1.
Potsdam
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Potsdam is the capital and largest city of the German federal state of Brandenburg. It directly borders the German capital Berlin and is part of the Berlin/Brandenburg Metropolitan Region and it is situated on the River Havel,24 kilometres southwest of Berlins city centre. Potsdam was a residence of the Prussian kings and the German Kaiser, around the city there are a series of interconnected lakes and cultural landmarks, in particular the parks and palaces of Sanssouci, the largest World Heritage Site in Germany. The Potsdam Conference in 1945 was held at the palace Cecilienhof, the Filmstudio Babelsberg is the oldest large-scale film studio in the world. Potsdam developed into a centre of science in Germany in the 19th century, today, there are three public colleges, the University of Potsdam, and more than 30 research institutes in the city. The area was formed from a series of large moraines left after the last glacial period, today, the city is three-quarters green space, with just a quarter as urban area. There are about 20 lakes and rivers in and around Potsdam, such as the Havel, the Griebnitzsee, Templiner See, Tiefer See, Jungfernsee, Teltowkanal, Heiliger See, the highest point is the 114-metre high Kleiner Ravensberg. Potsdam is divided into seven city districts and nine new Ortsteile. The appearances of the city districts are quite different, the districts in the north and in the centre consist mainly of historical buildings, the south of the city is dominated by larger areas of newer buildings. Potsdam has an Oceanic climate, with cool, snowy winters, the average winter high temperature is 3.5 °C, with a low of −1.7 °C. Snow is common in the winter, summers are mild, with a high of 23.6 °C and a low of 12.7 °C. The name Potsdam originally seems to have been Poztupimi, a common theory is that it derives from an old West Slavonic term meaning beneath the oaks, i. e. the corrupted pod dubmi/dubimi. The area around Potsdam shows occupancy since the Bronze Age and was part of Magna Germania as described by Tacitus. After the great migrations of the Germanic peoples, Slavs moved in and it was first mentioned in a document in 993 AD as Poztupimi, when Emperor Otto III gifted the territory to the Quedlinburg Abbey, then led by his aunt Matilda. By 1317, it was mentioned as a small town and it gained its town charter in 1345. In 1573, it was still a market town of 2,000 inhabitants. Potsdam lost nearly half of its due to the Thirty Years War. After the Edict of Potsdam in 1685, Potsdam became a centre of European immigration and its religious freedom attracted people from France, Russia, the Netherlands and Bohemia
2.
Kingdom of Prussia
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It was the driving force behind the unification of Germany in 1871 and was the leading state of the German Empire until its dissolution in 1918. Although it took its name from the region called Prussia, it was based in the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the kings of Prussia were from the House of Hohenzollern. Prussia was a power from the time it became a kingdom, through its predecessor, Brandenburg-Prussia. Prussia continued its rise to power under the guidance of Frederick II, more known as Frederick the Great. After the might of Prussia was revealed it was considered as a power among the German states. Throughout the next hundred years Prussia went on to win many battles and it was because of its power that Prussia continuously tried to unify all the German states under its rule. Attempts at creation of a federation remained unsuccessful and the German Confederation collapsed in 1866 when war ensued between its two most powerful states, Prussia and Austria. The North German Confederation which lasted from 1867–1871, created a union between the Prussian-aligned states while Austria and most of Southern Germany remained independent. The North German Confederation was seen as more of an alliance of military strength in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War, the German Empire lasted from 1871–1918 with the successful unification of all the German states under Prussian hegemony. This was due to the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, in 1871, Germany unified into a single country, minus Austria and Switzerland, with Prussia the dominant power. Prussia is considered the predecessor of the unified German Reich. The Kingdom left a significant cultural legacy, today notably promoted by the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation, in 1415 a Hohenzollern Burgrave came from the south to the March of Brandenburg and took control of the area as elector. In 1417 the Hohenzollern was made an elector of the Holy Roman Empire, after the Polish wars, the newly established Baltic towns of the German states including Prussia, suffered many economic setbacks. Many of the Prussian towns could not even afford to attend political meetings outside of Prussia, the towns were poverty stricken, with even the largest town, Danzig, having to borrow money from elsewhere to pay for trade. Poverty in these towns was partly caused by Prussias neighbors, who had established and developed such a monopoly on trading that these new towns simply could not compete and these issues led to feuds, wars, trade competition and invasions. However, the fall of these gave rise to the nobility, separated the east and the west. It was clear in 1440 how different Brandenburg was from the other German territories, not only did it face partition from within but also the threat of its neighbors. It prevented the issue of partition by enacting the Dispositio Achillea which instilled the principle of primogeniture to both the Brandenburg and Franconian territories, the second issue was solved through expansion
3.
Jena
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Jena is a German university city and the second largest city in Thuringia. Jena is a centre of education and research, the Friedrich Schiller University was founded in 1558 and has 21,000 students today, furthermore, there are many institutes of the leading German research societies. Jena was first mentioned in 1182 and stayed a small town until the 19th century, for most of the 20th century, Jena was a world centre of the optical industry around companies like Carl Zeiss, Schott and Jenoptik. As one of only a few medium-sized cities in Germany, it has some buildings in the city centre. These also have their origin in the former Carl Zeiss factory, between 1790 and 1850, Jena was a focal point of the German Vormärz as well as of the student liberal and unification movement and German Romanticism. Notable persons of this period in Jena were Friedrich Schiller, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Novalis, the citys economy is based on the high-technology industry and research. The optical and precision industry is the branch to date, while software engineering, other digital businesses. Furthermore, Jena is also a hub for the surrounding regions. Jena lies in a landscape in the east of Thuringia. Until the High Middle Ages, the Saale was the border between Germanic regions in the west and Slavic regions in the east, owing to its function as a river crossing, Jena was conveniently located. The first unequivocal mention of Jena was in an 1182 document, the first local rulers of the region were the Lords of Lobdeburg with their eponymous castle near Lobeda, roughly 6 km south of the city centre on the eastern hillside of the Saale valley. Around 1230, Jena received town rights and a city grid was established between todays Fürstengraben, Löbdergraben, Teichgraben and Leutragraben. The city got a marketplace, main church, town hall, council and city walls during the late 13th, in this time, the citys economy was based mainly on wine production on the warm and sunny hillsides of the Saale valley. The two monasteries of the Dominicans and the Cistercians rounded out Jenas medieval appearance, as the political circumstances in Thuringia changed in the middle of the 14th century, the weakened Lords of Lobdeburg sold Jena to the aspiring Wettins in 1331. Jena obtained the Gotha municipal law and the citizens strengthened their rights, moreover, the Wettins were more interested in their residence in the nearby city of Weimar, and so Jena could develop itself relatively autonomously. The Protestant Reformation was brought to the city in 1523, Martin Luther visited the town to reorganize the clerical relations and Jena became an early centre of his doctrine. In the following years, the Dominican and the Carmelite convents were attacked by the townsmen, an important step in Jenas history was the foundation of the university in 1558. Ernestine Elector John Frederick the Magnanimous founded it, because he had lost his old university in Wittenberg to the Albertines after the Schmalkaldic War
4.
Weimar Republic
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Weimar Republic is an unofficial, historical designation for the German state between 1919 and 1933. The name derives from the city of Weimar, where its constitutional assembly first took place, the official name of the state was still Deutsches Reich, it had remained unchanged since 1871. In English the country was known simply as Germany. A national assembly was convened in Weimar, where a new constitution for the Deutsches Reich was written, in its fourteen years, the Weimar Republic faced numerous problems, including hyperinflation, political extremism, and contentious relationships with the victors of the First World War. The people of Germany blamed the Weimar Republic rather than their leaders for the countrys defeat. However, the Weimar Republic government successfully reformed the currency, unified tax policies, Weimar Germany eliminated most of the requirements of the Treaty of Versailles, it never completely met its disarmament requirements, and eventually paid only a small portion of the war reparations. Under the Locarno Treaties, Germany accepted the borders of the republic. From 1930 onwards President Hindenburg used emergency powers to back Chancellors Heinrich Brüning, Franz von Papen, the Great Depression, exacerbated by Brünings policy of deflation, led to a surge in unemployment. In 1933, Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as Chancellor with the Nazi Party being part of a coalition government, the Nazis held two out of the remaining ten cabinet seats. Von Papen as Vice Chancellor was intended to be the éminence grise who would keep Hitler under control, within months the Reichstag Fire Decree and the Enabling Act of 1933 had brought about a state of emergency, it wiped out constitutional governance and civil liberties. Hitlers seizure of power was permissive of government by decree without legislative participation and these events brought the republic to an end, as democracy collapsed, a single-party state founded the Nazi era. The Weimar Republic is so called because the assembly that adopted its constitution met at Weimar, Germany from 6 February 1919 to 11 August 1919, but this name only became mainstream after 1933. To the right of the spectrum the politically engaged rejected the new democratic model, the Catholic Centre party, Zentrum favoured the term Deutscher Volksstaat while on the moderate left the Chancellors SPD preferred Deutsche Republik. Only during the 1930s did the term become mainstream, both within and outside Germany, after the introduction of the republic, the flag and coat of arms of Germany were officially altered to reflect the political changes. The Weimar Republic retained the Reichsadler, but without the symbols of the former Monarchy and this left the black eagle with one head, facing to the right, with open wings but closed feathers, with a red beak, tongue and claws and white highlighting. If the Reichs Eagle is shown without a frame, the charge and colors as those of the eagle of the Reichs coat of arms are to be used. The patterns kept by the Federal Ministry of the Interior are decisive for the heraldic design, the artistic design may be varied for each special purpose. The achievements and signs of movement were mostly done away with after its downfall
5.
