1.
Pastry
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Pastry is a dough of flour, water and shortening that may be savoury or sweetened. Sweetened pastries are often described as bakers confectionery, the word pastries suggests many kinds of baked products made from ingredients such as flour, sugar, milk, butter, shortening, baking powder, and eggs. Small tarts and other baked products are called pastries. The French word pâtisserie is also used in English for the same foods, common pastry dishes include pies, tarts, quiches and pasties. Pastry can also refer to the dough, from which such baked products are made. Pastry dough is rolled out thinly and used as a base for baked products, pastry is differentiated from bread by having a higher fat content, which contributes to a flaky or crumbly texture. A good pastry is light and airy and fatty, but firm enough to support the weight of the filling, when making a shortcrust pastry, care must be taken to blend the fat and flour thoroughly before adding any liquid. This ensures that the granules are adequately coated with fat. On the other hand, overmixing results in long gluten strands that toughen the pastry, Shortcrust pastry Shortcrust pastry is the simplest and most common pastry. It is made with flour, fat, butter, salt and this is used mainly in tarts. It is also the pastry that is used most often in making a quiche, the process of making pastry includes mixing of the fat and flour, adding water, and rolling out the paste. A related type is the sweetened sweetcrust pastry, also known as pâte sucrée, in which sugar, Flaky pastry Flaky pastry is a simple pastry that expands when cooked due to the number of layers. It bakes into a crisp, buttery pastry, the puff is obtained by the shard-like layers of fat, most often butter or shortening, creating layers which expand in the heat of the oven when baked. Puff pastry Puff pastry has many layers that cause it to expand or puff when baked, Puff pastry is made using flour, butter, salt, and water. The pastry rises up due to the water and fats expanding as they turn into steam upon heating, Puff pastries come out of the oven light, flaky, and tender. Choux pastry Choux pastry is a very light pastry that is filled with cream. Unlike other types of pastry, choux is in closer to a dough before being cooked which gives it the ability to be piped into various shapes such as the éclair. Its name originates from the French choux, meaning cabbage, owing to its rough cabbage-like shape after cooking, Choux begins as a mixture of milk or water and butter which are heated together until the butter melts, to which flour is added to form a dough
2.
Stuffing
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Stuffing, filling, or dressing is an edible substance or mixture, often a starch, used to fill a cavity in another food item while cooking. Many foods may be stuffed, including eggs, poultry, seafood, mammals, popular additions in the United Kingdom include dried fruits and nuts, and chestnuts. It is not known when stuffings were first used, the earliest documentary evidence is the Roman cookbook, Apicius De Re Coquinaria, which contains recipes for stuffed chicken, dormouse, hare, and pig. Most of the stuffings described consist of vegetables, herbs and spices, nuts, and spelt, and frequently contain chopped liver, brains, names for stuffing include farce, stuffing, forcemeat, and relatively more recently in the United States, dressing. In addition to stuffing the body cavity of animals, including birds, fish, popular recipes include stuffed chicken legs, stuffed pork chops, stuffed breast of veal, as well as the traditional holiday stuffed turkey or goose. Many types of vegetables are also suitable for stuffing, after their seeds or flesh has been removed, tomatoes, capsicums, vegetable marrows may be prepared in this way. Cabbages and similar vegetables can also be stuffed or wrapped around a filling and they are usually blanched first, in order to make their leaves more pliable. Then, the interior may be replaced by stuffing, or small amounts of stuffing may be inserted between the individual leaves and it is sometimes claimed that the ancient Roman, as well as medieval, cooked stuffed animals with other animals. An anonymous Andalusian cookbook from the 13th century includes a recipe for a ram stuffed with small birds, a similar recipe for a camel stuffed with sheep stuffed with bustards stuffed with carp stuffed with eggs is mentioned in T. C. British celebrity chef Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall has championed the ten-bird roast, calling it one of the most spectacular, a large turkey is stuffed with a goose, duck, mallard, guinea fowl, chicken, pheasant, partridge, pigeon, and woodcock. In the United States and Eastern Canada, multi-bird dishes are served on special occasions. Almost anything can serve as a stuffing, many popular Anglo-American stuffings contain bread or cereals, usually together with vegetables, herbs and spices, and eggs. Middle Eastern vegetable stuffings may be based on seasoned rice, on minced meat, other stuffings may contain only vegetables and herbs. Some types of stuffing contain sausage meat, or forcemeat, while vegetarian stuffings sometimes contain tofu, roast pork is often accompanied by sage and onion stuffing in England, roast poultry in a Christmas dinner may be stuffed with sweet chestnuts. Oysters are used in one traditional stuffing for Thanksgiving and these may also be combined with mashed potatoes, for a heavy stuffing. Fruits and dried fruits can be added to stuffing including apples, apricots, dried prunes, in England, a stuffing is sometimes made of minced pork shoulder seasoned with various ingredients, sage, onion, bread, chestnuts, dried apricots, dried cranberries etc. The stuffing mixture may be cooked separately and served as a side dish and this may still be called stuffing or it may be called dressing. The United States Department of Agriculture states that animals with a body cavity filled with stuffing can present potential food safety issues
3.
Pastel (food)
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Pastel is the name given to different typical dishes of many countries of Hispanic or Portuguese origin. In Brazil, pastel is a typical fast-food Brazilian dish, consisting of half-circle or rectangle-shaped thin crust pies with assorted fillings, the result is a crispy, brownish fried pie. The most common fillings are ground meat, mozzarella, heart of palm, catupiry cream cheese, chicken, pastéis with sweet fillings such as guava jam with Minas cheese, banana and chocolate also exist, but are not so common. The pastel is classified in Brazilian cuisine as a salgado and it is traditionally sold on the streets or in fast-food shops known as pastelarias. It is popularly said to have originated when Japanese immigrants adapted Chinese fried wontons to sell as snacks at weekly street markets and this is the most likely hypothesis as even today many of the pastelarias are owned or run by Chinese and Japanese immigrants. Italian Brazilians have said the Brazilian dishes pastel and fogazza originated from fried calzones and it is possible, however, that pastel originated from Indian samosas when the dish became part of the Portuguese cuisine. A common beverage to drink with pastéis is sugarcane juice, a pastel in Portugal may refer to several types of desserts or hors dœuvres. These include the pastel de bacalhau and the pastel de nata, pastel is typically a Spanish word that means cake, but can refer to very different dishes, popular in other Hispanic countries. In Puerto Rico, pastel is a dish which includes diced pork with olives, capers, raisins, chickpeas and this mixture is centered in dough made mainly of green bananas with a small portion of plantain, yautía, and potato. The dough is tinted with annatto oil and it is wrapped in plantain leaf, tied with string, boiled and later served with arroz con gandules. The overall effect is similar to Mexican and Peruvian tamales. In the Philippines, pastel may refer to any casserole dish baked in a pie crust, in the province of Camiguin, however, it refers specifically to pastel de Camiguín, a soft, sweet filled bun. In Indonesia pastel refer to pie of crust made of thin pastry filled with meat mixed with vegetables, rice vermicelli and sometimes egg and it is consumed as snack and commonly sold in Indonesian traditional markets. The similar North Sulawesi version replace thin flour pie crust with bread and filled with spicy cakalang is called panada
4.
Pasty
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A pasty is a baked pastry, a traditional variety of which is particularly associated with Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. Today, the pasty is the food most associated with Cornwall and it is regarded as the national dish and accounts for 6% of the Cornish food economy. Pasties with many different fillings are made and some specialise in selling all sorts of pasties. The origins of the pasty are unclear, though there are references to them throughout historical documents. The pasty is now popular worldwide due to the spread of Cornish miners, and variations can be found in Australia, despite the modern pastys strong association with Cornwall, its exact origins are unclear. The English word pasty derives from Medieval French for a pie, filled with venison, salmon or other meat, vegetables or cheese, Pasties have been mentioned in cookbooks throughout the ages. For example, the earliest version of Le Viandier has been dated to around 1300, in 1393, Le Menagier de Paris contains recipes for pasté with venison, veal, beef, or mutton. Other early references to include a 13th-century charter that was granted by Henry III to the town of Great Yarmouth. Around the same time, 13th-century chronicler Matthew Paris wrote of the monks of St Albans Abbey according to their custom, a total of 5,500 venison pasties were served at the installation feast of George Neville, archbishop of York and chancellor of England in 1465. They were even eaten by royalty, as a letter from a baker to Henry VIIIs third wife, but after this period the use of the word outside Cornwall declined. In a mine, the dense, folded pastry could stay warm for several hours. Another theory suggests that pasties were marked at one end with an initial and then eaten from the end so that if not finished in one go. In 2006, a researcher in Devon discovered a list of ingredients for a pasty tucked inside a book and dated 1510. This replaced the previous oldest recipe, dated 1746, held by the Cornwall Records Office in Truro, the dish at the time was cooked with venison, in this case from the Mount Edgcumbe estate, as the pasty was then considered a luxury meal. However, the term pasty appears in much earlier written records from parts of the country. Cornish pasties are very popular with the workingclasses in this neighbourhood and they are made of small pieces of beef, and thin slices of potatoe, highly peppered, and enclosed in wrappers of paste. According to the PGI status, a Cornish pasty should be shaped like a ‘D’ and crimped on one side and its ingredients should include beef, swede, potato and onion, with a light seasoning of salt and pepper, keeping a chunky texture. The pastry should be golden and retain its shape when cooked and cooled, the PGI status also means that Cornish pasties must be prepared in Cornwall
5.
Americas
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The Americas, also collectively called America, encompass the totality of the continents of North America and South America. Together they make up most of the land in Earths western hemisphere, along with their associated islands, they cover 8% of Earths total surface area and 28. 4% of its land area. The topography is dominated by the American Cordillera, a chain of mountains that runs the length of the west coast. The flatter eastern side of the Americas is dominated by river basins, such as the Amazon, St. Lawrence River / Great Lakes basin, Mississippi. Humans first settled the Americas from Asia between 42,000 and 17,000 years ago, a second migration of Na-Dene speakers followed later from Asia. The subsequent migration of the Inuit into the neoarctic around 3500 BCE completed what is regarded as the settlement by the indigenous peoples of the Americas. The first known European settlement in the Americas was by the Norse explorer Leif Ericson, however, the colonization never became permanent and was later abandoned. The voyages of Christopher Columbus from 1492 to 1502 resulted in permanent contact with European powers, diseases introduced from Europe and Africa devastated the indigenous peoples, and the European powers colonized the Americas. Mass emigration from Europe, including numbers of indentured servants. Decolonization of the Americas began with the American Revolution in 1776, the population is over 1 billion, with over 65% of them living in one of the three most populous countries. As of the beginning of the 2010s, the most populous urban agglomerations are Mexico City, New York, Sao Paulo, Los Angeles, Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro, all of them megacities. The name America was first recorded in 1507 in the Cosmographiae Introductio, apparently written by Matthias Ringmann and it first applied to both North and South America by Gerardus Mercator in 1538. Amerigen means land of Amerigo and derives from Amerigo and gen, America accorded with the feminine names of Asia, Africa, and Europa. When conceived as a continent, the form is generally the continent of America in the singular. However, without a context, singular America in English commonly refers to the United States of America. In some countries of the world, America is considered a continent encompassing the North America and South America subcontinents, the first inhabitants migrated into the Americas from Asia. Habitation sites are known in Alaska and the Yukon from at least 20,000 years ago, beyond that, the specifics of the Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion. Widespread habitation of the Americas occurred during the glacial maximum
6.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
7.
