1.
Philippines
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The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of about 7,641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south, Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, the capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both part of Metro Manila. The Philippines has an area of 300,000 square kilometers, and it is the eighth-most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world. As of 2013, approximately 10 million additional Filipinos lived overseas, multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelagos earliest inhabitants and they were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples. Exchanges with Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Islamic nations occurred, then, various competing maritime states were established under the rule of Datus, Rajahs, Sultans or Lakans. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon, Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization, in 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City, in 1565, the Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion, during this time, Manila became the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons. Aside from the period of Japanese occupation, the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II, since then, the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non-violent revolution. It is a member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank, the Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain. Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte, eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago. Before that became commonplace, other such as Islas del Poniente. The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history, during the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the name Philippines began to appear, since the end of World War II, the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines. The metatarsal of the Callao Man, reliably dated by uranium-series dating to 67,000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date and this distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan, carbon-dated to around 26,500 years ago. Negritos were also among the archipelagos earliest inhabitants, but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated, there are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos
Philippines
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King Philip II of Spain.
Philippines
Philippines
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Tabon Cave and its carvings.
Philippines
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The
Banaue Rice Terraces where
Ifugao/Igorot utilized terrace farming in the steep mountainous regions of northern Philippines over 2000 years ago.
2.
Pauline epistles
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The Pauline epistles, Epistles of Paul, or Letters of Paul, are the 13 New Testament books which have the name Paul as the first word, hence claiming authorship by Paul the Apostle. Among these letters are some of the earliest extant Christian documents and they provide an insight into the beliefs and controversies of early Christianity and as part of the canon of the New Testament they are foundational texts for both Christian theology and ethics. The Pauline epistles are usually placed between the Acts of the Apostles and the epistles in modern editions. Most Greek manuscripts, however, place the General epistles first, in the order they appear in the New Testament, the Pauline epistles are, This ordering is remarkably consistent in the manuscript tradition, with very few deviations. The evident principle of organization is descending length of the Greek text, the only anomaly is that Galatians precedes the slightly longer Ephesians. In modern editions, the formally anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews is placed at the end of Pauls letters and this practice was popularized through the 4th century Vulgate by Jerome, who was aware of ancient doubts about its authorship, and is also followed in most medieval Byzantine manuscripts. With hardly any exceptions, though, the manuscripts do include Hebrews somewhere among Pauls letters. The placement of Hebrews among the Pauline epistles is less consistent in the manuscripts, omitted, F and G In all of these epistles besides Epistle to the Hebrews, Paul does claim to be the author and writer. However, the letters may have been forgeries, as that seems to have been a problem among the early church as a whole. “The Problem of Anonymity and Pseudonymity in Christian Literature of the First Two Centuries. ”Journal of Theological Studies 12, bahr, Gordon J. “Paul and Letter Writing in the First Century. ”Idem, “The Subscriptions in the Pauline Letters. ”Journal of Biblical Literature 2, 27–41. Journal of Biblical Literature 107, 469–94, craig A. Evans and Stanley E. Porter. Dan O. Via, Jr. Philadelphia, Fortress,1988, “‘Girls Trained in Beautiful Writing’, Female Scribes in Roman Antiquity and Early Christianity. ”Journal of Early Christian Studies 6.4, 629–46. A Theological Introduction to Pauls Letters, “Ancient Amanuenses and the Pauline Epistles. ”New Dimensions in New Testament Study. Richard N. Longenecker and Merrill C, idem, “On the Form, Function, and Authority of the New Testament Letters. ”D. A. Carson and John D. Woodbridge. Paul the Letter-Writer, His World, His Options, His Skills, the Secretary in the Letters of Paul. Idem, “The Codex and the Early Collection of Paul’s Letters. ”Bulletin for Bulletin Research 8, idem, Paul and First-Century Letter Writing, Secretaries, Composition, and Collection. “Composition and Dictation in New Testament Books. ”Journal of Theological Studies 18, wall, Robert W. “Introduction to Epistolary Literature. ”The Marcionite Prologues to the Pauline Epistles Chronological Order of Pauls Letters Chronology of Pauls Letters
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Events in the Life of
Paul according to
Acts of the Apostles
3.
Epistle to the Romans
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The Epistle to the Romans or Letter to the Romans, often shortened to Romans, is the sixth book in the New Testament. Biblical scholars agree that it was composed by the Apostle Paul to explain that salvation is offered through the gospel of Jesus Christ and it is the longest of the Pauline epistles and is often considered his most important theological legacy and magnum opus. N. T. Wright notes that Romans is. neither a systematic theology nor a summary of Pauls lifework and it dwarfs most of his other writings, an Alpine peak towering over hills and villages. Not all onlookers have viewed it in the light or from the same angle. Not all climbers have taken the route up its sheer sides. What nobody doubts is that we are dealing with a work of massive substance. The scholarly consensus is that Paul authored the Epistle to the Romans, cranfield, in the introduction to his commentary on Romans, says, The denial of Pauls authorship of Romans by such critics. Is now rightly relegated to a place among the curiosities of NT scholarship, today no responsible criticism disputes its Pauline origin. The evidence of its use in the Apostolic Fathers is clear, every extant early list of NT books includes it among his letters. The external evidence of authenticity could indeed hardly be stronger, and it is borne out by the internal evidence, linguistic, stylistic, literary. The letter was most probably written while Paul was in Corinth, probably while he was staying in the house of Gaius, There are a number of reasons why Corinth is considered most plausible. Paul was about to travel to Jerusalem on writing the letter and this probably implies Corinth as it was the location of Paul’s greatest missionary success in Greece. Erastus, mentioned in Romans 16,23, also lived in Corinth, being the commissioner for public works and city treasurer at various times. The majority of writing on Romans propose the letter was written in late 55/early 56 or late 56/early 57. Early 55 and early 58 both have some support, while German New Testament scholar Gerd Lüdemann argues for a date as early as 51/52, following on from Knox, Lüdemann is the only serious challenge to the consensus of mid to late 50s. For ten years writing the letter, Paul had traveled around the territories bordering the Aegean Sea evangelizing. Churches had been planted in the Roman provinces of Galatia, Macedonia, Achaia and Asia, Paul, considering his task complete, wanted to preach the gospel in Spain, where he would not build upon another man’s foundation. This allowed him to visit Rome on the way, an ambition of his
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Books of the
New Testament
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A 17th-century depiction of Paul writing his epistles. Only
seven out of 13 letters that bear Paul's name are accepted as being authentic. 16:22 indicates that Tertius acted as his
amanuensis.
Epistle to the Romans
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Saint Paul arrested by the Romans
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The beginning of the Epistle in
Codex Alexandrinus
4.
First Epistle to the Corinthians
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The First Epistle to the Corinthians, usually referred to simply as First Corinthians and often written 1 Corinthians, is one of the Pauline epistles of the New Testament of the Christian Bible. This epistle contains some well-known phrases, including, all things to all men, through a glass, darkly, there is consensus among historians and Christian theologians that Paul is the author of the First Epistle to the Corinthians. The letter is quoted or mentioned by the earliest of sources, the personal and even embarrassing texts about immorality in the church increase consensus. However, two passages may have been inserted at a later stage, the first passage is 1 Corinthians 11, 2–16, dealing with praying and prophesying with head covering. The second passage is 1 Corinthians 14, 34–35, whose authenticity has been hotly debated, part of the reason for doubt is that in some manuscripts, the verses come at the end of the chapter instead of at its present location. Furthermore, Paul is here appealing to the law which is uncharacteristic of him, lastly, the verses come into conflict with 11,5 where women are described as praying and prophesying. The epistle was written from Ephesus, a city on the west coast of todays Turkey, according to Acts of the Apostles, Paul founded the church in Corinth, then spent approximately three years in Ephesus. The letter was written during time in Ephesus, which is usually dated as being in the range of AD 53–57. In 16,8 Paul declares his intention of staying in Ephesus until Pentecost and this statement, in turn, is clearly reminiscent of Pauls Second Missionary Journey, when Paul traveled from Corinth to Ephesus, before going to Jerusalem for Pentecost. Thus, it is possible that I Corinthians was written during Pauls first stay in Ephesus, at the end of his Second Journey, however, it is more likely that it was written during his extended stay in Ephesus, where he refers to sending Timothy to them. Also, his references to Apollos show that Apollos was known to Paul and the church at the time of writing, the salutation reinforces the legitimacy of Pauls apostolic claim. Thanksgiving The thanksgiving part of the letter is typical of Hellenistic letter writing, in a thanksgiving recitation the writer thanks God for health, a safe journey, deliverance from danger, or good fortune. In this letter, the thanksgiving introduces charismata and gnosis, topics to which Paul will return, greet one another with a holy kiss. I, Paul, write this greeting with my own hand, if any man love not the Lord Jesus Christ, let him be Anathema Maranatha. The grace of the Lord Jesus be with you and my love be with you all in Christ Jesus. Some time before 2 Corinthians was written, Paul paid them a visit to check some rising disorder. They had also visited by Apollos, perhaps by Peter. Paul wrote this letter to correct what he saw as erroneous views in the Corinthian church, Paul then wrote this letter to the Corinthians, urging uniformity of belief and expounding Christian doctrine
First Epistle to the Corinthians
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Books of the
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First Epistle to the Corinthians
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1 Cor. 1:1–21 from the 8th century in
Codex Amiatinus
First Epistle to the Corinthians
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1 Cor. 1:1–2a from the 14th century
Minuscule 223
First Epistle to the Corinthians
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The foundation of Christ 1 Corinthians 3:11; posted at the Menno-Hof
Amish &
Mennonite Museum in
Shipshewana, Indiana
5.
