1.
Nobility
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The privileges associated with nobility may constitute substantial advantages over or relative to non-nobles, or may be largely honorary, and vary from country to country and era to era. There is often a variety of ranks within the noble class. g, san Marino and the Vatican City in Europe. Hereditary titles often distinguish nobles from non-nobles, although in many nations most of the nobility have been un-titled, some countries have had non-hereditary nobility, such as the Empire of Brazil. The term derives from Latin nobilitas, the noun of the adjective nobilis. In modern usage, nobility is applied to the highest social class in pre-modern societies and it rapidly came to be seen as a hereditary caste, sometimes associated with a right to bear a hereditary title and, for example in pre-revolutionary France, enjoying fiscal and other privileges. Nobility is a historical, social and often legal notion, differing from high socio-economic status in that the latter is based on income. Being wealthy or influential cannot, ipso facto, make one noble, various republics, including former Iron Curtain countries, Greece, Mexico, and Austria have expressly abolished the conferral and use of titles of nobility for their citizens. Not all of the benefits of nobility derived from noble status per se, usually privileges were granted or recognised by the monarch in association with possession of a specific title, office or estate. Most nobles wealth derived from one or more estates, large or small and it also included infrastructure such as castle, well and mill to which local peasants were allowed some access, although often at a price. Nobles were expected to live nobly, that is, from the proceeds of these possessions, work involving manual labour or subordination to those of lower rank was either forbidden or frowned upon socially. In some countries, the lord could impose restrictions on such a commoners movements. Nobles exclusively enjoyed the privilege of hunting, in France, nobles were exempt from paying the taille, the major direct tax. In some parts of Europe the right of war long remained the privilege of every noble. During the early Renaissance, duelling established the status of a respectable gentleman, Nobility came to be associated with social rather than legal privilege, expressed in a general expectation of deference from those of lower rank. By the 21st century even that deference had become increasingly minimised, in France, a seigneurie might include one or more manors surrounded by land and villages subject to a nobles prerogatives and disposition. Seigneuries could be bought, sold or mortgaged, if erected by the crown into, e. g. a barony or countship, it became legally entailed for a specific family, which could use it as their title. Yet most French nobles were untitled, in other parts of Europe, sovereign rulers arrogated to themselves the exclusive prerogative to act as fons honorum within their realms. Nobility might be inherited or conferred by a fons honorum
2.
Ingeborg Haakonsdatter
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In 1318-1319, she was Swedens de facto ruler, and from 1319 until 1326, she was Swedens first de jure female regent. Ingeborg was born as the legitimate daughter of King Håkon V of Norway from his marriage with Euphemia of Rügen. As a child, she was first betrothed to Magnus Birgerson, in 1312, Ingeborg and Eric were formally married in a double wedding in Oslo, at the same time, her cousin Ingeborg Eriksdottir of Norway, married Erics brother duke Valdemar Magnusson. At her wedding, her mother Queen Euphemia had published the recently translated famous poems, the couple had two children before Duke Eric was murdered. Upon the imprisonment of her spouse and her brother-in-law, she and her cousin and sister-in-law, Ingeborg Eriksdottir, later the same year, their husbands were confirmed to have died. Her son Magnus VII of Norway, at the age of 3, was proclaimed king of Norway upon her fathers death, Ingeborg was recognized as formal regent of her son in Norway. Duchess Ingeborg held her own court at her residence in Varberg, the exact position of Ingeborg in the regency council is hard to define properly due to the documentation. Mats Kettilumndsson, her ally, presided over the Swedish regency council alongside the two Duchesses Ingeborg, Ingeborg Håkansdotter and her cousin and sister-in-law Ingeborg Eriksdottir, Magnus, already King of Norway, was elected King of Sweden with the approval of the Norwegian council in her presence. Ingeborg was the one with a seat in both the Swedish and the Norwegian minor regency and council of state. She was the independent reigning duchess of her own fiefs, which were autonomous under her rule, Ingeborgs position at court was not well-defined, she was the Kings Mother, but without being a dowager Queen. She was criticized for her way of conducting her own politics without the counsel of the Swedish and Norwegian councils,1 October 1320, she liberated Riga from its debts in her name on behalf of her son. She was known to large donations to her supporters. Canute Porse had been one of the supporters of her spouse and was appointed governor of Varberg, Ingeborg surrounded herself with young foreign men, thought to affect her politics, of which Canute was the most known. Ingeborg and Canute had the ambition to make the then Danish Scania a part of her possessions, in 1321, Ingeborg arranged a marriage with her daughter Euphemia and Albert II, Duke of Mecklenburg. The marriage was arranged with the terms that Mecklenburg, Saxony, Holstein, Rendsburg and this was approved by the council of Norway but not Sweden. To finance the invasion, Ingeborg took a loan from Stralsund with free trade in Sweden, when Ingeborgs forces under command of Canute invaded Scania in 1322-23, Mecklenburg betrayed her to Denmark and the alliance was broken. In 1323, Ingeborg was forced to accept the terms and give up several of her strategical castles,20 February 1323, also the Norwegian regency council rebelled against Ingeborg. She was accused of misusing the royal seal, to have broken the peace with Denmark and for greater costs, after 1323, Ingeborgs power was limited to what was approved by votes in the councils, which in practice had deposed her
3.
Magnus IV of Sweden
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Magnus IV was King of Sweden from 1319 to 1364, King of Norway as Magnus VII from 1319 to 1343, and ruler of Scania from 1332 to 1360. By adversaries he has been called Magnus Smek, referring to Magnus Eriksson as Magnus II is incorrect. The Swedish Royal Court lists three Swedish kings before him of the same name, Magnus was born in Norway in April or May 1316 to Eric, Duke of Södermanland and Ingeborg, a daughter of Haakon V of Norway. Magnus was elected king of Sweden on 8 July 1319, under the regencies of his grandmother, Helwig of Holstein, and his mother, Ingeborg of Norway, the countries were ruled by Knut Jonsson and Erling Vidkunsson. Magnus was declared to have come of age at 15 in 1331 and this provoked resistance in Norway, where a statute from 1302 stipulated that a king came of age at the age of 20, and a rising by Erling Vidkunsson and other Norwegian nobles ensued. In 1333, the rebels submitted to King Magnus, in 1332 the King of Denmark, Christopher II, died as a king without a country after he and his older brother and predecessor had pawned Denmark piece by piece. King Magnus took advantage of his neighbours distress, redeeming the pawn for the eastern Danish provinces for a amount of silver. On 21 July 1336 Magnus was crowned king of both Norway and Sweden in Stockholm and this caused further resentment in Norway, where the nobles and magnates desired a separate Norwegian coronation. A second rising by members of the nobility of Norway ensued in 1338. In 1335 he married Blanche of Namur, daughter of John I, Marquis of Namur, and Marie of Artois, the wedding took place in October or early November 1335, possibly at Bohus castle. As a wedding gift Blanche received the province of Tunsberg in Norway and they had two sons, Eric and Haakon, plus at least three daughters who died in infancy and were buried at Ås Abbey. Opposition to Magnus rule in Norway led to a settlement between the king and the Norwegian nobility at Varberg on 15 August 1343, in violation of the Norwegian laws on royal inheritance, Magnus younger son Haakon would become king of Norway, with Magnus as regent during his minority. Later the same year, it was declared that Magnus older son, thus, the union between Norway and Sweden would be severed. This occurred when Haakon came of age in 1355, on 12 August 1323, Magnus concluded the first treaty between Sweden and Novgorod at Nöteborg where Lake Ladoga empties into the Neva River. The treaty delineated spheres of influence among the Finns and Karelians and was supposed to be an eternal peace, but Magnus relations with Russia were not so peaceful. In 1337, religious strife between Orthodox Karelians and the Swedes led to a Swedish attack on the town of Korela and Viborg, a Swedish commander named Sten also captured the fortress at Orekhov. In this treaty, the Swedes claimed that Sten and others acted on their own without the consent of the king, in 1335, Magnus outlawed Thralldom for thralls born by Christian parents in Västergötland and Värend, being the last parts of Sweden where slavery had remained legal. The Novgorodians retook the fortress in 1349 after a seven-month siege, while he spent much of 1351 trying to drum up support for further crusading action among the German cities in the Baltic States, he never returned to attack Novgorod
4.