Bread crumbs
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The Japanese variety of bread crumbs is called panko. Dry breadcrumbs are made from dry breads which have been baked or toasted to remove most remaining moisture, and may have a sandy or even powdery texture. Bread crumbs are most easily produced by pulverizing slices of bread in a processor, using a steel blade to make coarse crumbs. A grater or similar tool will also do, the breads used to make soft or fresh bread crumbs are not quite as dry, so the crumbs are larger and produce a softer coating, crust, or stuffing. The crumb of bread crumb is also a term refers to the texture of the soft, inner part of a bread loaf, as distinguished from the crust. Panko is a variety of bread crumb used in Japanese cuisine as a crunchy coating for fried foods. Panko is made from bread baked by electrical current, which yields a bread without a crust and it has a crisper, airier texture than most types of breading found in Western cuisine and resists absorbing oil or grease when fried, resulting in a lighter coating. Panko is produced worldwide, particularly in Asian countries, including Japan, Korea, Thailand, China, and Vietnam. The Japanese first learned to make bread from the Europeans, and panko is derived from pan from the Portuguese and -ko, breading is a dry grain-derived food coating for a piece of food made from bread crumbs or a breading mixture with seasonings. Breading can also refer to the process of applying a coating to a food. Breading is well suited for frying as it lends itself to creating a coating around the food. Breading mixtures can be made of breadcrumb, flour, cornmeal, if the item to be breaded is too dry for the coating to stick, the item may first be moistened with buttermilk, raw egg, egg wash or other liquid. Breading contrasts with batter, which is a liquid coating for food that produces a smoother and finer texture
8.
Dough
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Dough is a thick, malleable, sometimes elastic, paste made out of any grains, leguminous or chestnut crops. Doughs are made from a variety of flours, commonly wheat but also flours made from maize, rice, rye, legumes, almonds. Doughs vary widely depending on ingredients, the kind of product being produced, the type of leavening agent, how the dough is mixed, there is no formal definition of what makes dough, though most doughs have viscoelastic properties. Leavened or fermented doughs are used all over the world to various breads. Salt, oils or fats, sugars or honey and sometimes milk or eggs are common ingredients in bread dough. Commercial bread doughs may also include dough conditioners, a class of ingredients that aid in dough consistency and final product. Flatbreads such as pita, lafa, lavash, matzah or matzo, naan, roti, sangak, tortilla, some flatbreads, such as naan, use leavening agents, others, such as matzo, do not. Crackers are also made from dough, and some are leavened, pasta and noodles are generally based on unleavened doughs that are worked until they are dry and smooth, and then shaped into their final form. The finished pasta may be cooked immediately or dried before cooking, doughs with higher fat content have a lesser water content, develop less gluten and are therefore generally less elastic than bread doughs, these doughs are often called short by bakers. This category includes many cookie and pie crust doughs, such as shortcrust pastry, in many parts of central India, people use the quick method of making an instant roasted dough ball or baati. In countries in the Sahel region of Africa, dough balls called aiysh or biya are made from sorghum or millet, and are ground and boiled. Quick breads use leavening agents other than yeast, and include most cookies, cakes, biscuits, and more, Techniques used in dough production depend on the type of dough and final product. For yeast-based and sponge breads, a production technique is the dough is mixed, kneaded. Many bread doughs call for a stage, where the dough is kneaded again, shaped into the final form. Kneading is the process of working a dough to produce a smooth, pasta is typically made from a dry dough that is kneaded and shaped, either through extrusion, rolling out in a pasta machine, or stretched or shaped by hand. Pasta may be cooked directly after production or dried, which renders it shelf-stable, doughs for biscuits and many flatbreads which are not leavened with yeast are typically mixed but not kneaded or left to rise, these doughs are shaped and cooked directly after mixing. While breads and other products made from doughs are often baked, some types of dough-based foods are cooked over direct heat, such as tortillas, fried dough foods are also common in many cultures. Unlike bread dough, these batters are not stabilized by the formation of a gluten network, the word dough is a common slang term for money in English-speaking countries, this usage is originally American, and dates to the mid-19th century
9.
Galicia (Spain)
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Galicia is an autonomous community of Spain and historic nationality under Spanish law. It had a population of 2,718,525 in 2016 and has an area of 29,574 km2. Galicia has over 1,660 km of coastline, including its islands and islets, among them Cíes Islands, Ons, Sálvora, Cortegada. Galicia was incorporated into the Roman Empire at the end of the Cantabrian Wars in 19 BC, in 410, the Germanic Suebi established a kingdom with its capital in Braga, this kingdom was incorporated into that of the Visigoths in 585. The Governor also presided the Real Audiencia do Reino de Galicia, from the 16th century, the representation and voice of the kingdom was held by an assembly of deputies and representatives of the cities of the kingdom, the Cortes or Junta of the Kingdom of Galicia. This institution was forcibly discontinued in 1833 when the kingdom was divided into four provinces with no legal mutual links. During the 19th and 20th centuries, demand grew for self-government and this resulted in the Statute of Autonomy of 1936, soon frustrated by Francos coup detat and subsequent long dictatorship. After democracy was restored the legislature passed the Statute of Autonomy of 1981, approved in referendum and currently in force, the interior of Galicia is characterized by a hilly landscape, mountain ranges rise to 2,000 m in the east and south. The coastal areas are mostly a series of rías and cliffs. The climate of Galicia is usually temperate and rainy, with drier summers. Its topographic and climatic conditions have made animal husbandry and farming the primary source of Galicias wealth for most of its history, allowing for a relative high density of population. With the exception of shipbuilding and food processing, Galicia was based on a farming and fishing economy until after the mid-20th century, in 2012, the gross domestic product at purchasing power parity was €56,000 million, with a nominal GDP per capita of €20,700. There are smaller populations around the cities of Lugo and Ourense. The political capital is Santiago de Compostela, in the province of A Coruña, Vigo, in the province of Pontevedra, is the most populous municipality, with 292,817, while A Coruña is the most populous city, with 215,227. 56% of the Galician population speak Galician as their first language and these Callaeci were the first tribe in the area to help the Lusitanians against the invading Romans. The Romans applied their name to all the tribes in the northwest who spoke the same language. In any case, Galicia, being per se a derivation of the ethnic name Kallaikói, the name evolved during the Middle Ages from Gallaecia, sometimes written Galletia, to Gallicia. This coincides with the spelling of the Castilian Spanish name, the historical denomination Galiza became popular again during the end of the 19th and the first three-quarters of the 20th century, and is still used with some frequency today
10.
Catalan language
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Catalan is a Romance language derived from Vulgar Latin and named after the medieval Principality of Catalonia, in northeastern modern Spain and adjoining parts of France. It is the national and only language of Andorra, and a co-official language of the Spanish autonomous communities of Catalonia, the Balearic Islands. It also has status in the commune of Alghero, situated on the northwestern coast of the island of Sardinia. All these territories are often called Catalan Countries. 4% with Catalan and 47. 5% only Spanish, in order to integrate newcomers, the Generalitat de Catalunya spends part of its annual budget on the promotion of the use of Catalan in Catalonia and in other territories. Catalan evolved from Vulgar Latin in the Middle Ages around the eastern Pyrenees, during the Low Middle Ages it saw a golden age as the literary and dominant language of the Crown of Aragon, and was widely used all over the Mediterranean. The union of Aragon with the territories of Spain in 1479 marked the start of the decline of the language. In 1659 Spain ceded Northern Catalonia to France, and Catalan was banned in both states in the early 18th century, 19th-century Spain saw a Catalan literary revival, which culminated in the 1913 orthographic standardization, and the official status of the language during the Second Spanish Republic. However, the Francoist dictatorship banned the use of Catalan in schools and in the public administration, there is no parallel in Europe for such a large, bilingual, non-state speech community. Catalan dialects are relatively uniform, and are mutually intelligible and they are divided into two blocks, Eastern and Western, differing mostly in pronunciation. The terms Catalan and Valencian are two varieties of the same language, there are two institutions regulating the two standard varieties, the Institute of Catalan Studies in Catalonia and the Valencian Academy of the Language in the Valencian Community. Catalan shares many traits with its neighboring Romance languages, thus, the similarities are naturally most notable with eastern Occitan. Nouns have two genders, and two numbers, pronouns additionally can have a neuter gender, and some are also inflected for case and politeness, and can be combined in very complex ways. Verbs are split in several paradigms and are inflected for person, number, tense, aspect, mood, in terms of pronunciation, Catalan has many words ending in a wide variety of consonants and some consonant clusters, in contrast with many other Romance languages. The word Catalan derives from the territory of Catalonia, itself of disputed etymology, in English, the term referring to a person first appears in the mid 14th century as Catelaner, followed in the 15th century as Catellain. It is attested a language name since at least 1652, Catalan can be pronounced as /ˈkætəlæn/, /kætəˈlæn/ or /ˈkætələn/. The endonym is pronounced /kə. təˈɫa/ in the Eastern Catalan dialects, in the Valencian Community, the term valencià is frequently used instead. The names Catalan and Valencian are two names for the same language, see also status of Valencian below. By the 9th century, Catalan had evolved from Vulgar Latin on both sides of the end of the Pyrenees, as well as the territories of the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis to the south
11.
Argentine cuisine
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Argentine annual consumption of beef has averaged 100 kg per capita, approaching 180 kg per capita during the 19th century, consumption averaged 67.7 kg in 2007. Beyond asado, no other dish more genuinely matches the national identity, nevertheless, the countrys vast area, and its cultural diversity, have led to a local cuisine of various dishes. Argentine people have a reputation for their love of eating, social gatherings are commonly centered on sharing a meal. Invitations to have dinner at home is viewed as a symbol of friendship, warmth. Sunday family lunch is considered the most significant meal of the week, another feature of Argentine cuisine is the preparation of homemade food such as french fries, patties, and pasta to celebrate a special occasion, to meet friends, or to honor someone. The tradition of preparing food is passed down from generation to generation. Argentine restaurants include a variety of cuisines, prices. Large cities tend to host everything from high-end international cuisine, to bodegones, less stylish restaurants, native Americans lived in Argentina thousands of years before the European explorers arrived. Members of an Indian tribe in the part of Argentina were farmers who grew squash, melons. Spanish settlers came to Argentina in 1536, most of the immigrants were from Italy and Spain. The Italians introduced pizza, as well as a variety of dishes, including spaghetti. British, German, Jewish, and other immigrants settled in Argentina, all bringing their styles of cooking. The British brought tea, starting the tradition of teatime, all of these cultures influenced the dishes of Argentina. Most regions of Argentina are known for their beef-oriented diet, in Argentina the Spanish term, Carne, which means meat, is assumed to be beef in Argentina. In other Spanish-speaking countries—such as Spain—the term is qualified with the type of animal, such as carne de vaca, carne de cordero. Grilled meat from the asado is a staple, with steak, the term asado itself refers to long strips of flank-cut beef ribs. Popular items such as Chorizo, morcilla, chinchulines, mollejas, in Patagonia, however, lamb and chivito are eaten more frequently than beef. Whole lambs and goats are cooked over an open fire in a technique known as asado a la estaca
12.
Wheat flour
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Wheat flour is a powder made from the grinding of wheat used for human consumption. More wheat flour is produced than any other flour, wheat varieties are called soft or weak if gluten content is low, and are called hard or strong if they have high gluten content. Hard flour, or bread flour, is high in gluten, with 12% to 14% gluten content, soft flour is comparatively low in gluten and thus results in a loaf with a finer, crumbly texture. Soft flour is usually divided into cake flour, which is the lowest in gluten, and pastry flour, which has slightly more gluten than cake flour. In terms of the parts of the used in flour—the endosperm or protein/starchy part, the germ or protein/fat/vitamin-rich part. White flour is made from the endosperm only, brown flour includes some of the grains germ and bran, while whole grain or wholemeal flour is made from the entire grain, including the bran, endosperm, and germ. Germ flour is made from the endosperm and germ, excluding the bran, wheat flour is available in many varieties, the categorization is regional, and the same name may have several different regional meanings. Whole wheat flour in Canada may have up to 5% or the grain removed, whole grain flour contains the whole grain, including bran, germ, and endosperm, but not the chaff Sharp flour is produced in Fiji and primarily used in Indian cuisine. Indian flours are categorized by how much of the grain is stripped away. It is also used in Vietnamese cuisine, where it is called bột lọc trong, American flours are categorized by gluten/protein content, processing, and use. All-purpose or plain flour is a blended wheat with a content lower than bread flour. Depending on brand or the region where it is purchased, it may be composed of all hard or soft wheats and it is marketed as an inexpensive alternative to bakers flour which is acceptable for most household baking needs. Bread flour or strong flour is made from hard wheat. It has a high protein content, between 10% and 13%, making it excellent for yeast bread baking. It can be white or whole wheat or in between, Cake flour is a finely milled white flour made from soft wheat. It has very low protein content, between 8% and 10%, making it suitable for soft-textured cakes and cookies, the higher protein content of other flours would make the cakes tough. Highly sifted cake flours may require different volume amounts in recipes than all-purpose flour, using the scoop and level method, well-sifted flour usually produces 125 g per cup. However, most American recipes are written with 140 g of flour per cup, so weighing, small weight differences can greatly affect the texture
13.
