1.
Aschaffenburg
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Aschaffenburg is a town in northwest Bavaria, Germany. The town of Aschaffenburg is not considered part of the district of Aschaffenburg, Aschaffenburg belonged to the Archbishopric of Mainz for more than 800 years. Therefore, the inhabitants speak neither Bavarian nor East Franconian but rather a version of Rhine Franconian. The town is located on both sides of the Main in the southwest part of Germany,41 kilometers southeast of Frankfurt am Main, in the western part of the municipal territory, the smaller Aschaff flows into the Main. The region is known as Bayerischer Untermain. Aschaffenburg lies in the far northwest of the state of Bavaria, the climate is continental, typically with warm, dry summers and cold, damp winters. Aschaffenburg usually receives snowfall during the winter than the nearby Spessart. The following municipalities border Aschaffenburg, Johannesberg, Glattbach, Goldbach, Haibach, Bessenbach, Sulzbach am Main, Niedernberg, Großostheim, Stockstadt am Main, the name Aschaffenburg originally meant castle at the ash tree river deriving from the river Aschaff that runs through parts of the town. The earliest remains of settlements in the area of Aschaffenburg date from the Stone Age, Aschaffenburg was originally a settlement of the Alamanni. In c.700 AD, the Ravenna Cosmography names two settlements in region, Uburzis and Ascapha, around 550, the area had been conquered by the Franks, and their Hausmeier built a castle here. In the 8th century, a Benedictine monastery was founded, dedicated to St. Michael and this became the Kollegiatstift St. Peter und Alexander in the second half of the 10th century. In 869, King Louis the Younger married Liutgard of Saxony at Aschaffenburg and she also died here in 885 and was later laid to rest with her daughter Hildegard in the Stiftskirche. Ascaffinburg is mentioned first in 974 in a document by Otto II, in which he gave several villages including Wertheim am Main. In the Middle Ages the town was known as Ascaffaburc, Ascapha or Ascaphaburg, a stone bridge over the Main was reportedly built by Archbishop Willigis in 989, who also made the town his second residence. The town was part of the Archbishopric of Mainz from 982, a Vizedom is mentioned for the first time in 1122 as the top local representative of the Archbishop. In 1292 a synod was held here, and in 1474 an imperial diet, preliminary to that of Vienna, in the German Peasants War, the town backed the losing side. In 1552, the castle of Johannisburg was destroyed. It was replaced in 1605-14 by the Renaissance Schloss Johannisburg, the town suffered greatly during the Thirty Years War, being held in turn by the various belligerents
2.
Kingdom of Bavaria
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The Kingdom of Bavaria was a German state that succeeded the former Electorate of Bavaria in 1805 and continued to exist until 1918. The Bavarian Elector Maximilian IV Joseph of the House of Wittelsbach became the first King of Bavaria in 1805 as Maximilian I Joseph, the crown would go on being held by the Wittelsbachs until the kingdom came to an end in 1918. Since the end of the kingdom and the empire in 1918, on 30 December 1777, the Bavarian line of the Wittelsbachs became extinct, and the succession on the Electorate of Bavaria passed to Charles Theodore, the Elector Palatine. After a separation of four and a half centuries, the Palatinate, to which the duchies of Jülich, between the French and the Austrians, Bavaria was now in a bad situation. Before the death of Charles Theodore the Austrians had again occupied the country, Maximilian IV Joseph, the new elector, succeeded to a difficult inheritance. By the Treaty of Lunéville Bavaria lost the Palatinate and the duchies of Zweibrücken, the 1805 Peace of Pressburg allowed Maximilian to raise Bavaria to the status of a kingdom. Accordingly, Maximilian proclaimed himself king on 1 January 1806, the King still served as an Elector until Bavaria seceded from the Holy Roman Empire on 1 August 1806. The Duchy of Berg was ceded to Napoleon only in 1806, the new kingdom faced challenges from the outset of its creation, relying on the support of Napoleonic France. The kingdom faced war with Austria in 1808 and from 1810 to 1814, lost territory to Württemberg, Italy, in 1808, all relics of serfdom were abolished, which had left the old empire. In the same year, Maximilian promulgated Bavarias first written constitution, over the next five years, it was amended numerous times in accordance with Paris wishes. During the French invasion of Russia in 1812 about 30,000 Bavarian soldiers were killed in action, on 14 October, Bavaria made a formal declaration of war against Napoleonic France. The treaty was passionately backed by the Crown Prince Ludwig and by Marshal von Wrede, finally in 1816, the Rhenish Palatinate was taken from France in exchange for most of Salzburg which was then ceded to Austria. It was the second largest and second most powerful state south of the Main, in Germany as a whole, it ranked third behind Prussia and Austria. On 1 February 1817, Montgelas had been dismissed, and Bavaria had entered on a new era of constitutional reform, on 26 May 1818, Bavarias second constitution was proclaimed. The Landtag would have two houses, a house comprising the aristocracy and noblemen, including the high-class hereditary landowners, government officials. The second house, a house, would include representatives of small landowners, the towns. The rights of Protestants were safeguarded in the constitution with articles supporting the equality of all religions, the initial constitution almost proved disastrous for the monarchy, with controversies such as the army having to swear allegiance to the new constitution. Within the Kingdom of Bavaria, the Palatinate enjoyed a legal and administrative position
3.
German Empire
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The German Empire was the historical German nation state that existed from the unification of Germany in 1871 to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1918, when Germany became a federal republic. The German Empire consisted of 26 constituent territories, with most being ruled by royal families and this included four kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies, seven principalities, three free Hanseatic cities, and one imperial territory. Although Prussia became one of kingdoms in the new realm, it contained most of its population and territory. Its influence also helped define modern German culture, after 1850, the states of Germany had rapidly become industrialized, with particular strengths in coal, iron, chemicals, and railways. In 1871, it had a population of 41 million people, and by 1913, a heavily rural collection of states in 1815, now united Germany became predominantly urban. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire operated as an industrial, technological, Germany became a great power, boasting a rapidly growing rail network, the worlds strongest army, and a fast-growing industrial base. In less than a decade, its navy became second only to Britains Royal Navy, after the removal of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck by Wilhelm II, the Empire embarked on a bellicose new course that ultimately led to World War I. When the great crisis of 1914 arrived, the German Empire had two allies, Italy and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Italy, however, left the once the First World War started in August 1914. In the First World War, German plans to capture Paris quickly in autumn 1914 failed, the Allied naval blockade caused severe shortages of food. Germany was repeatedly forced to send troops to bolster Austria and Turkey on other fronts, however, Germany had great success on the Eastern Front, it occupied large Eastern territories following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. German declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917 was designed to strangle the British, it failed, but the declaration—along with the Zimmermann Telegram—did bring the United States into the war. Meanwhile, German civilians and soldiers had become war-weary and radicalised by the Russian Revolution and this failed, and by October the armies were in retreat, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had collapsed, Bulgaria had surrendered and the German people had lost faith in their political system. The Empire collapsed in the November 1918 Revolution as the Emperor and all the ruling monarchs abdicated, and a republic took over. The German Confederation had been created by an act of the Congress of Vienna on 8 June 1815 as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848, called Pan-Germanism, to Prussian prime minister Otto von Bismarcks pragmatic Realpolitik. He envisioned a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany, the war resulted in the Confederation being partially replaced by a North German Confederation in 1867, comprising the 22 states north of the Main. The new constitution and the title Emperor came into effect on 1 January 1871, during the Siege of Paris on 18 January 1871, William accepted to be proclaimed Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. The second German Constitution was adopted by the Reichstag on 14 April 1871 and proclaimed by the Emperor on 16 April, the political system remained the same. The empire had a parliament called the Reichstag, which was elected by universal male suffrage, however, the original constituencies drawn in 1871 were never redrawn to reflect the growth of urban areas
4.