Euphemia of Sweden
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Euphemia of Sweden was a Swedish princess, spouse of Albert II, Duke of Mecklenburg, Duchess consort of Mecklenburg, heiress of Sweden and of Norway, and mother of King Albert of Sweden. In 1319, her infant elder brother Magnus VII of Norway succeeded their maternal grandfather to the throne of Norway and that same year, Swedish nobles exiled their uncle, King Birger of Sweden, after which the infant Magnus was elected King of Sweden. Their mother Ingeborg had a seat in the government as well as the position of an independent ruler of her own fiefs. The 24 July 1321 marriage contract for Euphemia was signed in Bohus Castle in her mothers fief in Bohuslän and her mother had plans to take control over Danish Scania, next to her duchy. The marriage was arranged with the terms that Mecklenburg, Saxony, Holstein, Rendsburg and this was approved by the council of Norway but not Sweden. When Ingeborgs forces under command of her lover Knut Porse invaded Scania in 1322–23, Mecklenburg betrayed her, the marriage took place anyway, after a fifteen-year engagement. Euphemia did not lack influence in Sweden and she is known to have acted as the witness of seals in several documents. In 1335, when King Magnus appointed Nils Abjörnsson to drots, later, Albert was to gain the nickname Fox of Mecklenburg, to reflect his intrigues as well as avarice. Later the same year, the returned to Sweden with Rudolf of Saxony and Henry of Holstein to be present at the coronation of her brother. She was the mistress of a very expensive ducal court, in 1340–41, she convinced Magnus to grant renewed trading privileges in Norway to the Hanseatic cities of Mecklenburg, Rostock and Wismar. On 15 April 1357, she granted her inheritance after her brothers Håkan and Knut and it is not known if she was involved in the succession of her son to the throne of Sweden in 1363. She is last confirmed alive 27 October 1363, when she gave up the ownership of her dower estate Hagenow and her death year is not known, but she is confirmed dead 16 June 1370, when her widower made a vicaria to her memory. Euphemia lived long enough to see her brothers branch of the family get into severe difficulties, Euphemia saw her own second son depose her brother from the Swedish throne, and ascend as King Albert of Sweden. Already in Euphemias lifetime it was evident that her position would become a pivotal point to many future claims to the Scandinavian thrones. Although her spouse married a second time after her death, all his children were born of Euphemia. At the time of her death, she had five surviving children, Henry III, Duke of Mecklenburg, married, firstly, Ingeborg of Denmark, eldest daughter of sonless King Waldemar IV of Denmark. They had children, Albert, Euphemia, Mary, and Ingeborg, Henry III married, secondly, Matilda of Werle. Albert III, Duke of Mecklenburg, better known as Albert of Sweden, married, firstly, in 1359, Richardis of Schwerin, they had children, Eric I, Duke of Mecklenburg and Richardis Catherine
5.
Magnus III of Sweden
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Magnus III was King of Sweden from 1275 until his death in 1290. He was the first Magnus to rule Sweden for any length of time, referring to Magnus Ladulås as Magnus I is an invention not recognized by any Swedish historians today. His father designated Magnus as his successor in powers of the Jarl, the elder brother, Valdemar, had become king succeeding their maternal uncle in 1250. In 1275, Duke Magnus started a rebellion against his brother with Danish help, Magnus was elected king at the Stones of Mora. In 1276, Magnus Barnlock allegedly married a second wife Helwig, through her mother, Elizabeth of Mecklenburg, Helwig was a descendant of Christina, the putative daughter of King Sverker II). A papal annulment of Magnus alleged first marriage and a dispensation for the second were issued ten years later, haelwig later acted as regent, probably 1290–1302 and 1320–1327. The deposed King Valdemar managed, with Danish help in turn, to provinces in Gothenland, the southern part of the kingdom. However, Magnus regained them about 1278 and assumed the title rex Gothorum, King of the Goths, starting the tradition of King of the Swedes. King Magnus youngest brother, Benedict, then archdeacon, acted as his Lord High Chancellor of Sweden and he died when his sons were yet underage. Magnus ordered his kinsman Thurchetel, the Lord High Constable of Sweden as the guardian of his heir, the future King Birger, SVT broadcast a presentation of the preliminary studies, where a number of results were presented, amongst others his sickly disposition. Carbon-14 tests dated the bones to the 15th century, indicating the remains could not be those of the king and his family. In December 2011, the applied for permission to open the neighbouring sarcophagus. From his alleged first marriage to a woman, Eric Magnusson From his second marriage to Helwig of Holstein, Ingiburga Magnusdotter of Sweden. Birger, King of Sweden Eric Magnuson, Duke of Sudermannia in 1302, died of starvation in 1318 at Nyköpingshus Castle while imprisoned by his brother King Birger. Waldemar Magnuson, Duke of Finland in 1302 and Öland 1310, died of starvation 1318 at Nyköpingshus Castle while imprisoned by his brother, King Birger. Richeza Magnusdotter of Sweden, Abbess of the convent of St. Clares Priory, Stockholm
6.
Hedwig of Holstein
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Hedwig of Holstein or Helvig was a Swedish queen consort, spouse of King Magnus III of Sweden. She was the child of Gerhard I, Count of Holstein-Itzehoe, Hedwig was married to Magnus Ladulås in 1276, and was granted the fief of Dåvö in Munktorp in Västmanland. Magnus succeeded in preventing a Danish-Holstein alliance by marrying her, however, he had obtained a dispensation for their marriage only after the wedding. Her father was captured during the Folkunge party revolt by rebellious noblemen in Skara in 1278, the actions of the rebels were well timed, they coincided with her journey through Sweden. She sought refuge in the convent in the city, Hedwig was crowned Queen of Sweden in the city of Söderköping on 29 June 1281, this is the first confirmed coronation of a queen consort in Sweden. It included the prayers for her fertility, which was the matter of great importance and she founded the Greyfriars convent in Stockholm and several other churches and convents. As a queen, however, she is not very much heard of, despite the fact that she held the position for fourteen years, she lived a discreet life, both as a queen and as a dowager queen. She took a prominent part in processions which accompanied the inauguration of bishops, celebrations of a feast day, after the death of her spouse in 1290, Hedwig acted as one of the executors of the will of the King. In 1291, she withdrew to her estate Dåvö in Västmanland and she is not known to have taken any political role, formal or informal, during or after the reign of her spouse. She was described as a noble, loyal and peace-loving mother figure and she acted as a foster mother for her sons future bride, Martha of Denmark, who spent a lot of her childhood in Sweden as the future Queen of Sweden after 1290. In 1302, she was present at the coronation of her son, as dowager queen, she governed Fjärdhundraland, which was given to her as dower. Queen Hedwig is buried in Riddarholm Church in Stockholm, with her husband, hedwigs wedding took place at Kalmar castle the 11 November 1276 with king Magnus III Ladulås of Sweden. They had the children, Ingeborg Magnusdotter of Sweden, born abt. Married King Eric VI of Denmark, Erik Menved, Eric Magnusson, Duke of Södermanland in 1302 and Halland etc. Died of starvation 1318 at Nyköpingshus Castle while imprisoned by his brother, valdemar Magnusson, Duke of Finland in 1302 and Öland 1310. Died of starvation 1318 at Nyköpingshus castle while imprisoned by his brother King Birger, Richeza Magnusdotter of Sweden, abbess of the convent of St. Clara at Stockholm
7.
Queen consort
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A queen consort is the wife of a reigning king. In Brunei, the wife of the Sultan is known as a Raja Isteri with prefix Pengiran Anak, equivalent with queen consort in English, a queen consort usually shares her husbands social rank and status. She holds the equivalent of the kings monarchical titles, but historically, she does not share the kings political. A queen regnant is a queen in her own right with all the powers of a monarch, where some title other than that of king is held by the sovereign, his wife is referred to by the feminine equivalent, such as princess consort or empress consort. In monarchies where polygamy has been practiced in the past, or is practiced today. In Morocco, King Mohammed VI has broken with tradition and given his wife, Lalla Salma, prior to the reign of King Mohammed VI, the Moroccan monarchy had no such title. In Thailand, the king and queen must both be of royal descent, the kings other consorts are accorded royal titles that confer status. Other cultures maintain different traditions on queenly status, a Zulu chieftain designates one of his wives Great Wife, which would be the equivalent to queen consort. Conversely, in Yorubaland, all of a chiefs princess consorts are essentially of equal rank, in general, the consorts of monarchs have no power per se, even when their position is constitutionally or statutorily recognized. In some cases, the queen consort has been the power behind her husbands throne, e. g. Maria Luisa of Parma. Past queens consort, Queen Jang, consort to Sukjong of Joseon
8.
Uppland
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Uppland is a historical province or landskap on the eastern coast of Sweden, just north of Stockholm, the capital. It borders Södermanland, Västmanland and Gästrikland and it is also bounded by lake Mälaren and the Baltic sea. It has a short and strangely shaped land border with Åland. The name literally means up land, a name which is encountered in especially older English literature. Its Latinised form, which is used, is Uplandia. The traditional provinces of Sweden serve no administrative or political purposes, the corresponding administrative county, or län, is Uppsala County, which occupies the larger part of the territory. The bulk of the population, however, is within Stockholm County, minor parts of the province are also in Västmanland County, Gävleborg County and Södermanland County. Upplands arms were granted in 1560, distinctive in its depiction of a Globus cruciger, historically, Uppland ranked as a duchy and the coat of arms is represented with a ducal coronet. Blazoned thus, Gules, a Royal Orb Or gemmed of the field, despite the fact that the Uppsala län has a different name and a smaller territory it was granted the same coat of arms in 1940. Uppland was historically divided into chartered cities and districts, within Roslagen they were called skeppslag, and in the rest of the province hundreds. The abovementioned districts and cities have no administrative function today, the provincial population corresponds to the different overlapping counties as follows, Uppland is the birth place of Saint Brigitta of Sweden. The earliest unambiguous mention of the province of Uppland comes from the 1296, the Swedish capital of Stockholm is divided between two provinces. The southern half lies in Södermanland and the half in Uppland. Prince Waldemar Princess Ingiburga, his wife Prince Gustav Prince Sigvard Uppsala is the seat of the archbishop of the Lutheran Church of Sweden. The archaeological site Birka and the castle of Drottningholm are UNESCO World Heritage sites, football in the province is administered by Upplands Fotbollförbund. Uppland - Tourist site Uppland - Tourist information
9.