Dripping
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Dripping, also known usually as beef dripping or, more rarely, as pork dripping, is an animal fat produced from the fatty or otherwise unusable parts of cow or pig carcasses. It is similar to lard, tallow and schmaltz, traditionally fish and chips were fried in beef dripping, and while this practice does continue in some places, most shops now use vegetable oils. Preparation is traditionally described as collection of the residue from meat roasts, the stock pot should be chilled and the solid lump of dripping which settles when chilled should be scraped clean and re-chilled for future use. The residue can be reprocessed for more dripping and strained through a cheesecloth lined sieve as an ingredient for a fine beef stock, dripping can be clarified by adding a sliced raw potato and cooking until potato turns brown. The cake will be the colour and texture of ghee, pork or beef dripping can be served cold, spread on bread and sprinkled with salt and pepper. Dripping can be used to make pastry, for pasties and other foods
14.
Chicken as food
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Chicken is the most common type of poultry in the world. In developed countries, chickens are usually subject to intensive farming methods, the modern chicken is a descendant of red junglefowl hybrids along with the grey junglefowl first raised thousands of years ago in the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent. Chicken as a meat has been depicted in Babylonian carvings from around 600 BC, Chicken was one of the most common meats available in the Middle Ages. It was eaten over most of the Eastern hemisphere and a number of different kinds of such as capons, pullets. It was one of the ingredients in the so-called white dish. In the United States in the 1800s, chicken was more expensive than other meats, Chicken consumption in the United States increased during World War II due to a shortage of beef and pork. In Europe, consumption of chicken overtook that of beef and veal in 1996, modern varieties of chicken such as the Cornish Cross, are bred specifically for meat production, with an emphasis placed on the ratio of feed to meat produced by the animal. The most common breeds of chicken consumed in the US are Cornish, chickens raised specifically for food are called broilers. In the United States, broilers are typically butchered at a young age, modern Cornish Cross hybrids, for example, are butchered as early as 8 weeks for fryers and 12 weeks for roasting birds. Capons produce more and fattier meat, for this reason, they are considered a delicacy and were particularly popular in the Middle Ages. Main Breast, These are white meat and are relatively dry, leg, Comprises two segments, The drumstick, this is dark meat and is the lower part of the leg, the thigh, also dark meat, this is the upper part of the leg. Wing, Often served as a meal or bar food. Buffalo wings are a typical example, Comprises three segments, the drumette, shaped like a small drumstick, the middle flat segment, containing two bones, and the tip, sometimes discarded. Other Chicken feet, These contain relatively little meat, and are mainly for the skin. Although considered exotic in Western cuisine, the feet are common fare in other cuisines, especially in the Caribbean, giblets, organs such as the heart, gizzards, and liver may be included inside a butchered chicken or sold separately. Head, Considered a delicacy in China, the head is split down the middle, kidneys, Normally left in when a broiler carcass is processed, they are found in deep pockets on each side of the vertebral column. Neck, This is served in various Asian dishes and it is stuffed to make helzel among Ashkenazi Jews. Oysters, Located on the back, near the thigh, these small, pygostyle and testicles, These are commonly eaten in East Asia and some parts of South East Asia
15.
Cumin
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Cumin is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae, native from the east Mediterranean to South Asia. Its seeds are used in the cuisines of different cultures. It also has uses as a traditional medicinal plant. The English cumin is derived from the Old English via Latin cuminum from the Greek κύμινον, Cumin is the dried seed of the herb Cuminum cyminum, a member of the parsley family. The cumin plant grows to 30–50 cm tall and is harvested by hand and it is an annual herbaceous plant, with a slender, glabrous, branched stem that is 20–30 cm tall and has a diameter of 3–5 cm. Each branch has two to three sub-branches, all the branches attain the same height, therefore the plant has a uniform canopy. The stem is coloured grey or dark green, the leaves are 5–10 cm long, pinnate or bipinnate, with thread-like leaflets. The flowers are small, white or pink, and borne in umbels, each umbel has five to seven umbellts. The fruit is a lateral fusiform or ovoid achene 4–5 mm long, containing two mericarps with a single seed, Cumin seeds have eight ridges with oil canals. They resemble caraway seeds, being oblong in shape, longitudinally ridged, and yellow-brown in colour, like members of the Umbelliferae family such as caraway, parsley. Cumin has been in use since ancient times, seeds excavated at the Syrian site Tell ed-Der have been dated to the second millennium BC. They have also reported from several New Kingdom levels of ancient Egyptian archaeological sites. In the ancient Egyptian civilization, cumin was used as spice, originally cultivated in Iran and the Mediterranean region, cumin is mentioned in the Bible in both the Old Testament and the New Testament. The ancient Greeks kept cumin at the table in its own container. Cumin was also used heavily in ancient Roman cuisine, in India, it has been used for millennia as a traditional ingredient in innumerable recipes, and forms the basis of many other spice blends. Cumin was introduced to the Americas by Spanish and Portuguese colonists, several different types of cumin are known, but the most famous ones are black and green cumin, both of which are used in Persian cuisine. Today, the plant is grown in Pakistan, India, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Iran, Turkey, Morocco, Egypt, Syria, Mexico, Chile. Since cumin is used as part of birdseed and exported to many countries
16.
Paprika
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In many languages, but not English, the word paprika also refers to the plant and the fruit from which the spice is made. Although paprika is often associated with Hungarian cuisine, the peppers from which it is made are native to the New World and were introduced to the Old World. Originating in central Mexico, paprika was brought to Spain in the 16th century, the seasoning is also used to add color to many types of dishes. In Spanish, paprika has been known as pimentón since the 16th century, despite its presence in Central Europe since the beginning of Ottoman conquests, it did not become popular in Hungary until the late 19th century. Paprika can range from mild to hot – the flavor also varies from country to country –, sweet paprika is mostly composed of the pericarp, with more than half of the seeds removed, whereas hot paprika contains some seeds, stalks, placentas, and calyces. The red, orange or yellow color of paprika is due to its content of carotenoids, the plant used to make the Hungarian version of the spice was grown in 1529 by the Turks at Buda. Central European paprika was hot until the 1920s, when a Szeged breeder found a plant that produced sweet fruit, the first recorded use of the word paprika in English is from 1896, although an earlier reference to Turkish paprika was published in 1831. The word derives from the Hungarian word paprika, a diminutive of the Serbo-Croatian word papar meaning pepper, paprika and similar words, peperke, piperke, and paparka, are used in various Slavic languages in the Balkans for bell peppers. The exact word paprika entered a number of languages, probably via German. European languages use a similar if not identical word, Czech, Slovak, Italian, Polish, Swedish, Bulgarian, Hebrew, paprika is produced in various places including Hungary, Serbia, Spain, the Netherlands, China, and some regions of the United States. Hungary is a source of commonly-used paprika. Some Spanish paprika, like de la Vera, has a distinct smoky flavor and aroma as it is dried by smoking. As of September 15,2016, McCormicks paprika used peppers grown in the United States, paprika is used as an ingredient in numerous dishes throughout the world. It is principally used to season and color rices, stews, and soups, such as goulash, in the United States, paprika is frequently sprinkled raw on foods as a garnish, but the flavor is more effectively pronounced by heating it in oil. Hungarian paprika is often specified in recipes because it is unique and it is bright red and said to be sweeter than the same paprika grown in other soils and climates. In paprikash, Hungarian paprika is commonly used, in Moroccan cuisine, paprika is usually augmented by the addition of a small amount of olive oil blended into it. The red, orange or yellow color of paprika powder derives from its mix of carotenoids, yellow-orange paprika colors derive primarily from α-carotene and β-carotene, zeaxanthin, lutein and β-cryptoxanthin, whereas red colors derive from capsanthin and capsorubin. In a typical serving size of one teaspoon, paprika supplies 6 calories and is rich in vitamin A, the dictionary definition of paprika at Wiktionary
17.
Onion
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The onion, also known as the bulb onion or common onion, is a vegetable and is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium. This genus also contains several other species variously referred to as onions and cultivated for food, such as the Japanese bunching onion, the onion. The name wild onion is applied to a number of Allium species and its ancestral wild original form is not known, although escapes from cultivation have become established in some regions. The onion is most frequently a biennial or a perennial plant, the onion plant has a fan of hollow, bluish-green leaves and its bulb at the base of the plant begins to swell when a certain day-length is reached. The bulbs are composed of shortened, compressed, underground stems surrounded by fleshy modified scale that envelop a central bud at the tip of the stem, in the autumn, the foliage dies down and the outer layers of the bulb become dry and brittle. The crop is harvested and dried and the onions are ready for use or storage, the crop is prone to attack by a number of pests and diseases, particularly the onion fly, the onion eelworm, and various fungi cause rotting. Some varieties of A. cepa, such as shallots and potato onions, Onions are cultivated and used around the world. As a food item, they are served cooked, as a vegetable or part of a prepared savoury dish. They are pungent when chopped and contain certain chemical substances which irritate the eyes, the onion plant, also known as the bulb onion or common onion, is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium. It was first officially described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 work Species Plantarum, a. cepa is known exclusively from cultivation, but related wild species occur in Central Asia. The most closely related species include A. vavilovii and A. asarense from Iran, however, Zohary and Hopf state that there are doubts whether the A. vavilovii collections tested represent genuine wild material or only feral derivatives of the crop. The vast majority of cultivars of A. cepa belong to the common onion group and are referred to simply as onions. The Aggregatum group of cultivars includes both shallots and potato onions, the genus Allium also contains a number of other species variously referred to as onions and cultivated for food, such as the Japanese bunching onion, Egyptian onion, and Canada onion. The onion plant has grown and selectively bred in cultivation for at least 7,000 years. It is a plant, but is usually grown as an annual. Modern varieties typically grow to a height of 15 to 45 cm, the leaves are yellowish- to bluish green and grow alternately in a flattened, fan-shaped swathe. They are fleshy, hollow, and cylindrical, with one flattened side and they are at their broadest about a quarter of the way up, beyond which they taper towards a blunt tip. The base of leaf is a flattened, usually white sheath that grows out of a basal disc
18.