Switzerland
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Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
5.
Munich Waldfriedhof
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The Munich Waldfriedhof is one of 29 cemeteries of Munich in Bavaria, Germany. It is one of the larger and more famous sites of the city for its park-like design. The Waldfriedhof is considered the first woodland cemetery, the Munich Waldfriedhof is located in the southwest and borders several city districts today. It is separated in two sections, the old part and the new part, the Waldfriedhof is open every day from 8am and closes between 5pm and 8pm depending on the season. During the warmer months of the year the city arranges guided tours, the cemetery is connected to the public transport system MVV by several bus lines. Access to the graves by car is very limited, the cemetery borders the beginning Autobahn A95 in the south as well as other large roads in the north and east. The Münchner Waldfriedhof as it is called in German was planned by the architect Hans Grässel, in the years 1963-1966 the cemetery was enlarged by the architect Prof. Ludwig Römer. The cemetery is one of a series of cemeteries in Munich planned by Grässel at about the same timepoint, the leaders of the city had not been fond of the idea of one huge main cemetery when the old burial sites became too small. Thus Grässel was instructed to plan four new cemeteries, one in each cardinal direction, the Waldfriedhof was created at a time when most cemeteries were designed as city parks or recreational parks. Typical themes of such cemeteries were the City of the Dead or the Paradise Garden, as the new cemeteries were mostly located in the outskirts of cities rather than in churchyards, and the importance of the church was diminishing, they were relatively profane in character. To regain some strength, Grässel used influences from early Christian and Byzantine architecture in his funeral chapels. He also put the chapel in the forest, rather than displaying it at the side of the avenue. The themes and ideas from the Munich Waldfriedhof became popular in Germany in the decades and were used in several similar Waldfriedhöfe elsewhere. The Munich Waldfriedhof was also an important predecessor of Skogskyrkogården outside Stockholm
6.
Painting
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Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive, Paintings can be naturalistic and representational, photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political in nature. A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by motifs and ideas. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action, the term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders. What enables painting is the perception and representation of intensity, every point in space has different intensity, which can be represented in painting by black and white and all the gray shades between. In practice, painters can articulate shapes by juxtaposing surfaces of different intensity, thus, the basic means of painting are distinct from ideological means, such as geometrical figures, various points of view and organization, and symbols. In technical drawing, thickness of line is ideal, demarcating ideal outlines of an object within a perceptual frame different from the one used by painters. Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and rhythm are the essence of music, color is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but in the East, some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe, Kandinsky, and Newton, have written their own color theory. Moreover, the use of language is only an abstraction for a color equivalent, the word red, for example, can cover a wide range of variations from the pure red of the visible spectrum of light. There is not a register of different colors in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music. For a painter, color is not simply divided into basic, painters deal practically with pigments, so blue for a painter can be any of the blues, phthalocyanine blue, Prussian blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological and symbolical meanings of color are not, strictly speaking, colors only add to the potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this, the perception of a painting is highly subjective. The analogy with music is quite clear—sound in music is analogous to light in painting, shades to dynamics and these elements do not necessarily form a melody of themselves, rather, they can add different contexts to it. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, as one example, collage, some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. Examples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet and Anselm Kiefer, there is a growing community of artists who use computers to paint color onto a digital canvas using programs such as Adobe Photoshop, Corel Painter, and many others. These images can be printed onto traditional canvas if required, rhythm is important in painting as it is in music
7.
Printmaking
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Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing, normally on paper. Printmaking normally covers only the process of creating prints that have an element of originality, except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print. Each print produced is not considered a copy but rather is considered an original, a print may be known as an impression. Printmaking is not chosen only for its ability to multiple impressions. Prints are created by transferring ink from a matrix or through a screen to a sheet of paper or other material. Screens made of silk or synthetic fabrics are used for the screenprinting process, other types of matrix substrates and related processes are discussed below. Multiple impressions printed from the matrix form an edition. Prints may also be printed in book form, such as illustrated books or artists books, Printmaking techniques are generally divided into the following basic categories, Relief, where ink is applied to the original surface of the matrix. Relief techniques include woodcut or woodblock as the Asian forms are known, wood engraving. Intaglio, where ink is applied beneath the surface of the matrix. Intaglio techniques include engraving, etching, mezzotint, aquatint, planographic, where the matrix retains its original surface, but is specially prepared and/or inked to allow for the transfer of the image. Planographic techniques include lithography, monotyping, and digital techniques, stencil, where ink or paint is pressed through a prepared screen, including screenprinting and pochoir. Other types of printmaking techniques outside these groups include collagraphy and viscosity printing, collagraphy is a printmaking technique in which textured material is adhered to the printing matrix. This texture is transferred to the paper during the printing process, Contemporary printmaking may include digital printing, photographic mediums, or a combination of digital, photographic, and traditional processes. Many of these techniques can also be combined, especially within the same family, for example, Rembrandts prints are usually referred to as etchings for convenience, but very often include work in engraving and drypoint as well, and sometimes have no etching at all. Woodcut, a type of print, is the earliest printmaking technique. It was probably first developed as a means of printing patterns on cloth, woodcuts of images on paper developed around 1400 in Japan, and slightly later in Europe. These are the two areas where woodcut has been most extensively used purely as a process for making images without text, the artist draws a design on a plank of wood, or on paper which is transferred to the wood
8.
Expressionism
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Expressionism was a modernist movement, initially in poetry and painting, originating in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. Its typical trait is to present the world solely from a subjective perspective, Expressionist artists sought to express the meaning of emotional experience rather than physical reality. Expressionism was developed as an avant-garde style before the First World War and it remained popular during the Weimar Republic, particularly in Berlin. The style extended to a range of the arts, including expressionist architecture, painting, literature, theatre, dance, film. The term is sometimes suggestive of angst, in a general sense, painters such as Matthias Grünewald and El Greco are sometimes termed expressionist, though in practice the term is applied mainly to 20th-century works. The Expressionist emphasis on individual perspective has been characterized as a reaction to positivism, though an alternate view is that the term was coined by the Czech art historian Antonin Matějček in 1910, as the opposite of impressionism, An Expressionist wishes, above all, to express himself. Immediate perception and builds on more complex psychic structures, in 1905, a group of four German artists, led by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, formed Die Brücke in the city of Dresden. This was arguably the founding organization for the German Expressionist movement, a few years later, in 1911, a like-minded group of young artists formed Der Blaue Reiter in Munich. The name came from Wassily Kandinskys Der Blaue Reiter painting of 1903, among their members were Kandinsky, Franz Marc, Paul Klee, and Auguste Macke. However, the term Expressionism did not firmly establish itself until 1913, though mainly a German artistic movement initially and most predominant in painting, poetry and the theatre between 1910–30, most precursors of the movement were not German. Expressionism is notoriously difficult to define, in part because it overlapped with other major isms of the modernist period, with Futurism, Vorticism, Cubism, Surrealism, more explicitly, that the expressionists rejected the ideology of realism. The term refers to a style in which the artist seeks to depict not objective reality but rather the subjective emotions. It is arguable that all artists are expressive but there are examples of art production in Europe from the 15th century onward which emphasize extreme emotion. Expressionism has been likened to Baroque by critics such as art historian Michel Ragon, according to Alberto Arbasino, a difference between the two is that Expressionism doesnt shun the violently unpleasant effect, while Baroque does. Expressionism throws some terrific fuck yous, Baroque doesnt, brazil, Anita Malfatti, Cândido Portinari, Di Cavalcanti, Iberê Camargo and Lasar Segall. Estonia, Konrad Mägi, Eduard Wiiralt Finland, Tyko Sallinen, Alvar Cawén, Juho Mäkelä, there were a number of groups of expressionist painters, including Der Blaue Reiter and Die Brücke. Der Blaue Reiter was based in Munich and Die Brücke was based originally in Dresden, Die Brücke was active for a longer period than Der Blaue Reiter, which was only together for a year. The Expressionists had many influences, among them Edvard Munch, Vincent van Gogh and they were also aware of the work being done by the Fauves in Paris, who influenced Expressionisms tendency toward arbitrary colours and jarring compositions
9.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
10.