Birger, King of Sweden
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Birger was King of Sweden from 1290 to 1318. Birger was the son of King Magnus III and Hedwig of Holstein and he was hailed king of Sweden when he was four years old. This was done by his father in order to secure the succession, in 1275, King Magnus had led a rebellion against his elder brother, King Valdemar, and ousted him from the throne. King Magnus ordered his kinsman Torgils Knutsson, the Constable of the Realm, in 1293, Birger was crowned at Söderköping after marrying Martha, the daughter of King Eric V of Denmark. Birger was only ten years old when his father died, at which time Torgils Knutsson was the most influential statesman in Sweden, in 1293, Torgils Knutsson led the Swedes to a victory which won a part of western Karelia. This expedition has traditionally been dubbed as the Third Swedish Crusade, when Torgils Knutsson returned from leading the crusade in Finland, a feud had developed between the brothers. The kings brothers Erik Magnusson, Duke of Södermanland and Valdemar Magnusson, a civil war broke out, but by 1306 emotions had cooled to the point where the dukes acknowledged the son of Birger, Magnus Birgersson, as the successor to the throne. Torgils Knutsson, who was Duke Valdemars father-in-law, was executed in 1306 as a token of reconciliation between King Birger and his brothers. The same year, in an event known as the Håtuna games, Birger was taken captive by his brothers on the Håtuna royal estate in Uppland and taken as prisoner to Nyköping Castle. In 1308, Eric and Valdemar were forced by the Danish king to release King Birger, when King Birger was free, he sought aid in Denmark, and the strife began anew. In 1312, Duke Eric married Ingeborg of Norway, daughter of King Haakon V of Norway in a wedding in Oslo. At the same time, Erics brother Duke Valdemar married Ingeborg Eriksdottir of Norway, Duke Erik also held Bohuslän from Norway as well as northern Halland and was creating a separate kingdom centered on Göta älv. In 1317 however, Birger captured his brothers during the Nyköping Banquet, according to Erics Chronicle, the dukes were starved to death in a cellar of Nyköping Castle. Birger was ousted by his brothers supporters in 1318 and went into exile to his brother-in-law King Eric VI of Denmark and his son, Prince Magnus Birgersson, was executed at Stockholm. In 1319, the son of Duke Erik, King Magnus VII of Norway, was hailed King Magnus IV of Sweden under the Regency of his grandmother Queen Helvig. Magnus Birgersson Eric Birgersson Agnes Birgersdotter Katarina Birgersdotter In 2003, the band Falconer released The Sceptre of Deception, the album covers events during the reign of King Birger of Sweden and lengthy strife with his brothers, and the Danish and Norwegian crowns. Barck, Sven Eric, Persson, ÅkeKungligt skvaller genom tusen år, En annorlunda bok om svensk historia Lindqvist, Från islossning till kungarike Harrison, Dick Jarlens sekel, en berättelse om 1200-talets Sverige Bergman, Mats Nyköpingshus. En rundvandring i historia och nutid Mannervik, Cyrus Sagor och sägner – Från Nordens forntid och medeltid
10.
Valdemar, Duke of Finland
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Valdemar Magnusson was a Swedish prince, heir to the throne of Sweden, and Duke of Finland. Valdemar was the son of Magnus III and Helvig of Holstein. He became Duke of Finland in 1302 at the coronation of his brother, Birger. Valdemar married Kristina, daughter of Torgils Knutsson, who was the constable, Valdemars father-in-law was arrested in December 1305 and executed the following February. Valdemar subsequently divorced his wife, claiming that they were related because Torgils was his godfather. In the fall of 1312 in Oslo, he married Ingeborg and it was a double wedding, because at the same time Valdemars brother Eric married Ingeborg, daughter of King Haakon V of Norway. Valdemar and Ingeborg had a son in 1316 who died as a child, in 1306, in an event known as the Håtuna games, King Birger was captured by his brothers on the Håtuna royal estate in Uppland and taken as prisoner to Nyköping Castle. Two years later, King Eric VI of Denmark forced Valdemar, King Birger sought aid in Denmark after his release and the strife resumed. By 1315, Valdemar and Eric had managed to wrest large parts of the Swedish kingdom from their brother. Valdemar had gained Turku and Häme castles, with a share of Finland, the castle of Stockholm, most of Uppland, Borgholm castle. Eric was in possession of Kungahälla and northern Halland, which he had been given by King Eric VI of Denmark, on December 10,1317, Valdemar and Eric were captured and imprisoned by Birger at the Nyköping Banquet. Valdemar and Erics wives assumed leadership roles after their husbands imprisonment and this treaty was not honored, and their husbands died later that same year. Although their exact cause of death is unknown, the brothers are thought to have been murdered or starved to death, the dower Ingeborg had included the island of Öland. Ingeborg was styled Duchess of Öland from at least 1340, surviving her husband long after his death. Från islossning till kungarike Harrison, Dick Jarlens sekel, en berättelse om 1200-talets Sverige Bergman, Mats Nyköpingshus
11.
Finland
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Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a sovereign state in Northern Europe. A peninsula with the Gulf of Finland to the south and the Gulf of Bothnia to the west, the country has borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north. Estonia is south of the country across the Gulf of Finland, Finland is a Nordic country situated in the geographical region of Fennoscandia, which also includes Scandinavia. Finlands population is 5.5 million, and the majority of the population is concentrated in the southern region,88. 7% of the population is Finnish people who speak Finnish, a Uralic language unrelated to the Scandinavian languages, the second major group are the Finland-Swedes. In terms of area, it is the eighth largest country in Europe, Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in the capital Helsinki, local governments in 311 municipalities, and an autonomous region, the Åland Islands. Over 1.4 million people live in the Greater Helsinki metropolitan area, from the late 12th century, Finland was an integral part of Sweden, a legacy reflected in the prevalence of the Swedish language and its official status. In the spirit of the notion of Adolf Ivar Arwidsson, we are not Swedes, we do not want to become Russians, let us therefore be Finns, nevertheless, in 1809, Finland was incorporated into the Russian Empire as the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. In 1906, Finland became the nation in the world to give the right to vote to all adult citizens. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, Finland declared itself independent, in 1918, the fledgling state was divided by civil war, with the Bolshevik-leaning Reds supported by the equally new Soviet Russia, fighting the Whites, supported by the German Empire. After a brief attempt to establish a kingdom, the became a republic. During World War II, the Soviet Union sought repeatedly to occupy Finland, with Finland losing parts of Karelia, Salla and Kuusamo, Petsamo and some islands, Finland joined the United Nations in 1955 and established an official policy of neutrality. The Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics during the Cold War era, Finland was a relative latecomer to industrialization, remaining a largely agrarian country until the 1950s. It rapidly developed an advanced economy while building an extensive Nordic-style welfare state, resulting in widespread prosperity, however, Finnish GDP growth has been negative in 2012–2014, with a preceding nadir of −8% in 2009. Finland is a top performer in numerous metrics of national performance, including education, economic competitiveness, civil liberties, quality of life, a large majority of Finns are members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, though freedom of religion is guaranteed under the Finnish Constitution. The first known appearance of the name Finland is thought to be on three rune-stones. Two were found in the Swedish province of Uppland and have the inscription finlonti, the third was found in Gotland, in the Baltic Sea. It has the inscription finlandi and dates from the 13th century, the name can be assumed to be related to the tribe name Finns, which is mentioned first known time AD98. The name Suomi has uncertain origins, but a candidate for a source is the Proto-Baltic word *źemē, in addition to the close relatives of Finnish, this name is also used in the Baltic languages Latvian and Lithuanian
12.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
13.
Halland
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Halland is one of the traditional provinces of Sweden, on the western coast of Sweden. It borders Västergötland, Småland, Scania and the sea of Kattegat, the provinces of Sweden serve no administrative function. Instead, that function is served by the Counties of Sweden, as of December 31,2009, Halland had a population of 303,895. Of these,287,668 lived in Halland County,13,980 lived in Västra Götaland County, during the Danish era until 1658, the province had no coat of arms and no seal. In Sweden, however, every province had been represented by heraldic arms since 1560, when Charles X Gustav of Sweden suddenly died in 1660 a coat of arms had to be created for the newly acquired province. Each province was to be represented by its arms at the royal funeral, there are several theories about the choice of a lion. Bengt Algotsson, duke of Halland and Finland in the 14th century, blazon, Azure, a Lion rampant Argent langued, armed and dente Gules. The same coat of arms was granted for the administrative Halland County. The rivers of Lagan, Ätran, Nissan and Viskan flow through the province, Halland is well known for its fertile soil and as an agricultural district. The Bronze Age was probably a period of prosperity in Halland. This is shown in the number of new settlements and the archaeological remains. Over 1,100 tumuli and grave mounds have been found, the end of the Bronze Age witnessed an over-consumption of resources. This might have been a result of a demand for charcoal in smelting gold or bronze among the local elites. The worsening climate at the beginning of the Iron Age meant that the local elites no longer could obtain bronze to the extent as before. As a result, the structures collapsed. The early Iron Age social structures seem to have been relatively egalitarian and this is likely to have been a distant influence from the growing Roman Empire. During the 5th and 6th century large free-standing farms were created, an example of such a farm can be found in Slöinge. It was not just the structure that changed, so too did the settlement structure
14.