Boiled egg
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Boiled eggs are eggs cooked with their shells unbroken, usually by immersion in boiling water. Hard-boiled eggs are cooked so that the egg white and egg yolk both solidify, while for an egg the yolk, and sometimes the white, remain at least partially liquid. A few different methods are used to make boiled eggs other than simply immersing them in boiling water, Boiled eggs can also be cooked below the boiling temperature, via coddling, or they can be steamed. The egg timer was named due to its usage in timing the boiling of eggs. Boiled eggs are a popular breakfast food in countries around the world. There are variations both in desired doneness and in the method of how eggs are boiled, and a variety of gadgets for eggs exist. These variations include, Baked eggs Baking eggs in an oven instead of boiling in water, Baked eggs are identical to boiled eggs but the shells peel more easily. Starting temperature Room temperature or from a refrigerator, eggs may be left out overnight to come to room temperature, preparation Some pierce the eggs beforehand with an egg piercer to prevent cracking. There is much debate on this subject, ekelund et al. in Why eggs should not be pierced claimed that pricking caused egg white proteins to be damaged and was therefore to be discouraged. Others recommend against this, or add vinegar to the water to prevent the white from billowing in case of cracking, for this purpose, table salt can also be used. A cradle is also advocated as reducing cracking, since the eggs do not then roll around loose, to remove, one may allow the water to cool, pour off the boiling water, or remove the cradle. Steaming Eggs are taken straight from the refrigerator and placed in the steamer at full steam, the eggs will not crack due to sudden change in temperatures. At full steam, soft-boiled eggs are ready in 6 minutes, as the eggs are cooked by a steam source, there is no variation of water temperature and hence cooking time, no matter how many eggs are placed in the steamer. Sous vide Rather than cooking in boiling water, boiled eggs can be made by cooking/coddling in their shell sous vide in hot water at temperatures anywhere from 60 to 85 °C. It turns out that the egg white cooks at 75 °C and the yolk. Cooking time There is substantial variation, with cooking time being the variable affecting doneness. It usually varies from 10–17 minutes for large hard-boiled eggs, 1–4 minutes for large soft-cooked eggs. Cooling After eggs are removed from heat, some cooking continues to occur, particularly of the yolk, due to residual heat, for this reason some allow eggs to cool in air or plunge them into cold water as the final stage of preparation
19.
Olive
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Olea europeana sylvestris is a subspecies that corresponds to a smaller tree bearing noticeably smaller fruits. The olives fruit, also called the olive, is of agricultural importance in the Mediterranean region as the source of olive oil. The tree and its fruit give their name to the plant family, which includes species such as lilacs, jasmine, Forsythia. The word derives from Latin ŏlīva a borrowing from the Greek ἐλαία, the oldest attested forms of the Greek words are the Mycenaean
20.
Raisin
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A raisin is a dried grape. Raisins are produced in regions of the world and may be eaten raw or used in cooking, baking. The word raisin dates back to Middle English and is a loanword from Old French, in modern French, raisin means grape, while a dried grape is a raisin sec, or dry grape. The Old French word, in turn, developed from the Latin word racemus, Raisin varieties depend on the type of grape used, and are made in a variety of sizes and colors including green, black, brown, blue, purple, and yellow. Seedless varieties include the sultana, the Greek currants and Flame grapes, Raisins are traditionally sun-dried, but may also be water-dipped and artificially dehydrated. Golden raisins are treated with sulfur dioxide after drying to give them their golden color, black Corinth or Zante currant are miniature, sometimes seedless raisins that are much darker and have a tart, tangy flavor. Muscat raisins are large compared to varieties, and also sweeter. Several varieties of raisins produced in Asia are available in the West only at ethnic grocers, monukka grapes are used for some of these. Raisins can contain up to 72% sugars by weight, most of which is fructose and glucose and they also contain about 3% protein and 3. 7%–6. 8% dietary fiber. Raisins, like prunes and apricots, are high in certain antioxidants. Raisins are low in sodium and contain no cholesterol, Raisins can cause renal failure in dogs. The cause of this is not known, Raisins are sweet due to their high concentration of sugars. The sugars can crystallise inside the fruit when stored after a period, making the dry raisins gritty. These sugar grains can be dissolved by blanching the fruit in hot water or other liquids, grade A The color is good, and the flavor is characteristic of raisins. These raisins show development characteristics indicative of the fact that they are prepared from well-matured grapes, the processed raisins contain less than 19% moisture by weight. Grade B The color and flavor is reasonably good and these raisins show development characteristics that highlight the fact that the raisins were prepared from reasonably well-matured grapes containing at least 70% water by weight. These raisins also contain less than 19% moisture, by weight, grade C The color and flavor are fairly good. These raisins show development characteristics of raisins prepared from fairly well-matured grapes containing at least 55% water by weight and these raisins also contain less than 19% moisture, by weight
21.
Ham
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Ham is pork that has been preserved through salting, smoking, or wet curing. It was traditionally made only from the leg of swine. Ham is made around the world, including a number of highly coveted regional specialties, such as Westphalian ham, technically a processed meat, ham may refer to a product which has been through mechanical re-forming. The precise nature of meat termed ham is controlled in a number of areas, often by statute, including the United States and European Union. In addition, numerous ham products have specific geographical naming protection, such as Prosciutto di Parma and Prosciutto Toscano PDO in Europe, and Smithfield ham in the US. The preserving of pork leg as ham has a long history, there are claims that the Chinese were the first people to mention the production of cured ham. Larousse Gastronomique claims an origin from Gaul and it was certainly well established by the Roman period, as evidenced by an import trade from Gaul mentioned by Marcus Terentius Varro in his writings. The modern word ham is derived from the Old English ham or hom meaning the hollow or bend of the knee and it began to refer to the cut of pork derived from the hind leg of a swine around the 15th century. Preservation methods include curing, smoking, and salting, in many countries the term is now protected by statute, with a specific definition. In addition to the categories, some processing choices can affect legal labeling. However, injecting smoke flavor is not legal grounds for claiming the ham was smoked, hams can only be labeled honey-cured if honey was at least 50% of the sweetener used, is at least 3% of the formula, and has a discernible effect on flavor. So-called lean and extra lean hams must adhere to maximum levels of fat, Ham re-formed from smaller pieces into a larger block also has to be labeled in many jurisdictions. Ham is produced by preserving and flavoring raw pork by salting, smoking, besides salt, several ingredients may be used to obtain flavoring and preservation, from black pepper to the precious saffron. Traditional dry cure hams may use only salt as the agent, such as with San Daniele or Parma hams. This process involves cleaning the raw meat, covering it in salt while it is gradually pressed – draining all the blood, in Tuscan Ham different spices and herbs are added to salt during this step. Specific ingredients may be used to flavour and taste during this step. The hams are then washed and hung in a dark, temperature-regulated place until dry and it is then hung to air for another period of time. Some dry cured hams, such as the Jinhua ham, take approximately 8 to 10 months to complete, most modern dry cure hams also use nitrites, which are added along with the salt, although following a similar methodology
22.
Fish (food)
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Fish are consumed as food by many species, including humans. It has been an important source of protein and other nutrients for humans throughout recorded history, in culinary and fishery contexts, the term fish can also include shellfish, such as molluscs, crustaceans and echinoderms. English does not distinguish between fish as an animal and the food prepared from it, as it does with pig vs. pork or cow vs. beef, some other languages do, as in the Spanish peces versus pescado. The modern English word for fish comes from the Old English word fisc which was pronounced as it is today, English also has the term seafood, which covers fish found in the seas and oceans as well as other marine life used as food. Over 32,000 species of fish have been described, making them the most diverse group of vertebrates, in addition, there are many species of shellfish. However, only a number of species are commonly eaten by humans. Fish can be prepared in a variety of ways and it can be cured by marinating, pickling, or smoking. Or it can be cooked by baking, frying, grilling, poaching, many of the preservation techniques used in different cultures have since become unnecessary but are still performed for their resulting taste and texture when consumed. Intermediate Technology Publications wrote in 1992 that Fish provides a source of high quality protein and contains many vitamins. It may be classed as either whitefish, oily fish, or shellfish, whitefish, such as haddock and seer, contain very little fat whereas oily fish, such as sardines, contain between 10-25%. The latter, as a result of its fat content, contain a range of fat-soluble vitamins and essential fatty acids. This has highlighted the role for fish in the functionality of the human body, Fish is the most common food to obstruct the airway and cause choking. Choking on fish was responsible for about 4,500 reported accidents in the UK in 1998, a seafood allergy is a hypersensitivity to an allergen which can be present in fish, and particularly in shellfish. This can result in an overreaction of the system and lead to severe physical symptoms. Most people who have a food allergy also have a seafood allergy, allergic reactions can result from ingesting seafood, or by breathing in vapours from preparing or cooking seafood. The most severe seafood allergy reaction is anaphylaxis, an emergency requiring immediate attention, some species of fish, notably the puffer fugu used for sushi, and some kinds of shellfish, can result in serious poisoning if not prepared properly. These fish always contain these poisons as a defense against predators, particularly, fugu has a lethal dose of tetrodotoxin in its internal organs and must be prepared by a licensed fugu chef who has passed the national examination in Japan. Ciguatera poisoning can occur from eating fish from warm tropical waters, such as sea bass, grouper
23.
Humita
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Humita is a Native American dish from pre-Hispanic times, and a traditional food in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador and Peru, although their origin is unclear. In Argentina, Chile, Ecuador and Peru they are known as humitas, in Bolivia as humintas, in Brazil as pamonha and it consists of masa harina and corn, slowly steamed or boiled in a pot of water. In Argentina, humitas are prepared with corn, sautéed onions and some spices. The dough is wrapped in corn husks and boiled and it is also common to add some diced cheese to the dough, typically queso fresco or goat cheese. In Argentina, the term also refers to the creamy-corn filling of an empanada Humitas in Chile are prepared with fresh corn, onion, basil. They are wrapped in corn husks and baked or boiled, the humitas are kept together during cooking with thread or twine. They can be savory, sweet, or sweet and sour, served with added sugar, chile pepper, salt, tomato, olive. As in Chile, Ecuadorian humitas are prepared with ground corn with onions, eggs and spices that vary from region to region. The dough is wrapped in a husk, but is steamed rather than baked or boiled. Ecuadorian humitas may also contain cheese and this dish is so traditional in Ecuador that they have developed special pots just for cooking humitas. Ecuadorian humitas can be salty or sweet, savory humitas may also be prepared with anise. These are typically very rare in other parts of South America. These humitas are prepared with corn wrapped in corn husks and can be cooked in boiling water, placed in a pachamanca oven and they can be wrapped in several ways. Hallacas Tamales Sarmales Pamonhas Pasteles Tayullos
24.
Sweet corn
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Sweet corn is a variety of maize with a high sugar content. Sweet corn is the result of a naturally occurring mutation in the genes which control conversion of sugar to starch inside the endosperm of the corn kernel. Unlike field corn varieties, which are harvested when the kernels are dry and mature, sweet corn is picked when immature and prepared and eaten as a vegetable, rather than a grain. Since the process of maturation involves converting sugar to starch, sweet corn stores poorly and must be fresh, canned, or frozen, before the kernels become tough. Sweet corn occurs as a mutation in field corn and was grown by several Native American tribes. The Iroquois gave the first recorded sweet corn to European settlers in 1779 and it soon became a popular food in southern and central regions of the United States. Open pollinated cultivars of sweet corn started to become widely available in the United States in the 19th century. Two of the most enduring cultivars, still today, are Country Gentleman. It is significant for being the first successful single-cross hybrid and the first specifically developed for disease resistance, the fruit of the sweet corn plant is the corn kernel, a type of fruit called a caryopsis. The ear is a collection of kernels on the cob, because corn is a monocot, there is always an even number of rows of kernels. The ear is covered by tightly wrapped leaves called the husk, silk is the name for the pistillate flowers, which emerge from the husk. The husk and silk are removed by hand, before boiling but not necessarily before roasting, in Brazil, sweet corn cut off from the cobs is generally eaten with peas. The kernels are boiled or steamed, in Europe, China, Korea, Japan and India, they are often used as a pizza topping, or in salads. Corn on the cob is a corn cob that has been boiled, steamed, or grilled whole. Creamed corn is sweet corn served in a milk or cream sauce, sweet corn can also be eaten as baby corn. In the United States, sweet corn is eaten as a vegetable, or on the cob, usually served with butter. It can be found in Tex-Mex cooking in chili, tacos, when corn is mixed with lima beans it is called succotash. Sweet corn is one of the most popular vegetables in the United States, fresh, canned and frozen sweet corn rank among the top ten vegetables in value and per capital consumption
25.
White sauce
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Béchamel sauce, also known as white sauce, is made from a white roux and milk. Even though it first appeared in Italian cooking books, it is now considered one of the mother sauces of French cuisine and it is used as the base for other sauces. Béchamel was a financier who held the honorary post of steward to King Louis XIV. The foundation of French cuisine, the Cuisinier François ran through some thirty editions in seventy-five years, the sauce originally was a veal velouté with a large amount of cream added
26.