Germans
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Germans are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe, who share a common German ancestry, culture and history. German is the mother tongue of a substantial majority of ethnic Germans. The English term Germans has historically referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages, before the collapse of communism and the reunification of Germany in 1990, Germans constituted the largest divided nation in Europe by far. Ever since the outbreak of the Protestant Reformation within the Holy Roman Empire, of approximately 100 million native speakers of German in the world, roughly 80 million consider themselves Germans. Thus, the number of Germans lies somewhere between 100 and more than 150 million, depending on the criteria applied. Today, people from countries with German-speaking majorities most often subscribe to their own national identities, the German term Deutsche originates from the Old High German word diutisc, referring to the Germanic language of the people. It is not clear how commonly, if at all, the word was used as an ethnonym in Old High German, used as a noun, ein diutscher in the sense of a German emerges in Middle High German, attested from the second half of the 12th century. The Old French term alemans is taken from the name of the Alamanni and it was loaned into Middle English as almains in the early 14th century. The word Dutch is attested in English from the 14th century, denoting continental West Germanic dialects, while in most Romance languages the Germans have been named from the Alamanni, the Old Norse, Finnish and Estonian names for the Germans were taken from that of the Saxons. In Slavic languages, the Germans were given the name of němьci, originally with a meaning foreigner, the English term Germans is only attested from the mid-16th century, based on the classical Latin term Germani used by Julius Caesar and later Tacitus. It gradually replaced Dutch and Almains, the latter becoming mostly obsolete by the early 18th century, the Germans are a Germanic people, who as an ethnicity emerged during the Middle Ages. Originally part of the Holy Roman Empire, around 300 independent German states emerged during its decline after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ending the Thirty Years War and these states eventually formed into modern Germany in the 19th century. The concept of a German ethnicity is linked to Germanic tribes of antiquity in central Europe, the early Germans originated on the North German Plain as well as southern Scandinavia. By the 2nd century BC, the number of Germans was significantly increasing and they began expanding into eastern Europe, during antiquity these Germanic tribes remained separate from each other and did not have writing systems at that time. In the European Iron Age the area that is now Germany was divided into the La Tène horizon in Southern Germany and the Jastorf culture in Northern Germany. By 55 BC, the Germans had reached the Danube river and had either assimilated or otherwise driven out the Celts who had lived there, and had spread west into what is now Belgium and France. Conflict between the Germanic tribes and the forces of Rome under Julius Caesar forced major Germanic tribes to retreat to the east bank of the Rhine, in Roman-held territories with Germanic populations, the Germanic and Roman peoples intermarried, and Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions intermingled. The adoption of Christianity would later become an influence in the development of a common German identity
6.
Humboldt University of Berlin
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The Humboldt university model has strongly influenced other European and Western universities. In 1949, it changed its name to Humboldt-Universität in honour of both its founder Wilhelm and his brother, geographer Alexander von Humboldt. The first semester at the newly founded Berlin university occurred in 1810 with 256 students and 52 lecturers in faculties of law, medicine, theology, du Bois and European unifier Robert Schuman, as well as the influential surgeon Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach in the early half of the 1800s. The structure of German research-intensive universities, such as Humboldt, served as a model for institutions like Johns Hopkins University, Alexander von Humboldt, brother of the founder William, promoted the new learning. With the construction of research facilities in the second half of the 19th Century teaching of the natural sciences began. During this period of enlargement, Berlin University gradually expanded to other previously separate colleges in Berlin. An example would be the Charité, the Pépinière and the Collegium Medico-chirurgicum, in 1717, King Friedrich I had built a quarantine house for Plague at the city gates, which in 1727 was rechristened by the soldier king Friedrich Wilhelm, Es soll das Haus die Charité heißen. By 1829 the site became Berlin Universitys medical campus and remained so until 1927 when the more modern University Hospital was constructed, Berlin University started a natural history collection in 1810, which, by 1889 required a separate building and became the Museum für Naturkunde. The preexisting Tierarznei School, founded in 1790 and absorbed by the university, also the Landwirtschaftliche Hochschule Berlin, founded in 1881 was affiliated with the Agricultural Faculties of the University. After 1933, like all German universities, it was affected by the Nazi regime, the rector during this period was Eugen Fischer. The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service resulted in 250 Jewish professors and employees being fired during 1933/1934, students and scholars and political opponents of Nazis were ejected from the university and often deported. During this time one third of all of the staff were fired by the Nazis. The Soviet Military Administration in Germany ordered the opening of the university in January 1946, the SMAD wanted a redesigned Berlin University based on the Soviet model, however they insisted on the phrasing newly opened and not re-opened for political reasons. The University of Berlin must effectively start again in almost every way and you have before you this image of the old university. What remains of that is nought but ruins, the teaching was limited to seven departments working in reopened, war-damaged buildings, with many of the teachers dead or missing. However, by the semester of 1946, the Economic. This program existed at Berlin University until 1962, the East-West conflict in post-war Germany led to a growing communist influence in the university. This was controversial, and incited strong protests within the student body, Soviet NKVD secret police arrested a number of students in March 1947 as a response
7.
University of Jena
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Friedrich Schiller University Jena is a public research university located in Jena, Thuringia, Germany. The university was established in 1558 and is counted among the ten oldest universities in Germany and it is affiliated with six Nobel Prize winners, most recently in 2000 when Jena graduate Herbert Kroemer won the Nobel Prize for physics. It was renamed after the poet Friedrich Schiller who was teaching as professor of philosophy when Jena attracted some of the most influential minds at the turn of the 19th century, as of 2014, the university has around 19,000 students enrolled and 375 professors. Its current president, Walter Rosenthal, was elected in 2014 for a six-year term, the plan was put into motion by his three sons and, after having obtained a charter from the Emperor Ferdinand I, the university was established on 2 February 1558. The university, jointly maintained by the Saxon Duchies who derived from partitioning of John Fredericks duchy, was thus named Ducal Pan-Saxon University or Salana, prior to the 20th century, University enrollment peaked in the 18th century. Founded as a home for the new religious opinions of the sixteenth century, the University of Jena has preserved a historical detention room or Karzer with famous caricatures by Swiss painter Martin Disteli. In the latter 19th century, the department of zoology taught evolutionary theory, with Carl Gegenbaur, Ernst Haeckel, the later fame of Ernst Haeckel eclipsed Darwin in some European countries, as the term Haeckelism was more common than Darwinism. In 1905, Jena had 1,100 students enrolled and its staff numbered 112. In 1934 the university was renamed again, receiving its present name of Friedrich Schiller University, during the 20th century, the cooperation between Zeiss corporation and the university brought new prosperity and attention to Jena, resulting in a dramatic increase in funding and enrollment. During the Third Reich, staunch Nazis moved into leading position at the university, the racial researcher and SS-Hauptscharführer Karl Astel was appointed professor in 1933, bypassing traditional qualifications and process, he later became rector of the University in 1939. Also in 1933, many professors had to leave the university as a consequence of the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, Student fraternities - in particular the Burschenschaften - were dissolved and incorporated into the Nazi student federation. Between the Jena connections and the NS students wide-ranging human and ideological connections were recorded, completely destroyed were the Botanical Garden, the psychological and the physiological institute and three chemical Institutes. An important event for the National Socialist period was the investigation of the pediatrician Yusuf Ibrahim, a Senate Commission noted the participation of the physician to the euthanasia murders of physically or mentally disabled children. In the 20th century the university was promoted through cooperation with Carl Zeiss, in 1905 the university had 1,100 students and 112 university teachers, so this figure has since been almost twenty-fold. The Thuringian State University is the comprehensive university of the Free State. Since 1995, there is a university association with the Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg, the aim is firstly to give the students the opportunity to visit with relatively few problems at the partner universities and events in order to broaden the range of subjects and topics. Currently e. g. has joined a cooperation in teaching in the field of bioinformatics, in addition, the cooperation provides the university management the opportunity to share experiences with their regular meetings and initiate common projects. So z. B. went from the bid to the German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research from the University network
8.
Kunstformen der Natur
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Kunstformen der Natur is a book of lithographic and halftone prints by German biologist Ernst Haeckel. A second edition of Kunstformen, containing only 30 prints, was produced in 1924, according to Haeckel scholar Olaf Breidbach, the work was not just a book of illustrations but also the summation of his view of the world. The over-riding themes of the Kunstformen plates are symmetry and organization, among the notable prints are numerous radiolarians, which Haeckel helped to popularize among amateur microscopists, at least one example is found in almost every set of 10. Cnidaria also feature throughout the book, including sea anemones as well as Siphonophorae, Semaeostomeae. The first set included Desmonema annasethe, a particularly striking jellyfish that Haeckel observed and described shortly after the death of his wife Anna Sethe, Kunstformen der Natur was influential in early 20th-century art, architecture, and design, bridging the gap between science and art. In particular, many associated with Art Nouveau were influenced by Haeckels images, including René Binet, Karl Blossfeldt, Hans Christiansen. One prominent example is the Amsterdam Commodities Exchange designed by Hendrik Petrus Berlage, Haeckels original classifications appear in italics. On Growth and Form Breidbach, Olaf, visions of Nature, The Art and Science of Ernst Haeckel. Marine Biological Laboratory Library - An exhibition of material on Haeckel, University Art Gallery, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth - An Ernst Haeckel exhibition from 2005 pairing prints from Kunstformen der Natur with modern sculptures. Kurt Stübers Biolib - An online version of Kunstformen der Natur with 200 dpi scans of the 100 plates, their scheme plates, Ernst Haeckels Kunstformen der Natur as zoomable images - One hundred plates of Kunstformen der Natur
9.
Nicholas Miklouho-Maclay
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Nicholas Miklouho-Maclay was a Russian explorer, ethnologist, anthropologist and biologist who became famous as the first scientist to settle among and study people who had never seen a European. Miklouho-Maclay spent the part of his life travelling and conducted scientific research in the Middle East, Australia, New Guinea. Australia, became his country and Sydney the home town of his family. He became a prominent figure of nineteenth-century Australian science and became involved in significant issues of Australian and his three grandsons have all contributed to the public life of Australia. Miklouho-Maclay was born in a workers camp in Borovichi county, Novgorod Governorate in Russia. In fact, his Cossack lineage was extensive and also included the Otaman of Zaporizhian Host Okhrim Myklukha and his paternal grandparents were friends of Gogols. About his origins, Miklouho-Maclay wrote, My ancestors came originally from the Ukraine, Nicholas father, Mykola Myklukha, graduated from the Nizhyn Lyceum, after which he walked all the way to Saint Petersburg, where he enrolled in the Roadway Institute of Engineering Corps. He graduated from the institute in 1840 and became an engineer assigned to work on the construction of the Moscow–Saint Petersburg Railway, after becoming the first chief of the Moskovsky passenger railway station in Saint Petersburg, Myklukha moved his family there. He died in December 1857 from tuberculosis and was survived by his wife, before his death, Myklukha was fired from his job for sending 150 rubles to Taras Shevchenko. Nicholas mother, Ekaterina Semenovna, née Bekker, was of German, after 1873, the Miklouho-Maclay family purchased and lived in a country estate in Malyn,100 kilometres northwest of Kiev in the Polesia region. One of Nicholas brothers, Sergei, became a judge in Malyn where he eventually died, another brother, Mikhail, became a geologist. A third brother, Vladimir, was a captain of the Russian coast defense ship Admiral Ushakov, both Mikhail and Vladimir were members of the Russian revolutionary organization Narodnaya Volya. Nicholas was baptised on 21 July 1846 by priest Ioann Smirnov at the Shegrinskaya Church of Nikolaos the Wonderworker and his godfather was Nicholas Ridigier, a Borovichi landowner who was a veteran of the Patriotic War of 1812 and a participant in the Battle of Borodino. In 1858 Nicholas enrolled into the grade of a German Lutheran school at the Saint Anna Kirche in Saint Petersburg. The young students were saved by the Russian writer Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy who was a friend of Nicholas father. In March of the year, with a forged passport, he moved abroad to complete his studies in German universities. Miklouho-Maclays brilliant student records attracted the attention of Haeckel, who made him his assistant as part of an expedition to the Canary Islands in 1866. He also became a friend of the biologist Anton Dohrn, with whom he helped conceive the idea of research stations while staying with him at Messina
10.