Eric VI of Denmark
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Eric VI Menved was King of Denmark and a son of Eric V and Agnes of Brandenburg. He became king in 1286 at age 12, when his father was murdered on 22 November by unknown assailants, since Eric VI was only 12 years old, his mother ruled for him until 1294. Eric Menved’s rule was a period during the “Age of Decay in Denmark 1241–1340. His early reign – during which he was led by his mother and her German relatives – was affected by the unrest, the first act of the new government was to settle the case of the former king’s murder at a court convened at Nyborg at Whitsun 1287. 27 honorable men were appointed to decide the case, chief among the accused were Marshal Stig Andersen Hvide and Jacob Nielsen, Count of Halland and seven others were accused. After a one-day trial, the jury found all the accused guilty, the properties and incomes of the condemned were declared forfeit and they were exiled from Denmark on pain of death. Even the pope became involved when he excommunicated those who had been judged guilty, the verdict was questionable on several counts. None of the accused could be proven to be in the vicinity when the king was stabbed to death. The accused were not allowed to swear their innocence before the court or have other men swear as to their innocence. Despite the unclear circumstances surrounding Eric V’s death, the jury took one day to arrive at a guilty verdict. The accused had all belonged to Erik Vs inner circle, it is uncertain what they were supposed to gain by the king’s death, for these reasons historians Erik Arup and Hugo Yrwing have labelled the verdict as a miscarriage of justice. They consider the murder a result of a struggle between two noble factions, one led by Marsk Stig and one led by Valdemar, Duke of South Jutland. Duke Valdemar had fallen from grace in 1283, but quickly rose in influence after 1288 and they suggest that Valdemar and his allies conspired to kill the king and then to successfully cast suspicion on their rivals at court. Another historian, Kai Hørby, has pointed out that the murder might well have its origin in the struggle for the throne of Denmark. Andersen and the fled to Norway where they were welcomed by King Eirik who gladly supported enemies of the Danish king. He gave Andersen the fortress of Kongshelle near the border with Denmark, Andersen became a pirate who harried the coast of Denmark for years. The exiles managed to build forts on Samsø, Hjelm, Sprogø, no ship was safe and no coastal town immune from Stig Andersen Hvide. The high point of his depredations occurred in 1289 when he landed with a small Norwegian army at Stubbekøbing on Falster, wizlau II of Rűgen, Denmarks regent, used his Wendish fleet to drive Andersen back to Norway
15.
Marshal
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Marshal is a term used in several official titles in various branches of society. As marshals became trusted members of the courts of Medieval Europe, during the last few centuries, it has been used for elevated offices, such as in military rank and civilian law enforcement. Marshal is an ancient loanword from Old French, which in turn is borrowed from Old Frankish *marhskalk, being still evident in Middle Dutch maerscalc, marscal and it is cognate with Old High German mar-scalc id. modern German Marschall. It originally and literally meant horse servant, from Germanic *marha- horse and this horse servant origin is retained in the current French name for farrier, maréchal-ferrant. The late Roman and Byzantine title of comes stabuli was adopted as a Latin analogue, which has become the French connétable and, derived from the French, finally, in Byzantium a marshal with elevated authority, notably a borderlands military command, is also known as an Exarch. In many countries, the rank of marshal, cf. field marshal, is the highest army rank, the equivalent navy rank is often admiral of the fleet. Marshals are typically, but not exclusively, appointed only in wartime, in many countries, especially in Europe, the special symbol of a marshal is a baton, and their insignia often incorporate batons. In some countries, the marshal is used instead of general in the higher air force ranks. The four highest Royal Air Force ranks are marshal of the Royal Air Force, air marshal, air marshal. The five-star rank of marshal of the Air Force is used by some Commonwealth, in the French Army and most National Armies modeled upon the French system, maréchal des logis is a cavalry term equivalent to sergeant. Some historical rulers have used special marshal titles to reward certain subjects, though not strictly military ranks, these honorary titles have been exclusively bestowed upon successful military leaders, such as the famous grand marshal of Ayacucho Antonio José de Sucre. Most famous are the Marshals of France, not least under Napoléon I, in England during the First Barons War the title Marshal of the Army of God was bestowed upon Robert Fitzwalter by election. Both the Soviet Union and Russia have army general as well as marshal in their rank system, the relationships between them is unresolved. Marshal of the Soviet Union Chief marshal of an arm was used in five Soviet military branches – the air force, artillery, armoured troops, engineer troops. Marshal of an arm was used in five Soviet military branches – the air force, artillery, armoured troops, engineer troops. Marshal of an arm is considered equivalent to the rank general of the army, which was used in the infantry. The function of the Marshal of the Court varies according to national tradition, often, the charge includes also the honorary privilege as chief of the protocol to announce formally the arrival of VIP guests at audiences, state dinners, and conferences in the monarchs premises. This office was made hereditary in the high nobility, e. g. the English Earl Marshal
16.
Torgils Knutsson
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Torkel Knutsson, known well as Marshal Torkel, of Aranäs, was constable, privy council, and virtual ruler of Sweden during the early reign of King Birger Magnusson. When Tavastland was attacked by the Republic of Novgorod in 1292, Torkel hailed from an old noble family of West Geatish ancestry and was related to the Folkungs, the royal family, and like them, he had a lion in his coat of arms. He was first mentioned in 1282, in documents from 1288, he is mentioned as a knight and a member of the privy council. His first wife, whose origins are unknown, gave him a daughter named Kristina and she appears to have been repudiated by the duke upon her fathers execution. Torkels second wife was the countess Hedvig of Ravensberg, in 1299-1300, he led an attack against the Novgorodians, and on the Neva River, he founded the fortress of Landskrona He showed the same concerns about Swedish domestic politics. During his regency, the law of Uppland was established and he acted as Birger Jarl had done in the conflict against the church, in order to abolish the clergys tax exemption. The clergys discontent became apparent in 1303, the old trade treaties with Lübeck were re-established, on condition that the town did not provide Novgorod with weapons or provisions. In the struggles between king Birger Magnusson and his brothers, the dukes Eric and Valdemar, Torkel was faithfully on the kings side. At Torkels castle Aranäs, in 1304, the two dukes had to sign a declaration that they would neither in Sweden, nor abroad, work against the king nor cause him harm. In spite of this declaration, the two dukes fled abroad and with the support of the Norwegian king Haakon V of Norway, they attacked Västergötland. Torkel helped the king conquer the castle of Nyköping, which belonged to duke Eric, and in Kolsäter, he forced the two dukes to sign a declaration that they would not cause any harm to Torkel either. When the power of the dukes was on the again, the marshal had to reconcile with the church. However, Torkel was finally struck by the vengeance of his enemies, the dukes managed to win the trust of the king and poisoned the kings mind against his marshal. In December 1305, King Birger and the dukes arrived at Torkels estate Lena in Västergötland, in February 1306, the faithful marshals head was cut off. The dukes were so hateful against Torkel that his body was entered on the place of execution and it was later moved and properly buried at the Franciscan church in Stockholm. Torkels powerful personality and tragic end has been the matter of poetry, a statue of Torkel was raised, in 1908, on the square Rådhustorget in Vyborg. This article contains content from the Owl Edition of Nordisk familjebok, a Swedish encyclopedia published between 1904 and 1926, now in the public domain
17.
Haakon V of Norway
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Haakon V Magnusson was king of Norway from 1299 until 1319. Haakon was the surviving son of Magnus the Lawmender, King of Norway. Through his mother, he was a descendant of Eric IV, in 1273, his elder brother, Eirik, was named junior king under the reign of their father, King Magnus. Haakon succeeded to the throne when his older brother died without sons. In 1295, Haakon married firstly with Isabelle, daughter of Jean I, Count of Joigny and their son, Magnus Eriksson would succeed Haakon V as king of Norway. He also had a daughter named Agnes Hákonardottir. During Haakons reign, Oslo gradually took over the functions of capital of Norway from Bergen, Haakon is also associated with the construction of Akershus Fortress and Bohus Fortress. During his reign he revived his brothers war policy against Denmark, in domestic matters he energetically and successfully tried to limit the power of the magnates and to strengthen the kings power. In 1319, Haakon was succeeded by his daughters son, prince Magnus who was an infant, Haakons daughter Ingeborg was recognized as formal regent of her son. Havtore Jonsson was put in the government until he himself died the following year. Haakon was buried in St. Marys church in Oslo, remains of two people, deemed to be Haakon and Eufemia, were discovered during excavations of the ruins of that church and reinterred in the royal mausoleum at Akershus Castle. Helle, Knut Norge blir en stat, 1130–1319 ISBN 82-00-01323-5 Holmsen, fra de eldste tider til 1660 Gjerset, Knut History of the Norwegian People
18.
Denmark
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The term Danish Realm refers to the relationship between Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland—three countries constituting the Kingdom of Denmark. The legal nature of the Kingdom of Denmark is fundamentally one of a sovereign state. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have been part of the Crown of Denmark since 1397 when the Kalmar Union was ratified, legal matters in The Danish Realm are subject to the Danish Constitution. Beginning in 1953, state law issues within The Danish Realm has been governed by The Unity of the Realm, a less formal name for The Unity of the Realm is the Commonwealth of the Realm. In 1978, The Unity of The Realm was for the first time referred to as rigsfællesskabet. The name caught on and since the 1990s, both The Unity of The Realm and The Danish Realm itself has increasingly been referred to as simply rigsfællesskabet in daily parlance. The Danish Constitution stipulates that the foreign and security interests for all parts of the Danish Realm are the responsibility of the Danish government, the Faroes received home rule in 1948 and Greenland did so in 1979. In 2005, the Faroes received a self-government arrangement, and in 2009 Greenland received self rule, the Danish Realms unique state of internal affairs is acted out in the principle of The Unity of the Realm. This principle is derived from Article 1 of the Danish Constitution which specifies that constitutional law applies equally to all areas of the Danish Realm, the Constitutional Act specifies that sovereignty is to continue to be exclusively with the authorities of the Realm. The language of Denmark is Danish, and the Danish state authorities are based in Denmark, the Kingdom of Denmarks parliament, with its 179 members, is located in the capital, Copenhagen. Two of the members are elected in each of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Government ministries are located in Copenhagen, as is the highest court, in principle, the Danish Realm constitutes a unified sovereign state, with equal status between its constituent parts. Devolution differs from federalism in that the powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government. The Self-Government Arrangements devolves political competence and responsibility from the Danish political authorities to the Faroese, the Faroese and Greenlandic authorities administer the tasks taken over from the state, enact legislation in these specific fields and have the economic responsibility for solving these tasks. The Danish government provides a grant to the Faroese and the Greenlandic authorities to cover the costs of these devolved areas. The 1948 Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands sets out the terms of Faroese home rule, the Act states. the Faroe Islands shall constitute a self-governing community within the State of Denmark. It establishes the government of the Faroe Islands and the Faroese parliament. The Faroe Islands were previously administered as a Danish county, the Home Rule Act abolished the post of Amtmand and these powers were expanded in a 2005 Act, which named the Faroese home government as an equal partner with the Danish government
19.