Spinach
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Spinach is an edible flowering plant in the family Amaranthaceae native to central and western Asia. Its leaves are eaten as a vegetable and it is an annual plant growing to 30 cm tall. Spinach may survive over winter in temperate regions, the flowers are inconspicuous, yellow-green, 3–4 mm in diameter, maturing into a small, hard, dry, lumpy fruit cluster 5–10 mm across containing several seeds. Common spinach, S. oleracea, was considered to be in the family Chenopodiaceae, but in 2003. Within the family Amaranthaceae sensu lato, Spinach belongs to subfamily Chenopodioideae, the English word spinach dates to the late 14th century, and is from espinache, of uncertain origin. The traditional view derives it from O. Prov, Spinach is thought to have originated in ancient Persia. It is not known by whom, or when, spinach was introduced to India, but the plant was introduced to ancient China. The earliest available record of the plant was recorded in Chinese. In AD827, the Saracens introduced spinach to Sicily, Spinach became a popular vegetable in the Arab Mediterranean and arrived in Spain by the latter part of the 12th century, where it was called raʼīs al-buqūl, the chieftain of leafy greens. Spinach was also the subject of a treatise in the 11th century by Ibn Ḥajjāj. The prickly-seeded form of spinach was known in Germany by no later than the 13th century, Spinach is mentioned in the first known English cookbook, the Forme of Cury, where it is referred to as spinnedge and/or spynoches. Smooth-seeded spinach was described in 1552, Spinach was supposedly the favourite vegetable of Catherine de Medici. Dishes served on a bed of spinach are known as Florentine, during World War I, wine fortified with spinach juice was given to French soldiers weakened by hemorrhage. In a 100 g serving providing only 23 calories, spinach has a high value, especially when fresh, frozen, steamed. It is a source of vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin K, magnesium, manganese, iron. Spinach is a source of the B vitamins riboflavin and vitamin B6, vitamin E, calcium, potassium. Spinach, along with green, leafy vegetables, contains an appreciable amount of iron attaining 21% of the Daily Value in a 100 g amount of raw spinach. For example, the United States Department of Agriculture states that a 100 g serving of cooked spinach contains 3.57 mg of iron, in addition to preventing absorption and use, high levels of oxalates remove iron from the body
27.
Fruit
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In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate seeds, accordingly, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the worlds agricultural output, and some have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings. On the other hand, in usage, fruit includes many structures that are not commonly called fruits, such as bean pods, corn kernels, tomatoes. The section of a fungus that produces spores is called a fruiting body. Many common terms for seeds and fruit do not correspond to the botanical classifications, however, in botany, a fruit is the ripened ovary or carpel that contains seeds, a nut is a type of fruit and not a seed, and a seed is a ripened ovule. Examples of culinary vegetables and nuts that are botanically fruit include corn, cucurbits, eggplant, legumes, sweet pepper, in addition, some spices, such as allspice and chili pepper, are fruits, botanically speaking. g. Botanically, a grain, such as corn, rice, or wheat, is also a kind of fruit. However, the wall is very thin and is fused to the seed coat. The outer, often edible layer, is the pericarp, formed from the ovary and surrounding the seeds, the pericarp may be described in three layers from outer to inner, the epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. Fruit that bears a prominent pointed terminal projection is said to be beaked, a fruit results from maturation of one or more flowers, and the gynoecium of the flower forms all or part of the fruit. Inside the ovary/ovaries are one or more ovules where the megagametophyte contains the egg cell, after double fertilization, these ovules will become seeds. The ovules are fertilized in a process starts with pollination. After pollination, a tube grows from the pollen through the stigma into the ovary to the ovule, later the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed, and the endosperm mother cell will give rise to endosperm, a nutritive tissue used by the embryo. As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall, in some multiseeded fruits, the extent to which the flesh develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules. The pericarp is often differentiated into two or three distinct layers called the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp, in some fruits, especially simple fruits derived from an inferior ovary, other parts of the flower, fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. In other cases, the sepals, petals and/or stamens and style of the fall off. When such other floral parts are a significant part of the fruit, it is called an accessory fruit, since other parts of the flower may contribute to the structure of the fruit, it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms. There are three modes of fruit development, Apocarpous fruits develop from a single flower having one or more separate carpels
28.
Dessert
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Dessert is a confectionery course that concludes a main meal. The course usually consists of foods and beverages, such as dessert wine or liqueurs. In some parts of the world, such as much of central and western Africa, the term dessert can apply to many confections, such as cakes, tarts, cookies, biscuits, gelatins, pastries, ice creams, pies, puddings, custards, and sweet soups. Fruit is also found in dessert courses because of its naturally occurring sweetness. Some cultures sweeten foods that are more commonly savory to create desserts, the word dessert originated from the French word desservir, meaning to clear the table. Its first known use was in 1600, in a health education manual entitled Naturall and artificial Directions for Health, in his A History of Dessert, Michael Krondl explains it refers to the fact dessert was served after the table had been cleared of other dishes. Alternatives such as sweets or afters are also used in the United Kingdom and some other Commonwealth countries, including Hong Kong, sweets were fed to the gods in ancient Mesopotamia and India and other ancient civilizations. Dried fruit and honey were probably the first sweeteners used in most of the world, sugarcane was grown and refined in India before 500 BCE and was crystallized, making it easy to transport, by 500 CE. Sugar and sugarcane were traded, making available to Macedonia by 300 BCE. In South Asia, the Middle East and China, sugar has been a staple of cooking, sugarcane and sugar were little known and rare in Europe until the twelfth century or later, when the Crusades and then colonialization spread its use. Europeans began to manufacture sugar in the Middle Ages, and more sweet desserts became available, even then sugar was so expensive usually only the wealthy could indulge on special occasions. The first apple pie recipe was published in 1381, the earliest documentation of the term cupcake was in Seventy-five Receipts for Pastry, Cakes, and Sweetmeats in 1828 in Eliza Leslies Receipts cookbook. The Industrial Revolution in America and Europe caused desserts to be mass-produced, processed, preserved, canned, frozen foods, including desserts, became very popular starting in the 1920s when freezing emerged. These processed foods became a part of diets in many industrialized nations. Many countries have desserts and foods distinctive to their nations or region, sweet desserts usually contain cane sugar, palm sugar, honey or some types of syrup such as molasses, maple syrup, treacle, or corn syrup. The proportions of ingredients, along with the preparation methods, play a major part in the consistency, texture. Sugars contribute moisture and tenderness to baked goods, flour or starch components serves as a protein and gives the dessert structure. Fats contribute moisture and can enable the development of layers in pastries
29.
Capsicum
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Capsicum is a genus of flowering plants in the nightshade family Solanaceae. Its species are native to the Americas, where they have cultivated for thousands of years. Following the Columbian Exchange, it has become cultivated worldwide, in addition to use as spices and food vegetables, Capsicum species have also been used as medicines and lachrymatory agents. The generic name may come from Latin capsa box, presumably alluding to the pods or the Greek word κάπτω kapto to gulp. The name pepper comes from the similarity of the flavor to black pepper, Piper nigrum, although there is no botanical relationship with it or with Sichuan pepper. The original term, chilli came from the Nahuatl word chīlli, denoting a larger Capsicum variety cultivated at least since 3000 BC, as evidenced by remains found in pottery from Puebla, the fruit of Capsicum plants have a variety of names depending on place and type. The piquant varieties are commonly called chili peppers, or simply chillies, the large, mild form is called red pepper, green pepper, or bell pepper in North America and United Kingdom and typically capsicum in New Zealand, Australia, Singapore and India. The fruit is called paprika in some other countries, ideal growing conditions for peppers include a sunny position with warm, loamy soil, ideally 21 to 29 °C, that is moist but not waterlogged. Extremely moist soils can cause seedlings to damp-off and reduce germination, the plants are sensitive to frost. For flowering, Capsicum are a non-photoperiod-sensitive crop, however, at extremely high temperature,92 to 100 °F, pollen loses viability, and flowers are much less likely to pollinate successfully. Capsicum consists of 20–27 species, five of which are domesticated, C. annuum, C. baccatum, C. chinense, C. frutescens, phylogenetic relationships between species have been investigated using biogeographical, morphological, chemosystematic, hybridization, and genetic data. Fruits of Capsicum can vary tremendously in color, shape, chemosystematic studies helped distinguish the difference between varieties and species. For example, C. baccatum var. baccatum had the same flavonoids as C. baccatum var. pendulum, peru is thought to be the country with the highest cultivated Capsicum diversity since varieties of all five domesticates are commonly sold in markets in contrast to other countries. Bolivia is considered to be the country where the largest diversity of wild Capsicum peppers are consumed. Most of the capsaicin in a pungent pepper is concentrated in blisters on the epidermis of the ribs that divide the chambers, or locules. A study on capsaicin production in fruits of C. chinense fruits, the amount of capsaicin in hot peppers varies significantly among varieties, and is measured in Scoville heat units. The worlds current hottest known pepper as rated in SHU is the Carolina Reaper, sources, Tubocapsicum anomalum Makino Vassobia fasciculata Hunz. Witheringia stramoniifolia Kunth Most Capsicum species are 2n=2x=24, a few of the non-domesticated species are 2n=2x=32
30.
Take-out
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Take-out or takeout, also carry-out, take-away, parcel, refers to prepared meals or other food items, purchased at a restaurant, that the purchaser intends to eat elsewhere. A concept found in ancient cultures, take-out food is now common worldwide. The concept of prepared meals to be eaten elsewhere dates back to antiquity, market and roadside stalls selling food were common in both Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. In Pompeii, archaeologists have found a number of thermopolia and these were service counters, opening onto the street, which provided food to be taken away and eaten elsewhere. There is a lack of formal dining and kitchen area in Pompeian homes. Over 200 thermopolia have been found in the ruins of Pompeii, in the cities of medieval Europe there were a number of street vendors selling take-out food. In medieval London, street vendors sold hot meat pies, geese, sheeps feet and French wine, while in Paris roasted meats, squab, tarts and flans, cheeses and eggs were available. However, these often had a bad reputation, often being in trouble with civic authorities reprimanding them for selling infected meat or reheated food. The cooks of Norwich often defended themselves in court against selling such things as pokky pies, in 10th and 11th century China, citizens of cities like Kaifeng and Hangzhou were able to buy pastries such as yuebing and congyoubing to take away. By the early 13th century, the two most successful such shops in Kaifeng had upwards of fifty ovens, in Renaissance Turkey, many crossroads saw vendors selling fragrant bites of hot meat, including chicken and lamb that had been spit roasted. Aztec marketplaces had vendors that sold beverages such as atolli, almost 50 types of tamales, as well as insects, some of Limas 19th century street vendors such as Erasmo, the negro sango vendor and Na Aguedita are still remembered today. In 1707, after previous restrictions that had limited their operating hours, in the 19th century, street food vendors in Transylvania sold gingerbread-nuts, cream mixed with corn, and bacon and other meat fried on tops of ceramic vessels with hot coals inside. The Industrial Revolution saw an increase in the availability of take-out food, by the early 20th Century, fish and chips was considered an established institution in Britain. The hamburger was introduced to America around this time, the diets of industrial workers were often poor, and these meals provided an important component to their nutrition. In India, local businesses and cooperatives, had begun to supply workers in the city of Mumbai with tiffin boxes by the end of the 19th century. Take-out food can be purchased from restaurants that also provide sit-down table service or from establishments specialising in food to be taken away, although once popular in Europe and America, street food has declined in popularity. In part, this can be attributed to a combination of the proliferation of specialized takeaway restaurants and legislation relating to health, many restaurants and take-out establishments have benefit from the invention of the car. Drive-throughs allowed customers to order, purchase and receive their products without leaving their cars, the idea was pioneered in 1931 in a California fast food restaurant, Pig Stand Number 21
31.