Canary Islands
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The Canary Islands, also known as the Canaries, are an archipelago and autonomous community of Spain located on the Atlantic Ocean,100 kilometres west of Morocco. The Canaries are among the outermost regions of the European Union proper and it is also one of the eight regions with special consideration of historical nationality recognized as such by the Spanish Government. The main islands are Tenerife, Fuerteventura, Gran Canaria, Lanzarote, La Palma, La Gomera, the archipelago also includes a number of islands and islets, La Graciosa, Alegranza, Isla de Lobos, Montaña Clara, Roque del Oeste and Roque del Este. In ancient times, the chain was often referred to as the Fortunate Isles. The Canary Islands is the most southerly region of Spain and the largest and most populated archipelago of the Macaronesia region, the islands have a subtropical climate, with long hot summers and moderately warm winters. The precipitation levels and the level of maritime moderation varies depending on location and elevation, green areas as well as desert exist on the archipelago. Due to their location above the inversion layer, the high mountains of these islands are ideal for astronomical observation. For this reason, two professional observatories, Teide Observatory on the island of Tenerife and Roque de los Muchachos Observatory on the island of La Palma, have built on the islands. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria has been the largest city in the Canaries since 1768, between the 1833 territorial division of Spain and 1927 Santa Cruz de Tenerife was the sole capital of the Canary Islands. In 1927 a decree ordered that the capital of the Canary Islands be shared, the third largest city of the Canary Islands is San Cristóbal de La Laguna on Tenerife. This city is home to the Consejo Consultivo de Canarias. During the time of the Spanish Empire, the Canaries were the main stopover for Spanish galleons on their way to the Americas, who came south to catch the prevailing northeasterly trade winds. The name Islas Canarias is likely derived from the Latin name Canariae Insulae, meaning Islands of the Dogs, according to the historian Pliny the Elder, the Mauretanian king Juba II named the island Canaria because it contained vast multitudes of dogs of very large size. Another speculation is that the dogs were actually a species of monk seal, critically endangered. The dense population of seals may have been the characteristic that most struck the few ancient Romans who established contact with these islands by sea. Alternatively, it is said that the inhabitants of the island, Guanches, used to worship dogs, mummified them. The ancient Greeks also knew about a people, living far to the west, who are the dog-headed ones, who worshipped dogs on an island. Some hypothesize that the Canary Islands dog-worship and the ancient Egyptian cult of the god, Anubis are closely connected
11.
Biologist
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A biologist, is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of biology, the scientific study of life. Biologists involved in fundamental research attempt to explore and further explain the mechanisms that govern the functioning of living matter. Biologists involved in applied research attempt to develop or improve more specific processes and understanding, in such as medicine, industry. While biologist can apply to any scientist studying biology, most biologists research, in this way, biologists investigate large-scale organism interactions, whole multicellular organisms, organs, tissues, cells, and small-scale cellular and molecular processes. Other biologists study less direct aspects of life, such as phylogeny, Biologists conduct research based on the scientific method, to test the validity of a theory, with hypothesis formation, experimentation and documentation of methods and data. There are many types of biologists, some work on microorganisms, while others study multicellular organisms. Many jobs in biology as a field require an academic degree, a doctorate or its equivalent is generally required to direct independent research, and involves a specialization in a specific area of biology. Many biological scientists work in research and development, some conduct fundamental research to advance our knowledge of living organisms, including bacteria and other pathogens. This research enhances understanding and adds to the database of literature. Furthermore, it aids the development of solutions to problems in areas such as human health. These biological scientists work in government, university, and private industry laboratories. Many expand on specialized research that started in post-graduate qualifications. Biological scientists who work in applied research or product development often use knowledge gained by research to further knowledge in particular fields or applications. For example, this research may be used to develop new pharmaceutical drugs, treatments, and medical diagnostic tests, increase crop yields. These scientists must consider the effects of their work. Some biologists conduct laboratory experiments involving animals, plants or microorganisms, however, some biological research also occurs outside the laboratory and may involve natural observation rather than experimentation. For example, a botanist may investigate the plant species present in a particular environment, swift advances in knowledge of genetics and organic molecules spurred growth in the field of biotechnology, transforming the industries in which biological scientists work. Biological scientists can now manipulate the genetic material of animals and plants, basic and applied research on biotechnological processes, such as recombining DNA, has led to the production of important substances, including human insulin and growth hormone
12.
Natural history
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Natural history is the research and study of organisms including animals, fungi and plants in their environment, leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. It encompasses scientific research but is not limited to it, with articles nowadays more often published in magazines than in academic journals. Grouped among the sciences, natural history is the systematic study of any category of natural objects or organisms. That is a broad designation in a world filled with many narrowly focused disciplines. For example, geobiology has a strong multi-disciplinary nature combining scientists, a person who studies natural history is known as a naturalist or natural historian. The English term natural history is a translation of the Latin historia naturalis and its meaning has narrowed progressively with time, while the meaning of the related term nature has widened. In antiquity, it covered essentially anything connected with nature or which used materials drawn from nature. For example, Pliny the Elders encyclopedia of this title, published circa 77 to 79 AD, covers astronomy, geography, man and his technology, medicine and superstition as well as animals and plants. Medieval European academics considered knowledge to have two divisions, the humanities and divinity, with science studied largely through texts rather than observation or experiment. In modern terms, natural philosophy roughly corresponded to modern physics and chemistry, natural history had been encouraged by practical motives, such as Linnaeus aspiration to improve the economic condition of Sweden. Similarly, the Industrial Revolution prompted the development of geology to help find useful mineral deposits, the astronomer, William Herschel was also a natural historian. Instead of working with plants or minerals he worked with the stars and he spent his time building telescopes to see the stars and the rest of the time watching the stars. In the beginning, he believed there to be a known as a nebulae. Herschel can be considered a natural historian because he observed the natural world, in the process he made charts of all the stars and kept records of all that he saw. S. Wilcove and T. Eisner, The close observation of organisms—their origins, their evolution, their behavior and it encompasses changes in internal states insofar as they pertain to what organisms do. Some definitions go further, focusing on observation of organisms in their environment. Bartholomew, A student of history, or a naturalist, studies the world by observing plants. A common thread in many definitions of natural history is the inclusion of a component, as seen in a recent definition by H. W. Greene
13.
Species
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In biology, a species is the basic unit of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. While this definition is often adequate, looked at more closely it is problematic, for example, with hybridisation, in a species complex of hundreds of similar microspecies, or in a ring species, the boundaries between closely related species become unclear. Other ways of defining species include similarity of DNA, morphology, all species are given a two-part name, a binomial. The first part of a binomial is the genus to which the species belongs, the second part is called the specific name or the specific epithet. For example, Boa constrictor is one of four species of the Boa genus, Species were seen from the time of Aristotle until the 18th century as fixed kinds that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the great chain of being. In the 19th century, biologists grasped that species could evolve given sufficient time, Charles Darwins 1859 book The Origin of Species explained how species could arise by natural selection. Genes can sometimes be exchanged between species by horizontal transfer, and species may become extinct for a variety of reasons. In his biology, Aristotle used the term γένος to mean a kind, such as a bird or fish, a kind was distinguished by its attributes, for instance, a bird has feathers, a beak, wings, a hard-shelled egg, and warm blood. A form was distinguished by being shared by all its members, Aristotle believed all kinds and forms to be distinct and unchanging. His approach remained influential until the Renaissance, when observers in the Early Modern period began to develop systems of organization for living things, they placed each kind of animal or plant into a context. Many of these early delineation schemes would now be considered whimsical, animals likewise that differ specifically preserve their distinct species permanently, one species never springs from the seed of another nor vice versa. In the 18th century, the Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus classified organisms according to shared physical characteristics and he established the idea of a taxonomic hierarchy of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships. At the time, however, it was widely believed that there was no organic connection between species, no matter how similar they appeared. However, whether or not it was supposed to be fixed, by the 19th century, naturalists understood that species could change form over time, and that the history of the planet provided enough time for major changes. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, in his 1809 Zoological Philosophy, described the transmutation of species, proposing that a species could change over time, in 1859, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace provided a compelling account of evolution and the formation of new species. Darwin argued that it was populations that evolved, not individuals and this required a new definition of species. Darwin concluded that species are what appear to be, ideas
14.
Genealogy
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Genealogy, also known as family history, is the study of families and the tracing of their lineages and history. Genealogists use oral interviews, historical records, genetic analysis, and other records to obtain information about a family and to demonstrate kinship, the results are often displayed in charts or written as narratives. Amateur genealogists typically pursue their own ancestry and that of their spouses, professional genealogists may also conduct research for others, publish books on genealogical methods, teach, or produce their own databases. They may work for companies that provide software or produce materials of use to other professionals, both try to understand not just where and when people lived, but also their lifestyles, biographies, and motivations. This often requires—or leads to—knowledge of antiquated laws, old political boundaries, migration trends, bloodlines of Salem is an example of a specialized family-history group. It welcomes members who can prove descent from a participant of the Salem Witch Trials or who choose to support the group. Genealogists and family historians often join family history societies, where novices can learn from experienced researchers. Such societies generally serve a specific geographical area and their members may also index records to make them more accessible, and engage in advocacy and other efforts to preserve public records and cemeteries. Some schools engage students in projects as a means to reinforce lessons regarding immigration. Other benefits include family medical histories with families with medical conditions that are hereditary. The terms genealogy and family history are used synonymously. The term family history may be popular in Europe, genealogy more popular in the United States. In communitarian societies, ones identity is defined as much by ones kin network as by individual achievement, would be answered by a description of father, mother, and tribe. New Zealand Māori, for example, learn whakapapa to discover who they are, Family history plays a part in the practice of some religious belief systems. For example, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has a doctrine of baptism for the dead, in societies such as Australia or the United States, there was by the 20th-century growing pride in the pioneers and nation-builders. Establishing descent from these was, and is, important to such groups as the Daughters of the American Revolution, in Nazi Germany, family histories were compiled to affirm individuals affiliation with the master race and to adhere to legal requirements for marriage. In Germany today, family history is often perceived as a threat to privacy rather than as a source of self-esteem. Most 20th-century sources remain unavailable to the public on privacy grounds, funding of support for family history at archives is limited
15.