Helsingborg
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Helsingborg is a town and the seat of Helsingborg Municipality, Scania, Sweden. It had 132,989 inhabitants in 2013, Helsingborg is the centre of the northern part of western Scania. This makes Helsingborg the fourth largest population area in Sweden, the city is also Swedens closest point to Denmark, with the Danish city Helsingør clearly visible on the other side of the Øresund about 4 km to the west, closer than to the citys own remoter areas. If including all population around the part of Øresund, as a Helsingborg-Helsingør metropolitan area. The busy ferry route, known as the HH Ferry route has through history been operated by shipping lines. As of 2014 more than 70 car ferries departures from each harbour every day, following the Swedish orthography reform of 1906 many place names in Sweden got a modernized spelling. In 1912 it was decided to use the form Hälsingborg, in preparation for the local government reform 1971 the Hälsingborg city council proposed that the new, enlarged municipality should be spelled with an e. This was also the decision of the Government of Sweden, effective from 1 January 1971, historic Helsingborg, with its many old buildings, is a scenic coastal city. The buildings are a blend of old-style stone-built churches and a 600-year-old medieval fortress in the city centre, the streets vary from wide avenues to small alley-ways. Kullagatan, the pedestrian shopping street in the city, was the first pedestrian shopping street in Sweden. Helsingborg is one of the oldest cities of what is now Sweden and it has been the site of permanent settlement officially since 21 May 1085. Helsingborgs geographical position at the narrowest part of Øresund made it important for Denmark. From 1429 Eric of Pomerania introduced the Øresundstolden, a levy on all trading vessels passing through the sound between Elsinore and Helsingborg and this was one of the main incomes for the Danish Crown. Crossing traffic, like fishermen, was not subject to the tax, the Sound Dues primarily made Helsingør flourish, but quite a bit spilled over to Helsingborg. Evidence of this is William Shakespeares masterpiece Hamlet, which unfolda at Kronborg, and the Prince of Denmark may well have hidden himself from his evil uncle in Helsingborg. In any case, the Renaissance was a period for the Kingdom of Denmark. But towards the middle of the 17th Century, dark clouds appeared from the North, following the Dano-Swedish War and the Treaty of Roskilde Denmark had to give up all territory on the southern Scandinavian peninsula, and Helsingborg became submitted to new rulers. King Charles X Gustav of Sweden landed here on 5 March 1658 to take possession of the Scanian lands and was met by a delegation led by the bishop of the Diocese of Lund
20.
Dalsland
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Dalsland is a Swedish traditional province, or landskap, situated in Götaland in southern Sweden. Lying to the west of Lake Vänern, it is bordered by Värmland to the north, Västergötland to the southeast, Bohuslän to the west, the province has a low population density of around 14 inhabitants/km² and just one town of significant size, Åmål. The uninhabited areas are characterized by forests in the northwestern uplands and lakes in the east, giving rise to the epithet, commonly used for Dalsland. The Latinized name Dalia, which was used to name Dalsland in older prints. The traditional provinces of Sweden serve no administrative or political purposes, Dalsland formed the northern part of the administrative county Älvsborg County until 1998 when the present Västra Götaland County was formed. A very small part of the province, Dalboredden, is in Värmland County, Dalsland was granted its arms at the time of the funeral of Gustav Vasa in 1560. In the 16th century Dalsland had the status of a County and was represented with an Earls coronet, on January 18,1884 the Privy Council gave all provinces the right of use to a Dukal coronet for their coat of arms. Blazon, Argent an Ox passant armed and hoofed Or, Dalsland was originally called Dal, Valley, originally referring only to the flat southeastern part. The name Dal is still in part used locally, about all Dalsland, the name Dalsland, valley land, might have been given by central authorities, to distinguish from Dalarna. No other part of Sweden has its area covered with as many lakes as Dalsland does, of its total area, around 450 km² is water, but a part of lake Vänern is also belonging to the province. From the shores of Vänern, one can sail through the river systems up to the mythical lake Stora Le, Stora Le has a length of 66km, whereof 37km are within Dalsland, and the remaining part within the Värmland province, with a bay into Norway. The terrain consists of 1/4 agricultural lands and 2/3 forested lands, the provinces southern part are suitable for agriculture, but there is a shortage of man-power to cultivate it. Tresticklan is a park in Dalsland. There are also nature reserves. The Dalsland Canal was completed in 1868 and has 28 locks in its length of 254 km, municipalities are local districts of administration, with elected councils. Dalsland was historically divided into one chartered city and five hundreds, the hundreds were provincial sub-divisions from the Middle Ages, but were discontinued in the early 20th century. Its hundreds were, Nordal Hundred, Sundal Hundred, Tössbo Hundred, Valbo Hundred and they correspond approximately to todays municipalities, Nordal → Mellerud, Sundal → part of Vänersborg, Tössbo+Åmål → Åmål, Valbo → Färgelanda and Vedbo → Bengtsfors+Dals-Ed. The original name of Dalsland was Dal – Dalsland was not used until the 19th century, the area has around 5,000 localized ancient remains
21.
Kalmar County
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Kalmar County is a county or län in southern Sweden. It borders the counties of Kronoberg, Jönköping, Blekinge and Östergötland, to the east in the Baltic Sea is the island Gotland. The counties are administrative units. Geographically Kalmar County covers the part in the Småland province. Much of Ölands present day landscape known as the Stora Alvaret has been designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO, Kalmar County was integrated with Kronoberg County until 1672. Blekinge was a part of Kalmar County between 1680 and 1683, due to the foundation of the base at Karlskrona. The seat of residence for the Governor or Landshövding is Kalmar, the Governor is the head of the County Administrative Board or Länsstyrelse. The County Administrative Board is a Government Agency headed by a Governor, the current Governor is Stefan Carlsson. See List of Kalmar County Governors, since 1997 The municipalities and the county council cooperate through the indirectly politically controlled Regional Council of Kalmar County. On the mainland, On Öland, The five most populous localities of Kalmar County in 2010, before this the county carried the arms of Småland and Öland side by side. The current arms is a combination of the arms for Småland and Öland
22.
Ingeborg Eriksdottir of Norway
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Ingeborg Eriksdottir was a Norwegian princess and a Swedish duchess. By marriage she was Duchess of Uppland, Öland and Finland, as a widow, she had a seat in the regency government of her nephew, Magnus IV of Sweden-Norway. Ingeborg was the daughter of King Eric II of Norway and Isabel Bruce and her father, Eric II, died on 15 July 1299, when Ingeborg was one or two years old. He was succeeded by his brother, Haakon V, as he died without sons. In 1300, Ingeborgs mother arranged her daughters engagement to Jon Magnusson. The marriage never took place, it is whether the engagement was called off or if he died before her coming of age. The elder Ingeborgs dower included the island of Öland, whereby she was mentioned as Duchess of Öland. In 1316, she had a son who died young. On the night between the tenth and eleventh of December 1317, her husband Valdemar and his brother Eric were arrested and chained during a call on their elder brother King Birger in Nyköping. At the imprisonment of her husband and brother-in-law, she and her cousin and sister-in-law, Ingeborg Håkansdotter, later the same year, their husbands were confirmed to have died. No one knows for certain how the two brothers died and they either starved to death or were murdered. The two Duchesses Ingeborg are thus mentioned once in 1318 as acting for the government alongside Mats Kettilmundsson and her sister-in-law did remain a powerful politician for decades. Ingeborg Eriksdotter was styled Duchess of Öland from at least 1340, surviving her husband long after his death. Jerker Rosén, Den svenska historien 2, nationalencyklopedin, Bokförlaget Bra Böcker AB, Höganäs
23.
Eric II of Norway
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Eric Magnusson was the King of Norway from 1280 until 1299. Eirik was the eldest surviving son of King Magnus the Lawmender of Norway, and his wife Ingeborg Eriksdatter, daughter of King Eric IV of Denmark. In 1273, when he was 5 years old, he was given the title of king, alongside his father, however, King Magnus died before this could be arranged, and Eirik became sole king and was crowned as such in Bergen in the summer of 1280. During his minority, the kingdom was ruled by a council consisting of prominent barons and probably also his mother. After Eirik came of age in 1282, this council is still thought to have had a major influence over his reign. His brother, Haakon, was in 1273 given the title Duke of Norway, the kings main residence was in Bergen in Western Norway. Eirik married princess Margaret of Scotland, daughter of King Alexander III of Scotland in Bergen in 1281, Margaret died two years later in childbirth, giving birth to Margaret, Maid of Norway, who became queen of Scotland in 1286 until her death in 1290. Her death sparked the disputed succession led to the Wars of Scottish Independence. Eirik briefly and unsuccessfully laid claim to the Scottish crown as inheritance from his daughter, Eirik later married Isabel Bruce, sister of King Robert I of Scotland. Their marriage did not produce a male heir, though it did produce a daughter, Ingeborg Eriksdottir of Norway. Ingeborg Eriksdotter was styled Duchess of Öland, a prominent feature of Eiriks reign was war with Denmark, which was waged on and off from 1287 until 1295. A major motivation for this warfare was Eiriks claim on his mothers Danish inheritance, Eirik gave the outlaws sanctuary in Norway in 1287. King Eirik himself led a large Norwegian fleet which, along with the Danish outlaws, attacked Denmark in 1289, burning Elsinore, renewed naval attacks on Denmark were made in 1290 and 1293, before peace was made in 1295. Eirik received the nickname Priest Hater from his relations with the church. As Eirik died without sons, he was succeeded by his brother and he was buried in the old cathedral of Bergen, which was demolished in 1531. Its site is marked by a memorial, in present-day Bergenhus Fortress
24.
