratify it. In general, the first ten amendments, known collectively as the Bill of Rights, offer specific protections of individual liberty, the majority of the seventeen later amendments expand individual civil rights protections. Others address issues related to federal authority or modify government processes and procedures, Amendments to the United States Constitution, unlike ones made to many constitutions worldwide, are appended to the document. All four pages of the original U. S, according to the United States Senate, The Constitutions first three words—We the People—affirm that the government of the United States exists to serve its citizens. From September 5,1774 to March 1,1781, the Continental Congress functioned as the government of the United States. The process of selecting the delegates for the First and Second Continental Congresses underscores the revolutionary role of the people of the colonies in establishing a governing body. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was the first constitution of the United States and it was drafted by the Second Continental Congress from mid-1776 through late-1777, and ratification by all 13 states was completed by early 1781. Under the Articles of Confederation, the governments power was quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions, but lacked enforcement powers, implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures. The Continental Congress could print money but the currency was worthless, Congress could borrow money, but couldnt pay it back. No state paid all their U. S. taxes, some paid nothing, some few paid an amount equal to interest on the national debt owed to their citizens, but no more. No interest was paid on debt owed foreign governments, by 1786, the United States would default on outstanding debts as their dates came due. Internationally, the Articles of Confederation did little to enhance the United States ability to defend its sovereignty, most of the troops in the 625-man United States Army were deployed facing – but not threatening – British forts on American soil. They had not been paid, some were deserting and others threatening mutiny, spain closed New Orleans to American commerce, U. S. officials protested, but to no effect. Barbary pirates began seizing American ships of commerce, the Treasury had no funds to pay their ransom, if any military crisis required action, the Congress had no credit or taxing power to finance a response. Domestically, the Articles of Confederation was failing to bring unity to the sentiments and interests of the various states
"Lovejoy, Elijah Parish". Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. 1900.
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