Degenerate art
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Degenerate art was a term adopted by the Nazi regime in Germany to describe Modern art. Such art was banned on the grounds that it was un-German, Jewish, or Communist in nature, and these included being dismissed from teaching positions, being forbidden to exhibit or to sell their art, and in some cases being forbidden to produce art. Degenerate Art also was the title of an exhibition, held by the Nazis in Munich in 1937, consisting of modernist artworks chaotically hung, designed to inflame public opinion against modernism, the exhibition subsequently traveled to several other cities in Germany and Austria. Similar restrictions were placed upon music, which was expected to be tonal and free of any jazz influences, films and plays were also censored. The early twentieth century was a period of wrenching changes in the arts, in the visual arts, such innovations as Fauvism, Cubism, Dada and Surrealism—following Symbolism and Post-Impressionism—were not universally appreciated. The majority of people in Germany, as elsewhere, did not care for the new art which many resented as elitist, morally suspect, under the Weimar government of the 1920s, Germany emerged as a leading center of the avant-garde. It was the birthplace of Expressionism in painting and sculpture, of the musical compositions of Arnold Schoenberg. Films such as Robert Wienes The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, the Nazis viewed the culture of the Weimar period with disgust. Their response stemmed partly from a conservative aesthetic taste, and partly from their determination to use culture as a propaganda tool, on both counts, a painting such as Otto Dixs War Cripples was anathema to them. It unsparingly depicts four badly disfigured veterans of the First World War, then a familiar sight on Berlins streets, rendered in caricatured style. Featured in the Degenerate Art exhibition, it would hang next to a label accusing Dix—himself a volunteer in World War I—of an insult to the German heroes of the Great War. As dictator, Hitler gave his personal taste in art the force of law to a never before seen. Only in Stalins Soviet Union, where Socialist Realism was the style, had a modern state shown such concern with regulation of the arts. In the case of Germany, the model was to be classical Greek and Roman art, Art historian Henry Grosshans says that Hitler saw Greek and Roman art as uncontaminated by Jewish influences. Modern art was an act of violence by the Jews against the German spirit. Such was true to Hitler even though only Liebermann, Meidner, Freundlich, took upon himself the responsibility of deciding who, in matters of culture, thought and acted like a Jew. By propagating the theory of degeneracy, the Nazis combined their anti-Semitism with their drive to control the culture, the term Entartung had gained currency in Germany by the late 19th century when the critic and author Max Nordau devised the theory presented in his 1892 book, Entartung. He attacked Aestheticism in English literature and described the mysticism of the Symbolist movement in French literature as a product of mental pathology, explaining the painterliness of Impressionism as the sign of a diseased visual cortex, he decried modern degeneracy while praising traditional German culture
11.
Nazism
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National Socialism, more commonly known as Nazism, is the ideology and practice associated with the 20th-century German Nazi Party and Nazi Germany, as well as other far-right groups. Nazism subscribed to theories of racial hierarchy and Social Darwinism, identifying Germans as part of what Nazis regarded as an Aryan or Nordic master race and it aimed to overcome social divisions and create a homogeneous society, unified on the basis of racial purity. The term National Socialism arose out of attempts to create a nationalist redefinition of socialism, the Nazi Partys precursor, the Pan-German nationalist and anti-Semitic German Workers Party, was founded on 5 January 1919. By the early 1920s, Adolf Hitler assumed control of the organisation, following the Holocaust and German defeat in World War II, only a few fringe racist groups, usually referred to as neo-Nazis, still describe themselves as following National Socialism. The full name of Adolf Hitlers party was Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, the shorthand Nazi was formed from the first two syllables of the German pronunciation of the word national. The term was in use before the rise of the NSDAP as a colloquial and derogatory word for a peasant, characterizing an awkward. It derived from Ignaz, being a version of Ignatius, a common name in Bavaria. Opponents seized on this and shortened the first word of the name, Nationalsozialistische. The NSDAP briefly adopted the Nazi designation, attempting to reappropriate the term, the use of Nazi Germany, Nazi regime, and so on was popularised by German exiles abroad. From them, the spread into other languages and was eventually brought back to Germany after World War II. In English, Nazism is a name for the ideology the party advocated. The majority of scholars identify Nazism in practice as a form of far-right politics, far-right themes in Nazism include the argument that superior people have a right to dominate over other people and purge society of supposed inferior elements. Adolf Hitler and other proponents officially portrayed Nazism as being neither left- nor right-wing, but the politicians of the Right deserve exactly the same reproach. It was through their miserable cowardice that those ruffians of Jews who came into power in 1918 were able to rob the nation of its arms, a major inspiration for the Nazis were the far-right nationalist Freikorps, paramilitary organisations that engaged in political violence after World War I. The Nazis stated the alliance was purely tactical and there remained substantial differences with the DNVP, the Nazis described the DNVP as a bourgeois party and called themselves an anti-bourgeois party. After the elections in 1932, the alliance broke after the DNVP lost many of its seats in the Reichstag, the Nazis denounced them as an insignificant heap of reactionaries. The DNVP responded by denouncing the Nazis for their socialism, their violence. Kaiser Wilhelm II, who was pressured to abdicate the throne and flee into exile amidst an attempted communist revolution in Germany, there were factions in the Nazi Party, both conservative and radical
12.
Bavaria
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Bavaria is a free state and one of 16 federal states of Germany. Located in the German southeast with an area of 70,548 square kilometres and its territory comprises roughly a fifth of the total land area of Germany, and, with 12.9 million inhabitants, it is Germanys second most populous state. Munich, Bavarias capital and largest city, is the third largest city in Germany, the Duchy of Bavaria dates back to the year 555. In the 17th century CE, the Duke of Bavaria became a Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Bavaria existed from 1806 to 1918, when Bavaria became a republic. In 1946, the Free State of Bavaria re-organised itself on democratic lines after the Second World War, Bavaria has a unique culture, largely because of the states Catholic majority and conservative traditions. Bavarians have traditionally been proud of their culture, which includes such as Oktoberfest. The state also has the second largest economy among the German states by GDP figures, modern Bavaria also includes parts of the historical regions of Franconia, Upper Palatinate and Swabia. The Bavarians emerged in a north of the Alps, previously inhabited by Celts. The Bavarians spoke Old High German but, unlike other Germanic groups, rather, they seem to have coalesced out of other groups left behind by Roman withdrawal late in the 5th century. These peoples may have included the Celtic Boii, some remaining Romans, Marcomanni, Allemanni, Quadi, Thuringians, Goths, Scirians, Rugians, the name Bavarian means Men of Baia which may indicate Bohemia, the homeland of the Celtic Boii and later of the Marcomanni. They first appear in written sources circa 520, a 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the diocese was named after an ancient Bohemian king, Boiia, in the 14th century BCE. From about 554 to 788, the house of Agilolfing ruled the Duchy of Bavaria and their daughter, Theodelinde, became Queen of the Lombards in northern Italy and Garibald was forced to flee to her when he fell out with his Frankish overlords. Garibalds successor, Tassilo I, tried unsuccessfully to hold the frontier against the expansion of Slavs. Tassilos son Garibald II seems to have achieved a balance of power between 610 and 616, after Garibald II little is known of the Bavarians until Duke Theodo I, whose reign may have begun as early as 680. From 696 onwards he invited churchmen from the west to organize churches and his son, Theudebert, led a decisive Bavarian campaign to intervene in a succession dispute in the Lombard Kingdom in 714, and married his sister Guntrud to the Lombard King Liutprand. At Theodos death the duchy was divided among his sons, at Hugberts death the duchy passed to a distant relative named Odilo, from neighbouring Alemannia. He was defeated near Augsburg in 743 but continued to rule until his death in 748, saint Boniface completed the peoples conversion to Christianity in the early 8th century. Bavaria was in ways affected by the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century
13.