Biology
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Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain unifying concepts within it that consolidate it into single, coherent field. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity. It is also understood today that all organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable, the term biology is derived from the Greek word βίος, bios, life and the suffix -λογία, -logia, study of. The Latin-language form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica, the first German use, Biologie, was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus work. In 1797, Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in the preface of a book, karl Friedrich Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of human beings from a morphological, physiological and psychological perspective. The science that concerns itself with these objects we will indicate by the biology or the doctrine of life. Although modern biology is a recent development, sciences related to. Natural philosophy was studied as early as the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, however, the origins of modern biology and its approach to the study of nature are most often traced back to ancient Greece. While the formal study of medicine back to Hippocrates, it was Aristotle who contributed most extensively to the development of biology. Especially important are his History of Animals and other works where he showed naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life. Aristotles successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany that survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to the plant sciences, even into the Middle Ages. Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz, Al-Dīnawarī, who wrote on botany, biology began to quickly develop and grow with Anton van Leeuwenhoeks dramatic improvement of the microscope. It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria, investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining. Advances in microscopy also had a impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the importance of the cell. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians
16.
Ecology
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Ecology is the scientific analysis and study of interactions among organisms and their environment. It is a field that includes biology, geography. Ecology includes the study of interactions that organisms have with other, other organisms. Ecosystems are composed of dynamically interacting parts including organisms, the communities make up. Ecosystem processes, such as production, pedogenesis, nutrient cycling. These processes are sustained by organisms with specific life history traits, biodiversity, which refers to the varieties of species, genes, and ecosystems, enhances certain ecosystem services. Ecology is not synonymous with environment, environmentalism, natural history and it is closely related to evolutionary biology, genetics, and ethology. An important focus for ecologists is to improve the understanding of how biodiversity affects ecological function, Ecology is a human science as well. For example, the Circles of Sustainability approach treats ecology as more than the environment out there and it is not treated as separate from humans. Organisms and resources compose ecosystems which, in turn, maintain biophysical feedback mechanisms that moderate processes acting on living and non-living components of the planet, the word ecology was coined in 1866 by the German scientist Ernst Haeckel. Ecological thought is derivative of established currents in philosophy, particularly from ethics and politics, ancient Greek philosophers such as Hippocrates and Aristotle laid the foundations of ecology in their studies on natural history. Modern ecology became a more rigorous science in the late 19th century. Evolutionary concepts relating to adaptation and natural selection became the cornerstones of modern ecological theory, the scope of ecology contains a wide array of interacting levels of organization spanning micro-level to a planetary scale phenomena. Ecosystems, for example, contain abiotic resources and interacting life forms, an ecosystems area can vary greatly, from tiny to vast. A single tree is of consequence to the classification of a forest ecosystem. Several generations of a population can exist over the lifespan of a single leaf. Each of those aphids, in turn, support diverse bacterial communities, biodiversity describes the diversity of life from genes to ecosystems and spans every level of biological organization. The term has several interpretations, and there are ways to index, measure, characterize
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Phylum
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In biology, a phylum is a taxonomic rank below kingdom and above class. Traditionally, in botany the term division was used instead of phylum, although from 1993 the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, depending on definitions, the kingdom Animalia contains approximately 35 phyla, Plantae contains about 12, and Fungi contains around 7. Current research in phylogenetics is uncovering the relationships between phyla, which are contained in larger clades, like Ecdysozoa and Embryophyta, the definitions of zoological phyla have changed from their origins in the six Linnaean classes and the four embranchements of Georges Cuvier. Haeckel introduced the term phylum, based on the Greek word phylon, in plant taxonomy, Eichler classified plants into five groups, named divisions. Informally, phyla can be thought of as grouping organisms based on general specialization of body plan, the most important objective measure in the above definitions is the certain degree—how unrelated do organisms need to be to be members of different phyla. The minimal requirement is that all organisms in a phylum should be more closely related to one another than to any other group. So phyla can be merged or split if it becomes apparent that they are related to one another or not, a definition of a phylum based on body plan has been proposed by paleontologists Graham Budd and Sören Jensen. By Budd and Jensens definition, a phylum is defined by a set of shared by all its living representatives. This approach brings some small problems—for instance, ancestral characters common to most members of a phylum may have been lost by some members, also, this definition is based on an arbitrary point of time, the present. However, as it is based, it is easy to apply to the fossil record. A greater problem is that it relies on a decision about which groups of organisms should be considered as phyla. However, proving that a fossil belongs to the group of a phylum is difficult. Furthermore, organisms in the group of a phylum can possess the body plan of the phylum without all the characteristics necessary to fall within it. This weakens the idea that each of the phyla represents a body plan. A classification using this definition may be affected by the chance survival of rare groups. Representatives of many modern phyla did not appear until long after the Cambrian, the kingdom Plantae is defined in various ways by different biologists. All definitions include the living embryophytes, to which may be added the two green algae divisions, Chlorophyta and Charophyta, to form the clade Viridiplantae. The table below follows the influential Cavalier-Smith system in equating Plantae with Archaeplastida, a group containing Viridiplantae, the definition and classification of plants at the division level also varies from source to source, and has changed progressively in recent years
18.
Phylogeny
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The taxa joined together in the tree are implied to have descended from a common ancestor. Phylogenetic trees are central to the field of phylogenetics, each node is called a taxonomic unit. Internal nodes are generally called hypothetical taxonomic units, as they cannot be directly observed, Trees are useful in fields of biology such as bioinformatics, systematics, and phylogenetic comparative methods. Unrooted trees illustrate only the relatedness of the nodes and do not require the ancestral root to be known or inferred. The idea of a tree of life arose from ancient notions of a progression from lower to higher forms of life. Charles Darwin also produced one of the first illustrations and crucially popularized the notion of a tree in his seminal book The Origin of Species. Over time, species classification has become static and more dynamic. A rooted phylogenetic tree is a tree with a unique node corresponding to the most recent common ancestor of all the entities at the leaves of the tree. The most common method for rooting trees is the use of an uncontroversial outgroup—close enough to allow inference from trait data or molecular sequencing, unrooted trees illustrate the relatedness of the leaf nodes without making assumptions about ancestry. They do not require the ancestral root to be known or inferred, unrooted trees can always be generated from rooted ones by simply omitting the root. By contrast, inferring the root of an unrooted tree requires some means of identifying ancestry, both rooted and unrooted phylogenetic trees can be either bifurcating or multifurcating, and either labeled or unlabeled. In contrast, a rooted multifurcating tree may have more than two children at some nodes and an unrooted multifurcating tree may have more than three neighbors at some nodes. A labeled tree has specific values assigned to its leaves, while a tree, sometimes called a tree shape. The last distinction is the most biologically relevant, it arises because there are places on an unrooted tree to put the root. For labeled bifurcating trees, there are,2 n −2. for n ≥2 total rooted trees and. 2 n −3. for n ≥3 total unrooted trees, among labeled bifurcating trees, the number of unrooted trees with n leaves is equal to the number of rooted trees with n −1 leaves. A dendrogram is a term for the diagrammatic representation of a phylogenetic tree. A cladogram is a phylogenetic tree formed using cladistic methods and this type of tree only represents a branching pattern, i. e. its branch spans do not represent time or relative amount of character change
19.
Stem cell
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Stem cells are undifferentiated biological cells that can differentiate into specialized cells and can divide to produce more stem cells. They are found in multicellular organisms, in mammals, there are two broad types of stem cells, embryonic stem cells, which are isolated from the inner cell mass of blastocysts, and adult stem cells, which are found in various tissues. In adult organisms, stem cells and progenitor cells act as a system for the body. There are three known accessible sources of adult stem cells in humans, Bone marrow, which requires extraction by harvesting. Adipose tissue, which requires extraction by liposuction, Stem cells can also be taken from umbilical cord blood just after birth. Of all stem cell types, autologous harvesting involves the least risk, by definition, autologous cells are obtained from ones own body, just as one may bank his or her own blood for elective surgical procedures. Adult stem cells are used in various medical therapies. Stem cells can now be artificially grown and transformed into specialized cell types with characteristics consistent with cells of tissues such as muscles or nerves. Embryonic cell lines and autologous stem cells generated through somatic cell nuclear transfer or dedifferentiation have also been proposed as promising candidates for future therapies. Research into stem cells grew out of findings by Ernest A. McCulloch, till at the University of Toronto in the 1960s. The classical definition of a cell requires that it possess two properties, Self-renewal, the ability to go through numerous cycles of cell division while maintaining the undifferentiated state. Potency, the capacity to differentiate into specialized cell types, apart from this it is said that stem cell function is regulated in a feed back mechanism. Stochastic differentiation, when one cell develops into two differentiated daughter cells, another stem cell undergoes mitosis and produces two stem cells identical to the original. Potency specifies the differentiation potential of the stem cell, totipotent stem cells can differentiate into embryonic and extraembryonic cell types. Such cells can construct a complete, viable organism and these cells are produced from the fusion of an egg and sperm cell. Cells produced by the first few divisions of the egg are also totipotent. Pluripotent stem cells are the descendants of totipotent cells and can differentiate into all cells. Multipotent stem cells can differentiate into a number of cell types, oligopotent stem cells can differentiate into only a few cell types, such as lymphoid or myeloid stem cells
20.
Protist
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Protist is an informal term for any eukaryotic organism that is not an animal, plant or fungus. The protists do not form a group, or clade. Besides their relatively simple levels of organization, protists do not necessarily have much in common, others use the term protist more broadly, to encompass both microbial eukaryotes and macroscopic organisms that do not fit into the other traditional kingdoms. In cladistic systems, there are no equivalents to the taxa Protista or Protoctista, in cladistic classification, the contents of Protista are distributed among various supergroups and Protista, Protoctista and Protozoa are considered obsolete. However, the term protist continues to be used informally as a term for eukaryotic microorganisms. For example, the phrase protist pathogen may be used to denote any disease-causing microbe which is not bacteria, virus, the term protista was first used by Ernst Haeckel in 1866. Some protists, sometimes called ambiregnal protists, have considered to be both protozoa and algae or fungi, and names for these have been published under either or both of the ICN and the ICZN. Conflicts, such as these – for example the dual-classification of Euglenids and Dinobryons and these traditional subdivisions, largely based on superficial commonalities, have been replaced by classifications based on phylogenetics. Molecular analyses in modern taxonomy have been used to redistribute former members of this group into diverse, however, the older terms are still used as informal names to describe the morphology and ecology of various protists. For example, the term protozoa is used to refer to species of protists that do not form filaments. Among the pioneers in the study of the protists, which were almost ignored by Linnaeus except for some genera were Leeuwenhoek, O. F. Müller, C. G. Ehrenberg, the first groups used to classify microscopic organism were the Animalcules and the Infusoria. In 1817, the German naturalist Georg August Goldfuss introduced the word Protozoa to refer to such as ciliates. After the cell theory of Schwann and Schleiden, this group was modified in 1848 by Carl von Siebold to include only animal-like unicellular organisms, such as foraminifera and amoebae. He defined the Protoctista as a kingdom of nature, in addition to the then-traditional kingdoms of plants. The kingdom of minerals was later removed from taxonomy in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel, leaving plants, animals, in 1938, Herbert Copeland resurrected Hoggs label, arguing that Haeckels term Protista included anucleated microbes such as bacteria, which the term Protoctista did not. In contrast, Copelands term included nucleated eukaryotes such as diatoms, green algae and this classification was the basis for Whittakers later definition of Fungi, Animalia, Plantae and Protista as the four kingdoms of life. The kingdom Protista was later modified to separate prokaryotes into the kingdom of Monera. Many systematists today do not treat Protista as a formal taxon, some systematists judge paraphyletic taxa acceptable, and use Protista in this sense as a formal taxon
21.