Second Epistle to the Corinthians
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The Second Epistle to the Corinthians, is a Pauline epistle and the eighth book of the New Testament of the Bible. Paul the Apostle and Timothy our brother wrote this epistle to the church of God which is at Corinth, with all the saints which are in all Achaia. While there is little doubt among scholars that Paul is the author,1 Corinthians The Severe Letter, Paul refers to an earlier letter of tears in 2 Corinthians 2, 3–4 and 7,8. 1 Corinthians does not match that description, so this letter of tears may have written between 1 Corinthians and 2 Corinthians. 2 Corinthians 1 Corinthian 7,1 states that in that letter Paul was replying to questions regarding which the church had written to him. Those who disagree with this assessment usually say that the letter of tears is no longer extant. The book is divided as follows,1, 1–11 – Greeting 1,12 –7,16 – Paul defends his actions and apostleship. 8,1 –9,15 – Instructions for the collection for the poor in the Jerusalem church and he then leaves Corinth and spends about 3 years in Ephesus. Paul writes the letter in his first year from Ephesus. Paul writes 1 Corinthians from his year at Ephesus. Paul visits the Corinthian church a second time, as he indicated he would in 1 Corinthians 16,6, probably during his last year in Ephesus. 2 Corinthians 2,1 calls this a painful visit, Paul writes the letter of tears. Paul writes 2 Corinthians, indicating his desire to visit the Corinthian church a third time, the letter doesnt indicate where he is writing from, but it is usually dated after Paul left Ephesus for Macedonia, from either Philippi or Thessalonica in Macedonia. Paul presumably made the visit after writing 2 Corinthians, because Acts 20. In his letter to Rome, written at this time, he sent salutations from some of the members of the church to the Romans. It is shorter in length in comparison to the first and a little confusing if the reader is unaware of the social, religious, Paul felt the situation in Corinth was still complicated and felt attacked. Some challenged his authority as an apostle, and he compares the level of difficulty to other cities he has visited who had embraced it and he is criticized for the way he speaks and writes and finds it just to defend himself with some of his important teachings. Eastons Bible Dictionary writes, This epistle, it has well said
Second Epistle to the Corinthians
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Books of the
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Second Epistle to the Corinthians
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First page of II Corinthians from a 1486 Latin Bible (Bodleian Library)
6.
Epistle to the Galatians
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The Epistle to the Galatians, often shortened to Galatians, is the ninth book of the New Testament. It is a letter from Paul the Apostle to a number of Early Christian communities in Galatia, scholars have suggested that this is either the Roman province of Galatia in southern Anatolia, or a large region defined by an ethnic group of Celtic people in central Anatolia. Paul is principally concerned with the controversy surrounding Gentile Christians and the Mosaic Law during the Apostolic Age. Paul argues that the Gentile Galatians do not need to adhere to the tenets of the Mosaic Law, particularly circumcision, Galatians has exerted enormous influence on the history of Christianity, the development of Christian theology, and the study of the apostle Paul. No original of the letter is known to survive, the earliest reasonably complete version available to scholars today, named P46, dates to approximately the year 200 AD, approximately 150 years after the original was presumably drafted. Some scholars date the composition to c. Other scholars agree that Galatians was written between the late 40s and early 50s, Biblical scholars agree that Galatians is a true example of Pauls writing. The main arguments in favor of the authenticity of Galatians include its style and themes, which are common to the core letters of the Pauline corpus. Moreover, Pauls possible description of the Council of Jerusalem gives a different point of view from the description in Acts 15, 2–29, if it is, in fact, describing the Jerusalem Council. Another indicator that the letter is early is that there is no hint in the letter of an organization within the Christian community at large. This puts it during the lifetime of Paul himself, nevertheless, a small number of scholars have questioned Pauls authorship of Galatians, such as Bruno Bauer, Abraham Loman, C. H. Weisse and Frank R. McGuire. Pauls letter is addressed to the churches of Galatia, but the location of churches is a matter of debate. Acts of the Apostles records Paul traveling to the region of Galatia and Phrygia, some claim the New Testament says that the churches of Galatia were founded by Paul himself. They seem to have been composed mainly of converts from paganism, the Galatians appear to have been receptive to the teaching of these newcomers, and the epistle is Pauls response to what he sees as their willingness to turn from his teaching. The identity of opponents is disputed. However, the majority of modern scholars view them as Jewish Christians, the letter indicates controversy concerning circumcision, Sabbath observance, and the Mosaic Covenant. It would appear, from Pauls response, that cited the example of Abraham. They certainly appear to have questioned Pauls authority as an apostle, the North Galatian view holds that the epistle was written very soon after Pauls second visit to Galatia
Epistle to the Galatians
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Books of the
New Testament
Epistle to the Galatians
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Artist depiction of "Saint Paul Writing His Epistles", 16th century (Blaffer Foundation Collection,
Houston,
Texas).
Lightfoot notes with respect to verse 6:11 that at this point "the apostle takes the pen from his
amanuensis, and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand".
7.
Epistle to the Ephesians
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The Epistle to the Ephesians, also called the Letter to the Ephesians and often shortened to Ephesians, is the tenth book of the New Testament. The main theme of Ephesians is “the Church, which is the Body of Christ. ”As a prisoner for the Lord, then, be completely humble and gentle, be patient, bearing with one another in love. Make every effort to keep the unity of the Spirit through the bond of peace, the Church is to maintain the unity in practice which Christ has brought about positionally. According to New Testament scholar Daniel Wallace, the theme may be stated pragmatically as “Christians, maintain the unity practically which Christ has effected positionally by his death. ”Another major theme in Ephesians is the keeping of Christs body pure and holy. Therefore be imitators of God, as beloved children, and walk in love, as Christ loved us and gave himself up for us, a fragrant offering and sacrifice to God. From Ephesians 4, 17–6,20 the author of the Epistle to the Ephesians gives practical advice in how to live a holy, pure, according to tradition, the Apostle Paul wrote the letter while he was in prison in Rome. This would be about the time as the Epistle to the Colossians. However, many scholars have questioned the authorship of the letter. The first verse in the letter identifies Paul as its author, there are four main theories in biblical scholarship that address the question of Pauline authorship. Robert, and André Feuillet, Sanders, Schille, Brooke Foss Westcott, for a defense of the Pauline authorship of Ephesians, see Ephesians, An Exegetical Commentary by Harold Hoehner, pp 2–61. A second position suggests that Ephesians was dictated by Paul with interpolations from another author, some of the scholars that espouse this view include Albertz, Benoit, Cerfaux, Goguel, Harrison, H. J. Holtzmann, Murphy-OConnor, and Wagenfuhrer. Currently, most critical scholars think it improbable that Paul authored Ephesians, among this group are Allan, Beare, Brandon, Bultmann, Conzelmann, Dibelius, Goodspeed, Kilsemann, J. Knox, W. L. Knox, Kümmel, K and S Lake, Marxsen, Masson, Mitton, Moffatt, Nineham, Pokorny, Schweizer, still other scholars suggest there is a lack of conclusive evidence. Some of this group are Cadbury, Julicher, McNeile, for these reasons, most regard Ephesians to be a circular letter intended for many churches. However, scholars who dispute Pauls authorship date the letter to between 70–80 AD, in the latter case, the possible location of the authorship could have been within the church of Ephesus itself. Ignatius of Antioch himself seemed to be well versed in the epistle to the Ephesians. The major theme of the letter is the unity and reconciliation of the whole of creation through the agency of the Church and, in particular, a general account of the blessings that the gospel reveals. This includes the source of blessings, the means by which they are attained, the reason why they are given
Epistle to the Ephesians
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Books of the
New Testament
Epistle to the Ephesians
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German inscription of the text, "One Lord, One faith, One baptism," (Ephesians 4:5).
8.
Epistle to the Colossians
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The Epistle of Paul to the Colossians, usually referred to simply as Colossians, is the twelfth book of the New Testament. It was written, according to the text, by Paul the Apostle and Timothy to the Church in Colossae, scholars have increasingly questioned Pauls authorship and attributed the letter to an early follower instead. The authenticity of the letter, however, has been defended with equal strength, during the first generation after Jesus, Pauls epistles to various churches helped establish early Christian theology. According to Bruce Metzger, it was written in the 50s while Paul was in prison, Colossians is similar to Ephesians, also written at this time. Some critical scholars have ascribed the epistle to a follower of Paul. The epistles description of Christ as pre-eminent over creation marks it, for some scholars, defenders of Pauline authorship cite the works similarities to Philemon, which is broadly accepted as authentic. The letter may have been written by Paul at Rome during his first imprisonment, other scholars have suggested that it was written from Caesarea or Ephesus. If the letter is not considered to be a part of the Pauline corpus, then it might be dated during the late 1st century. Like some of his epistles, this seems to have been written in consequence of information which had been conveyed to Paul of the internal state of the church there by Epaphras. A faithful minister to the Colossians, Epaphras was visiting Paul when the epistle was written, the letters authors claim to be Paul and Timothy, but authorship began to be authoritatively questioned during the 19th century. Pauline authorship was held to by many of the churchs prominent theologians, such as Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Origen of Alexandria. However, as with several epistles attributed to Paul, critical scholarship disputes this claim, a second ground is that the epistle features a strong use of liturgical-hymnic style which appears nowhere else in Pauls work to the same extent. A third is that the themes related to Christ, eschatology. Those who are advocates of Pauline authorship defend the differences that there are elements in this letter and those commonly considered the genuine work of Paul. If this is the case, the language and style are not indications of pseudonymity. Not only that, but it has noted that Colossians has indisputably Pauline stylistic characteristics. Advocates of Pauline authorship also argue that the differences between Colossians and the rest of the New Testament are not as great as they are purported to be, Colossae is in the region of the seven churches of Revelation 1–3. In Colossians 4,13 there is mention of local brethren in Colossae, Laodicea, Colossae was approximately 12 miles from Laodicea and 14 miles from Hierapolis
Epistle to the Colossians
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Books of the
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Epistle to the Colossians
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The first page of Colossians in
Minuscule 321 gives its title as προς κολοσσαεις, "to the Colossians".