Huguenots
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Huguenots are the ethnoreligious group of French Protestants who follow the Reformed tradition. It was used frequently to members of the French Reformed Church until the beginning of the 19th century. The term has its origin in 16th-century France, Huguenot numbers peaked near an estimated two million by 1562, concentrated mainly in the southern and western parts of France. As Huguenots gained influence and more openly displayed their faith, Catholic hostility grew, in spite of political concessions, a series of religious conflicts followed, known as the French Wars of Religion, fought intermittently from 1562 to 1598. The Huguenots were led by Jeanne dAlbret, her son, the future Henry IV, the wars ended with the Edict of Nantes, which granted the Huguenots substantial religious, political, and military autonomy. Huguenot rebellions in the 1620s prompted the abolishment of their political and they retained religious provisions of the Edict of Nantes until the rule of Louis XIV. Nevertheless, a minority of Huguenots remained and faced continued persecution under Louis XV. By the death of Louis XV in 1774, French Calvinism was almost completely wiped out, persecution of Protestants officially ended with the Edict of Versailles, signed by Louis XVI in 1787. Two years later, with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789 and they also spread to the Dutch Cape Colony in South Africa, the Dutch East Indies, the Caribbean, New Netherland, and several of the English colonies in North America. Small contingents of families went to Orthodox Russia and Catholic Quebec, a term used originally in derision, Huguenot has unclear origins. Geneva was John Calvins adopted home and the centre of the Calvinist movement, the label Huguenot was purportedly first applied in France to those conspirators involved in the Amboise plot of 1560, a foiled attempt to wrest power in France from the influential House of Guise. The move would have had the effect of fostering relations with the Swiss. Thus, Hugues plus Eidgenosse by way of Huisgenoten supposedly became Huguenot, a version of this complex hypothesis is promoted by O. I. A. Roche, who writes in his book, The Days of the Upright, A History of the Huguenots, that Huguenot is, a combination of a Dutch and a German word. Gallicised into Huguenot, often used deprecatingly, the word became, Some disagree with such double or triple non-French linguistic origins, arguing that for the word to have spread into common use in France, it must have originated in the French language. The Hugues hypothesis argues that the name was derived by association with Hugues Capet, king of France and he was regarded by the Gallicans and Protestants as a noble man who respected peoples dignity and lives. Janet Gray and other supporters of the hypothesis suggest that the name huguenote would be equivalent to little Hugos. It was in place in Tours that the prétendus réformés habitually gathered at night
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Chemnitz University of Technology
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Chemnitz University of Technology is located in the town of Chemnitz in Germany. With over 10000 students it is the third largest university in Saxony and it was founded in 1836 as Royal Mercantile College and became a technical university in 1986. Situated in the centre of the Wissenschaftsregion Chemnitz, Technische Universität Chemnitz hosts about 11,000 students from 75 countries, with approximately 2,000 employees in science, engineering and management, TU Chemnitz counts among the most important employers in the region. Today, TU Chemnitz stands for distinctively-profiled and outstanding research, the profile of TU Chemnitz is characterized by the interaction of the key research areas mentioned above and has generated a unique constellation of competencies across eight faculties. Thanks to this constellation, Chemnitz develops into an internationally visible research hub for future value creation processes, the tradition of science in this region goes back to the 16th century when Georg Agricola, a famous German scholar of minerals, served as the citys mayor. In 1836 the Royal Mercantile College was established as a base to support the industrial revolution. In 1882 more than 1,000 students registered at the college, modern scientific areas like electrical engineering were included in the curriculum. These developments made it possible for the institution to become a Royal Technical Academy and this academy played a major role in helping Chemnitz to become one of the industrial centers at the beginning of the 20th century. At this time Chemnitz had the highest number of patent registrations in the whole of Germany, the city of Chemnitz and the Technical Academy was heavily damaged during the World War II. In the German Democratic Republic era, after time of adaptation to the new conditions. At the end of the 1960s the College was composed of faculties for Mathematics, ett Natural Sciences, Engineering, with the rising number of students the institution became an official University of Technology in 1986. At the end of the German Democratic Republic the academic system of Eastern Germany was absorbed by the West German system, Chemnitz was actively supported to remain as a third university besides Leipzig and Dresden within Saxony. Immediately these new schools started to work on projects with the established science. The university introduced combined research projects and inter-facultary study courses, within a few years the number of students doubled to the current level of around 10,000. A key research area Energy-efficient Production Processes stands the Federal Cluster of Excellence Merge Technologies for Multifunctional Lightweight Structures, funded by 34 million Euros, this cluster is the only one in Germany focusing on the trend-setting technology field of lightweight engineering. Within the key research area Smart Systems and Materials, scientists at TU Chemnitz are also involved in the Federal Cluster of Excellence Center for Advancing Electronics Dresden, several DFG Research Groups are working in this field. In addition, TU Chemnitz will be the home of the Center for Materials, Architectures and Integration of Nanomembranes, TU Chemnitz is characterized by trans-disciplinary cooperation - also within the key research area Human Factors in Technology. Representative for a number of examples shall be mentioned the Competence Center Virtual Humans, among the increasing networking with companies and research institutions in the Wissenschaftsregion Chemnitz
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Institute of technology
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An institute of technology is a type of university which specializes in engineering, technology, Applied Science, and possibly natural sciences. How the terms are used varies from country to country, the English term polytechnic appeared in the early 19th century, from the French École Polytechnique, an engineering school founded in 1794 in Paris. The French term comes from the Greek πολύ meaning many and τεχνικός meaning arts, the oldest German Institute of Technology is the Braunschweig University of Technology. Another exception is the École Polytechnique, which has educated French élites since its foundation in 1794, in some cases, polytechnics or institutes of technology are engineering schools or technical colleges. Famous examples are the Istanbul Technical University, ETH Zurich, İYTE, Delft University of Technology and RWTH Aachen, in countries like Iran, Finland, Malaysia, Portugal, Singapore or the United Kingdom, there is often a significant and confused distinction between polytechnics and universities. In the UK a binary system of higher education emerged consisting of universities, Polytechnics offered university equivalent degrees from bachelors, masters and PhD that were validated and governed at the national level by the independent UK Council for National Academic Awards. In 1992 UK Polytechnics were designated as universities which meant they could award their own degrees, the UKs first polytechnic, the Royal Polytechnic Institution was founded in 1838 in Regent Street, London. A number of polytechnics providing higher education is simply a result of a formal upgrading from their original and historical role as technical education schools. This is mostly the case in countries, where the education system is not controlled by the state. Mentz, Kotze and Van der Merwe argue that all the tools are in place to promote the debate on the place of technology in education in general. The aspects of this debate can follow the lines, To what degree is technology defined as a concept. What is the scope of technology discourse, what is the place and relation of science with technology. How useful is the Mitcham framework in thinking about technology in South Africa, can a measure of cooperation as opposed to competition be achieved amongst higher education institutions. Who ultimately is responsible for training and What is the role of technology in this. The Buenos Aires Institute of Technology is other important recognized institute of technology with renowned, 1970s–1990s During the 1970s to early 1990s, the term was used to describe state owned and funded technical schools that offered both vocational and higher education. They were part of the College of Advanced Education system, in the 1990s most of these merged with existing universities, or formed new ones of their own. These new universities often took the title University of Technology, for marketing rather than legal purposes, AVCC report The most prominent such university in each state founded the Australian Technology Network a few years later. 1990s–today Since the mid-1990s, the term has been applied to some technically minded technical, a recent example is the Melbourne Polytechnic rebranding and repositioning in 2014 from Northern Melbourne Institute of TAFE
16.