Charles Darwin
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Charles Robert Darwin, FRS FRGS FLS FZS was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution. Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, by the 1870s, the scientific community and much of the general public had accepted evolution as a fact. In modified form, Darwins scientific discovery is the theory of the life sciences. Darwins early interest in nature led him to neglect his education at the University of Edinburgh, instead. Studies at the University of Cambridge encouraged his passion for natural science, puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed investigations and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural selection. Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and he was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay that described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories. Darwins work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature, in 1871 he examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. His research on plants was published in a series of books, Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history, and he was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey. Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, on 12 February 1809, at his familys home and he was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier Robert Darwin and Susannah Darwin. He was the grandson of two prominent abolitionists, Erasmus Darwin on his fathers side, and Josiah Wedgwood on his mothers side, both families were largely Unitarian, though the Wedgwoods were adopting Anglicanism. The eight-year-old Charles already had a taste for history and collecting when he joined the day school run by its preacher in 1817. From September 1818, he joined his older brother Erasmus attending the nearby Anglican Shrewsbury School as a boarder and he found lectures dull and surgery distressing, so neglected his studies. He learned taxidermy in around 40 daily hour-long sessions from John Edmonstone, one day, Grant praised Lamarcks evolutionary ideas. Darwin was astonished by Grants audacity, but had recently read similar ideas in his grandfather Erasmus journals, Darwin was rather bored by Robert Jamesons natural-history course, which covered geology - including the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism. He learned the classification of plants, and assisted with work on the collections of the University Museum, as Darwin was unqualified for the Tripos, he joined the ordinary degree course in January 1828. He preferred riding and shooting to studying, when his own exams drew near, Darwin focused on his studies and was delighted by the language and logic of William Paleys Evidences of Christianity. In his final examination in January 1831 Darwin did well, coming out of 178 candidates for the ordinary degree. Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June 1831, inspired with a burning zeal to contribute, Darwin planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics
22.
Recapitulation theory
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Since embryos also evolve in different ways, the theory of recapitulation is seen as a historical side-note, rather than as dogma in the field of developmental biology. Recapitulation theory is considered plausible by some researchers in fields such as the study of the origin of language, cognitive development. The earliest recorded trace of a theory is from the Egyptian Pharaoh Psamtik I. The concept of recapitulation was first formulated outside the field of biology and it was widely held among traditional theories of the origin of language, being assumed as a premise that childrens use of language gives insights on its origin and evolution. The idea was reprised in 1720 by Giambattista Vico in his influential Scienza Nuova and it was first formulated in biology in the 1790s among the German Natural philosophers, after which, Marcel Danesi states, it soon gained the status of a supposed biogenetic law. The theory was first formalised by Étienne Serres in 1824–26, based on the work of Johann Friedrich Meckel and this attempted to link comparative embryology with a pattern of unification in the organic world. It was supported by Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, and became a prominent part of his ideas and it suggested that past transformations of life could have been through environmental causes working on the embryo, rather than on the adult as in Lamarckism. These naturalistic ideas led to disagreements with Georges Cuvier, ernst Haeckel attempted to synthesize the ideas of Lamarckism and Goethes Naturphilosophie with Charles Darwins concepts. Since early in the century, Haeckels biogenetic law has been refuted on many fronts. Haeckel formulated his theory as Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny, the notion later became simply known as the recapitulation theory. Ontogeny is the growth and development of an organism, phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a species. Haeckel claimed that the development of advanced species passes through stages represented by adult organisms of more primitive species, otherwise put, each successive stage in the development of an individual represents one of the adult forms that appeared in its evolutionary history. Embryonic pharyngeal slits, which form in animals when the thin branchial plates separating pharyngeal pouches and pharyngeal grooves perforate. Pharyngeal arches appear in all tetrapod embryos, in mammals, the first pharyngeal arch develops into the jaw, the malleus. But these embryonic pharyngeal arches, grooves, pouches, and slits in human embryos can not at any stage carry out the function as the gills of an adult fish. Haeckel produced several drawings that often overemphasized similarities between embryos of related species. The misinformation was propagated through many biology textbooks, and popular knowledge, Haeckels drawings were disputed by Wilhelm His, who had developed a rival theory of embryology. His developed a theory of human embryonic development
23.
Ontogeny
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Ontogeny is the developmental history of an organism within its own lifetime, as distinct from phylogeny, which refers to the evolutionary history of a species. In practice, writers on evolution often speak of species as developing traits or characteristics, while developmental processes can influence subsequent evolutionary processes, individual organisms develop, while species evolve. Ontogeny, embryology and developmental biology are closely related studies and the terms are used interchangeably. Recently, the term ontogeny has been used in biology to describe the development of various cell types within an organism. Ontogeny is a field of study in many disciplines, including developmental biology, developmental psychology, developmental cognitive neuroscience. Ontogeny is also a used in anthropology as the process through which each of us embodies the history of our own making. A seminal paper named ontogeny as one of the four primary questions of biology, tinbergen emphasized that the change of behavioral machinery during development was distinct from the change in behavior during development. Tinbergen was concerned that the elimination of factors is difficult to establish. Most organisms undergo changes in shape as they grow and mature. Even reptiles, in which the offspring are often viewed as miniature adults, comparing ourselves to others is something humans do all the time. In doing so we are acknowledging not so much our sameness to others or our difference, rather, in respect of all other humans, we find similarities in the ways we are different from one another and differences in the ways we are the same. That we are able to do this is a function of the historical process that is human ontogeny. Media related to Morphogenesis at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of ontogeny at Wiktionary
24.
Biological illustration
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Biological illustration is the use of technical illustration to visually communicate the structure and specific details of biological subjects of study. This can be used to anatomy, explain biological functions or interactions, direct surgical procedures, distinguish species. The scope of biological illustration can range from the organism level to microscopic. The paleolithic cave paintings were so detailed that we can even recognize species, for example, in the Chauvet-Pont-dArc Cave, at least 13 different species have been identified. In one prehistoric cave, there is a drawing of a mammoth with an area where the heart should be. If this is indeed the intention of the illustration, it would be the worlds first anatomical illustration, in the Alexandrian era, the Greek physician Herophilus, now known as the father of anatomy, performed public dissections and recorded his findings. In the 1st century AD, Pedanius Dioscorides compiled the De Materia Medica, during the Renaissance, artist and scientist Leonardo DaVinci famously sketched his observations from human dissections, as well as his studies of plants and the flight of birds. During his five-year voyage of the HMS Beagle, Charles Darwin wrote and illustrated the The Voyage of the Beagle, biological illustration can be pursued as a degree in the undergraduate, graduate, and technical college levels. Preparation for an illustration career can include a background of art or science. Skills development in biological illustration can involve two-dimensional art, animation, graphic design and it is possible to work in biological illustration without a specific degree, but a degree will significantly enhance an illustrators employment opportunities. Many illustrators prefer the flexibility of their own working arrangements, but this is possible when they are well established in the field. Many freelance illustrators supplement their salary with commercial illustration and graphic design projects, every professional scientific illustration begins with multiple rough sketches. Many details must be discussed between the artist and scientist before a drawing can be completed, and additional preliminary drawings must be prepared in order to work out aesthetic details. Pen and ink line illustrations are clean, crisp, clear, ink drawings are typically made on a heavy drawing paper, such as Bristol board. Guild of Natural Science Illustrators Association of Medical Illustrators
25.
World riddle
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The term world riddle concerns the nature of the universe and the meaning of life. Friedrich Nietzsche referred to the World Riddle in several of his writings, however, his influence was limited to a few years. Ernst Haeckel viewed the World Riddle as a dual-question of the form, What is the nature of the physical universe, as I long ago pointed out, these two great questions are not two separate world-riddles. The neurological problem of consciousness is only a case of the all-comprehending cosmological problem. If we understood the nature of matter and energy, we should understand how the substance underlying them can under certain conditions feel, desire. Consciousness, like feeling and willing, among the animals is a mechanical work of the ganglion-cells. -Ernst Haeckel,1895 Haeckel had written that human behavior and feeling could be explained, within the laws of the physical universe, as mechanical work of the ganglion-cells as stated. By amateurs in philosophy and professionals alike, the universe is represented as a sort of petrified sphinx whose appeal to man consists in a monotonous challenge to his divining powers. THE Truth, what a perfect idol of the rationalistic mind, william James has questioned the attitude of thinking that a single answer applies to everything or everyone. In the passage, the capitalized THE signifies the viewpoint meaning the one, epistemology - study of the nature of knowledge. Ernst Haeckel, The Riddle of the Universe, Publisher, Prometheus Books, Buffalo, New York,1992, reprint edition, paperback,405 pages, illustrated, ISBN 0-87975-746-9. Ernst Haeckel, Monism as Connecting Religion and Science, Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, Gutenberg. org webpage, GutenbergOrg-7mono10
26.
Prussia
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Prussia was a historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg, and centred on the region of Prussia. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organised, Prussia, with its capital in Königsberg and from 1701 in Berlin, shaped the history of Germany. In 1871, German states united to create the German Empire under Prussian leadership, in November 1918, the monarchies were abolished and the nobility lost its political power during the German Revolution of 1918–19. The Kingdom of Prussia was thus abolished in favour of a republic—the Free State of Prussia, from 1933, Prussia lost its independence as a result of the Prussian coup, when the Nazi regime was successfully establishing its Gleichschaltung laws in pursuit of a unitary state. Prussia existed de jure until its liquidation by the Allied Control Council Enactment No.46 of 25 February 1947. The name Prussia derives from the Old Prussians, in the 13th century, the Teutonic Knights—an organized Catholic medieval military order of German crusaders—conquered the lands inhabited by them. In 1308, the Teutonic Knights conquered the region of Pomerelia with Gdańsk and their monastic state was mostly Germanised through immigration from central and western Germany and in the south, it was Polonised by settlers from Masovia. The Second Peace of Thorn split Prussia into the western Royal Prussia, a province of Poland, and the part, from 1525 called the Duchy of Prussia. The union of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia in 1618 led to the proclamation of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701, Prussia entered the ranks of the great powers shortly after becoming a kingdom, and exercised most influence in the 18th and 19th centuries. During the 18th century it had a say in many international affairs under the reign of Frederick the Great. During the 19th century, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck united the German principalities into a Lesser Germany which excluded the Austrian Empire. At the Congress of Vienna, which redrew the map of Europe following Napoleons defeat, Prussia acquired a section of north western Germany. The country then grew rapidly in influence economically and politically, and became the core of the North German Confederation in 1867, and then of the German Empire in 1871. The Kingdom of Prussia was now so large and so dominant in the new Germany that Junkers and other Prussian élites identified more and more as Germans and less as Prussians. In the Weimar Republic, the state of Prussia lost nearly all of its legal and political importance following the 1932 coup led by Franz von Papen. East Prussia lost all of its German population after 1945, as Poland, the main coat of arms of Prussia, as well as the flag of Prussia, depicted a black eagle on a white background. The black and white colours were already used by the Teutonic Knights. The Teutonic Order wore a white coat embroidered with a cross with gold insert
27.