Pattern
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A pattern, apart from the terms use to mean Template, is a discernible regularity in the world or in a manmade design. As such, the elements of a repeat in a predictable manner. A geometric pattern is a kind of pattern formed of geometric shapes, any of the senses may directly observe patterns. Conversely, abstract patterns in science, mathematics, or language may be only by analysis. Direct observation in practice means seeing visual patterns, which are widespread in nature, visual patterns in nature are often chaotic, never exactly repeating, and often involve fractals. Natural patterns include spirals, meanders, waves, foams, tilings, cracks, Patterns have an underlying mathematical structure, indeed, mathematics can be seen as the search for regularities, and the output of any function is a mathematical pattern. Similarly in the sciences, theories explain and predict regularities in the world, in art and architecture, decorations or visual motifs may be combined and repeated to form patterns designed to have a chosen effect on the viewer. In computer science, a design pattern is a known solution to a class of problems in programming. In fashion, the pattern is a used to create any number of similar garments. Nature provides examples of many kinds of pattern, including symmetries, trees and other structures with a dimension, spirals, meanders, waves, foams, tilings, cracks. Symmetry is widespread in living things, animals that move usually have bilateral or mirror symmetry as this favours movement. Plants often have radial or rotational symmetry, as do many flowers, as well as animals which are largely static as adults, fivefold symmetry is found in the echinoderms, including starfish, sea urchins, and sea lilies. Among non-living things, snowflakes have striking sixfold symmetry, each flake is unique, crystals have a highly specific set of possible crystal symmetries, they can be cubic or octahedral, but cannot have fivefold symmetry. Many natural patterns are shaped by this apparent randomness, including vortex streets, waves are disturbances that carry energy as they move. Mechanical waves propagate through a medium – air or water, making it oscillate as they pass by, wind waves are surface waves that create the chaotic patterns of the sea. As they pass over sand, such waves create patterns of ripples, similarly, as the passes over sand. Foams obey Plateaus laws, which films to be smooth and continuous. Foam and bubble patterns occur widely in nature, for example in radiolarians, sponge spicules, cracks form in materials to relieve stress, with 120 degree joints in elastic materials, but at 90 degrees in inelastic materials
32.
Argentine Northwest
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The Argentine Northwest is a geographic and historical region of Argentina composed of the provinces of Catamarca, Jujuy, La Rioja, Salta, Santiago del Estero and Tucumán. The Argentine Northwest comprises very distinct biomes, or geographical and climatic regions, besides the Yungas jungle on the eastern fringe of the region, the only fertile lands are those near the river basins, which have been irrigated extensively. Across millennia the erosive forces of these rivers has created a multitude of red-rock canyons, such as the Quebrada de Humahuaca. Northwest Argentina is predominantly dry and hot and classified as subtropical, owing to its rugged topography, the region is climatically diverse, depending on the altitude, temperature and distribution of precipitation. Consequentially, the vegetation will differ at these different climate types, in general, the climate can be divided into 2 main types, a cold arid or semi-arid climate at the higher altitudes and warmer subtropical climate in the eastern parts of the region. The atmospheric circulation is controlled by the two semi–permanent South Atlantic and South Pacific highs, and a low pressure system east of the Andes. The movement of moist air into the region during the results in very high precipitation. Most of the moisture comes from the east since the Andes block any moisture from the Pacific Ocean, cold fronts that travel northwards to the region can produce precipitation during the summer months and is more prominent in the southern parts of the region. For example, in Tucuman Province, these fronts are responsible for 70% of the rainfall in that province. In contrast, during the months, the Chaco low attracts air masses from the South Pacific high, creating a dry. This effect is more prominent in the months, when the intensity of the cold is more stronger. This leads to enhanced precipitation in the form of thunderstorms during the summer months. At the highest altitudes, westerly winds from the Pacific Ocean can penetrate during the winter months, precipitation in the region is highly seasonal and is mostly concentrated in the summer months in which precipitation decreases from east to west. Precipitation is distributed irregularly owing to relief, as moist air reaches the eastern slopes of the mountains, this moist air raises up vertically, cooling adiabatically, leading to formation of clouds which generate copious amounts of rain. Eastern slopes of the mountains can receive between 1,000 to 1,500 mm of precipitation a year although some places can receive 2,500 mm of precipitation per year owing to orographic precipitation. In the south, the effect is enhanced by advancing cold fronts from the south. The high rainfall on these first slopes creates a jungle that extends in a narrow strip along these ranges. Beyond the first slopes of the Andes into the valleys, the air descends vertically, warming adiabatically, in the temperate valleys, which include major cities such as Salta and Jujuy, they have average precipitation ranging between 500 to 1,000 mm
33.
Lent
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Lent is a solemn religious observance in the Christian liturgical calendar that begins on Ash Wednesday and ends approximately six weeks later, before Easter Sunday. The purpose of Lent is the preparation of the believer through prayer, doing penance, mortifying the flesh, repentance of sins, almsgiving and this event is observed in the Anglican, Eastern Orthodox, Lutheran, Methodist, and Roman Catholic Churches. Some Anabaptist and evangelical churches also observe the Lenten season, in Lent, many Christians commit to fasting, as well as giving up certain luxuries in order to replicate the sacrifice of Jesus Christ’s journey into the desert for 40 days. Many Christians also add a Lenten spiritual discipline, such as reading a daily devotional or praying through a Lenten calendar, the Stations of the Cross, a devotional commemoration of Christs carrying the Cross and of his execution, are often observed. Throughout Christendom, some adherents mark the season with the abstention from the consumption of meat. The English word Lent is a form of the Old English word lenten, meaning spring season. A dated term in German, lenz, is also related, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the shorter form seems to be a derivative of *laŋgo- long. And may possibly have reference to the lengthening of the days as characterizing the season of spring. The origin of the -en element is clear, it may simply be a suffix, or lencten may originally have been a compound of *laŋgo- long. In languages spoken where Christianity was earlier established, such as Greek and Latin, in modern, Greek the term is Σαρακοστή, derived from the earlier Τεσσαρακοστή, meaning fortieth. In other languages, the name used refers to the activity associated with the season, thus it is called fasting period in Czech, German, and Norwegian, and it is called great fast in Polish and Russian. The terms used in Filipino are kuwaresma and Mahál na Araw, various Christian denominations calculate the 40 days of Lent differently. The way they observe Lent also differs, in the Roman Rite, the definition of Lent varies according to different documents. Lent ends on either Holy Thursday or Good Friday, though some sources try to reconcile this with the phrase forty days by excluding Sundays and extending Lent through Holy Saturday no official documents support this interpretation. The day for beginning the Lenten fast is the following Monday, the special Ash Wednesday fast is transferred to the first Friday of the Ambrosian Lent. The period of Lent observed in the Eastern Catholic Churches corresponds to that in churches of Eastern Christianity that have similar traditions. In the Byzantine Rite, i. e. the Eastern Orthodox Great Lent is the most important fasting season in the church year, Great Lent is broken only after the Paschal Divine Liturgy. The Eastern Orthodox Church maintains the traditional Churchs teaching on fasting, the rules for lenten fasting are the monastic rules
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Easter
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It is the culmination of the Passion of Jesus, preceded by Lent, a forty-day period of fasting, prayer, and penance. In Western Christianity, Eastertide, or the Easter Season, begins on Easter Sunday and lasts seven weeks, ending with the coming of the fiftieth day, Pentecost Sunday. In Eastern Christianity, the season of Pascha begins on Pascha and ends with the coming of the fortieth day, the Feast of the Ascension. The First Council of Nicaea established two rules, independence of the Jewish calendar and worldwide uniformity, which were the rules for Easter explicitly laid down by the council. No details for the computation were specified, these were worked out in practice and it has come to be the first Sunday after the ecclesiastical full moon that occurs on or soonest after 21 March, but calculations vary. Easter is linked to the Jewish Passover by much of its symbolism, in many languages, the words for Easter and Passover are identical or very similar. Easter customs vary across the Christian world, and include services, exclaiming the Paschal greeting, clipping the church. The Easter lily, a symbol of the resurrection, traditionally decorates the area of churches on this day. Additional customs that have associated with Easter and are observed by both Christians and some non-Christians include egg hunting, the Easter Bunny, and Easter parades. There are also various traditional Easter foods that vary regionally, however, it is possible that Bede was only speculating about the origin of the term since there is no firm evidence that such a goddess actually existed. In Greek and Latin, the Christian celebration was, and still is, called Πάσχα, Pascha, the word originally denoted the Jewish festival known in English as Passover, commemorating the Jewish Exodus from slavery in Egypt. In most of the non-English speaking world, the feast is known by names derived from Greek, Pascha is also a name by which Jesus himself is remembered in the Orthodox Church, especially in connection with his resurrection and with the season of its celebration. The New Testament states that the resurrection of Jesus, which Easter celebrates, is a foundation of the Christian faith, the resurrection established Jesus as the powerful Son of God and is cited as proof that God will judge the world in righteousness. For those who trust in Jesus death and resurrection, death is swallowed up in victory, any person who chooses to follow Jesus receives a new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead. Through faith in the working of God those who follow Jesus are spiritually resurrected with him so that they may walk in a new way of life and receive eternal salvation. Easter is linked to the Passover and Exodus from Egypt recorded in the Old Testament through the Last Supper, sufferings and crucifixion of Jesus that preceded the resurrection. According to the New Testament, Jesus gave the Passover meal a new meaning, as in the room during the Last Supper he prepared himself. He identified the matzah and cup of wine as his soon to be sacrificed
35.