Dresden
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Dresden is the capital city and, after Leipzig, the second-largest city of the Free State of Saxony in Germany. It is situated in a valley on the River Elbe, near the border with the Czech Republic, Dresden has a long history as the capital and royal residence for the Electors and Kings of Saxony, who for centuries furnished the city with cultural and artistic splendour. The city was known as the Jewel Box, because of its baroque, the controversial American and British bombing of Dresden in World War II towards the end of the war killed approximately 25,000, many of whom were civilians, and destroyed the entire city centre. After the war restoration work has helped to reconstruct parts of the inner city, including the Katholische Hofkirche, the Zwinger. Since German reunification in 1990 Dresden is again a cultural, educational and political centre of Germany, the Dresden University of Technology is one of the 10 largest universities in Germany and part of the German Universities Excellence Initiative. The economy of Dresden and its agglomeration is one of the most dynamic in Germany and it is dominated by high-tech branches, often called as “Silicon Saxony”. The city is one of the most visited in Germany with 4,3 million overnight stays per year. The royal buildings are among the most impressive buildings in Europe, main sights are also the nearby National Park of Saxon Switzerland, the Ore Mountains and the countryside around Elbe Valley and Moritzburg Castle. The most prominent building in the city of Dresden is the Frauenkirche, built in the 18th century, the church was destroyed during World War II. The remaining ruins were left for 50 years as a war memorial, the church was rebuilt from 1994 to 2005. Although Dresden is a relatively recent city of Germanic origin followed by settlement of Slavic people, Dresdens founding and early growth is associated with the eastward expansion of Germanic peoples, mining in the nearby Ore Mountains, and the establishment of the Margraviate of Meissen. Its name etymologically derives from Old Sorbian Drežďany, meaning people of the forest, Dresden later evolved into the capital of Saxony. Around the late 12th century, a Slavic settlement called Drežďany had developed on the southern bank, another settlement existed on the northern bank, but its Slavic name is unknown. It was known as Antiqua Dresdin by 1350, and later as Altendresden, dietrich, Margrave of Meissen, chose Dresden as his interim residence in 1206, as documented in a record calling the place Civitas Dresdene. After 1270, Dresden became the capital of the margraviate and it was given to Friedrich Clem after death of Henry the Illustrious in 1288. It was taken by the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1316 and was restored to the Wettin dynasty after the death of Valdemar the Great in 1319, from 1485, it was the seat of the dukes of Saxony, and from 1547 the electors as well. The Elector and ruler of Saxony Frederick Augustus I became King Augustus II the Strong of Poland in personal union and he gathered many of the best musicians, architects and painters from all over Europe to the newly named Royal-Polish Residential City of Dresden. His reign marked the beginning of Dresdens emergence as a leading European city for technology, during the reign of Kings Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland the Zwinger Royal Palace, the Hofkirche and the Frauenkirche were built
17.
Fritz Bleyl
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Hilmar Friedrich Wilhelm Bleyl, known as Fritz Bleyl, was a German artist of the Expressionist school, and one of the four founders of artist group Die Brücke. He designed graphics for the group including, for their first show, a poster and he left the group after only two years, when he married, to look after his family, and did not exhibit publicly thereafter. Fritz Bleyl was born in Zwickau, Kingdom of Saxony, in 1901 he began studying architecture at the Königliche Technische Hochschule of Dresden, as his parents wished, however, his own desire was to become a painter. The institution provided a range of studies in addition to architecture, such as freehand drawing, perspective drawing. Bleyl became close friends with student, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner. They discussed art together and also studied nature, having a radical outlook in common, in 1905, Bleyl along with Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, and two other architecture students, Karl Schmidt-Rottluff and Erich Heckel, founded the artists group Die Brücke. The group aimed to eschew the prevalent traditional academic style and find a new mode of artistic expression and they responded both to past artists such as Albrecht Dürer, Matthias Grünewald and Lucas Cranach the Elder, as well as contemporary international avant-garde movements. Their group was one of the ones, which in due course had a major impact on the evolution of modern art in the 20th century. At this time, Bleyl was a member of the group. This met initially in Kirchners first studio, which had previously been a butchers shop, Kirchners studio lived up to Bleyls description, becoming a venue which overthrew social conventions to allow casual love-making and frequent nudity. Group life-drawing sessions took place using models from the circle, rather than professionals. The group composed a manifesto, which was carved on wood and asserted a new generation, as part of the affirmation of their national heritage, they revived older media, particularly woodcut prints. Bleyl specialised in design and created several significant posters and tickets presenting the group to the general public. In September and October 1906, the first group exhibition was held, focused on the female nude, deriving from the life studies, Bleyl created a lithographic poster for the show printed in orange ink on white paper. Bleyl omits iconography such as a crown, a lamp and a flowing gown, police censors barred the display of the poster under Paragraph 184, the National Penal Code pornography clause, after perceiving pubic hair in the shadow underneath the stomach. In 1905, Bleyl completed his university studies and, the year, began to teach at the Bauschule in Freiberg. He chose a bourgeois lifestyle, marrying in 1907 and, with a concern to support his family and he was replaced by Max Pechstein and Otto Mueller. In 1916, he completed his dissertation, and travelled in Italy, for the rest of his life, he continued to teach and to practise as an architect
18.