Skagerrak
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The Skagerrak contains some of the busiest shipping routes in the world, with vessels from every corner of the globe. It also supports a fishing industry. The ecosystem is strained and negatively affected by human activities. Oslo is the large city in the Skagerrak region. The meaning of Skagerrak is most likely the Skagen Channel/Straight, Skagen is a town near the northern cape of Denmark. Rak means straight waterway, it is cognate with reach, the ultimate source of this syllable is the Proto-Indo-European root *reg-, straight. Rak means straight as in straight ahead in both modern Norwegian and Swedish, råk in modern Norwegian refers to a channel or opening of water in an otherwise ice covered body of water. There is no evidence to suggest a connection with the modern Danish word rak, the Skagerrak is 240 km long and between 80 and 140 km wide. It deepens toward the Norwegian coast, reaching over 700 metres at the Norwegian Trench, some ports along the Skagerrak are Oslo and Kristiansand in Norway and Uddevalla and Strömstad in Sweden. The Skagerrak has a salinity of 30 practical salinity units, which is very low, close to that of brackish water. The area available to biomass is about 3,600 km2 and includes a variety of habitats, from shallow sandy and stony reefs in Sweden. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Skagerrak as follows, a line joining Hanstholm and the Naze. The Northern limit of the Kattegat, older names for the combined Skagerrak and Kattegat were the Norwegian Sea or Jutland Sea, the latter appears in the Knýtlinga saga. Until the construction of the Eider Canal in 1784, Skagerrak was the way in. For this reason the strait has had a heavy international seatraffic for centuries, after the industrialization, the traffic has only increased and today Skagerrak is among the busiest straits in the world. In 1862, the Thyborøn Channel at the Limfjord was constructed in Denmark, the Limfjord only supports minor transports though. In both the wars, the Skagerrak was strategically very important for Germany. The biggest sea battle of World War I, the Battle of Jutland, also known as the Battle of the Skagerrak, both of these naval engagements have contributed to the large number of shipwrecks in the Skagerrak
25.
Kattegat
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The Baltic Sea drains into the Kattegat through the Danish Straits. The sea area is a continuation of the Skagerrak and may be seen as a bay of the Baltic Sea or the North Sea or, as in traditional Scandinavian usage, neither of these. The Kattegat is a shallow sea and can be very difficult and dangerous to navigate, due to the many sandy and stony reefs. There are several cities and major ports in the Kattegat, including Gothenburg, Aarhus, Aalborg, Halmstad and Frederikshavn, mentioned by descending size. The main islands of the Kattegat are Samsø, Læsø and Anholt, since the 1950s, a bridge project usually referred to as Kattegatbroen connecting Jutland and Zealand across the Kattegat has been considered. Since the late 2000s, the project has seen a renewed interest from several politicians in Denmark. The bridge is usually envisioned as connecting Hov with Samsø and Kalundborg, on the South, The limits of the Baltic Sea in the Belts and Sound, In the Little Belt, A line joining Falshöft and Vejsnæs Nakke. In the Great Belt, A line joining Gulstav and Kappel Kirke on the island of Laaland, in the Sound, A line joining Stevns Lighthouse and Falsterbo Point. According to Den Store Danske Encyklopædi and Nudansk Ordbog, the name derives from the Dutch words kat and gat, at one point, the passable waters were a mere 3.84 km wide. The name of the Copenhagen street Kattesundet has a comparable etymological meaning, an archaic name for both the Skagerrak and Kattegat was the Norwegian Sea or Jutland Sea. Its ancient Latin name was Sinus Codanus, Control of the Kattegat, and access to it, have been important throughout the history of international seafaring. Until the completion of the Eider Canal in 1784, the Kattegat was the water route into. The dues were eventually lifted in 1857, in the Kattegat, the salinity has a pronounced two-layer structure. The upper layer has a salinity between 18‰ and 26‰ and the lower layer – separated by a strong halocline at around 15 m – has a salinity between 32‰ and 34‰. These two opposing flows transport a net surplus of 475 km3 seawater from the Baltic to the Skagerrak every year. During stronger winds, the layers in the Kattegat are completely mixed in some places, such as the Great Belt and this sets some unique conditions for the sealife here. The Kattegat was one of the first marine dead zones to be noted in the 1970s, in recent years studies and research, has provided much insight into processes like eutrophication, and how to deal with it. The action plans sums up a range of initiatives and includes the so-called Nitrate Directives
26.
Varberg
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Varberg is a locality and the seat of Varberg Municipality, Halland County, Sweden with 27,602 inhabitants in 2010. Varberg and all of Halland are well known for their typical west coast sandy beaches, in Varberg the coast changes from wide sandy beaches to rocky terrain that continues north into the Bohuslän archipelago and as far as the North Cape. Varberg is a charming and popular resort and many people from inland cities such as Borås are either moving to Varberg or holidaying there. Varberg is located in a terrain of hills and plains and it is largely without trees and green areas, in its place are bald rocks and sand. The Swedish authoritative author and bishop Esaias Tegnér described it in 1826 as the least appealing place in Sweden, the sandy beaches are however very popular in the summer. Another main factor in Varberg is its natural surroundings, just a 20-minute drive inland reveals a totally different landscape. Here you will be among a landscape, rolling hills with lakes. Varberg has a climate that although moderate by Swedish standards. Summers are in general cooler than both in Halmstad and Gothenburg, with highs being moderated by the marine airflow, although this moderation occurs, some summer days can be very warm, and some winter nights see severe frosts. A fortress called Varberg was erected in the 1280s as part of a chain of establishments along the coast. In the middle of the 14th century, the old settlement Getakärr 1 kilometre north of the fortress took its new name from the fortress, the town was moved 5 km northwards around the year 1400. It was destroyed during the Kalmar War and rebuilt near the fortress, in 1645 Halland passed from Denmark to Sweden by the Treaty of Brömsebro for a period of 30 years. It had at that time about 600 inhabitants, the transfer was made permanent by the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658. The town was moved again after a fire in 1666, to the location were the city centre is today, the city was devastated by a huge fire in 1863 and was subsequently rebuilt with stone or brick houses. In 1890 the population figure had passed 4,000 and with industrialization it reached 8,500 in 1930, the local government reform of 1971 made Varberg the seat of the much larger Varberg Municipality, with a current population of close to 56,000 inhabitants. Although several houses were torn down in the 1970s, most of the city still remains intact. Varbergs fortress is its most notable building, mostly because of its size as it has no architectural uniformity. It was first built as a castle in 1280, with new parts being built in successions, near Varberg there is the VLF transmitter Grimeton, an interesting radio-technical facility and classified by UNESCO to be a World Cultural Heritage site
27.
Kalmar
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Kalmar is a city in the southeast of Sweden, situated by the Baltic Sea. It had 36,392 inhabitants in 2010 and is the seat of Kalmar Municipality and it is also the capital of Kalmar County, which comprises 12 municipalities with a total of 236,399 inhabitants. From the thirteenth to the centuries, Kalmar was one of Swedens most important cities. Between 1602 and 1913 it was the see of Kalmar Diocese, with a bishop. It became a city, with the Kalmar Castle as the center. After the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658, Kalmars importance diminished, the city is home to parts of Linnaeus University. Kalmar is adjacent to the route to the island of Öland over the Öland Bridge. The area around Kalmar has been inhabited since ancient times, excavations have found traces of stone age gravefields. The oldest evidence for there being a town are however from the 11th century, according to a medieval folk tale, the Norwegian king Saint Olav had his ships moved to Kalmar. The oldest city seal of Kalmar is from somewhere between 1255 and 1267, making it the oldest known city seal in Scandinavia, in the 12th century the first foundations of a castle were established, with the construction of a round tower for guard and lookout. Kalmars strategic location, near the Danish border, and its harbour and trade, also involved it in several feuds. In the 1540s, first King Gustav Vasa, and later his sons Erik XIV of Sweden, Kalmar became a diocese in 1603, a position it held until 1915. In 1634, Kalmar County was founded, with Kalmar as the natural capital, in 1660, the Kalmar Cathedral was begun by drawings of Nicodemus Tessin the Elder. It would be inaugurated in 1703, in 1611–1613, it suffered in the Kalmar War, which began with a Danish siege of Kalmar Castle. 1611 is mentioned as the darkest year of Kalmars history, but by no means the only dark year, the last was during the Scanian War in the 1670s, so there have been 22 sieges altogether, however the castle was never taken. After the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658, the importance of Kalmar gradually diminished as the borders were redrawn further south. In 1689, the King established his main naval base further south in Karlskrona, the new city of Kalmar built on Kvarnholmen around the mid-1600s. The transfer from the old town was largely completed 1658th The new, according to this pattern were placed church and town hall across from each other at a major square Stortorget Kalmar
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Diocese of Lund
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The Diocese of Lund is a former Latin Catholic bishopric with see in Lund, southern Scandinavia. The territory of the present Lutheran diocese corresponds to the provinces of Blekinge, there are 217 parishes within the diocese, the largest number in any of the dioceses of the Church of Sweden. The present bishop of Lund, Johan Tyrberg, succeeded Antje Jackelén in 2014, the Latin Diocese of Lund was formed in 1060, in what was then Danish territory, by separation from the Diocese of Roskilde, then both suffragans of the German Archdiocese of Hamburg-Bremen. The provinces of Skåne and Halland were under its jurisdiction, the two other provinces of the Scanian lands, Blekinge and Bornholm, were, on the other hand, initially under the jurisdiction of the nearby Swedish Diocese of Dalby. At the earliest in 1067, the Dalby diocese was merged into the Lund diocese. In 1104, the became the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Lund with its own ecclesiastical province, initially covering Denmark, Norway. In January 1553, the Catholic see was suppressed, never to be restored.06.29 promoted as Roman Catholic Diocese of Stockholm, Lunds former Catholic cathedral see became a Protestant church. At the time of the Reformation in 1536, the office of archbishop was abolished in Denmark, initially, the Lutheran bishops were styled superintendents. In 1658 Lund, together with the Scanian lands, fell under the government of Sweden, list of bishops of Lund Lund Cathedral Official website article Lunds stift from Nordisk Familjebok, in Swedish Herbermann, Charles, ed. Lund
29.