Merseburg
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Merseburg is a town in the south of the German state of Saxony-Anhalt on the river Saale, approx. It is the capital of the Saalekreis district and it had a diocese founded by Archbishop Adalbert of Magdeburg. The University of Merseburg is located within the town, czech, Merseburk, Meziboř French, Mersebourg German, Merseburg Latin, Merseburga Polish, Międzybórz Sorbian, Mjezybor Venenien was annexed into Merseburg on 1 January 1949. The parish Kötzschen followed on 1 July 1950, since 30 May 1994, Meuschau is part of Merseburg. Beuna was annexed on 1 January 2009, geusa is a part of Merseburg since 1 January 2010. Merseburg was first mentioned in 850, king Henry the Fowler built a royal palace at Merseburg, in the 933 Battle of Riade, he gained his great victory over the Hungarians in the vicinity. Thietmar of Merseburg, appointed in 973, became the first bishop of the newly created bishopric of Prague in Bohemia, Prague had been part of the archbishopric of Mainz for a hundred years before that. Fifteen diets were held here during the Middle Ages, during which time its fairs enjoyed the importance which was transferred to those of Leipzig. Merseburg was the site of an assassination attempt on Polish ruler Bolesław I Chrobry in 1002. The town suffered severely during the German Peasants War and also during the Thirty Years War, from 1657 to 1738 Merseburg was the residence of the Dukes of Saxe-Merseburg, after which it fell to the Electorate of Saxony. In 1815 following the Napoleonic Wars, the became part of the Prussian Province of Saxony. Merseburg is where the Merseburg Incantations were rediscovered in 1841, written down in Old High German, they are hitherto the only preserved German documents with a heathen theme. One of them is a charm to release warriors caught during battle, enterprises, too, blazed a trail in the course of the transformational process. Ultimately, a chemical park emerged at nearby Leuna which is one of the most modern sites of its kind in Europe with high ecological standards, Merseburg was badly damaged in World War II. In 23 air raids 6,200 dwellings were completely or partly destroyed, the historic town centre was almost completely destroyed. Briefly part of Saxony-Anhalt after the war, it was administered within the Bezirk Halle in East Germany. It became part of Saxony-Anhalt again after reunification of Germany, like many towns in the former East Germany, Merseburg has had a general decline in population since German Reunification despite annexing and merging with a number of smaller nearby villages. The cathedral-and-palace ensemble also features a palace garden, other attractions include the Merseburg House of Trades with a cultural stage and the German Museum of Chemistry, Merseburg
28.
Berlin
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Berlin is the capital and the largest city of Germany as well as one of its constituent 16 states. With a population of approximately 3.5 million, Berlin is the second most populous city proper, due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one-third of the area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers. Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world, following German reunification in 1990, Berlin once again became the capital of all-Germany. Berlin is a city of culture, politics, media. Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations. Berlin serves as a hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination, significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction and electronics. Modern Berlin is home to world renowned universities, orchestras, museums and its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions. The city is known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts. Since 2000 Berlin has seen the emergence of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene, the name Berlin has its roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of todays Berlin, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem berl-/birl-. All German place names ending on -ow, -itz and -in, since the Ber- at the beginning sounds like the German word Bär, a bear appears in the coat of arms of the city. It is therefore a canting arm, the first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209, although these areas did not join Berlin until 1920, the central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document,1237 is considered the founding date of the city. The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the right on the two important trade routes Via Imperii and from Bruges to Novgorod. In 1307, they formed an alliance with a common external policy, in 1415 Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. In 1443 Frederick II Irontooth started the construction of a new palace in the twin city Berlin-Cölln
29.
Franz Leydig
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Franz von Leydig, also Franz Leydig, was a German zoologist and comparative anatomist. Franz Leydig was born on May 21,1821, in Rothenburg ob der Tauber and he was the only boy of three children born to Melchior Leydig, a Catholic and a minor public official, and Margareta, a Protestant. Leydig shared both his father’s Catholic religion and hobbies, his father was a gardener and beekeeper. Leydig himself recalled later that those childhood interests began his lifelong concern with botany, at age 12, he acquired a simple microscope, which he used in the majority of his free time. Leydig studied philosophy in Munich from 1840, and medicine at the University of Würzburg from 1842 under Martin Münz, Schenk, in 1848 he became prosector at the zootomic institution in Würzburg in 1848. The following year he qualified as a lecturer, and on May 9,1855 he was appointed professor. In the winter of 1850–1851, Leydig made a journey to Sardinia and that journey, coupled with his early preoccupation with microscopy, directed the course of his life’s work. Leydig paid further tribute to other contemporary anatomists, particularly Johannes Peter Müller for his work on glands, the Lehrbuch, however, gives the best account of the growth of comparative microscopical anatomy in the two decades following Schwann’s discoveries. He was later made Geheimer Medizinalrat and on April 1,1887 and he died on April 13,1908, in Rothenburg ob der Tauber, his birthplace. His wife, Katharina Jaeger, the daughter of a professor of surgery at Erlangen, during his lifetime, Franz Leydig was granted many honours, including personal ennoblement, and an honorary doctorate of science from the University of Bologna. The cells produce the hormone testosterone. Leydig had described the cells in his detailed account of the male sex organs. The above description indicates that Leydig recognized the specific morphology of those cells. In addition to its importance, Leydig’s Lehrbuch is significant for his description of a large secretory cell, found in the epidermis of fishes. This mucous cell is unusual in that it does not pour secretion over the surface of the epithelium, Leydig believed that the function was to lubricate the skin. Leydigs organ Franz von Leydig, Ole Daniel Enerson,2006, WhoNamedIt. com webpage, WNI-675-Leydig
30.
Rudolf Virchow
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Rudolf Ludwig Carl Virchow was a German physician, anthropologist, pathologist, prehistorian, biologist, writer, editor, and politician, known for his advancement of public health. He is known as the father of modern pathology because his work helped to discredit humourism and he is also known as the founder of social medicine and veterinary pathology, and to his colleagues, the Pope of medicine. Born and raised in Schievelbein as a child of a working-class family. Dissuaded by his voice, he abandoned his initial interest in theology. With special military scholarship, he earned his degree from Friedrich-Wilhelms Institute under the tutelage of Johannes Peter Müller. He worked at the Charité hospital under Robert Froriep, whom he succeeded as the prosector. Although he failed to contain the 1847–1848 typhus epidemic in Upper Silesia, his report laid the foundation for health in Germany. From it, he coined a well known aphorism, Medicine is a social science and he participated in the Revolution of 1848, which led to his expulsion from Charité the next year. He published a newspaper Die medicinische Reform during this period to disseminate his social and political ideas and he took the first Chair of Pathological Anatomy at the University of Würzburg in 1849. After five years, Charité invited him back to direct its newly built Institute for Pathology, the campus of Charité is now named Campus Virchow Klinikum. He cofounded the political party Deutsche Fortschrittspartei, by which he was elected to the Prussian House of Representatives and his opposition to Otto von Bismarcks financial policy resulted in an anecdotal Sausage Duel between the two. But he ardently supported Bismarck in his campaigns, the social revolution he himself named as Kulturkampf. A prolific writer, his writings alone exceeded 2,000 in number. Among his books, Cellular Pathology published in 1858 is regarded as the root of modern pathology and this work also popularised the third dictum in cell theory, Omnis cellula e cellula, although his idea originated in 1855. He founded journals such as Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und für klinische Medizin, the latter is published by German Anthropological Association and the Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology and Prehistory, the societies of which he also founded. Virchow was the first to describe and give names of diseases such as leukemia, chordoma, ochronosis, embolism. He coined scientific terms, chromatin, agenesis, parenchyma, osteoid, amyloid degeneration and his description of the transmission cycle of a roundworm Trichinella spiralis established the importance of meat inspection, which was started in Berlin. He developed the first systematic method of autopsy involving surgery of all body parts, a number of medical terms are named after him, including Virchows node, Virchow–Robin spaces, Virchow–Seckel syndrome, and Virchows triad
31.
Hermann Steudner
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Carl Theodor Hermann Steudner was a botanist and an explorer of Africa. Steudner was born in Greiffenberg, located in Silesia, but grew up in Görlitz and he studied botany, mineralogy, and medicine in Berlin and Würzburg. Having returned to Berlin, Steudner devoted himself to botany and published on Marantaceae and he was elected a member of the Berlin Society of Friends of Natural Science. Heinrich Barth of the Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin convinced Steudner to participate in an African expedition to search for Eduard Vogel and this expedition was initiated by Ernest II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. The expedition was led by Theodor von Heuglin and started on 4 March 1861 in Alexandria, after sailing over the Red Sea they landed at Massawa on 17 June 1861 and observed birds on Dahlak Archipelago. Their way through the Ethiopian Highlands led them to Keren in the country of the Bilen people, from where Werner Munzinger came to them, and afterwards to Adwa. Here the expedition split into two parties and they made a wide detour through the Galla country in order to search for Tewodros II of Ethiopia. After visiting Gondar and Magdala they came to Edschebet, where they were guests of Tewodros, from Lake Tana they turned north. By way of the Blue Nile, they reached Khartoum in July 1862, because of this detour, the leadership of the expedition was taken from Heuglin. They used the break to visit Kurdufan, where they followed the traces of Theodor Kotschy, on 25 January 1863 they joined Alexandrine Tinné on her tour up the White Nile to the Bahr el Ghasal. Steudner died of fever on 10 April 1863 in Waw near the Jur River, Steudner visited regions which had never been explored by a botanist before. Hence, his reports were of high importance. The Algerian sand gecko is named after Steudner, also, Karl Koch, a friend of Steudner, named the plant genus Steudnera in honor of Steudner. In Görlitz, a monument was erected, but it was destroyed in World War II to use the metal for military purposes. Friedrich Ratzel, Steudner, Hermann, Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie,36, Leipzig, Duncker & Humblot, pp. 155–156 Meyers Konversationslexikon, 1885-1892, Vol.15, p.309 James Quirin. Caste and Class in Historical North-West Ethiopia, The Beta Israel and Kemant, Journal of African History, Vol.39,1998, G. Reimer Berlin,1867 online Annelore Rieke-Müller. Der Blick über das ganze Erdenrund - Deutsche Forschungsreisen und Forschungsreisende im 19, jahrhundert bis zur Deutschen Afrika-Expedition 1860-1863. KGaA, Weinheim,1999 Uwe Fiedler, Auf den Spuren des Afrikaforschers Hermann Steudner, boD – Books on Demand,2015 Biography at the Upper Lusatian Science Society
32.