Epistle to the Colossians
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The last page of Colossians in
Codex Claromontanus
9.
First Epistle to the Thessalonians
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The first letter to the Thessalonians was likely the first of Pauls letters, probably written by the end of AD52, making it the oldest book in the New Testament. For the most part, the letter is personal in nature, Pauls main purpose in writing is to encourage and reassure the Christians there. Paul urges them to go on working quietly while waiting in hope for the return of Christ, unlike all subsequent Pauline epistles,1 Thessalonians does not focus on justification by faith or questions of Jewish–Gentile relations, themes that are covered in all other letters. Many scholars see this as an indication that this letter was written before the Epistle to the Galatians,1 Thessalonians matches other accepted Pauline letters, both in style and in content, and its authorship is also affirmed by 2 Thessalonians. 1 Thessalonians 2, 13–16 have often regarded as a post-Pauline interpolation. There were no extensive historical persecutions of Christians by Jews in Palestine prior to the first Jewish war, the use of the concept of imitation in 1 Thes. The aorist eftasen refers to the destruction of Jerusalem,2, 13–16 deviates significantly from that of the surrounding context. It is also suggested that 1 Thes. 5, 1–11 is an insertion that has many features of Lukan language. Other scholars, such as Schmithals, Eckhart, Demke and Munro, have developed complicated theories involving redaction and interpolation in 1 and 2 Thessalonians, Paul claimed the title of the Apostle to the Gentiles, and established gentile churches in several important cities in the Roman Empire. According to Bart D. Paul stresses how honorably he conducted himself, reminding them that he had worked to earn his keep and he did this, he says, even though he could have used his status as an apostle to impose upon them. Paul goes on to explain that the dead will be resurrected prior to those still living, authorship of the Pauline epistles Imitation of Christ Second Epistle to the Thessalonians This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Easton, Matthew George. Epistles to the Thessalonians entry in the Catholic Encyclopedia Online Bible at GospelHall. org Thessalonians public domain audiobook at LibriVox Various versions
First Epistle to the Thessalonians
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Books of the
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The first page of the epistle in
Minuscule 699 gives its title as προς θεσσαλονικεις, "To the Thessalonians."
10.
Second Epistle to the Thessalonians
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The Second Epistle to the Thessalonians, often referred to as Second Thessalonians or Two Thessalonians is a book from the New Testament of the Christian Bible. Scholars who support its authenticity view it as having been written around 51-52 AD and those who see it as a later composition, assign a date of around 80 -115 AD. The authenticity of this epistle is still in widespread dispute, the structures of the two letters include opening greetings and closing benedictions which frame two, balancing, sections. In 2 Thessalonians these begin with similar successions of nine Greek words, the opening letter section itself comprises two halves,1, 3–12 and 2, 1–12. The second, balancing, letter section also comprises two halves,2, 13–3,5 and 3, 6-16c, of the twelve pieces in 2 Thessalonians seven begin with brother introductions. Of the eighteen pieces in 1 Thessalonians fourteen begin with brother introductions, in both letters, the sections balance in size and focus, and in many details. In 2 Thessalonians, in 2,5 and 3,10, for example, and when we were with you. Of the books in the New Testament suspected of pseudepigraphy,2 Thessalonians has the most evidence to support its authenticity, while Pauls authorship of Second Thessalonians has been questioned more often than his authorship of 1 Thess. There is more evidence from early Christian writers for his authorship of Second Thessalonians than for First Thessalonians, the epistle was included in Marcions canon and the Muratorian fragment, it was mentioned by name by Irenaeus, and quoted by Ignatius, Justin, and Polycarp. G. Milligan observed that a church which possessed a letter of Paul would be unlikely to accept a fake addressed to them. So also Colin Nicholl who has put forward an argument for the authenticity of Second Thessalonians. He points out that the view is. More vulnerable than most of its advocates conceded, the lack of consensus regarding a date and destination. Reflects a dilemma for this position, on the one hand, the other hand, the date and destination need to be such that the author could be confident that no contemporary of 1 Thessalonians. Could have exposed 2 Thessalonians as a. forgery, pp. 5–6 Another scholar who argues for the authenticity of this letter is Jerome Murphy-OConnor. Admitting that there are stylistic problems between Second Thessalonians and First Thessalonians, he argues that part of the problem is due to the nature of First Thessalonians. Bruce Metzger writes, Paul calls attention to his signature, which was added by his own hand as a token of genuineness to every letter of his, other scholars who hold to authenticity include Beale, Green, Jones, Morris, and Witherington. At least as early as 1798, when J. E. C, schmidt published his opinion, Pauls authorship of this epistle was questioned
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Books of the
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11.
Pastoral epistles
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The pastoral epistles are three books of the canonical New Testament, the First Epistle to Timothy the Second Epistle to Timothy, and the Epistle to Titus. They are presented as letters from Paul the Apostle to Timothy, the term pastorals was popularized in 1703 by D. N. Berdot and in 1726 by Paul Anton. The author entreats Timothy to come to him before winter, and this short letter is addressed to Titus, a Christian worker in Crete, and is traditionally divided into three chapters. It includes the line quoted by the author from a Cretan source, Cretans are always liars, wicked beasts, the letters are written in Pauls name and have traditionally been accepted as authentic. Since the 1700s, however, experts have come to see them as the work of someone writing after Pauls death. Among the Apostolic Fathers, a case can be made for Ignatius use of. The unidentified author of the Muratorian fragment lists the Pastorals as Pauline, Origen refer to the fourteen epistles of Paul without specifically naming Titus or Timothy. However it is believed that Origen wrote a commentary on at least the epistle to Titus, other Pauline epistles have fledgling congregations as the audience, the pastoral epistles are directed to Pauls close companions, evangelists whom he has extensively worked with and trained. In this view, linguistic differences are to be expected, if one is to assert Pauline authorship to them, johnson asserts the impossibility of demonstrating the authenticity of the Pastoral Letters. On the basis of their language, content, and other factors, the epistles are today widely regarded as not having been written by Paul. Examples of other offices include the apostles in Acts and the appointment of seven deacons. Presbuteros is sometimes translated as elder, by a route it is also the Greek root for the English word priest. This made 1 Corinthians more widely acceptable to church leaders in later times, if verses before or after 1 Corinthians 14, 34–35 are read, it is fairly clear that verses 34 and 35 were inserted later. Similarly, biblical scholars since Schleiermacher in 1807 have noted that the pastoral epistles seem to argue against a more developed Gnosticism than would be compatible with Pauls time, scholars refer to the anonymous author as the Pastor. It is highly probable that 1 and 2 Timothy were known, irenaeus made extensive use of the two epistles to Timothy as the prime force of his anti-gnostic campaign, ca.170 AD. Proposals by scholars for the date of their composition have ranged from the 1st century to well into the second, the later dates are usually based on the hypothesis that the Pastorals are responding to specific 2nd-century developments. That Marcion betrays knowledge of a collection of Pauls letters that lack the Pastoral Epistles is another piece of evidence for any model must account. According to Raymond E. Brown, the majority of scholars who accept a date of composition for the Pastorals favour the period 80–100
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12.
First Epistle to Timothy
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The letter, traditionally attributed to the Apostle Paul, consists mainly of counsels to his younger colleague and delegate Timothy regarding his ministry in Ephesus. Most modern scholars consider the letter pseudepigraphical, perhaps written as late as the first half of the second century AD, the author of First Timothy has been traditionally identified as the Apostle Paul. He is named as the author of the letter in the text, most scholars now affirm this view. The genuineness of Pauline authorship was accepted by Church orthodoxy as early as c. AD180, as evidenced by the testimony of Irenaeus. Modern scholars who support Pauline authorship nevertheless stress their importance regarding the question of authenticity, towner wrote that the key witness is Polycarp, where there is a high probability that 1 and 2 Tim were known to him. Holmes argued that it is certain or highly probable that Polycarp used 1 and 2 Timothy. Late in the 2nd century there are a number of quotations from all three Pastoral Epistles in Irenaeus work Against Heresies, the Muratorian Canon lists the books of the NT and ascribes all three Pastoral Epistles to Paul. Eusebius calls it, along with the other thirteen canonical Pauline Epistles, exceptions to this positive witness include Tatian, a disciple of Justin Martyr turned heretic, as well as the Gnostic Basilides. Proponents of Pauline authorship argue that he had grounds for rejecting the Pastorals. The dating of 1 Timothy depends very much on the question of authorship and those who accept the epistles authenticity believe it was written soon after Paul left Ephesus, which he did twice according to the Acts of the Apostles. This dates the epistle to either about the year 58 or 59 and those who have maintained the former opinion, among others, are Theodoret, Benson, Zachariae, Michaelis, Schmidt. Koppe, Planck, Grotius Lightfoot, Witsius, Lardner, Hug, the latter opinion, that it was written after Pauls first imprisonment at Rome, is maintained by Paley, Pearson, LEnfant, LeClerc, Cave, Mill, Whitby, Macknight, and others. Secular historians generally place its composition some time in the late 1st century or first half of the 2nd century AD, the text seems to be contending against nascent Gnosticism, which would suggest a later date due to Gnosticism developing primarily in the latter 1st century. The term Gnosis itself occurs in 1 Timothy 6,20, However, Irenaeus is the earliest author to clearly and unequivocally describe the Pastorals. This historical relationship between Paul and Timothy is one of mentorship, Timothy is first mentioned in Acts 16,1. His mother Eunice, and his grandmother, Lois, are mentioned in 2 Timothy 1,5, all that we know of his father is that he was a Greek not a Jew. Pauls second visit to Lystra is when Timothy first connected with Paul, Paul not only brought Timothy into the faith but he was Timothy’s main mentor in Christian leadership, having done church planting and missionary journeys together. Timothy would have received his authority to preach in churches directly from Paul who of course was the greater known, Timothy was also noted for coming to Paul’s aid when Paul fell into prison
First Epistle to Timothy
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Books of the
New Testament
13.