Christopher II of Denmark
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Christopher II was king of Denmark from 1320 to 1326 and again from 1329 until his death. His name is connected with national disaster, as his rule ended in an almost total dissolution of the Danish state, being the brother of King Eric VI, Christopher was a possible heir to the throne. As a young man with the title of Duke of Estonia, among other things he arrested Archbishop Jens Grand in 1294. But later on he joined the opposition and went into exile at the death of Eric in 1319 and he received a bankrupt estate in which entire regions of the kingdom were mortgaged to German and Danish magnates. The conditions of the charter were very hard, because they limited his ability to assess taxes, Christopher could make no decision regarding the realm without the consent of the nobility and the bishops. The privileges of the nobility and the church were included in the charter and this shift of power away from the king would last until 1660. Despite signing the charter, King Christopher ruled as if it did not exist, since he could not tax the church or Danish nobles he levied disastrous taxes on the German territories and peasants. During the next years Christopher tried to strengthen his position by reviving Erik’s policy of warfare against the duchies, counties and this resulted in new mortgages and taxes, and very soon he was in conflict with both the church and the magnates. During a rebellion in 1326 he was overthrown by an alliance between Danish magnates and Holstein Count Gerhard III and Count Johann I of Holstein-Kiel. Christopher was forced into abdication and exile, while the 12-year-old Duke Valdemar of Southern Jutland was made a king of Denmark under the regent, Count Gerhard. They forced the Valdemar in his charter to separate southern Jutland from Denmark so that never again would the King of Denmark rule there. Knud Knudson Porse took Halland for himself for his services to Count Gerhard, the squabbling over who got which pieces of Denmark broke down the alliances which had forced Christopher out of the country. Suddenly, with the help of Henry of Mecklenburg, Christopher stood poised at Vordingborg with 2000 mounted German knights, unfortunately for Christopher they allowed themselves to be surrounded and were forced to surrender. After a peasant uprising in Jutland which was crushed ruthlessly by Count Gerhard and he readily accepted and Denmark ceased to exist as a united kingdom. Christopher was restored as Danish king 1329–1330 by the co-operation of Count Johan, most of his country was mortgaged, and he had no chance of holding real royal power. Jutland for example was mortgaged for 100,000 silver marks which had to be laid on the table all at once or the mortgage was not redeemed and it was an enormous mortgage and impossible to pay. Count Gerhard took all of Jutland as his personal property, Count Johan did the same on Funen and Zealand. In 1331 Christopher attempted to use a conflict between Counts Gerhard and Johan by joining the latter ended in a clear military defeat at Dannevirke
30.
Hereditary Kingdom of Norway
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The Kingdom of Norway as a unified realm was initiated by King Harald I Fairhair in the 9th century. His efforts in unifying the petty kingdoms of Norway, resulted in the first known Norwegian central government, the country however fragmented soon, and was collected into one entity in the first half of the 11th century. Norway has been a monarchy since then, passing through several eras, thus was born the medieval kingdom of Norway, the realm of the Fairhair dynasty. According to the view, Norway was the hereditary kingdom of this dynasty. The throne was inherited by all of Haralds male descendants after year 872, in the 13th century, the kingdom was officially declared hereditary by law, contrary to the other Scandinavian monarchies which were elective kingdoms in the Middle Ages. Harald Fairhair was the first king of Norway, as opposed to in Norway, the boundaries of Fairhairs kingdom were not identical to those of present-day Norway and upon his death the kingship was shared among his sons. Harald Fairhair unified Norway, at least the coastal areas north to Trøndelag, after his death, the fragmentation back into petty kingdoms happened almost instantly. However, most of them were now in the hands of Haralds putative sons, although there were districts in the hands of other dynasties, the concept of a central power on an hereditary basis had come into existence. It remains uncertain whether Norway can be defined as an hereditary kingdom even after the successions of Eric I of Norway and Haakon I of Norway, sons of Fairhair himself. Some historians put emphasis on the actual control over the country and assert that St. Olav. Olav is traditionally held to be the force behind Norways final conversion to Christianity. He was later revered as Rex Perpetuum Norvegiæ. The Fairhair dynasty can, however, be seen as an artificial construct, adherents of this proposal consider Harald Hardråde to be the actual dynastic founder. This claim has won wide, but not universal, acceptance among historians and it is a disputed question whether Harald Hardråde himself actually claimed inheritance from Harald Fairhair, or whether this claim was constructed later by his descendants. From our sources, it seems reasonable to assume that Olav II and Harald Hardråde were half-brothers, with a common mother, descent from the same mother was not in Germanic understanding a proper dynastic tie, and Harald Hardrådes supporters did not base his rights and claims on that. Instead, Harald Hardrådes father was supposedly a descendent, in male line. The same has been claimed regarding Olav IIs line, to researchers, one or perhaps both of these somewhat obscure male-line descents may be legendary. Research has generally shown a tendency to create a prestigious past to the country
31.
Birger Jarl
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Birger Jarl, or Birger Magnusson, was a Swedish statesman, Jarl of Sweden and a member of the House of Bjelbo, who played a pivotal role in the consolidation of Sweden. Birger also led the Second Swedish Crusade, which established Swedish rule in Finland, additionally, he is traditionally attributed to have founded the Swedish capital, Stockholm around 1250. Birger used the Latin title of Dux Sweorum which in English equals Duke of Sweden, and it is known that Birger grew up and spent his adolescence in Bjälbo, Östergötland but the exact date of his birth remains uncertain and available historical sources are contradictory. Examinations of his mortal remains indicate that he was probably about 50 upon his death in 1266 which would indicate a birth around 1216. However, his father Magnus Minnesköld is assumed to have died no later than 1210 and his brothers or half-brothers — Eskil, Karl, and Bengt — were all born long before 1200, and it can therefore be assumed that they had another mother. He was also a nephew of the jarl Birger Brosa from the House of Bjelbo, the combination of this background proved to be of vital importance. During the 15 years to follow, Birger then consolidated his position and was one of the most influential men years before being formally given the title jarl in 1248 by King Eric XI. Although Birger Jarl saw many battles, some have speculated that traces of a blow in Birgers cranium might have originated from this battle. However, the original 14th-century Russian version of the battle had no information on this at all, in 1247, royal troops led by Birger at the Battle of Sparrsätra fought with Folkung forces led by pretender Holmger Knutsson, son of King Canute II. The Folkungs lost the battle and were unable to resist the central government, Holmger Knutsson fled to Gästrikland and was captured there by Birger in the following year. Quickly brought to trial, he was beheaded, in 1249, Birger succeeded in ending a decades-long period of hostilities with Norway. As a part of the Treaty of Lödöse, he managed to marry off his daughter Rikissa, then only 11 years old, to Haakon Haakonsson the Young. Presumably later that year, Birger led an expedition to Finland, later dubbed as the Second Swedish Crusade, on King Erics death in 1250, Birgers son Valdemar was elected as the new king while Birger acted as regent, holding the true power in Sweden until his death. Birger thus combined financial support from Germany with papal political support to consolidate his own position, ingeborg died in 1254 and in 1261 Birger married the widow of King Abel of Denmark, the Danish queen dowager, Matilda of Holstein. Birger died on 21 October 1266, at Jälbolung in Västergötland and his grave in Varnhem Abbey was opened in May 2002. There is a cenotaph for him at the base of the tower of Stockholm City Hall and it was originally intended that his remains be removed there, but this was never done. Several other historical structures there are named for him including the street Birger Jarlsgatan on Norrmalm. The Hotel Birger Jarl is located in Stockholms Norrmalm neighborhood and he is also the central figure of Bröllopet på Ulvåsa by Frans Hedberg
32.