Karl Schmidt-Rottluff
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Karl Schmidt-Rottluff was a German expressionist painter and printmaker, he was one of the four founders of the artist group Die Brücke. Schmidt-Rottluff was born in Rottluff, nowadays a district of Chemnitz and he attended the humanistische gymnasium in Chemnitz. The group was founded in Dresden on 7 June 1905, in 1906 he added Rottluff to his surname. He spent the summer of year on the island of Alsen. From 1907 to 1912 he spent the summers on the coast at Dangast, in December 1911, he and the other members of Die Brücke moved from Dresden to Berlin. The group was dissolved in 1913, in 1924 the art historian Rosa Schapire who had been a long-time supporter, and sometimes model, published a catalogue of Schmidt-Rottluffs graphic works. The honours bestowed on Schmidt-Rottluff after World War I, as Expressionism was officially recognized in Germany, were away from him after the rise to power of the Nazis. He was expelled from the Prussian Academy of Arts in 1933, in 1937,608 of Schmidt-Rottluffs paintings were seized from museums by the Nazis and several of them shown in exhibitions of degenerate art. By 1941 he had expelled from the painters guild and forbidden to paint. An endowment made by him in 1964 provided the basis for the Brücke Museum in West Berlin and he was a prolific printmaker, with 300 woodcuts,105 lithographs,70 etchings, and 78 commercial prints described in Rosa Schapires Catalogue raisonné. He died in Berlin in 1976, Schmidt-Rottluffs works are included in the collections of, among others, the Museum of Modern Art, New York, the Neue Galerie, New York, the Los Angeles County Museum of Art. The Museum am Theaterplatz in Chemnitz has a collection of work from Schmidt-Rottluff. A German government panel, led by former constitutional judge Jutta Limbach, had ruled that the loss was almost certainly a result of Nazi persecution. Schmidt Rottluffs esteemed Self Portrait with Monocle is now currently in the Staatliche Museum, in 1997, £925,500 was paid for Schmidt-Rottluffs Dangaster Park at Sothebys in London. At a 2001 Phillips de Pury auction, British art dealer James Roundell bought Schmidt-Rottluffs The Reader for $3.9 million. The top price paid at auction for a work by Schmidt-Rottluff was almost $6 million for Akte im Freien – Drei badende Frauen at Christie’s in London in 2008. Letter from Adolf Ziegler about the Nazi seizure of work, departure from the Akademie der Künste Media related to Karl Schmidt-Rottluff at Wikimedia Commons Quotations related to Karl Schmidt-Rottluff at Wikiquote
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Erich Heckel
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Erich Heckel was a German painter and printmaker, and a founding member of the group Die Brücke which existed 1905-1913. Heckel was born in Döbeln, Saxony, the son of a railway engineer, between 1897 and 1904 he attended the Realgymnasium in Chemnitz, before studying architecture in Dresden. He left after three terms, shortly after the foundation of Die Brücke, an group of which he was secretary. The other founder-members, also students, were Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Karl Schmidt-Rotluff. He worked in the office of the architect Wilhelm Kreis until July 1907, Heckel met the other founding members of Die Brücke, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Karl Schmidt-Rotluff, and Fritz Bleyl, while studying architecture in Dresden. The foursome equally regarded pursuing a degree in architecture as a compromise with their respectable middle-class parents who would have never supported them, had wanted to study art. Heckel attended the Dresden Polytechnic Institute for only eighteen months, after time he accepted a job as a draughtsman at Wilhem Kreiss architectural studio. He was able to use the position for the benefit of the Brücke, as a member of Die Brücke, Heckel often filled the role of business manager, which allowed the collective to network with other upcoming artists at the time, such as the Munich-based Franz Marc. This subsequently led to publicity for the collective, such as their mention in the almanac of Franz Marcs own artistic coalition. In addition, Heckels poster, no longer extant, had been barred from public display by the Dresden police, in 1906 and 1907 the Die Brücke had another exhibition in Löbtau, devoted exclusively to graphics and including a group of woodcuts by Wassily Kandinsky. Unfortunately, the once again failed to strike a chord with the public. However, much more noteworthy and ironically also notorious, were the three annual shows by the Die Brücke, this time held in the fashionable Emil Richter Gallery. Heckel and other members of Die Brücke greatly admired the work of Edvard Munch, the four founding members made much use of the print as a cheap and quick medium with which to produce affordable art. Primitive art was also an inspiration to the members of the Die Brücke and it is through this style that they found a source of strength in the barbaric figures. In December 1911, Erich Heckel moved from Dresden to Berlin, Die Brücke was dissolved in 1913. He was classified as unfit for service during the First World War. He managed to continue to work throughout the war. In 1937 the Nazi Party declared his work degenerate, it forbade him to show his work in public, by 1944 all of his woodcut blocks and print plates had been destroyed
20.
Lucas Cranach the Elder
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Lucas Cranach the Elder was a German Renaissance painter and printmaker in woodcut and engraving. He also painted religious subjects, first in the Catholic tradition and he continued throughout his career to paint nude subjects drawn from mythology and religion. He had a workshop and many works exist in different versions, his son Lucas Cranach the Younger. Lucas Cranach the Elder has been considered the most successful German artist of his time and he was born at Kronach in upper Franconia, probably in 1472. His exact date of birth is unknown and he learned the art of drawing from his father Hans Maler. His mother, with surname Hübner, died in 1491, later, the name of his birthplace was used for his surname, another custom of the times. How Cranach was trained is not known, but it was probably with local south German masters, as with his contemporary Matthias Grünewald, there are also suggestions that Cranach spent some time in Vienna around 1500. According to Gunderam Cranach demonstrated his talents as a painter before the close of the 15th century and his work then drew the attention of Duke Friedrich III, Elector of Saxony, known as Frederick the Wise, who attached Cranach to his court in 1504. Cranach was to remain in the service of the Elector and his successors for the rest of his life, Cranach married Barbara Brengbier, the daughter of a burgher of Gotha and also born there, she died at Wittenberg on 26 December 1540. Cranach later owned a house at Gotha, but most likely he got to know Barbara near Wittenberg, where her family owned a house. The first evidence of Cranachs skill as an artist comes in a picture dated 1504, in 1509 Cranach went to the Netherlands, and painted the Emperor Maximilian and the boy who afterwards became Emperor Charles V. Until 1508 Cranach signed his works with his initials, in that year the elector gave him the winged snake as an emblem, or Kleinod, which superseded the initials on his pictures after that date. Cranach was the painter to the electors of Saxony in Wittenberg. His patrons were powerful supporters of Martin Luther, and Cranach used his art as a symbol of the new faith, Cranach made numerous portraits of Luther, and provided woodcut illustrations for Luthers German translation of the Bible. Somewhat later the duke conferred on him the monopoly of the sale of medicines at Wittenberg, Cranachs presses were used by Martin Luther. His apothecary shop was open for centuries, and was only lost by fire in 1871, Cranach, like his patron, was friendly with the Protestant Reformers at a very early stage, yet it is difficult to fix the time of his first meeting with Martin Luther. The oldest reference to Cranach in Luthers correspondence dates from 1520, in a letter written from Worms in 1521, Luther calls him his gossip, warmly alluding to his Gevatterin, the artists wife. He was also godfather to their first child, Johannes Hans Luther, in 1530 Luther lived at the citadel of Veste Coburg under the protection of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and his room is preserved there along with a painting of him
21.
Avant-garde
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The avant-garde are people or works that are experimental, radical, or unorthodox, with respect to art, culture, and society. It may be characterized by nontraditional, aesthetic innovation and initial unacceptability, the avant-garde pushes the boundaries of what is accepted as the norm or the status quo, primarily in the cultural realm. The avant-garde is considered by some to be a hallmark of modernism, the avant-garde also promotes radical social reforms. Several writers have attempted, with limited success, to map the parameters of avant-garde activity, the Italian essayist Renato Poggioli provides one of the best-known analyses of vanguardism as a cultural phenomenon in his 1962 book Teoria dellarte davanguardia. Other authors have attempted both to clarify and to extend Poggiolis study, bürgers essay also greatly influenced the work of contemporary American art-historians such as the German Benjamin H. D. Buchloh. Buchloh, in the collection of essays Neo-avantgarde and Culture Industry critically argues for an approach to these positions. Subsequent criticism theorized the limitations of these approaches, noting their circumscribed areas of analysis, including Eurocentric, chauvinist, and genre-specific definitions. The concept of avant-garde refers primarily to artists, writers, composers and thinkers whose work is opposed to cultural values. For Greenberg, these forms were therefore kitsch, phony, faked or mechanical culture, for instance, during the 1930s the advertising industry was quick to take visual mannerisms from surrealism, but this does not mean that 1930s advertising photographs are truly surreal. In this way the autonomous artistic merit so dear to the vanguardist was abandoned and sales became the measure. It has become common to describe successful rock musicians and celebrated film-makers as avant-garde, nevertheless, an incisive critique of vanguardism as against the views of mainstream society was offered by the New York critic Harold Rosenberg in the late 1960s. Since then it has been flanked by what he called avant-garde ghosts to the one side, and this has seen culture become, in his words, a profession one of whose aspects is the pretense of overthrowing it. Avant-garde in music can refer to any form of working within traditional structures while seeking to breach boundaries in some manner. The term is used loosely to describe the work of any musicians who radically depart from tradition altogether, although most avant-garde composers have been men, this is not exclusively the case. Women avant-gardists include Pauline Oliveros, Diamanda Galás, Meredith Monk, there are movements in theatre history that are characterized by their contributions to the avant-garde traditions in both the United States and Europe. Among these are Fluxus, Happenings, and Neo-Dada, Avant-garde – Wikipedia book Barron, Stephanie, and Maurice Tuchman. The Avant-garde in Russia, 1910–1930, New Perspectives, Los Angeles County Museum of Art Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Los Angeles, CA, Los Angeles County Museum of Art ISBN 0-87587-095-3, Cambridge, MA, ISBN 0-671-20422-X Berg, Hubert van den, and Walter Fähnders