Second Epistle to Timothy
–
The three epistles are called pastoral because they relate to the conduct of church leaders, thought of as pastors. It is traditionally considered to be the last epistle he wrote before his death and it is addressed to Timothy, a fellow missionary. The Epistle advocates endurance as the quality for a preacher of the gospel. As a good soldier for Jesus Christ, he is to be pure, noble, in Pauls farewell, he describes himself as at the end of his career and awaiting the crown of righteousness. They are speculated to have written between 90 and 140. They do not address Pauls common themes, such as the unity with Christ. Scholars refer to the author as the Pastor. Albert Barnes demonstrates that Paul the Apostle wrote this letter in AD61 or 65, but whether it was written during his first imprisonment there, or during a second imprisonment, is a question, on which critics even now are by no means agreed. If the supposition of a second imprisonment at Rome, during which this Epistle was written, is correct, lardner, however, who supposes it was written during the first imprisonment, places its date in May, AD61, Hug, also, in the same year. Some modern critical scholars argue that 2 Timothy was not written by Paul, the language and ideas of this epistle are notably different from the other two Pastoral letters yet similar to the later Pauline letters, especially the ones he wrote in captivity. This has led scholars to conclude that the author of 2 Timothy is a different person from 1 Timothy. Raymond E. Brown proposed that this letter was written by a follower of Paul who had knowledge of Pauls last days. Jerome Murphy-OConnor, however, argues that this epistle was written by Paul, and that it is the only still-extant letter written by Paul subsequent to Romans. According to the letter, Paul urges Timothy not to have a spirit of timidity and he also entreats Timothy to come to him before winter, and to bring Mark with him. Paul clearly anticipates his being put to death and realities beyond in his valedictory found in 2 Timothy 4, 6–8, For I am now ready to be offered, and the time of my departure is at hand. 2 Timothy contains one of Pauls Christological Hymns in 2, 11–13, or For a discussion of 2 Timothy 3, 16-17 on Biblical inspiration, portions of 2 Timothy parallel the Epistle to the Philippians, also believed to be written near the time of Pauls death. In sharp contrast to his dispute with Barnabas over Mark, which resulted in the two parting ways, Paul now considered Mark to be profitable to the ministry. The chapter also features the only Biblical mention of Linus, who in Roman Catholic tradition is listed as Peters immediate successor as Bishop of Rome
Second Epistle to Timothy
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Books of the
New Testament
14.
Epistle to Titus
–
The Epistle of Paul to Titus, usually referred to simply as Titus, is one of the three Pastoral Epistles traditionally attributed to Paul the Apostle and is part of the New Testament. It is addressed to Saint Titus and describes the requirements and duties of elders, some consider it, along with 2 Timothy, to be Pauls final instructions to early church leaders before his final departure. Not mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles, Saint Titus was noted in Galatians where Paul wrote of journeying to Jerusalem with Barnabas and he was then dispatched to Corinth, Greece, where he successfully reconciled the Christian community there with Paul, its founder. Titus was later left on the island of Crete to help organize the Church, according to Eusebius of Caesarea in the Ecclesiastical History, he served as the first bishop of Crete and remained there in his old years. He was buried in Cortyna, Crete, his head was removed to Venice during the invasion of Crete by the Saracens in 832 and was enshrined in St Marks Basilica, Venice. Scholars are not unanimous about the authenticity of the pastoral epistles, Titus is usually one of the three Pastoral epistles attributed to Paul. Titus has a close affinity with 1 Timothy, sharing similar phrases and expressions. The author of Titus identifies himself as Paul, a servant of God, according to Eastons Bible Dictionary, The Epistle was probably written about the same time as the First Epistle to Timothy, with which it has many affinities. Scholars who believe Paul wrote Titus date its composition from the circumstance that it was written after Pauls visit to Crete. That visit could not be the one referred to in the Acts of the Apostles 27,7, when Paul was on his voyage to Rome as a prisoner, and where he continued a prisoner for two years. Thus traditional exegesis supposes that after his release Paul sailed from Rome into Asia, passing Crete by the way, and that there he left Titus to set in order the things that were wanting. However, works written under a name would have been very problematic since the early church clearly excluded from the apostolic canon any works they thought to be pseudonymous. Tertullian wrote that when it was discovered that a church elder had composed a work, The Acts of Paul. The Pastoral epistles are regarded by majority of scholars as being pseudepigraphical, on the basis of the language and content of the pastoral epistles, these scholars today doubt that they were written by Paul and believe that they were written after his death. The early Church did not agree and these scholars date the epistle from the 80s CE up to the end of the 2nd century. One of the peculiarities of the Epistle to Titus is the reference to the Epimenides paradox, One of the Cretans. The statement by a member of a group all members are liars is a famous logic problem. Textual variants in the Epistle to Titus Authorship of the Pauline epistles Faithful saying This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Easton
Epistle to Titus
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Books of the
New Testament
Epistle to Titus
–
The first page of the epistle in
Minuscule 699 gives its title as ' προς τιτον, "To Titus."
Epistle to Titus
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First page of the Epistle to Titus in a
Gutenberg Bible held by the
Bodleian Library
15.
Epistle to Philemon
–
The Epistle of Paul to Philemon, known simply as Philemon, is one of the books of the Christian New Testament. It is a letter, co-authored by Paul the Apostle with Timothy, to Philemon. It deals with the themes of forgiveness and reconciliation, Paul does not identify himself as an apostle with authority, but as a prisoner of Jesus Christ, calling Timothy our brother, and addressing Philemon as fellow labourer and brother. Onesimus, a slave that had departed from his master Philemon, was returning with this epistle wherein Paul asked Philemon to receive him as a brother beloved, Philemon was a wealthy Christian, possibly a bishop of the house church that met in his home in Colosse. This letter is now regarded as one of the undisputed works of Paul. It is the shortest of Pauls extant letters, consisting of only 335 words in the Greek text, the epistle of Philemon is attributed to the apostle Paul, and this attribution has rarely been questioned by scholars. Along with six others, it is numbered among the undisputed letters, the main challenge to the letters authenticity came from a group of German scholars in the nineteenth century known as the Tübingen School. Their leader, Ferdinand Christian Baur, only accepted four New Testament epistles as genuinely written by Paul, the opening verse of the salutation also names Timothy alongside Paul. This, however, does not mean that Timothy was the epistles co-author, rather, Paul regularly mentions others in the address if they have a particular connection with the recipient. In this case, Timothy may have encountered Philemon while accompanying Paul in his work in Ephesus, according to the majority interpretation, Paul wrote this letter on behalf of Onesimus, a runaway slave who had wronged his owner Philemon. Sometime after leaving, Onesimus came into contact with Paul, although again the details are unclear and he may have been arrested and imprisoned alongside Paul. Alternatively, he may have previously heard Pauls name and so travelled to him for help, after meeting Paul, Onesimus became a Christian believer. An affection grew between them, and Paul would have been glad to keep Onesimus with him, however, he considered it better to send him back to Philemon with an accompanying letter, which aimed to effect reconciliation between them as Christian brothers. The preservation of the letter suggests that Pauls request was granted, Onesimus status as a runaway slave was challenged by Allen Dwight Callahan in an article published in the Harvard Theological Review and in a later commentary. Callahan argues that, beyond verse 16, nothing in the text indicates that Onesimus was ever the chattel of the letters chief addressee. Moreover, the expectations fostered by the fugitive slave hypothesis go unrealized in the letter. Modern commentators, even committed to the prevailing interpretation, have tacitly admitted as much. Ben Witherington III has challenged Callahans interpretation as a misreading of Pauls rhetoric and they shall make known unto you all things which are done here
Epistle to Philemon
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Books of the
New Testament
Epistle to Philemon
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Fragments of the Epistle to Philemon verses 13-15 on
Papyrus 87 (Gregory-Aland), from ca. AD 250. This is the earliest known fragment of the Epistle to Philemon.
16.
Epistle to the Hebrews
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The Epistle to the Hebrews, or Letter to the Hebrews, or in the Greek manuscripts, simply To the Hebrews is one of the books of the New Testament. Scholars of Greek consider its writing to be polished and eloquent than any other book of the New Testament. The book has earned the reputation of being a masterpiece and it has also been described as an intricate New Testament book. Scholars believe it was written for Jewish Christians who lived in Jerusalem and its purpose was to exhort Christians to persevere in the face of persecution. The theme of the epistle is the doctrine of the person of Christ, the epistle opens with an exaltation of Jesus as the radiance of Gods glory, the express image of his being, and upholding all things by his powerful word. The epistle presents Jesus with the pioneer or forerunner, Son and Son of God, priest. The epistle casts Jesus as both exalted Son and high priest, a unique dual Christology, Hebrews uses Old Testament quotations interpreted in light of first century rabbinical Judaism. Although the author of Hebrews was not directly influenced by Qumrans Messiah of Aaron, to conceive Jesus similarly as a priest making atonement and eternal intercession in the heavenly sanctuary. By the end of the first century there was not a consensus over the author’s identity, Clement of Rome, Barnabas, Paul the Apostle, and other names were proposed. Others later suggested Luke the Evangelist, Apollos and Priscilla as possible authors, though no author is named, the original King James Version of the Bible titled the work The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Hebrews. However, the KJVs attribution to Paul was only a guess and its vastly different style, different theological focus, different spiritual experience, different Greek vocabulary—all are believed to make Pauls authorship of Hebrews increasingly indefensible. At present, neither modern scholarship nor church teaching ascribes Hebrews to Paul, because of its anonymity, it had some trouble being accepted as part of the Christian canon, being classed with the Antilegomena. Eventually it was accepted as scripture because of its theology, eloquent presentation. In antiquity, certain circles began to ascribe it to Paul in an attempt to provide the work an explicit apostolic pedigree. Scholars argued that in the 13th Chapter of Hebrews, Timothy is referred to as a companion, Timothy was Pauls missionary companion in the same way Jesus sent disciples out in pairs of two. Also, the states that he wrote the letter from Italy. The difference in style is explained as simply an adjustment to a distinct audience, many scholars now believe that the author was one of Pauls pupils or associates, citing stylistic differences between Hebrews and the other Pauline epistles. Recent scholarship has favored the idea that the author was probably a leader of a predominantly Jewish congregation to whom he or she was writing
Epistle to the Hebrews
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Books of the
New Testament
Epistle to the Hebrews
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Christians believe that
Jesus is the mediator of the
New Covenant. His famous
sermon from a hill representing
Mount Zion is considered by many Christian scholars to be the
antitype of the proclamation of the
Old Covenant by
Moses from
Mount Sinai.