Squalidae
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The Squalidae, also called dogfish sharks or spiny dogfishes, are a family of sharks in the order Squaliformes. They have two fins, each with smooth spines, but no anal fin, and their skin is generally rough to the touch. Unlike virtually all other species, dogfish sharks possess venom which coats their dorsal spines – this venom is mildly toxic to humans. They are carnivorous, principally preying upon organisms smaller than themselves, the livers and stomachs of the Squalidae contain the compound squalamine, which possesses the property of reduction of small blood vessel growth in humans. Two genera are known, Squalus, which numerous species, and Cirrhigaleus. Froese, Rainer, and Daniel Pauly, eds, compagno, Dando, & Fowler, Sharks of the World, Princeton University Press, New Jersey 2005 ISBN 0-691-12072-2
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Tuna
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A tuna is a saltwater fish that belongs to the tribe Thunnini, a sub-grouping of the mackerel family – which together with the tunas, also includes the bonitos, mackerels, and Spanish mackerels. Thunnini comprises fifteen species across five genera, the sizes of which vary greatly, the bluefin averages 2 m, and is believed to live for up to 50 years. Tuna and mackerel sharks are the species of fish that can maintain a body temperature higher than that of the surrounding water. An active and agile predator, the tuna has a sleek, streamlined body, found in warm seas, it is extensively fished commercially, and is popular as a game fish. As a result of over-fishing, stocks of tuna species such as the southern bluefin tuna have been reduced dangerously close to the point of extinction. The term tuna ultimately derives from Thunnus, the Middle Latin form of the Ancient Greek, θύννος tunny-fish – which is in turn derived from θύνω, rush, the following cladogram illustrates the relationship between the tunas and other tribes of the family Scombridae. The true tunas are those that belong to the genus Thunnus, until recently, it was thought that there were seven Thunnus species, and that Atlantic bluefin tuna and Pacific bluefin tuna were subspecies of a single species. In 1999, Collette established that based on molecular and morphological considerations, they are in fact distinct species. The genus Thunnus is further classified into two subgenera, Thunnus, and Thunnus, the Thunnini tribe also includes seven additional species of tuna across four genera. They are, The tuna is a sleek and streamlined fish and it has two closely spaced dorsal fins on its back, The first is depressible – it can be laid down, flush, in a groove that runs along its back. Seven to ten yellow finlets run from the fins to the tail. The caudal peduncle, to which the tail is attached, is quite thin, the tunas dorsal side is generally a metallic dark blue, while the ventral side, or underside, is silvery or whitish, for camouflage. Thunnus are widely but sparsely distributed throughout the oceans of the world, generally in tropical, all tunas are able to maintain the temperature of certain parts of their body above the temperature of ambient seawater. For example, bluefin can maintain a body temperature of 25–33 °C. However, unlike typical endothermic creatures such as mammals and birds, tunas achieve endothermy by conserving the heat generated through normal metabolism. In all tunas, the heart operates at ambient temperature, as it receives cooled blood, also unlike most fish, which have white flesh, the muscle tissue of tuna ranges from pink to dark red. The red myotomal muscles derive their color from myoglobin, an oxygen-binding molecule, the oxygen-rich blood further enables energy delivery to their muscles. For powerful swimming animals like dolphins and tuna, cavitation may be detrimental, even if they have the power to swim faster, dolphins may have to restrict their speed, because collapsing cavitation bubbles on their tail are too painful
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Cayo District
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Cayo District is a district located in the west part of Belize. It is the first-most extensive, second-most populous and third-most densely populated of the six districts of Belize, the districts capital is the town of San Ignacio. The nations capital, Belmopan, is located within the district, Cayo District is primarily an agricultural district, with the chief crops being citrus fruit, as well as bananas. Recently, oil was found in Spanish Lookout and it is now in production, in addition to the ruins listed above there are several other important nature reserves including two National Parks, Blue Hole and Guanacaste National Park. Ecotourism is also a part of the regions economy. According to the 2010 Population and Housing Census, Cayo Districts total population is of 73,202 residents, the total number of households is 15,497 and the average household size is 4.7. The southern half of Cayo District is very low densely populated, a large majority of the districts population lives north of the 17th parallel. In 2010, the population of Cayos urban areas was of 36,455,17,939 males and 18,516 females. 7,468 total households and a 4.9 average household size, the total population of Cayos rural areas was of 36,747,18,864 males and 17,883 females. 8,029 total households and a 4.6 average household size, the Lodge at Chaa Creek Kaana Boutique Resort & Spa Map Cayo South GoToCayoBelize. com Best of Cayo
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Belize
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Belize, formerly British Honduras, is an independent country on the eastern coast of Central America. Belize is bordered on the north by Mexico, on the south and west by Guatemala and its mainland is about 290 km long and 110 km wide. Belize has an area of 22,800 square kilometres and a population of 368,310 and it has the lowest population density in Central America. The countrys population growth rate of 1. 87% per year is the second highest in the region, Belizes abundance of terrestrial and marine species and its diversity of ecosystems gives it a key place in the globally significant Mesoamerican Biological Corridor. Belize has a society, composed of many cultures and languages that reflect its rich history. English is the language of Belize, with Belizean Kriol being the unofficial language. Over half the population is multilingual, with Spanish being the second most common spoken language, Belize is considered a Central American and Caribbean nation with strong ties to both the Latin American and Caribbean regions. Belize is a Commonwealth realm, with Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch, Belize is known for its September Celebrations, its extensive coral reefs, and punta music. The origin of the name Belize remains unclear, the earliest known record of the name appears in the journal of the Dominican priest Fray José Delgado, dating to 1677. Delgado recorded the names of three rivers that he crossed while travelling north along the Caribbean coast, Rio Soyte, Rio Xibum. The names of these waterways, which correspond to the Sittee River, Sibun River and it is likely that Delgados Balis was actually the Mayan word belix, meaning muddy-watered. Others have suggested that the name derives from a Spanish pronunciation of the name of the Scottish buccaneer Peter Wallace, there is no proof that Wallace settled in this area and some scholars have characterized this claim as a myth. Writers and historians have suggested other possible etymologies, including postulated French. Many aspects of this culture persist in the area despite nearly 500 years of European domination, prior to about 2500 BC, some hunting and foraging bands settled in small farming villages, they later domesticated crops such as corn, beans, squash, and chili peppers. A profusion of languages and subcultures developed within the Maya core culture, between about 2500 BC and 250 AD, the basic institutions of Maya civilisation emerged. The peak of this occurred during the classic period, which began about 250 AD. The Maya civilisation spread across what is now Belize around 1500 BC, the recorded history of the middle and southern regions is dominated by Caracol, an urban political centre that may have supported over 140,000 people. North of the Maya Mountains, the most important political centre was Lamanai, in the late Classic Era of Maya civilisation, as many as 1 million people may have lived in the area that is now Belize
39.
Masa
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Although the word is mostly used to refer to any kind of dough, in some regions it is often short for masa de maíz, a maize dough made from freshly prepared hominy. It is used for making tortillas, tamales, pupusas. The dried and powdered form is called masa harina, masa de harina, and sometimes Maseca and it is reconstituted with water before use. Masa is not to be confused with masarepa, masa de arepa, or masa al instante, a type of unnixtamalized, soaked, masa de trigo is Spanish for wheat flour dough. It is also used for making wheat tortillas and other breads, to make hominy, field corn grain is dried and then treated by soaking and cooking the mature grain in a diluted solution of slaked lime or wood ash, a process termed nixtamalization. Some of the oil is broken down into emulsifying agents. The divalent calcium in lime acts as a agent for protein. Finally, in addition to providing a source of dietary calcium, while consumption of untreated corn is a risk factor in predisposition to pellagra, as in African countries, the risk is dramatically reduced or eliminated by nixtamalization. The soaked maize is washed, and then ground into masa, when fresh masa is dried and powdered, it becomes masa seca or masa harina. The process of making hominy is also called nixtamalization and the product can be called masa nixtamalera. In Central American and Mexican cuisine, masa nixtamalera is cooked with water and milk to make a thick, when made with chocolate and sugar, it becomes atole de chocolate. Adding anise and piloncillo to this mix creates champurrado, a popular breakfast drink
40.
Street food
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Street food is ready-to-eat food or drink sold by a hawker, or vendor, in a street or other public place, such as at a market or fair. It is often sold from a portable food booth, food cart, or food truck, some street foods are regional, but many have spread beyond their region of origin. Most street foods are classed as both food and fast food, and are cheaper on average than restaurant meals. According to a 2007 study from the Food and Agriculture Organization,2.5 billion people eat street food every day. Today, people may purchase food for a number of reasons, such as to get flavourful food for a reasonable price in a sociable setting, to experience ethnic cuisines. Small fried fish were a food in ancient Greece, however. Evidence of a number of street food vendors were discovered during the excavation of Pompeii. Street food was consumed by poor urban residents of ancient Rome whose tenement homes did not have ovens or hearths. Here, chickpea soup with bread and grain paste were common meals, in ancient China, street food generally catered to the poor, however, wealthy residents would send servants to buy street food and bring it back for them to eat in their homes. In Renaissance Turkey, many crossroads had vendors selling fragrant bites of hot meat, including chicken, in 1502, Ottoman Turkey became the first country to legislate and standardize street food. Aztec marketplaces had vendors who sold beverages such as atolli, almost 50 types of tamales, as well as insects, spanish colonization brought European food stocks like wheat, sugarcane and livestock to Peru, however, most commoners continued to primarily eat their traditional diets. Imports were only accepted at the margins of their diet, for example, some of Limas 19th-century street vendors such as Erasmo, the negro sango vendor and Na Aguedita are still remembered today. During the American Colonial period, street vendors sold oysters, roasted corn ears, fruit, oysters, in particular, were a cheap and popular street food until around 1910 when overfishing and pollution caused prices to rise. Street vendors in New York City faced a lot of opposition, after previous restrictions had limited their operating hours, street food vendors were completely banned in New York City by 1707. Cracker Jack started as one of many street food exhibits at the Columbian Exposition, in the 19th century, street food vendors in Transylvania sold gingerbread-nuts, cream mixed with corn, as well as bacon and other meat fried on top of ceramic vessels with hot coals inside. French fries, consisting of fried strips of potato, probably originated as a food in Paris in the 1840s. Street foods in Victorian London included tripe, pea soup, pea pods in butter, whelk, prawns, ramen, originally brought to Japan by Chinese immigrants about 100 years ago, began as a street food for laborers and students. However, it became a national dish and even acquired regional variations
41.
Cape Verde
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Located 570 kilometres off the coast of West Africa, the islands cover a combined area of slightly over 4,000 square kilometres. The Cape Verde archipelago was uninhabited until the 15th century, when Portuguese explorers discovered and colonized the islands, ideally located for the Atlantic slave trade, the islands grew prosperous throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, attracting merchants, privateers, and pirates. The end of slavery in the 19th century led to economic decline, Cape Verde gradually recovered as an important commercial center and stopover for shipping routes. Incorporated as a department of Portugal in 1951, the islands continued to agitate for independence. Since the early 1990s, Cape Verde has been a representative democracy. Lacking natural resources, its economy is mostly service-oriented, with a growing focus on tourism. Its population of around 512,000 is mostly of mixed European and sub-Saharan African heritage, a sizeable diaspora community exists across the world, slightly outnumbering inhabitants on the islands. Historically, the name Cape Verde has been used in English for the archipelago and, since independence in 1975, for the country. In 2013, the Cape Verdean government determined that the Portuguese designation Cabo Verde would henceforth be used for official purposes, such as at the United Nations, Cape Verde is a member of the African Union. The name of the stems from the nearby Cap-Vert, on the Senegalese coast. In 1444 Portuguese explorers had named that landmark as Cabo Verde, on 24 October 2013, the countrys delegation announced at the United Nations that the official name should no longer be translated into other languages. Instead of Cape Verde, the designation Republic of Cabo Verde is to be used, before the arrival of Europeans, the Cape Verde Islands were uninhabited. The islands of the Cape Verde archipelago were discovered by Genoese and Portuguese navigators around 1456, according to Portuguese official records, the first discoveries were made by Genoa-born António de Noli, who was afterwards appointed governor of Cape Verde by Portuguese King Afonso V. Other navigators mentioned as contributing to discoveries in the Cape Verde archipelago are Diogo Gomes, Diogo Dias, Diogo Afonso, in 1462, Portuguese settlers arrived at Santiago and founded a settlement they called Ribeira Grande. Ribeira Grande was the first permanent European settlement in the tropics, in the 16th century, the archipelago prospered from the Atlantic slave trade. Pirates occasionally attacked the Portuguese settlements, sir Francis Drake, an English corsair privateering under a letter of marque granted by the English crown, twice sacked the capital Ribeira Grande in 1585 when it was a part of the Iberian Union. After a French attack in 1712, the town declined in relative to nearby Praia. Decline in the trade in the 19th century resulted in an economic crisis
42.
Salvador Allende
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Salvador Guillermo Allende Gossens was a Chilean physician and politician, known as the first Marxist to become president of a Latin American country through open elections. Allendes involvement in Chilean political life spanned a period of forty years. As a member of the Socialist Party, he was a senator, deputy and he unsuccessfully ran for the presidency in the 1952,1958, and 1964 elections. In 1970, he won the presidency in a close three-way race and he was elected in a run-off by Congress as no candidate had gained a majority. A centre-right majority including the Christian Democrats, whose support had enabled Allendes election, denounced his rule as unconstitutional, on 11 September 1973, the military moved to oust Allende in a coup détat sponsored by the United States Central Intelligence Agency. As troops surrounded La Moneda Palace, he gave his last speech vowing not to resign, later that day, Allende committed suicide with an assault rifle, according to an investigation conducted by a Chilean court with the assistance of international experts in 2011. Allende was born on 26 June 1908 in Santiago and he was the son of Salvador Allende Castro and Laura Gossens Uribe. Allendes family belonged to the Chilean upper middle class and had a tradition of political involvement in progressive. His grandfather was a prominent physician and a social reformist who founded one of the first secular schools in Chile, Salvador Allende was of Belgian and Basque descent. Allende attended high school at the Liceo Eduardo de la Barra in Valparaíso, as a teenager, his main intellectual and political influence came from the shoe-maker Juan De Marchi, an Italian-born anarchist. Allende was an athlete in his youth, being a member of the Everton de Viña del Mar sports club. Allende then graduated with a degree in 1933 from the University of Chile. During his time at medical school Allende was influenced by Professor Max Westenhofer, Allende co-founded a section of the Socialist Party of Chile in Valparaíso and became its chairman. He married Hortensia Bussi with whom he had three daughters and he was a Freemason, a member of the Lodge Progreso No.4 in Valparaíso. In 1933, he published his doctoral thesis Higiene Mental y Delincuencia in which he criticized Cesare Lombrosos proposals, in 1938, Allende was in charge of the electoral campaign of the Popular Front headed by Pedro Aguirre Cerda. The Popular Fronts slogan was Bread, a Roof and Work, after its electoral victory, he became Minister of Health in the Reformist Popular Front government which was dominated by the Radicals. Upon entering the government, Allende relinquished his seat for Valparaíso. Around that time, he wrote La Realidad Médico Social de Chile, after the Kristallnacht in Nazi Germany, Allende was one of 76 members of the Congress who sent a telegram to Adolf Hitler denouncing the persecution of Jews
43.