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Woodcut
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Woodcut is a relief printing technique in printmaking. An artist carves an image into the surface of a block of wood—typically with gouges—leaving the printing parts level with the surface while removing the non-printing parts. Areas that the artist cuts away carry no ink, while characters or images at surface level carry the ink to produce the print, the block is cut along the wood grain. The surface is covered with ink by rolling over the surface with a roller, leaving ink upon the flat surface. Multiple colors can be printed by keying the paper to a frame around the woodblocks, single-leaf woodcut is a term for a woodcut presented as a single image or print, as opposed to a book illustration. Among these the best known are the 16th century Hieronymus Andreae, Hans Lützelburger and Jost de Negker, all of whom ran workshops, the formschneider in turn handed the block on to specialist printers. There were further specialists who made the blank blocks and this is why woodcuts are sometimes described by museums or books as designed by rather than by an artist, but most authorities do not use this distinction. The division of labour had the advantage that a trained artist could adapt to the medium relatively easily, there were various methods of transferring the artists drawn design onto the block for the cutter to follow. Either the drawing would be made directly onto the block, or a drawing on paper was glued to the block, either way, the artists drawing was destroyed during the cutting process. Other methods were used, including tracing, in both Europe and the Far East in the early 20th century, some artists began to do the whole process themselves. In Japan, this movement was called sōsaku-hanga, as opposed to shin-hanga, in the West, many artists used the easier technique of linocut instead. Compared to intaglio techniques like etching and engraving, only low pressure is required to print, as a relief method, it is only necessary to ink the block and bring it into firm and even contact with the paper or cloth to achieve an acceptable print. In Europe a variety of woods including boxwood and several nut and fruit woods like pear or cherry were commonly used, in Japan, there are three methods of printing to consider, Stamping, Used for many fabrics and most early European woodcuts. Used for European woodcuts and block-books later in the fifteenth century, also used for many Western woodcuts from about 1910 to the present. The block goes face up on a table, with the paper or fabric on top, the back is rubbed with a hard pad, a flat piece of wood, a burnisher, or a leather frotton. A traditional Japanese tool used for this is called a baren, later in Japan, complex wooden mechanisms were used to help hold the woodblock perfectly still and to apply proper pressure in the printing process. This was especially helpful once multiple colors were introduced and had to be applied with precision atop previous ink layers, printing in a press, presses only seem to have been used in Asia in relatively recent times. Printing-presses were used from about 1480 for European prints and block-books, simple weighted presses may have been used in Europe before the print-press, but firm evidence is lacking
23.
Dallas Museum of Art
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The Dallas Museum of Art is a major art museum located in the Arts District of downtown Dallas, Texas, along Woodall Rodgers Freeway between St. Paul and Harwood. In 1984, the museum moved from its previous location in Fair Park to the Arts District, the new building was designed by Edward Larrabee Barnes, the 2007 winner of the American Institute of Architects Gold Medal. The museum collection is made up of more than 24,000 objects and it is also defined by its dynamic exhibition policy and award-winning educational programs. The Mildred R. and Frederick M. Mayer Library contains over 50,000 volumes available to curators, with 159,000 square feet of exhibition spaces, it is one of the largest art museums in the United States. The museums history began with the establishment in 1903 of the Dallas Art Association, frank Reaugh, a Texas artist, saw in the new library the opportunity to display works of art. This idea was championed by May Dickson Exall, who was the first president of the Dallas Public Library. ”The museum’s collections started growing from this moment on and it soon became necessary to find a new permanent home. The museum, renamed the Dallas Museum of Fine Arts in 1932, relocated to a new art deco facility within Fair Park in 1936 and this new facility was designed by a consortium of Dallas architects in consultation with Paul Cret of Philadelphia. It is still possible to visit this building, in 1943, Jerry Bywaters became the director of the museum, a position he held for the next twenty-one years. Artist, art critic, and teacher, Bywaters gave a sense of identity and community to the museum, under Bywaters tenure, impressionist, abstract, and contemporary masterpieces were acquired and the Texas identity of the museum was emphasized. This identity is represented by works by Alexandre Hogue, Olin Herman Travis, Bywaters himself. In 1963, the Dallas Museum of Fine Arts merged with the Dallas Museum of Contemporary Art, rueppel became the director of the newly merged Museum. In 1965, the museum held an exhibition called The Art of Piet Mondrian and one entitled Sculpture, by the late 1970s, the greatly enlarged permanent collection and the ambitious exhibition program fostered a need for a new museum facility. Under Harry Parker’s direction, the museum was able to once again, to its current venue. The $54 million facility, designed by New York architect Edward Larrabee Barnes, was financed by a 1979 City bond election, the project was galvanized by the slogan “A Great City Deserves a Great Museum, ” and the new building opened in January 1984. The museums collections include more than 24,000 works of art from around the world ranging from ancient to modern times and they are conceived as a celebration of the human power of creation. Objects in the museum’s African collection come from West Africa and Central Africa, the objects date primarily from the 16th to the 20th centuries, although the earliest object is a Nok terracotta bust from Nigeria that dates from somewhere between 200 BC to 200 AD. Some works in the collection were created as symbols of leadership and status, the American art collection includes paintings, sculptures, and works on paper from the United States from the colonial period to World War II, and art from Mexico, and Canada. One of the most important pieces in the collection is The Icebergs by Frederic Edwin Church and this painting had long been referred to as a lost masterpiece
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Modern art
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Modern art includes artistic work produced during the period extending roughly from the 1860s to the 1970s, and denotes the style and philosophy of the art produced during that era. The term is associated with art in which the traditions of the past have been thrown aside in a spirit of experimentation. Modern artists experimented with new ways of seeing and with ideas about the nature of materials. A tendency away from the narrative, which was characteristic for the traditional arts, more recent artistic production is often called contemporary art or postmodern art. Matisses two versions of The Dance signified a key point in his career and in the development of modern painting, analytic cubism was jointly developed by Picasso and Georges Braque, exemplified by Violin and Candlestick, Paris, from about 1908 through 1912. Synthetic cubism is characterized by the introduction of different textures, surfaces, collage elements, papier collé, the notion of modern art is closely related to modernism. Although modern sculpture and architecture are reckoned to have emerged at the end of the 19th century, the beginnings of modern painting can be located earlier. The date perhaps most commonly identified as marking the birth of art is 1863. Earlier dates have also proposed, among them 1855 and 1784. In the words of art historian H, harvard Arnason, Each of these dates has significance for the development of modern art, but none categorically marks a completely new beginning. A gradual metamorphosis took place in the course of a hundred years, the strands of thought that eventually led to modern art can be traced back to the Enlightenment, and even to the 17th century. The important modern art critic Clement Greenberg, for instance, called Immanuel Kant the first real Modernist but also drew a distinction, The Enlightenment criticized from the outside. The French Revolution of 1789 uprooted assumptions and institutions that had for centuries been accepted with little question and this gave rise to what art historian Ernst Gombrich called a self-consciousness that made people select the style of their building as one selects the pattern of a wallpaper. The pioneers of art were Romantics, Realists and Impressionists. By the late 19th century, additional movements which were to be influential in art had begun to emerge. The advocates of realism stood against the idealism of the academic art that enjoyed public. The most successful painters of the day worked either through commissions or through public exhibitions of their own work. There were official, government-sponsored painters unions, while governments regularly held exhibitions of new fine