17.
Authorship of the Pauline epistles
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The Pauline epistles are the fourteen books in the New Testament traditionally attributed to Paul the Apostle, although many dispute the anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews as being a Pauline epistle. Several additional letters bearing Pauls name are disputed among scholars, namely Ephesians, Colossians,2 Thessalonians,1 and 2 Timothy, scholarly opinion is sharply divided on whether or not Colossians and 2 Thessalonians are genuine letters of Paul. The remaining four contested epistles-- Ephesians, as well as the three known as the Pastoral epistles–- have been labeled pseudepigraphical works by most critical scholars. There are two examples of letters written in Paul’s name apart from the New Testament epistles, the Epistle to the Laodiceans and 3 Corinthians. The Epistle to the Hebrews is actually anonymous, but it has been attributed to Paul. Most modern scholars agree that Hebrews was not written by the apostle Paul. Various other possible authorships have been suggested, scholars use a number of methods of historiography and higher criticism to determine whether a text is properly attributed to its author. This evidence is important in spite of its problems, for example, because the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews never identified him or herself, scholars as early as Origen of Alexandria in the 3rd century suspected that Paul was not the author. This consists of references, again either explicit or implicit, to the text, explicit references would be mentioning the text or letter by name, or a recognizable form of that text. Examples include a list of accepted books, such as the Muratorian fragment, or the contents of an early manuscript. Unfortunately, these witnesses are either damaged or too late in date to provide much help. Implicit references are quotation from Paul, especially indirect or unattributed, or expressing ideas and this use or reference implies the material quoted was in existence at the time the external evidence was created. On the other hand, lack of witness by ancient sources suggests a later date, however, use of this line of reasoning is dangerous, because of the incompleteness of the historical record, many ancient texts are lost, damaged, or have been revised. One difficulty with this position is the data available on Pauls historical setting. It also assumes that the book of Acts was written by a traveling companion of Pauls. Vocabulary, sentence structure, employment of idioms and common phrases, a similar style implies common authorship, while a radically divergent vocabulary implies different authors. For example, E. J. Goodspeed argued that the vocabulary of the Epistle to the Ephesians showed a relationship with the First Epistle of Clement. Similarly, E. Percy argued that the speech and style of Colossians more strongly resembled Pauline authorship than not, similar to internal evidence, doctrinal consistency and development are examined against the authors other known works
Authorship of the Pauline epistles
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Saint Paul Writing His Epistles, 17th-century painting. Most scholars think Paul actually dictated his letters to a secretary, for example Romans 16:22 cites a scribe named
Tertius.
Authorship of the Pauline epistles
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A 19th-century portrayal of Paul the Apostle
18.
Paul the Apostle
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Paul the Apostle, commonly known as Saint Paul, and also known by his native name Saul of Tarsus was an apostle who taught the gospel of the Christ to the first century world. He is generally considered one of the most important figures of the Apostolic Age, in the mid-30s to the mid-50s AD, he founded several churches in Asia Minor and Europe. Paul took advantage of his status as both a Jew and a Roman citizen to minister to both Jewish and Roman audiences, according to writings in the New Testament, Paul was dedicated to the persecution of the early disciples of Jesus in the area of Jerusalem. He was struck blind but, after three days, his sight was restored by Ananias of Damascus, and Paul began to preach that Jesus of Nazareth is the Jewish Messiah, approximately half of the book of Acts deals with Pauls life and works. Fourteen of the books in the New Testament have traditionally been attributed to Paul. Seven of the epistles are undisputed by scholars as being authentic, Pauline authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews is not asserted in the Epistle itself and was already doubted in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. It was almost unquestioningly accepted from the 5th to the 16th centuries that Paul was the author of Hebrews, but that view is now almost universally rejected by scholars. The other six are believed by scholars to have come from followers writing in his name. Other scholars argue that the idea of an author for the disputed epistles raises many problems. Today, Pauls epistles continue to be roots of the theology, worship, and pastoral life in the Catholic and Protestant traditions of the West. Augustine of Hippo developed Pauls idea that salvation is based on faith, martin Luthers interpretation of Pauls writings influenced Luthers doctrine of sola fide. The main source for information about Pauls life is the material found in his epistles, however, the epistles contain little information about Pauls past. The book of Acts recounts more information but leaves several parts of Pauls life out of its narrative, such as his probable, some scholars believe Acts also contradicts Pauls epistles on multiple accounts, in particular concerning the frequency of Pauls visits to the church in Jerusalem. It has been assumed that Sauls name was changed when he converted from Judaism to Christianity. His Jewish name was Saul, perhaps after the biblical King Saul, a fellow Benjamite, according to the Book of Acts, he inherited Roman citizenship from his father. As a Roman citizen, he bore the Latin name of Paul—in biblical Greek, Παῦλος. It was quite usual for the Jews of that time to have two names, one Hebrew, the other Latin or Greek. Jesus called him Saul, Saul in the Hebrew tongue in the book of Acts, later, in a vision to Ananias of Damascus, the Lord referred to him as Saul, of Tarsus
Paul the Apostle
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Saint Paul by
Bartolomeo Montagna
Paul the Apostle
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The Conversion of Saul,
fresco by
Michelangelo, 1542–45
Paul the Apostle
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Conversion on the Way to Damascus (1601), by
Caravaggio
Paul the Apostle
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Caravaggio (1571–1610), The Conversion of Saint Paul, 1600
19.
Apocalypse of Paul
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The Apocalypse of Paul is a third-century text of the New Testament apocrypha. The original version of the Apocalypse is lost and must be reconstructed from later versions and translations, the text is not to be confused with the gnostic Coptic Apocalypse of Paul, which is unlikely to be related. At the end of the text, Paul/Mary manages to persuade God to give everyone in Hell a day off every Sunday. The text extends the Apocalypse of Peter by framing the reasons for the visits to heaven and hell as the witnessing of the death and judgement of one wicked man, the plan of the text is,1,2. Appeal of creation to God against man 7–10, the report of the angels to God about men. Deaths and judgements of the righteous and the wicked, first vision of Paradise, including lake Acherusa. Paul obtains rest on Sunday for the lost, Greek copies of the texts are rare, those existing containing many omissions. Of the Eastern versions – Syriac, Coptic, Ethiopic, Georgian – the Syriac are considered to be the most reliable. There is an Ethiopic version of the Apocalypse which features the Virgin Mary in the place of Paul the Apostle, as the receiver of the vision, from these diverse Latin texts, many subsequent vernacular versions were translated, into most European languages, prominently including German and Czech. The Visio Pauli also influenced a range of other texts again and it is particularly noted for its influence in the Dantes Inferno, when Dante mentions the visit of the Chosen Vessel to Hell. The Visio is also considered to have influenced the description of Grendels home in the Old English poem Beowulf, jan N. Bremmer and Istvan Czachesz. The Visio Pauli and the Gnostic Apocalypse of Paul, eileen Gardiner, Visions of Heaven and Hell Before Dante, pp. 13–46, provides an English translation of the Latin text. Lenka Jiroušková, Die Visio Pauli, Wege und Wandlungen einer orientalischen Apokryphe im lateinischen Mittelalter unter Einschluß der alttschechischen und deutschsprachigen Textzeugen, theodore Silverstein and Anthony Hilhorst, Apocalypse of Paul. Nikolaos H. Trunte, Reiseführer durch das Jenseits, die Apokalypse des Paulus in der Slavia Orthodoxa, at Comparative-Religion. Com at the Wesley Center Online Bibliography on the Apocalypse of Paul
Apocalypse of Paul
–
New Testament Apocrypha
20.
Apostle (Christian)
–
In Christian theology and ecclesiology, the apostles, particularly the Twelve Apostles, were the primary historical disciples of Jesus, the central figure in Christianity. During the life and ministry of Jesus in the 1st century AD, the word disciple is sometimes used interchangeably with apostle, for instance, the Gospel of John makes no distinction between the two terms. In modern usage, prominent missionaries are often called apostles, a practice which stems from the Latin equivalent of apostle, i. e. missio, for example, Saint Patrick was the Apostle of Ireland, and Saint Boniface was the Apostle to the Germans. The commissioning of the Twelve Apostles during the ministry of Jesus is recorded in the Synoptic Gospels, after his resurrection, Jesus sent 11 of them by the Great Commission to spread his teachings to all nations. This event is called the Dispersion of the Apostles. There is also an Eastern Christian tradition derived from the Gospel of Luke of there having been as many as 70 apostles during the time of Jesus ministry. Prominent figures in early Christianity, notably Paul, were called apostles. The period of early Christianity during the lifetimes of the apostles is called the Apostolic Age, during the 1st century AD, the apostles established churches throughout the territories of the Roman Empire and, according to tradition, through the Middle East, Africa, and India. In his writings, the epistles to Christian churches throughout the Levant, Paul did not restrict the term apostle to the Twelve, the restricted usage appears in the Revelation to John. By the 2nd century AD, association with the apostles was esteemed as an evidence of authority, Churches which are believed to have been founded by one of the apostles are known as apostolic sees. Pauls epistles were accepted as scripture, and two of the four gospels were associated with apostles, as were other New Testament works. Various Christian texts, such as the Didache and the Apostolic Constitutions, were attributed to the apostles, bishops traced their lines of succession back to individual apostles, who were said to have dispersed from Jerusalem and established churches across great territories. Christian bishops have traditionally claimed authority deriving, by apostolic succession, early Church Fathers who came to be associated with apostles, such as Pope Clement I with St. Peter, are referred to as the Apostolic Fathers. The Apostles Creed, popular in the West, was said to have composed by the apostles themselves. The word apostle comes from the Greek word ἀπόστολος, formed from the prefix ἀπό- and root στέλλω and originally meaning messenger and it has, however, a stronger sense than the word messenger, and is closer to a delegate. The Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament argues that its Christian use translated a Jewish position known in Hebrew as the sheliach and this ecclesiastical meaning of the word was later translated into Latin as missio, the source of the English missionary. In the New Testament, the names of the majority of the apostles are Hebrew names, Mark 6, 7-13 states that Jesus initially sent out these twelve in pairs to towns in Galilee. The text states that their initial instructions were to heal the sick and their carrying of just a staff is sometimes given as the reason for the use by Christian bishops of a staff of office in those denominations that believe they maintain an apostolic succession
Apostle (Christian)
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The Last Supper, a late 1490s mural painting by Leonardo da Vinci, is a depiction of the last supper of Jesus and his twelve apostles on the eve of his crucifixion.