Sune Sik
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Sune Sik, was allegedly a Swedish prince. According to Olaus Petri, he would have been a son of King Sverker I of Sweden. In surviving contemporary documents one Sune Sik can be found who lived much later and that Sune Sik made a donation to Vreta Abbey as late as in 1297. He might have ordered a restoration of a chapel in which he eventually was interred and this has caused some historians to view Olaus Petris account of him as unreliable. Sune Sik, as a son of King Sverker, is counted by other Swedish historians as a person of history, according to 18th-century Swedish Master of Philosophy Magnus Boræn, Sune was also Duke of Östergötland
33.
Ingrid Ylva
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Ingrid Ylva of Bjelbo, was a Swedish noblewoman, the wife of Magnus Minnesköld of Bjälbo and the mother of regent Birger Jarl. According to Olaus Petri, she was the daughter of Sune Sik and she was married to Magnus Minnesköld of Bjelbo, possibly as his second wife. 1208–1210, she most likely managed her estates in Bjälbo as the head of the family, due to her sons being minors. She attended the church from her place in the church tower, to which she had once donated a bell, according to tradition. In 1234, her son Birger married Princess Ingeborg Eriksdotter of Sweden and it remains unclear if Ingrid Ylva was still alive at this point, though it is believed that she was. However, she does not seem to have played any part at the royal court and she is said to have married again, to an unnamed man with whom she had a son, Elof Vingad Pil, while other sources claims she remained unmarried. A lot of stories were told about her magical skills and her name was widely known long before her son became regent, and her alleged magical skill was highly admired. She was widely regarded for her ability to foretell the future, legend claims, that on her deathbed she predicted that her line would succeed to the Swedish throne, as long as her head was held high
34.
Canute I of Sweden
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Canute I was king over all of Sweden from 1173 to 1195. He was a son of King Eric the Saint and Queen Christina, Canute was born no later than the 1140s, thus before his father had yet gained power over parts of Sweden. As a young man he was betrothed to a lady, sister of another Canute and her name is not revealed, but her equal could supposedly not be found in the land. When Eric IX was killed in Uppsala in 1160, Canute was defeated and forced to flee, according to late medieval sources he lived in exile in Norway for three years, a piece of information that is highly unreliable. He later returned to reclaim the throne, Canute came over and slew Charles on 12 April 1167. The sources do not allow us to tell if it was a regicide or if Charles was killed in battle, the deed did not immediately secure the throne for Canute, who started fighting for power against Sverker the Elders sons or grandsons Kol and Burislev. As the chronicle states, he fought battles against Sweden and had the victory in them all. According to later sources Kol fell in fighting at Bjälbo in 1169, only from this time could Canute call himself king of the whole country. According to the short chronicle included in the Law of Västergötland, after 1174, Canute was ably supported in his rule by the jarl Birger Brosa who died in 1202. In many ways, the reign of Canute brought Sweden closer to a Catholic-European state model. The power of the king was consilidated, concomitantly with a central bureaucracy where the written word was increasingly important. The issuing of royal written documents began at this time, nine such are preserved, there had not been any coinage in Sweden from about 1030 to 1150, when minting once again started in Lödöse. King Canute supported the initiative and issued royal coins after c.1180 with the inscription KANVTVS REX or KANVTVS, the coins are of German type, and minting may be connected to Canutes relationship with North Germany. Some time before 1180 he concluded a treaty with Henry the Lion of Saxony. It is the first such treaty in Swedish history and may indicate the emergence of towns and he also sent three envoys to Henry II of England in c.1185 and received pieces of armour in return. Within Scandinavia, Canute and his jarl Birger Brosa entertained good relations with the Norwegian king Sverre, the pretender Erling Steinvegg, who was the enemy of Sverre, was arrested by Canute on behalf of his brother-in-law and imprisoned on Visingsö. On the other hand, relations with Denmark were rocky, during his reign Canute was reportedly occupied fighting pagans for the sake of dissemination of the Christian faith. A fleet of pagan Karelians entered Lake Mälaren in 1187 and ravaged the coasts, the marauders burned Sigtuna and killed Archbishop Johannes at Almarestäket
35.
Eric X of Sweden
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Eric X, Swedish, Erik Knutsson, Old Norse, Eiríkr Knútsson was the King of Sweden between 1208 and 1216. Also known as Eric the Survivor, he was, at his accession to the throne, the name of his mother is not known, but may have been Cecilia. Nothing is known about his youth, but he may have been born around 1180 in Eriksberg royal manor, when Erics father, King Canute I, died peacefully in 1195 or 1196, his four sons were youthful but not children. One of them had been hailed as heir to the throne by the grandees of the kingdom when Canute was still alive, whether this was Eric we do not know, nor do the sources disclose the names of his three brothers. In spite of the precautions of King Canute, his sons were passed over in favour of Sverker Karlsson, perhaps this was due to the influence of the mighty second-of-the-realm, Jarl Birger Brosa. As far as we know the succession took place without bloodshed, King Canutes sons continued to live in the Swedish royal court and were raised by King Sverker. Several years later, after the death of Birger Brosa, the brothers, King Sverker did not acquiesce, at which point Eric and his brothers escaped to Norway where they stayed over the winter of 1204-05. Eric and his brothers had kin ties with the Norwegian Birkebeiner party since Jarl Håkon Galen was married to their cousin, in 1205, the brothers returned to Sweden with Norwegian backing. However, they were overcome by King Sverker in the Battle of Älgarås in Tiveden, Eric survived and once again fled to Norway where he remained for three years. In 1208 he returned to Sweden under unknown circumstances but apparently with Birkebeiner assistance, Sverker on his side received troops from King Valdemar Sejr of Denmark. In January 1208 Eric nevertheless defeated Sverker in the Battle of Lena and slew the Danish commander Ebbe Sunesen, popular tradition depicted the event as a battle between Sweden and Denmark where two Danes ran for one Swede, and their backs were badly spanked by the Swedish men. A Danish folksong describes how the horses of the lords return bloodied, now Eric took the name of King of Sweden. Birger Brosas son Knut had been appointed jarl at some stage, Eric appointed Folke Jarl, probably another son of Birger Brosa, in his stead. This person was the originator of the Folkung party which played a role in 13th-century Sweden and is frequently confused with the royal family that reigned after 1250. Sverker and the archbishop Valerius fled to Denmark after the defeat, Innocent ordered the bishops of Skara, Linköping and a third see to persuade Eric to come to terms with Sverker and return the royal prerogatives. In case of refusal, Eric would be censured by the Church and this did not have the desired effect, and in 1210 Sverker invaded Sweden in an attempt to reconquer the throne. However, he was defeated in the Battle of Gestilren in July 1210 and this time Sverker was killed at the hands of Folke Jarl and his party, however, Folke was also slain together with many Folkungs. The location of the battle has been a matter of debate, after his victory, King Eric nevertheless quickly reconciled with the Danish king as well as the Catholic Church
36.
Ingeborg Eriksdotter of Sweden
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Ingeborg Eriksdotter was a Swedish princess and duchess, daughter of King Eric X of Sweden, eldest sibling of King Eric XI of Sweden, wife of Birger Jarl, and mother of King Valdemar I of Sweden. Ingeborg was born the eldest daughter of King Eric X of Sweden and his wife and she lived her youth in exile in Denmark, after her brother had been deposed by his guardian and regent in 1229. Princess Ingeborg bore a vast number of children to her husband dux Birger Jarl, Ingeborg thereby became the Kings Mother and first lady of the royal court. Ingeborg is recorded to have inherited her brother Erics private property upon his death, even in her forties, she continued to give birth to children, and her death is believed to have occurred because of childbirth complications, possibly giving birth to twins. Sverige och dess regenter under 1.000 år
37.
Valdemar I of Denmark
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Valdemar I of Denmark, also known as Valdemar the Great, was King of Denmark from 1146 until his death in 1182. He was the son of Canute Lavard, a chivalrous and popular Danish prince, in 1146, when Valdemar was fifteen years old, King Erik III Lamb abdicated and a civil war erupted. The pretenders to the throne were, Sweyn III Grathe, son of Eric II Emune, Canute V, son of Magnus the Strong who was the son of King Niels, who was the brother of Erik I. Valdemar himself held Jutland, at least Schleswig, as his possession, the civil war lasted the better part of ten years. In 1157, the three agreed to part the country in three among themselves, Sweyn hosted a great banquet for Canute, Absalon, and Valdemar during which he planned to dispose of all of them. Canute was killed, but Absalon and Valdemar escaped, Sweyn quickly launched an invasion, only to be defeated by Valdemar in the Battle of Grathe Heath. He was killed during flight, supposedly by a group of peasants who stumbled upon him as he was fleeing from the battlefield, Valdemar, having outlived all his rival pretenders, became the sole King of Denmark. In 1158 Absalon was elected Bishop of Roskilde, and Valdemar made him his chief friend and he reorganized and rebuilt war-torn Denmark. At Absalons instigation he declared war upon the Wends who were raiding the Danish coasts and they inhabited Pomerania and the island of Rügen in the Baltic Sea. In 1168 the Wendish capital, Arkona, was taken, Valdemars reign saw the rise of Denmark, which reached its zenith under his second son Valdemar II. Ingeborg, married King Philip II of France, helena, married William, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg. Richeza, married King Eric X of Sweden, walburgis, married Bogusław I, Duke of Pomerania. His widow Sophia married then Louis III, Landgrave of Thuringia, illegitimate with Tove, Christopher, Valdemars eldest son, Duke of Jutland ca. 1170–1173 Media related to Valdemar I of Denmark at Wikimedia Commons Valdemar I of Denmark at Find a Grave http, //www. kingsofdenmark. dk/king19. htm
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This article contains content from the Owl Edition of Nordisk familjebok, a Swedish encyclopedia published between 1904 and 1926, now in the public domain.