Botany
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Botany, also called plant science, plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who specialises in this field, the term botany comes from the Ancient Greek word βοτάνη meaning pasture, grass, or fodder, βοτάνη is in turn derived from βόσκειν, to feed or to graze. Nowadays, botanists study approximately 410,000 species of plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular plants. Medieval physic gardens, often attached to monasteries, contained plants of medical importance and they were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities, founded from the 1540s onwards. One of the earliest was the Padua botanical garden and these gardens facilitated the academic study of plants. Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy, in the last two decades of the 20th century, botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis, including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately. Modern botany is a broad, multidisciplinary subject with inputs from most other areas of science, dominant themes in 21st century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics, which are the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues. Botany originated as herbalism, the study and use of plants for their medicinal properties, many records of the Holocene period date early botanical knowledge as far back as 10,000 years ago. This early unrecorded knowledge of plants was discovered in ancient sites of human occupation within Tennessee, the early recorded history of botany includes many ancient writings and plant classifications. Examples of early works have been found in ancient texts from India dating back to before 1100 BC, in archaic Avestan writings. His major works, Enquiry into Plants and On the Causes of Plants, constitute the most important contributions to science until the Middle Ages. De Materia Medica was widely read for more than 1,500 years, important contributions from the medieval Muslim world include Ibn Wahshiyyas Nabatean Agriculture, Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarīs the Book of Plants, and Ibn Bassals The Classification of Soils. In the early 13th century, Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, and Ibn al-Baitar wrote on botany in a systematic and scientific manner and these gardens continued the practical value of earlier physic gardens, often associated with monasteries, in which plants were cultivated for medical use. They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject, lectures were given about the plants grown in the gardens and their medical uses demonstrated. Botanical gardens came much later to northern Europe, the first in England was the University of Oxford Botanic Garden in 1621, throughout this period, botany remained firmly subordinate to medicine. German physician Leonhart Fuchs was one of the three German fathers of botany, along with theologian Otto Brunfels and physician Hieronymus Bock, Fuchs and Brunfels broke away from the tradition of copying earlier works to make original observations of their own. Bock created his own system of plant classification, physician Valerius Cordus authored a botanically and pharmacologically important herbal Historia Plantarum in 1544 and a pharmacopoeia of lasting importance, the Dispensatorium in 1546. Naturalist Conrad von Gesner and herbalist John Gerard published herbals covering the medicinal uses of plants, naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi was considered the father of natural history, which included the study of plants
33.
Karl Gegenbaur
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Karl Gegenbaur was a German anatomist and professor who demonstrated that the field of comparative anatomy offers important evidence supporting of the theory of evolution. Karl Gegenbaur noted that the most reliable clue to evolutionary history is homology, Gegenbaur had been a student of Albert von Kölliker, Rudolf Virchow, Heinrich Müller and Franz Leydig. Karl Gegenbaur was born in Würzburg, Bavaria in 1826, after taking his degree in 1851, he spent some time in travelling in Italy and Sicily, before returning to Wurzburg as Privatdozent in 1854. In 1873, Gegenbaur was appointed to Heidelberg, where he was professor of anatomy and he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1896. He died on 14 June 1903, at Heidelberg, the work by which Gegenbaur is best known is his Grundriss der vergleichenden Anatomie, translated into English by Francis Jeffrey Bell, with additions by E. Ray Lankester. In 1858, the physician Ernst Haeckel studied under Gegenbaur at Jena, receiving a doctorate in zoology, and became a professor at the same institution, Ernst Haeckel expanded on the ideas of Gegenbaur while advocating the concepts of Charles Darwin. In 1861, he published Ueber den Bau und die Entwickelung der Wirbelthier-Eier mit partielleer Dotterbildung, Gegenbaur learned techniques as a student of Albert von Kölliker, Rudolf Virchow, Heinrich Müller and Franz Leydig. Karl Gegenbaur had a influence on his environment, with his colleagues Matthias Jakob Schleiden, Emil Huschke, Ernst Haeckel. Gegenbaurs research program of comparative morphology incorporating ontogeny and phylogeny is still evident in the field of evolutionary developmental biology. Other publications by Karl Gegenbaur include a Text-book of Human Anatomy, in 1875, he founded the Morphologisches Jahrbuch, which he edited for many years. In 1901 he published an autobiography under the title Erlebtes und Erstrebtes. Attribution Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Gegenbaur, Carl, Carl Gegenbaur, integrating comparative anatomy and embryology. Learning from history, morphologys challenges in Germany ca, scharf, J H. Goethes morphology definition and the problem of relationship of the Cro-magnons to the primitive Germans. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
34.
Comparative anatomy
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Comparative anatomy is the study of similarities and differences in the anatomy of different species. It is closely related to biology and phylogeny. Comparative anatomy has long served as evidence for evolution, now joined in that role by comparative genomics, also, it assists scientists in classifying organisms based on similar characteristics of their anatomical structures. A common example of comparative anatomy is the bone structures in forelimbs of cats, whales, bats. All of these appendages consist of the basic parts, yet. The skeletal parts which form a structure used for swimming, such as a fin, would not be ideal to form a wing, one explanation for the forelimbs similar composition is descent with modification. Through random mutations and natural selection, each organisms anatomical structures gradually adapted to suit their respective habitats, the rules for development of special characteristics which differ significantly from general homology were listed by Karl Ernst von Baer. Three major concepts of comparative anatomy are, Homologous structures - structures which are similar in different species because the species have common descent and they may or may not perform the same function. An example is the forelimb structure shared by cats and whales, analogous structures - structures similar in different organisms because, in convergent evolution, they evolved in a similar environment, rather than were inherited from a recent common ancestor. They usually serve the same or similar purposes, an example is the streamlined torpedo body shape of porpoises and sharks. So even though they evolved from different ancestors, porpoises and sharks developed analogous structures as a result of their evolution in the aquatic environment. Homoplastic structures - structures that look similar, but are derived from convergent evolution, instead, they may have evolved in common environments and the traits arose due to natural selection. This can be seen most prominently in species that have camouflage capabilities, like an insect that can look like a leaf, the first specifically anatomical investigation separate from a surgical or medical procedure is associated by early commentators with Alcmaeon of Croton. Pierre Belon, a French naturalist born in 1517, conducted research and his research later led to what is referred to as modern comparative anatomy. Around the same time, Andreas Vesalius was also making some strides of his own, a young anatomist of Flemish descent made famous by a penchant for amazing charts, he was systematically investigating and correcting the anatomical knowledge of the Greek physician Galen. He noticed that many of Galens observations were not even based on actual humans, instead, they were based on animals such as oxen. Up until that point, Galen and his teachings had been the authority on human anatomy. The irony is that Galen himself had emphasized the fact that you should make your own instead of using those of another. But this advice was lost during the numerous translations of his work, as Vesalius began to uncover these mistakes, other physicians of the time began to trust their own observations more than Galen
35.
Zoology
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The term is derived from Ancient Greek ζῷον, zōion, i. e. animal and λόγος, logos, i. e. knowledge, study. The history of zoology traces the study of the kingdom from ancient to modern times. This ancient work was developed in the Middle Ages by Muslim physicians. During the Renaissance and early period, zoological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed interest in empiricism. Microscopy revealed the unknown world of microorganisms, laying the groundwork for cell theory. The growing importance of natural theology, partly a response to the rise of mechanical philosophy, over the 18th and 19th centuries, zoology became an increasingly professional scientific discipline. Naturalists began to reject essentialism and consider the importance of extinction, cell theory provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in Charles Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection. In 1859, Darwin placed the theory of evolution on a new footing, by his discovery of a process by which organic evolution can occur. Darwin gave new direction to morphology and physiology, by uniting them in a biological theory. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of spontaneous generation, cell biology studies the structural and physiological properties of cells, including their behavior, interactions, and environment. This is done on both the microscopic and molecular levels, for single-celled organisms such as bacteria as well as the cells in multicellular organisms such as humans. Understanding the structure and function of cells is fundamental to all of the biological sciences, the similarities and differences between cell types are particularly relevant to molecular biology. Anatomy considers the forms of macroscopic structures such as organs and organ systems and it focuses on how organs and organ systems work together in the bodies of humans and animals, in addition to how they work independently. Anatomy and cell biology are two studies that are related, and can be categorized under structural studies. Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the function as a whole. The theme of structure to function is central to biology, for example, what is learned about the physiology of yeast cells can also apply to human cells. The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of physiology to non-human species
36.
Radiolaria
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They are found as zooplankton throughout the ocean, and their skeletal remains make up a large part of the cover of the ocean floor as siliceous ooze. Due to their rapid turn-over of species, they represent an important diagnostic fossil found from the Cambrian onwards, some common radiolarian fossils include Actinomma, Heliosphaera and Hexadoridium. Radiolarians have many needle-like pseudopodia supported by bundles of microtubules, which aid in the radiolarians buoyancy, the cell nucleus and most other organelles are in the endoplasm, while the ectoplasm is filled with frothy vacuoles and lipid droplets, keeping them buoyant. The radiolarian can often contain symbiotic algae, especially zooxanthellae, which provide most of the cells energy, some of this organization is found among the heliozoa, but those lack central capsules and only produce simple scales and spines. Some radiolarians are known for their resemblance to regular polyhedra, such as the icosahedron-shaped Circogonia icosahedra pictured to the left, the radiolarians belong to the supergroup Rhizaria together with Cercozoa and Foraminifera. Traditionally the radiolarians have been divided into four groups—Acantharea, Nassellaria, Spumellaria and Phaeodaria, Phaeodaria is however now considered to be a Cercozoan. Nassellaria and Spumellaria both produce siliceous skeletons and were grouped together in the group Polycystina. Despite some initial suggestions to the contrary, this is supported by molecular phylogenies. The Acantharea produce skeletons of strontium sulfate and is related to a peculiar genus, Sticholonche. The Radiolaria can therefore be divided into two lineages, Polycystina and Spasmaria. There are several groups that have been detected in molecular analyses of environmental data. Particularly, groups related to Acantharia and Spumellaria and these groups are so far completely unknown in terms of morphology and physiology and the radiolarian diversity is therefore likely to be much higher than what is currently known. The relationship between the Foraminifera and Radiolaria is also debated, molecular trees supports their close relationship—a grouping termed Retaria. But whether they are sister lineages or if the Foraminifera should be included within the Radiolaria is not known. The earliest known radiolaria date to the start of the Cambrian period. They have significant differences from later radiolaria, with a different silica lattice structure and few, if any, ninety percent of radiolarian species are extinct. The skeletons, or tests, of ancient radiolarians are used in dating, including for oil exploration and determination of ancient climates. This is linked to periods of heightened volcanic activity, proteus, A Nineteenth Century Vision, written and directed by David Lebrun, is an animated documentary focusing on Radiolaria, making extensive use of Haeckels drawings
37.