Apostle (Christian)
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Jesus and his twelve apostles, fresco with the
Chi-Rho symbol ☧,
Catacombs of Domitilla,
Rome.
Apostle (Christian)
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The
Synaxis of the Twelve Apostles. Russian, 14th century, Moscow Museum.
Apostle (Christian)
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Jesus and the 12 apostles in
Domus Galilaeae,
Israel.
21.
Pauline Christianity
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Pauline Christianity is the Christianity associated with the beliefs and doctrines espoused by Paul the Apostle through his writings. Most of Christianity relies heavily on these teachings and considers them to be amplifications and explanations of the teachings of Jesus, opponents of the same era include the Ebionites and Nazarenes, Jewish Christians who rejected Paul for straying from Second Temple Judaism. Of the more significant are Ebionism and Gnosticism, however, there is no universal agreement as to Gnosticisms relationship to Christianity or to the writings of Paul. The characteristics of the use of the term take a number of forms. They are partly political and partly theological, from a political perspective, Robert Eisenman sees Pauline Christianity as a method of taming a dangerous sect among radical Jews and making it palatable to Roman authorities. Pauline Christianity was essentially based on Rome and made use of the skills which Rome had honed. Its system of organization with a bishop for each town was, in Bart Ehrmans view. The theological aspect is the claim that Paul transmuted Jesus the Jewish messiah into the universal Savior, Pauline theology is also a term referring to the teaching and doctrines especially espoused by the apostle Paul through his writings. Christian scholars generally use the term expressing interest in the recovery of Christian origins, others, especially non-Christian scholars, claim to see a Pauline distinction different from that found elsewhere in the New Testament, a distinction that unduly influenced later Christianity. An early creed about Jesus death and resurrection which Paul probably used was 1 Corinthians 15, probably originating from the Jerusalem apostolic community, the antiquity of the creed has been noted by many biblical scholars. The use of the term by Christian scholars, such as John Ziesler, is altogether different, Pauline Christianity is the development of thinking about Jesus in a gentile missionary context, Christopher Rowlands concludes that Paul did not materially alter the teachings of Jesus. Much of this view turns on the significance of the Council of Jerusalem, According to this view, James decreed that Christianity was for the Gentiles and not just for the Jews, and quoted the prophet Amos in support of this position. He entrusted Paul among others with bringing their decision to Antioch, Christians themselves disagree as to how far there was tension between Paul and the Jerusalem Church. One difficulty is the tension between Acts and Pauls letters, another is the disparity between his views in different letters and my brothers, some from Chloes household have informed me that there are quarrels among you. What I mean is this, One of you says, I follow Paul, another, I follow Apollos, another, I follow Cephas, still another, were you baptized into the name of Paul. I am thankful that I did not baptize any of you except Crispus and Gaius, for Christ did not send me to baptize, but to preach the gospel — not with words of human wisdom, lest the cross of Christ be emptied of its power. Christian anarchists, such as Leo Tolstoy and Ammon Hennacy, believe Paul distorted Jesus teachings, Tolstoy claims Paul was instrumental in the churchs deviation from Jesus teaching and practices, whilst Hennacy believed Paul spoiled the message of Christ. As to his influence, there are differences of scholarly opinion concerning how far Paul did in fact influence Christian doctrine
Pauline Christianity
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Artist depiction of Saint Paul Writing His Epistles, 16th century (Blaffer Foundation Collection,
Houston, Texas). Most scholars think Paul actually dictated his letters to a secretary.
22.
New Testament
–
The New Testament is the second major part of the Christian biblical canon, the first part being the Old Testament, based on the Hebrew Bible. The New Testament discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Christianity, Christians regard both the Old and New Testaments together as sacred scripture. The New Testament has frequently accompanied the spread of Christianity around the world and it reflects and serves as a source for Christian theology and morality. Both extended readings and phrases directly from the New Testament are also incorporated into the various Christian liturgies, the New Testament has influenced religious, philosophical, and political movements in Christendom and left an indelible mark on literature, art, and music. In almost all Christian traditions today, the New Testament consists of 27 books, John A. T. Robinson, Dan Wallace, and William F. Albright dated all the books of the New Testament before 70 AD. Others give a date of 80 AD, or at 96 AD. Over time, some disputed books, such as the Book of Revelation, other works earlier held to be Scripture, such as 1 Clement, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Diatessaron, were excluded from the New Testament. However, the canon of the New Testament, at least since Late Antiquity, has been almost universally recognized within Christianity. The term new testament, or new covenant first occurs in Jeremiah 31,31, the same Greek phrase for new covenant is found elsewhere in the New Testament. Modern English, like Latin, distinguishes testament and covenant as alternative translations, John Wycliffes 1395 version is a translation of the Latin Vulgate and so follows different terms in Jeremiah and Hebrews, Lo. Days shall come, saith the Lord, and I shall make a new covenant with the house of Israel, for he reproving him saith, Lo. Days come, saith the Lord, when I shall establish a new testament on the house of Israel, use of the term New Testament to describe a collection of first and second-century Christian Greek Scriptures can be traced back to Tertullian. In Against Marcion, written circa 208 AD, he writes of the Divine Word, by the 4th century, the existence—even if not the exact contents—of both an Old and New Testament had been established. Lactantius, a 3rd–4th century Christian author wrote in his early-4th-century Latin Institutiones Divinae and that which preceded the advent and passion of Christ—that is, the law and the prophets—is called the Old, but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The canon of the New Testament is the collection of books that most Christians regard as divinely inspired, several of these writings sought to extend, interpret, and apply apostolic teaching to meet the needs of Christians in a given locality. The book order is the same in the Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, the Slavonic, Armenian and Ethiopian traditions have different New Testament book orders. Each of the four gospels in the New Testament narrates the life, death, the word gospel derives from the Old English gōd-spell, meaning good news or glad tidings. The gospel was considered the good news of the coming Kingdom of Messiah, and the redemption through the life and death of Jesus, Gospel is a calque of the Greek word εὐαγγέλιον, euangelion
New Testament
–
Books of the New Testament
New Testament
–
Evangelist Mathäus und der Engel, by
Rembrandt.
New Testament
–
Saint Paul Writing His Epistles, 17th-century painting. Most scholars think Paul actually dictated his letters to a secretary.
New Testament
–
Papyrus Bodmer VIII, at the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, showing 1 and 2 Peter.
23.
Gospel
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A gospel is an account describing the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth. Christianity places a value on the four canonical gospels, which it considers to be revelations from God. This position however, requires a view of Biblical inerrancy. The word gospel derives from the Old English gōd-spell, meaning good news or glad tidings, the gospel was considered the good news of the coming Kingdom of Messiah, and of redemption through the life and death and resurrection of Jesus, the central Christian message. The Greek word euangelion is also the source of the terms evangelist, the authors of the four canonical Christian gospels are known as the Four Evangelists. Paul the Apostle used the term εὐαγγέλιον when he reminded the people of the church at Corinth of the gospel I preached to you, the earliest extant use of gospel to denote a particular genre of literature dates to the 2nd century. Justin Martyr in the Apology wrote of. the apostles, in the memoirs composed by them, more generally, gospels compose a genre of early Christian writings. Gospels that did not become canonical also circulated in Early Christianity, many, such as the work known today as Gospel of Thomas, lack the narrative framework typical of a gospel. Scholars hold a wide spectrum of views on the origins and composition of the gospels, for example, the vast majority of material in Mark is also present in either Luke or Matthew or both, suggesting that Mark was a source for Matthew and Luke. He writes that the four gospels were probably all written by the end of the first century. But they did not yet at that time have a consistent narrative, in 170 Tatian sought to find a solution by composing a single narrative out of Matthew, Mark, and Luke, with some additional oral material. Richies concludes that the gospel passages themselves can be unclear, and some of the messages within are straightforwardly ambiguous, the gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke are considered synoptic gospels on the basis of many similarities between them that are not shared by the Gospel of John. Synoptic means here that they can be seen or read together, the fourth gospel, the Gospel of John, presents a very different picture of Jesus and his ministry from the synoptics. Of the many gospels written in antiquity, only four came to be accepted as part of the New Testament. An insistence upon there being a canon of four gospels, and no others, was a theme of Irenaeus of Lyons. Irenaeus was ultimately successful in declaring that the four gospels collectively and he also supported reading each gospel in light of the others. This canon, which corresponds to the modern Catholic canon, was used in the Vulgate, Gospel of Matthew Gospel of John Gospel of Luke Gospel of Mark This order is found in the following manuscripts, Bezae, Monacensis, Washingtonianus, Tischendorfianus IV, Uncial 0234. Although there is no set order of the four gospels in patristic lists or discussions, moody Smith suggests that the standard order of Matthew-Mark-Luke-John projects a kind of intention that can scarcely be ignored
Gospel
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The first page of the
Gospel of Mark in
Armenian, by
Sargis Pitsak, 14th century.