Fiestas Patrias (Chile)
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September 19, known as the Day of the Glories of the Army. Within Chile the Fiestas Patrias are often referred to as the Dieciocho, unofficially, the celebration can last for around a week, depending on when it falls. It is held close to the equinox of the Southern Hemisphere so it doubles as a spring festival. Chiles Declaration of Independence happened on February 12, most schools and jobs declare a week-long vacation for the holiday. This day is very important to the Chilean people because they are celebrating their freedom from Spanish rule. The celebration of Fiestas Patrias is an expression of Chilean culture, traditional activities associated with the Dieciocho include Chilean rodeo, dancing the cueca, going to fondas, and barbecue. Officially, activities on September eighteen are centered on a religious celebration Te Deum Ecuménico de Fiestas Patrias and this ceremony, which is organized by the Catholic Church and led by the Archbishop of Santiago, has taken place since 1811 when it was started by José Miguel Carrera. In 1971, President Salvador Allende asked that the celebration become more ecumenical, the ceremony itself begins at 11, 00am in the Plaza de Armas. Military parades and civil parades are held on this day in major cities. Many Chileans travel during the Fiestas Patrias to visit family, friends and relatives in other parts of the country, in Santiago, many people travel to resorts on the Pacific coast, especially Viña del Mar and the Litoral Central region. It is estimated that 2 million Chileans—nearly one-eighth of the countrys population—travel during this holiday, consumption of traditional Chilean foods is one of the principal displays of the Fiestas Patrias. Chileans prepare these foods in their homes, or they go to fondas, fondas are venues, often tents, prepared and decorated for the Fiestas Patrias where traditional Chilean dishes and beverages are served. The largest fondas are found in Parque OHiggins, each year the Chilean President kicks off the Fiestas Patrias celebrations at one of these locales. For many years, the selected fonda was La Grandiosa Bertita, the predominant food associated with the Fiestas Patrias are Chilean empanadas, which are a sort of bread pastry. The filling of these empanadas consist of pino, a mixture of chopped beef and onion, as well as half of an egg, raisins. Many Chileans also throw a barbecue for the Fiestas Patrias, during this time sales of meat products exceed $50 million. During the Fiestas Patrias the preferred drink is chicha, an alcoholic beverage typically made from grapes. Red wine enjoys popularity during the holiday, while pisco, the national liquor. Alfajores consist of two lightly breaded cookies joined with manjar, a filling made from caramelized condensed milk
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Asado
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In these countries, asado is a traditional dish and also the standard word for barbecue. An asado usually consists of beef alongside various other meats, which are cooked on a grill, called a parrilla, an asado will almost always include meats, and usually embutidos and/or offal. Generally in more elaborate versions the embutidos and meats are accompanied by red wine, in more formal events and restaurants, food is prepared by an assigned asador or parrillero, the cook. In informal and relaxed settings, this is customarily done in a manner by volunteers. Huge herds of wild cattle roamed much of the region of Argentina until the mid-nineteenth century. Inhabitants of the Río de la Plata, especially the equestrian gaucho, developed a fondness for beef, especially asado, the meat, often a side of ribs, is skewered on a metal frame called an asador and is roasted by placing it next to a slow-burning fire. Gauchos favored cooking asado with the wood of the tree because it smokes very little. Asado, accompanied by tea, formed the basis of the gaucho diet. Usually the asador begins by igniting the charcoal, which is made of native trees, avoiding pines. In more sophisticated asados the charcoal is of a tree or made on the coal of recently burned wood. In Uruguay, charcoal is not used, but instead direct embers or hot coals, cooking can be done al asador or a la parrilla. In the first case a fire is made on the ground or in a fire pit, in the second case a fire is made and after the charcoal has formed, a grill with the meat is placed over it. Sometimes these are served on a coal-heated brasero, chorizos may be served with marraqueta or baguette bread as choripanes to serve as appetizers. After appetizers, costillas or asado de tira can be served, next comes vacío, matambre and possibly chicken and chivito. Dishes such as pamplona, pork, and Patagonian lamb are becoming more frequent, beer, wine, soft drink, and other beverages are common. Another traditional form to mainly roast the meat, used in Patagonia, is with the animal in a wood stick nailed in the ground and exposed to the heat of live coals. The meat for an asado is not marinated, the preparation being the application of salt before or during the cooking period. Also, the heat and distance from the coals are controlled to provide a slow cooking, further, grease from the meat is not encouraged to fall on the coals and create smoke which would adversely flavour the meat
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Chicha
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In South and Central America, chicha is a fermented or non-fermented beverage usually derived from maize. Chicha includes corn beer known as chicha de jora and non-alcoholic beverages such as chicha morada, archaeobotanists have found evidence for chicha made from maize, the fruit of Schinus molle and Prosopis pods. Chichas can also be made from quinoa, kañiwa, peanut, manioc root, palm fruit, potato, Oxalis tuberosa, while chicha is most commonly associated with maize, the word is used in the Andes for almost any homemade fermented drink, and many unfermented drinks. Many different maize landraces, grains or fruits have been and can be used to make chicha in different regions, the way in which chicha is made and defined is likely to change depending on the region The exact origin of the word chicha is debated. One belief is that the word chicha is of Taino origin and became a term used by the Spanish to define any. It is possible that one of the first uses of the term chicha was from a group of people who lived in Colombia and Panama, the [[Kuna people|Kuna. However, according to the Real Academia Española and other authors, furthermore, according to Don Luis G. Iza it comes from the Nahuatl word chichiatl, which means fermented water, the verb chicha meaning to sour a drink and the postfix -atl meaning water. The common Spanish expression Ni chicha ni limonada is roughly equivalent to the English neither fish nor fowl. Chicha de jora is a corn beer prepared by germinating maize, extracting the malt sugars, boiling the wort, the process is essentially the same as the process for the production of regular beer. It is traditionally made with Jora corn, a type of corn from the Andes, some add quinoa or other adjuncts to give it consistency, then it is boiled. Chancaca, a form of sugar, helps with the fermentation process. Other ways of making chicha was by having women chew the corn then spit it out in water and it is traditionally prepared from a specific kind of yellow maize and is usually referred to as chicha de jora. Naturally occurring ptyalin enzymes in the makers saliva catalyses the breakdown of starch in the maize into maltose, Chicha prepared in this manner is known as Chicha de Muko. It is usually made from ears of maize, which are boiled with pineapple rind, cinnamon. This gives a strong, purple-colored liquid, which is mixed with sugar. This beverage is taken as a refreshment, but in recent years many health benefits of purple corn have been found. Chicha morada is Common in Bolivian and Peruvian cultures and is drunk as an accompaniment to food. Chicha de jora has been prepared and consumed in communities throughout in the Andes for millennia, the Inca used chicha for ritual purposes and consumed it in vast quantities during religious festivals
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Clam
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Clam is a common name for several kinds of bivalve molluscs. The word is applied only to those that live as infauna. In particular, edible infaunal bivalves are often called clams, clams have two shells of equal size connected by two adductor muscles and have a powerful burrowing foot. Clams in the culinary sense do not live attached to a substrate, in culinary usage, clams are commonly eaten marine bivalves, as in clam digging and the resulting soup, clam chowder. Many edible clams such as palourde clams are oval or triangular, however, razor clams have an elongated parallel-sided shell, some clams have life cycles of only one year, while at least one may be over 500 years old. All clams have two shells or valves joined near a hinge with a flexible ligament, and all are filter feeders. A clams shell consists of two valves, which are connected by a joint and a ligament that can be external or internal. The ligament provides tension to bring the valves apart, while one or two muscles can contract to close the valves. Clams also have kidneys, a heart, a mouth, a stomach, a nervous system, in culinary use, within the eastern coast of the United States, the term clam most often refers to the hard clam Mercenaria mercenaria. It may also refer to a few other common species, such as the soft-shell clam, Mya arenaria. Another species commercially exploited on the Atlantic Coast of the United States is the surf clam Spisula solidissima, scallops are also used for food. Clams can be raw, steamed, boiled, baked or fried. They can also be made into clam chowder or they can be cooked using hot rocks, in Japan, clams are often an ingredient of mixed seafood dishes. They can also be made into hot pot, miso soup or Tsukudani, the more commonly used varieties of clams in Japanese cooking are the Shijimi, the Asari and the Hamaguri. In Italy, clams are often an ingredient of mixed seafood dishes or are eaten together with pasta, the more commonly used varieties of clams in Italian cooking are the Vongola, the Cozza and the Tellina. Clams are eaten more in the regions of India, especially in the Konkan, Kerala, Bengal. In Kerala clams are used to make curries and fried with coconut, in Malabar region it is known as elambakka and in middle kerala it is known as kakka. Clams curry made with coconut is a delicious dish from malabar especially in Telicherry region
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Concholepas concholepas
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Concholepas concholepas, the Chilean abalone, is a species of large edible sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk. Despite the superficial resemblance, C. concholepas is not a true abalone and this species is native to the coasts of Chile and Peru, where it is called loco or pata de burro and chanque. Due to overfishing, the harvesting of this species in Chile has been limited by law since 1989, the blue blood of this species contains hemocyanin, which is being investigated as a treatment for bladder and prostate cancer. C. concholepas has a thick, slightly oval, and white-brown to purple-grey shell and its very few whorls makes it resemble a Phrygian cap in shape. The outer surface of the shows strong lamellose ribs of which are both radial and circular-concentric. The shell is shaped almost like that of an abalone, with a large aperture compared to other muricids. A loco cannot hide completely inside the shell if it is turned upside down, so has no need of its operculum, instead, the shell is made of calcite with an inner layer of aragonite. The shells of species are used as ashtrays in Chile. C. concholepas is a predator that lives on rocks in temperate waters from sea level to depths of 40 m. Its diet consists of mytilids and barnacles and its geographic distribution ranges from Lobos de Afuera in Peru, to Cape Horn in Chile, including the Juan Fernández Islands. C. concholepas is dioecious, which means the populations are divided between male and females, though no external evidence of sexual dimorphism. The fertilisation in this species occurs internally, in central Chile, females lay egg capsules on low intertidal and shallow subtidal rocky surfaces during southern autumn months. After around one month of development inside the capsules, small planktotrophic veliger larvae are released, the normal size at which the snail reaches sexual maturity is between 5.4 and 6.7 cm, it takes about four years to reach this size. C. concholepas is used in Chilean cuisine and is marketed worldwide as a delicacy — misleadingly under the name Chilean abalone. Its economic value and ecological importance as top predator have made it the most studied marine invertebrate species in Chile, on the Chilean coast, C. concholepas is one of the most important edible mollusc species and is a major product of the aquacultural industry. In 1975, about 5,000 tons were extracted annually, in 1980, the extraction peaked, with a catch of 25,000 tons. Since 1989, extraction is illegal in Chile, but from 1992 onwards, the minimum size allowed for extraction is 10 cm. Currently, the legal way for artisan fishermen or other people to catch locos is to have a Marine Area of Benthonic Resources Extraction permit
Cookbook: Empanada 
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