Sponge
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Sponges are the basalmost clade of animals of the phylum Porifera. Sponges have unspecialized cells that can transform into other types and that often migrate between the cell layers and the mesohyl in the process. Sponges do not have nervous, digestive or circulatory systems, instead, most rely on maintaining a constant water flow through their bodies to obtain food and oxygen and to remove wastes. Sponges are similar to animals in that they are multicellular, heterotrophic, lack cell walls. Unlike other animals, they lack true tissues and organs, and have no body symmetry, the shapes of their bodies are adapted for maximal efficiency of water flow through the central cavity, where it deposits nutrients, and leaves through a hole called the osculum. Many sponges have internal skeletons of spongin and/or spicules of calcium carbonate or silicon dioxide, all sponges are sessile aquatic animals. Although there are species, the great majority are marine species. A few species of sponge that live in food-poor environments have become carnivores that prey mainly on small crustaceans, most species use sexual reproduction, releasing sperm cells into the water to fertilize ova that in some species are released and in others are retained by the mother. The fertilized eggs form larvae which swim off in search of places to settle, sponges are known for regenerating from fragments that are broken off, although this only works if the fragments include the right types of cells. A few species reproduce by budding, the mesohyl functions as an endoskeleton in most sponges, and is the only skeleton in soft sponges that encrust hard surfaces such as rocks. More commonly, the mesohyl is stiffened by mineral spicules, by spongin fibers or both, demosponges use spongin, and in many species, silica spicules and in some species, calcium carbonate exoskeletons. Demosponges constitute about 90% of all known species, including all freshwater ones. The fragile glass sponges, with scaffolding of silica spicules, are restricted to polar regions, fossils of all of these types have been found in rocks dated from 580 million years ago. In addition Archaeocyathids, whose fossils are common in rocks from 530 to 490 million years ago, are now regarded as a type of sponge, the single-celled choanoflagellates resemble the choanocyte cells of sponges which are used to drive their water flow systems and capture most of their food. This along with studies of ribosomal molecules have been used as morphological evidence to suggest sponges are the sister group to the rest of animals. Some studies have shown that sponges do not form a group, in other words do not include all. Recent phylogenetic analyses suggest that comb jellies rather than sponges are the group to the rest of animals. By the 1950s, though, these had been overfished so heavily that the industry almost collapsed, sponges and their microscopic endosymbionts are now being researched as possible sources of medicines for treating a wide range of diseases
38.
Annelid
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The annelids, also known as the ringed worms or segmented worms, are a large phylum, with over 17,000 extant species including ragworms, earthworms, and leeches. The annelids are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate, invertebrate organisms and they also have parapodia for locomotion. Most textbooks still use the division into polychaetes, oligochaetes. Cladistic research since 1997 has radically changed this scheme, viewing leeches as a sub-group of oligochaetes and oligochaetes as a sub-group of polychaetes, in addition, the Pogonophora, Echiura and Sipuncula, previously regarded as separate phyla, are now regarded as sub-groups of polychaetes. Annelids are considered members of the Lophotrochozoa, a super-phylum of protostomes that also includes molluscs, brachiopods, flatworms, the basic annelid form consists of multiple segments. Each segment has the same sets of organs and, in most polychates, has a pair of parapodia that many use for locomotion. Septa separate the segments of many species, but are defined or absent in others. The septa of such species also enable them to change the shapes of individual segments, although many species can reproduce asexually and use similar mechanisms to regenerate after severe injuries, sexual reproduction is the normal method in species whose reproduction has been studied. The minority of living polychaetes whose reproduction and lifecycles are known produce trochophore larvae, Oligochaetes are full hermaphrodites and produce a ring-like cocoon around their bodies, in which the eggs and hatchlings are nourished until they are ready to emerge. Earthworms are Oligochaetes that support terrestrial food chains both as prey and in some regions are important in aeration and enriching of soil, in addition to improving soil fertility, annelids serve humans as food and as bait. Scientists observe annelids to monitor the quality of marine and fresh water, although blood-letting is no longer in favor with doctors, some leech species are regarded as endangered species because they have been over-harvested for this purpose in the last few centuries. Ragworms jaws are now being studied by engineers as they offer a combination of lightness. Since annelids are soft-bodied, their fossils are rare – mostly jaws, although some late Ediacaran fossils may represent annelids, the oldest known fossil that is identified with confidence comes from about 518 million years ago in the early Cambrian period. Fossils of most modern mobile polychaete groups appeared by the end of the Carboniferous, there are over 22,000 living annelid species, ranging in size from microscopic to the Australian giant Gippsland earthworm and Amynthas mekongianus, which can both grow up to 3 metres long. As their name suggests, they have multiple chetae per segment, polychaetes have parapodia that function as limbs, and nuchal organs that are thought to be chemosensors. Most are marine animals, although a few live in fresh water. These have few or no chetae per segment, and no nuchal organs or parapodia, the clitellates are sub-divided into, Oligochaetes, which includes earthworms. Oligochaetes have a pad in the roof of the mouth
39.
Mediterranean Sea
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The sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, although it is usually identified as a separate body of water. The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus, meaning inland or in the middle of land and it covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km2, but its connection to the Atlantic is only 14 km wide. The Strait of Gibraltar is a strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar. In oceanography, it is called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere. The Mediterranean Sea has a depth of 1,500 m. The sea is bordered on the north by Europe, the east by Asia and it is located between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west-east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun, the seas average north-south length, from Croatia’s southern shore to Libya, is approximately 800 km. The Mediterranean Sea, including the Sea of Marmara, has an area of approximately 2,510,000 square km. The sea was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times that allowed for trade, the history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies. In addition, the Gaza Strip and the British Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri, the term Mediterranean derives from the Latin word mediterraneus, meaning amid the earth or between land, as it is between the continents of Africa, Asia and Europe. The Ancient Greek name Mesogeios, is similarly from μέσο, between + γη, land, earth) and it can be compared with the Ancient Greek name Mesopotamia, meaning between rivers. The Mediterranean Sea has historically had several names, for example, the Carthaginians called it the Syrian Sea and latter Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum, and occasionally Mare Internum. Another name was the Sea of the Philistines, from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites, the sea is also called the Great Sea in the General Prologue by Geoffrey Chaucer. In Ottoman Turkish, it has also been called Bahr-i Sefid, in Modern Hebrew, it has been called HaYam HaTikhon, the Middle Sea, reflecting the Seas name in ancient Greek, Latin, and modern languages in both Europe and the Middle East. Similarly, in Modern Arabic, it is known as al-Baḥr al-Mutawassiṭ, in Turkish, it is known as Akdeniz, the White Sea since among Turks the white colour represents the west. Several ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean shores, and were influenced by their proximity to the sea. It provided routes for trade, colonisation, and war, as well as food for numerous communities throughout the ages, due to the shared climate, geology, and access to the sea, cultures centered on the Mediterranean tended to have some extent of intertwined culture and history. Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states, later, when Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum
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Hermann Fol
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Hermann Fol was a Swiss zoologist and the father of modern cytology. On his return to Europe he undertook studies in Heidelberg and completed them by obtaining his diploma in 1869 in Zurich. In 1871 he studied planktonic fauna in Villefranche-sur-Mer on the recommendation of Carl Vogt, in 1886, he resigned from his post in Geneva to devote himself entirely to his research in Villefranche-sur-Mer where, in 1880, he had established a small marine laboratory with Jules Henri Barrois. After a stopover in Bénodet, Fol mysteriously disappeared at sea, Études sur les Appendiculaires du Détroit de Messine, Genf, Ramboz et Schuchardt,1872. Die erste Entwickelung des Geryonideneies, Jena Zeitschr,1873 Études sur le développement des mollusques. Premier mémoire, Sur le développement des ptéropodes, Paris, France, note sur lorigine première des produits sexuels, Paris, Arch. sci. phys. nat. 104-111 Études sur le développment des mollusques, reinwald,1875 Études sur le développement des mollusques. 1-3, 1875–1880, Archives de zool. exper, pl. 9-18 Ueber die Schleimdrüse oder den Endostyl der Tunicaten, Morphol. 440-444 Sopra i fenomeni intimi della fecondazione degli echinodermi, Transunti R. Accad, 181-183 Sur quelques fécondations anormales chez létoile de mer, Compter rendus Acad. sci. 659-661 Sur les phénomènes intimes de la division cellulaire, Paris, 667-669 Sur les phénomènes intimes de la fécondation, Comptes rendus Acad. sci. 1877 Sur le premier développement dune étoile de mer, Comptes rendus Acad. sci, 357-360 Sur les premiers phénomènes de développement des echinodermes. Asterias glacialis, Rev. scient. de la France et de létranger,1883 Sur lanatomie dun embryon humain de la quatrième semaine, Comptes-rendus Acad. sci. 1563-1566 Sur lorigine de lindividualité chez les animaux supérieurs, Comptes-rendus Acad. sci, 497-499 Sur lorigine des cellules du follicule et de lovule chez les ascidies et chez dautres animaux, Comptes rendus Acad. sci. 491-495 Recherches sur le nombre des germes vivants que renferment quelques eaux de Genève et des environs, Mémoires de la Société de physique et naturelle de Genève, Tome 29. Genève 1884 Zoologie générale, Leçons données à lUniversité de Genève pendant le semester dhiver 1882-83, Genf, 327-October 1886 Sur la pénétration de la lumière dans la profondeur de la mer à diverses heures du jour, Paris,1886 Lehrbuch der vergleichenden mikroskopischen Anatomie Lfg.1. Genève 1887 Réponse à quelques objections formulées contre mes idées sur la pénétration du zoosperme, Paris,1887 Sur le commencement de lhénogénie chez divers animaux,1877 Le quadrille des centres, un épisode nouveau dans lhistoire de la fécondation, Genf, Impr. Aubert-Schuchardt,1891 La lumière dans linterieur de la mer, Neptunia, 277-279,1891 Lehrbuch der vergleichenden mikroskopischen Anatomie Lfg.2