Gospel
24.
Gospel of Matthew
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The Gospel According to Matthew is the first book of the New Testament. The narrative tells how the Messiah, Jesus, rejected by Israel, most scholars believe the Gospel of Matthew was composed between AD80 and 90, with a range of possibility between AD70 to 110. The title Son of David identifies Jesus as the healing and miracle-working Messiah of Israel, as Son of Man he will return to judge the world, an expectation which his disciples recognise but of which his enemies are unaware. As Son of God he is God revealing himself through his son, the gospel reflects the struggles and conflicts between the evangelists community and the other Jews, particularly with its sharp criticism of the scribes and Pharisees. The original versions of the Gospel of Matthew and the gospels are lost. The oldest relatively complete extant manuscripts of the Bible are the Codex Vaticanus and the Codex Sinaiticus, besides these, there exist manuscript fragments ranging from a few verses to whole chapters. P104 and P67 are notable fragments of Matthew, in the process of recopying, variations slipped in, different regional manuscript traditions emerged, and corrections and adjustments were made. The Gospel of Matthew is anonymous, the author is not named within the text, the consensus is that Papias does not describe the Gospel of Matthew as we know it, and it is generally accepted that Matthew was written in Greek, not in Aramaic or Hebrew. The majority view of scholars is that Mark was the first gospel to be composed. The author of Matthew did not, however, simply copy Mark, an additional 220 verses, shared by Matthew and Luke but not found in Mark, from a second source, a hypothetical collection of sayings to which scholars give the name Quelle, or the Q source. The author also had at his disposal the Greek scriptures, both as book-scrolls and in the form of collections, and, if Papias is correct. The majority view among scholars is that Matthew was a product of the last quarter of the 1st century, the Christian community to which Matthew belonged, like many 1st-century Christians, were still part of the larger Jewish community, hence the designation Jewish Christian to describe them. The author of Matthew wrote for a community of Greek-speaking Jewish Christians located probably in Syria, Matthew, alone among the gospels, alternates five blocks of narrative with five of discourse, marking each off with the phrase When Jesus had finished. The Gospel of Matthew begins with the words The Book of Genealogy of Jesus Christ, John baptizes Jesus, and the Holy Spirit descends upon him. Jesus prays and meditates in the wilderness for forty days, and is tempted by Satan and his early ministry by word and deed in Galilee meets with much success, and leads to the Sermon on the Mount, the first of the discourses. The sermon presents the ethics of the kingdom of God, introduced by the Beatitudes and it concludes with a reminder that the response to the kingdom will have eternal consequences, and the crowds amazed response leads into the next narrative block. From the authoritative words of Jesus the gospel turns to three sets of three miracles interwoven with two sets of two stories, followed by a discourse on mission and suffering. Opposition to Jesus comes to a head with accusations that his deeds are done through the power of Satan, Jesus in turn accuses his opponents of blaspheming the Holy Spirit
Gospel of Matthew
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Books of the
New Testament
Gospel of Matthew
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Papyrus
4, fragment of a flyleaf with the title of the Gospel of Matthew, ευαγγελιον κ̣ατ̣α μαθ᾽θαιον (euangelion kata Maththaion). Dated to late 2nd or early 3rd century, it is the earliest manuscript title for Matthew
Gospel of Matthew
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37, a 3rd-century CE papyrus of
Matthew 26
Gospel of Matthew
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The Evangelist Matthew Inspired by an Angel (
Rembrandt)
25.
Gospel of Mark
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The Gospel According to Mark, the second book of the New Testament, is one of the four canonical gospels and the three synoptic gospels. It portrays Jesus as a man of action, an exorcist, a healer. Jesus is also the Son of God, but he keeps his identity secret, all this is in keeping with prophecy, which foretold the fate of the messiah as Suffering Servant. The gospel ends, in its version, with the discovery of the empty tomb, a promise to meet again in Galilee. Traditionally thought to be an epitome of Matthew, which accounts for its place as the gospel in the Bible. The Gospel of Mark is anonymous, early Christian tradition ascribes it to John Mark, a companion and interpreter of the apostle Peter. Hence its author is often called Mark, even though most modern scholars are doubtful of the Markan tradition and instead regard the author as unknown. It was probably written c. AD 66–70, during Neros persecution of the Christians in Rome or the Jewish revolt, as suggested by references to war in Judea. The author used a variety of pre-existing sources, such as stories, apocalyptic discourse. Mark was written in Greek, for an audience of Greek-speaking Christians, Rome, Galilee, Antioch. The gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke bear a resemblance to each other. Their close relationship is termed the problem, and has led to a number of hypotheses explaining their interdependence. The most widely accepted hypothesis is that Mark was the first gospel and was used as a source by both Matthew and Luke, together with additional material. The strongest argument for this is the fact that Matthew and Luke agree with other in their sequence of stories. The 19th century recognition of Mark as the earliest gospel led to the belief that it must therefore be the most reliable, the modern consensus is that Marks purpose was to present a theological message rather than to write history. Marks gospel is nevertheless seen as the most reliable of the four in terms of its overall description of Jesuss life. This recognition allows scholars to chart the evolution of Jesus in the scriptures, Marks Christ, for example, dies with the cry, My God, my God, historical reconstruction suggests that the original despairing death of Jesus has become more and more victorious over time. From the outset, Christians depended heavily on Jewish literature, supporting their convictions through the Jewish scriptures and those convictions involved a nucleus of key concepts, the messiah, the son of God and the son of man, the Day of the Lord, the kingdom of God
Gospel of Mark
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Books of the
New Testament
Gospel of Mark
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Mantegna 's
St. Mark
Gospel of Mark
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Mark the Evangelist, 16th-century
Russian icon
Gospel of Mark
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Page from Mark in a Latin bible dated 1486 (Bodleian Library)
26.
Gospel of Luke
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The Gospel According to Luke, also called the Gospel of Luke, or simply Luke, is the third of the four canonical Gospels. It tells of the origins, birth, ministry, death, resurrection, Luke is the second-longest of the four gospels, and together with Acts of the Apostles, the pair make up a two-volume work from the same pen, called Luke–Acts. The cornerstone of Luke-Acts theology is salvation history, the understanding that Gods purpose is seen in the way he has acted. The gospels sources are the Gospel of Mark, the collection called the Q source, and a collection of material called the L source. Luke-Acts does not name its author, the most probable date for its composition is around 80–100 AD, and there is evidence that it was still being revised well into the 2nd century. Autographs of Luke and the other Gospels have not been preserved, as is typical for ancient documents, the gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles make up a two-volume work which scholars call Luke–Acts. The author is not named in either volume and he admired Paul, but his theology was significantly different from Pauls on key points and he does not represent Pauls views accurately. The eclipse of the attribution to Luke the companion of Paul has meant that an early date for the gospel is now rarely put forward. Luke-Acts is a history of the Founder of the church and his successors. All three authors anchor the histories of their respective peoples by dating the births of the founders and narrate the stories of the founders births from God, each founder taught authoritatively, appeared to witnesses after death, and ascended to heaven. Crucial aspects of the teaching of all three concerned the relationship between rich and poor and the question of whether foreigners were to be received into the people. The author used as his sources the gospel of Mark, the collection called the Q source. Mark, written around 70 AD, provided the narrative outline, for these Luke turned to Q, which consisted mostly, although not exclusively, of sayings. Mark and Q account for about 64% of Luke, the remaining material, known as the L source, is of unknown origin and date. Most Q and L-source material is grouped in two clusters, Luke 6, 17-8,3 and 9, 51-18,14, Luke was written to be read aloud to a group of Jesus-followers gathered in a house to share the Lords supper. The author assumes an educated Greek-speaking audience, but directs his attention to specifically Christian concerns rather than to the Greco-Roman world at large. He begins his gospel with a preface addressed to Theophilus, the name means Lover of God, here he informs Theophilus of his intention, which is to lead his reader to certainty through an orderly account of the events that have been fulfilled among us. He did not, however, intend to provide Theophilus with a justification of the Christian faith – did it happen
Gospel of Luke
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Books of the
New Testament
Gospel of Luke
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A 3rd-century AD Greek
papyrus of the Gospel of Luke
Gospel of Luke
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Annunciation (
Murillo)
Gospel of Luke
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Parable of the Sower (Biserica Ortodoxă din Deal, Cluj-Napoca),
Romania)
27.
Gospel of John
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The Gospel According to John is one of the four canonical gospels in the New Testament. It traditionally appears fourth, after the gospels of Matthew, Mark. John begins with the witness and affirmation of John the Baptist and concludes with the death, burial, resurrection, although the Gospel of John is anonymous, Christian tradition historically has attributed it to John the Apostle, son of Zebedee and one of Jesus Twelve Apostles. C. K. Barrett, and later Raymond E. Brown, suggested that a tradition developed around the Johannine Community, and that this tradition gave rise to the gospel. The discovery of a number of papyrus fragments of manuscripts with Johannine themes has led more scholars to recognize that the texts were among the most influential in the early Church. The discourses contained with this gospel seem to be concerned with issues of the debate at the time of composition. It is notable that in John, the community appears to define itself primarily in contrast to Judaism, though Christianity started as a movement within Judaism, it gradually separated from Judaism because of mutual opposition between the two religions. The Gospel of John can be divided into four sections, a prologue, a Book of Signs, a Book of Glory, the narrative of Jesus public ministry, beginning with the introduction of the first disciples of Jesus. It consists of seven miracles, or signs, interspersed with long dialogues, discourses, Amen, amen sayings, in John it is this, and not the cleansing of the Temple, that prompts the authorities to have Jesus executed. The narrative of Jesus Passion, Resurrection, and post-Resurrection appearances and this is followed by Jesus Farewell Discourse, an account of his betrayal, arrest, trial, death, burial, post-Resurrection appearances, and final commission for his followers. Jesus mocking and crowning with thorns, the Ecce homo, the discovery of the empty tomb, the noli me tangere, the Great Commission, and the incredulity of Thomas. The section ends with a conclusion on the purpose of the gospel, that may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, a large majority of scholars believes this chapter to be an addition to the gospel. The Gospel of John is anonymous, traditionally, Christians have identified the author as the Disciple whom Jesus loved mentioned in John 21,24, who is understood to be John son of Zebedee, one of Jesus Twelve Apostles. These identifications, however, are rejected by the majority of biblical scholars. Nevertheless, the author of the fourth Gospel is sometimes called John the Evangelist, a significant minority consider the traditional account of John the Apostles authorship to be genuine. In addition, the ancient external attestation for Johannine authorship is strong, John is usually dated to AD 90–110. It arose in a Jewish Christian community in the process of breaking from the Jewish synagogue, scholars believe that the text went through two to three redactions, or editions, before reaching its current form. John, which regularly describes Jesus opponents simply as the Jews, is more hostile to the Jews than any other body of New Testament writing
Gospel of John
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Books of the
New Testament
Gospel of John
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Stained glass depiction of St. John at
St. Matthew's German Evangelical Lutheran Church in
Charleston, South Carolina.
Gospel of John
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The
Rylands Papyrus is perhaps the earliest New Testament fragment; dated from its handwriting to about 125.
28.
Acts of the Apostles
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The Acts of the Apostles, often referred to simply as Acts, is the fifth book of the New Testament, it tells of the founding of the Christian church and the spread of its message to the Roman Empire. Acts and the Gospel of Luke make up a work, Luke–Acts, by the same anonymous author. The first part, the Gospel of Luke, tells how God fulfilled his plan for the salvation through the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth. Acts continues the story of Christianity in the 1st century, beginning with Jesuss Ascension to Heaven, the early chapters, set in Jerusalem, describe the Day of Pentecost and the growth of the church in Jerusalem. Initially the Jews are receptive to the Christian message, but soon turn against the followers of Jesus. Rejected by the Jews, under the guidance of the Apostle Peter the message is taken to the Gentiles. The later chapters tell of Pauls conversion, his mission in Asia Minor and the Aegean, and finally his imprisonment in Rome, the title Acts of the Apostles was first used by Irenaeus in the late 2nd century. It is not known whether this was a title or one invented by Irenaeus, it does seem clear, however. The Gospel of Luke and Acts make up a work which scholars call Luke–Acts. The author is not named in either volume. )He admired Paul, the earliest possible date for the composition of Acts is set by the events with which it ends, Pauls imprisonment in Rome c.63 AD, but an early date is now rarely put forward. In either case there is evidence that it was still being revised well into the 2nd century. Luke aligned his work, Luke–Acts, to the narratives which many others had written, Acts, the second part, is widely thought of as a history, but it lacks exact analogies in Hellenistic or Jewish literature. The title Acts of the Apostles would seem to identify it with the telling of the deeds and achievements of great men. By and large the sources for Acts can only be guessed at, but Luke would have had access to the Septuagint, the gospel of Mark and the collection of sayings of Jesus called the Q source. )There are also points of contacts with 1 Peter, the Letter to the Hebrews, and 1 Clement. Other sources can only be inferred from internal evidence—the traditional explanation of the three we passages, for example, is that they represent eye-witness accounts, the search for such inferred sources was popular in the 19th century, but by the mid-20th it had largely been abandoned. Acts was read as a history of the early church well into the post-Reformation era. The mid-19th century scholar Ferdinand Baur suggested that Luke had re-written history to present a united Peter and Paul, Baur continues to have enormous influence, but today there is less interest in determining Lukes historical accuracy than in understanding his theological program. Luke was written to be read aloud to a group of Jesus-followers gathered in a house to share the Lords supper, the author assumes an educated Greek-speaking audience, but directs his attention to specifically Christian concerns rather than to the Greco-Roman world at large
Acts of the Apostles
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Books of the
New Testament
Acts of the Apostles
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Ministry of the Apostles:
Russian icon by
Fyodor Zubov, 1660
Acts of the Apostles
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Acts 1:1-2a from the 14th century
Minuscule 223
Acts of the Apostles
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Paul's conversion, from Livre d'Heures d'Étienne Chevalier (c. 1450–1460),
Jean Fouquet, in the
Château de Chantilly.
29.
Epistle
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An epistle is a writing directed or sent to a person or group of people, usually an elegant and formal didactic letter. The epistle genre of letter-writing was common in ancient Egypt as part of the scribal-school writing curriculum, the letters in the New Testament from Apostles to Christians are usually referred to as epistles. Those traditionally attributed to Paul are known as Pauline epistles and the others as catholic epistles, the ancient Egyptians wrote epistles, most often for pedagogical reasons. Egyptologist Edward Wente speculates that the Fifth-dynasty Pharaoh Djedkare Isesi—in his many letters sent to his viziers—was a pioneer in the epistolary genre. Its existence is attested during the Sixth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom. A standardized formulae for epistolary compositions existed by the time of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt, the epistolary formulae used in the Ramesside Period found its roots in the letters composed during the Amarna Period of the Twentieth Dynasty. Epistle letters were written to the dead, and, by the Ramesside Period, to the gods. Epistles in prose and verse were a genre of literature among the Greeks. The letters of Cicero are one of the most important sources on the history of the late Roman Republic, the letters of Pliny the Younger likewise are studied as both examples of Latin prose with self-conscious literary qualities and sources for historical information. The epistles of Seneca, with their moral or philosophical ruminations, Epistles are written in strict accordance to formalized, Hellenistic tradition, especially the Pauline epistles. This reflects the amount of Hellenistic influence upon the epistle writers, any deviancy is not the result of accident but indicates an unusual motive of the writer. In contrast to letters, epistles usually named the author at the very beginning. The scribe who wrote down the letter may be named at the end of the episte, in the absence of a postal system, the courier may also be named. After the names of the author and recipient, Pauline epistles often open with the greeting, Grace was a common Hellenistic greeting, while peace was the common Jewish greeting, this reflected Pauls dual identity in Jewish faith and Hellenistic culture. There may also be a word of thanks to the audience, in secular letters, a prayer or wish for health followed. The body begins with a brief statement introducing the main topic of the entire body and they are generally considered to form part of the basis of Christian tradition. In the Roman Catholic Mass and Anglican Eucharist, epistles are read between the Collect and the Gospel reading, the corresponding Gregorian chants have a special tone. When the epistle is sung or chanted at Solemn Mass it is done so by the subdeacon, Epistles are also read by an Elder or Bishop in the Lutheran Divine Service, between the gradual and the Gospel
Epistle
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Saint Paul Writing His Epistles, by
Valentin de Boulogne or
Nicolas Tournier (c. 16th century, Blaffer Foundation Collection, Houston, TX).
Epistle
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Opening of the Epistle to the Galatians,
illuminated manuscript for reading during
Christian liturgy.
Epistle
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The Kniga Apostol (1632),
lectionary in
Church Slavonic for use in the
Divine Liturgy of the
Russian Orthodox Church.
30.
Epistle of James
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The Epistle of James, the Book of James, or simply James, is one of the twenty-two epistles in the New Testament. The author identifies himself as James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ, the epistle is traditionally attributed to James the brother of Jesus, and the audience is generally considered to be Jewish Christians, who were dispersed outside of Palestine due to persecution. Framed within a theme of patient perseverance during trials and temptations. He wants his readers to mature in their faith in Christ by living what they say they believe and he condemns various sins, including pride, hypocrisy, favouritism, and slander. He encourages believers to live by godly rather than worldly wisdom. Within the New Testament canon, the Epistle of James is noteworthy in that it makes no reference to the death, resurrection and it refers to Jesus twice, as the Lord Jesus Christ and as our glorious Lord Jesus Christ. According to Robert J. Foster, there is consensus as to the genre, structure, dating. The writer refers to only as James, a servant of God. As many as six different men may be referred to in the Bible as James, Jesus had two apostles named James, James, the son of Zebedee and James, the son of Alphaeus, but it is unlikely that either of these wrote the letter. According to the Book of Acts, James, the son of Zebedee, was martyred about 44 AD and that would be very early for him to have been the writer. The other apostle James, the son of Alphaeus, is not prominent in the Scriptural record, rather, evidence points to James, the brother of Jesus, to whom Jesus evidently had made a special appearance after his resurrection described in the New Testament. This James was prominent among the disciples, furthermore, the salutation of his letter includes the term “Greetings. That was same way as the letter on circumcision that was sent to the congregations, in the latter instance it was apparently Jesuss brother, James, who spoke prominently in the assembly of the apostles and the older men at Jerusalem. From the middle of the 3rd century, patristic authors cited the Epistle as written by James, the brother of Jesus and he is traditionally considered the first of the Seventy Disciples. Pseudonymous authorship implies that the person named James is respected and doubtless well known, moreover, this James, brother of Jesus, is honored by the epistle written and distributed after the lifetime of James, the brother of Jesus. John Calvin and others suggested that the author was the Apostle James, son of Alphaeus, the cultured Greek language of the Epistle, it is contended, could not have been written by a Jerusalem Jew. Some scholars argue for a version of the letter composed by James. The epistle was only accepted into the canon of the New Testament
Epistle of James
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Books of the
New Testament
Epistle of James
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Christ in the House of His Parents An illustration including James, the brother of Jesus.
Epistle of James
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The first page of James in
Minuscule 319, a Greek minuscule manuscript of the New Testament.
.jpg)
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Easton, Matthew George (1897). "article name needed". Easton's Bible Dictionary (New and revised ed.). T. Nelson and Sons.
Bible: Philippians public domain audiobook at LibriVox Various versions
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Epistle to the Philippians". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "
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