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Moritzburg, Saxony
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Moritzburg is a municipality in the district of Meissen in Saxony, Germany, between Meissen itself, an early centre of Saxony, and todays capital Dresden. It is most famous for its Baroque castle, Schloss Moritzburg, the village, which was originally known as Eisenburg, was first mentioned in 1294. It became a market in 1675, the Saxon state stud has been located here since 1828. In 1884 a narrow gauge railway, the Radebeul-Radeburg line, was built connecting the town to the district capital Radebeul and it was renamed Moritzburg, after the nearby castle, in 1934. The German painter Käthe Kollwitz lived at the invitation of Prince Ernst Heinrich von Wettin in the Rüdenhof in Moritzburg from 1944 until her death on 1945-04-22, in 1995 a small museum was opened in the Rüdenhof
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Fehmarn
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Fehmarn is an island and—since 2003—a town on this island in the Baltic Sea, off the eastern coast of Schleswig-Holstein, Germany, and c.18 kilometers south of the Danish island of Lolland. It belongs to the district of Ostholstein, earlier names of the island are Femera, Fimbria, Cimbria parva, and Imbra. As a part of Wagria it was settled by the Slavic Lechitic tribe of Wagri in the middle ages. After their conquest and christianization they were Germanized, from the Middle Ages till 1864 Fehmarn formed part of the Danish Duchy of Schleswig. When the duchy was partitioned in 1544, it formed part of the duchy of John the Elder, upon his death without heirs in 1580, Fehmarn became part of the Duchy of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp. After the Great Northern War Fehmarn along with the rest of Schleswig was united with the Danish crown, in 1864 Schleswig passed to Prussia as a result of the Second Schleswig War. On 26 July 1932, the German Navys training ship Niobe sank off the island during a sudden squall, at Gammendorfer Strand on Fehmarn, within view of the site of the sinking, the Niobe-Denkmal monument was erected. Since 1963, Fehmarn has been connected to the German mainland by a road and it is 963.40 m long and 69 m high. The area is 185 km² and the coastline is 78 km, the highest hills are the Hinrichsberg and the Wulfener Berg. The largest community on Fehmarn is Burg, with 6,000 inhabitants, in addition, there are many small villages. The Fehmarn Belt, a strait separating Fehmarn from Lolland, is located on the side opposite to Germany and it can be crossed by ferries travelling between the seaports of Puttgarden, Germany, and Rødbyhavn, Denmark. The crossing takes about 45 minutes, on 29 June 2007, the Danish and German authorities gave the go-ahead for the Fehmarn Belt Fixed Link project, planned for completion in 2020. The 963-metre long Fehmarn Sound Bridge connects the German island of Fehmarn with the German mainland near Großenbrode, the coasts serve as resting places for migratory birds, and it is thus a popular location for ornithologists. The islands bird reserves are looked after by NABUs conservation centre at the Wallnau Waterbird Reserve, in Burg there is a large aquarium with 40 fish tanks. Fehmarn is famous for its nature and recreation areas, especially during summer times and is well known for its windsurf and kitesurf spots. Currently there are more than ten surfspots known on the island, Fehmarn was the location of Jimi Hendrixs final concert, at the Open Air Love & Peace Festival, on September 6,1970. The concert was held at Flügge Beach in the southwest, there is a memorial stone there and since 1995, the Jimi-Hendrix-Revival-Festival has been celebrated every year in September. The St. Nicholas Church has a font that dates from 1391
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Max Pechstein
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Hermann Max Pechstein was a German expressionist painter and printmaker, and a member of the Die Brücke group. Pechstein was born in Zwickau, the son of a craftsman who worked in a textile mill, early contact with the art of Vincent van Gogh stimulated Pechsteins development toward expressionism. After studying art first at the School of Applied Arts and then at the Royal Art Academy in Dresden, Pechstein met Erich Heckel and he was the only member to have formal art training. Later in Berlin, he helped to found the Neue Sezession and gained recognition for his decorative and colorful paintings that were lent from the ideas of Van Gogh, Matisse, and his paintings eventually became more primitivist, incorporating thick black lines and angular figures. From in 1933, Pechstein was vilified by the Nazis because of his art, a total of 326 of his paintings were removed from German museums. Sixteen of his works were displayed in the Entartete Kunst exhibition of 1937, during this time, Pechstein went into seclusion in rural Pomerania. He was a printmaker, producing 421 lithographs,315 woodcuts and linocuts. Pechstein was a professor at the Berlin Academy for ten years before his dismissal by the Nazis in 1933 and he was reinstated in 1945, and subsequently won numerous titles and awards for his work. He is buried on the Evangelischer Friedhof Alt-Schmargendorf in Berlin, at a 1999 Sothebys auction, The Yellow Mask I, the portrait of a woman wearing a yellow mask, was sold for $1.37 million. In 2008, Zirkus mit Dromedaren was auctioned for £1.9 million in London
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Folkwang Museum
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Museum Folkwang is a major collection of 19th- and 20th-century art in Essen, Germany. The term Folkwang derives from the name of the meadow of the dead, Fólkvangr. Museum Folkwang incorporates the Deutsche Plakat Museum, comprising circa 340,000 posters from politics, economy, during a visit in Essen in 1932, Paul J. Sachs called the Folkwang the most beautiful museum in the world. In 2007, David Chipperfield designed an extension, which was built onto the older building. Ernst Gosebruch, director of the museum in the 1920s and 1930s, in 1937, Joseph Goebbels created a commission headed by Adolf Ziegler whose mission was to purge all German government-owned museums of such degenerate works. The Museum Folkwang fell into the category of government-controlled institutions and was part of the purge. Over 1 200 works of art were removed from the museum, part of over 17 000 works of art removed from museums throughout Germany. The Nazi government first organized an exhibition of this degenerate art—which, ironically. Many works of art came into the possession of American and other collectors, in the end, approximately 5 000 works of art deemed unsaleable were burned. The Museum Folkwang and the other museums affected have generally not tried to reclaim these works because at the time, the works of art were ultimately the property of the German government, which had the legal right to dispose of them as it saw fit. A €55m reconstruction was possible by Berthold Beitz, a philanthropist. An international architectural competition organized by the City of Essen was won by David Chipperfield in March 2007, the new building, adding 16,000 m2 to the existing museum, opened in January 2010, when Essen and the Ruhr Area became European Capital of Culture. Official website Museum Folkwang bei Google Cultural Institute
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Oskar Kohnstamm
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Dr. Oskar Felix Kohnstamm was a German neurologist and psychiatrist. Initially trained in medicine in Giessen and Strassbourg he received his doctors degree in Berlin in 1894. Kohnstamm then began as a practitioner in Königstein im Taunus. There, he more and more interested in neurology and psychiatry. Gradually, the idea ripened to build a sanatorium for treating clinical depressions. The house, build in Jugendstil style, opened in 1905 and was expanded in 1912, Kohnstamm was no follower of Sigmund Freud but worked often with hypnosis. Among his patients were three men who would become world-famous, the painter Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, the actor Alexander Moissi. Even the playwright Carl Sternheim has been in treatment in Kohnstamms sanatorium during the First World War. The poets Stefan George, Karl Wolfskehl, the archaeologist Botho Graef, gertrude Kingston was a cousin of him, Phyllis Konstam a niece. The tale Peter and Annelis Journey to the Moon, which was written by a former patient Gerdt von Bassewitz, was playing in his sanatorium with his children as the main character, Kohnstamms phenomenon Kohnstamm, Oskar Erscheinungsforme der Seele. Laudenheimer, R. Oskar Kohnstamm, eine biographische Skizze, heyworth, Peter Otto Klemperer, his life and times, Vol.1. Grisebach, Lucius Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, 1880-1938
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Frankfurt
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The city is at the centre of the larger Frankfurt Rhine-Main Metropolitan Region, which has a population of 5.8 million and is Germanys second-largest metropolitan region after Rhine-Ruhr. Since the enlargement of the European Union in 2013, the centre of the EU is about 40 km to the east of Frankfurts CBD. Frankfurt is culturally and ethnically diverse, with half of the population. A quarter of the population are foreign nationals, including many expatriates, Frankfurt is an alpha world city and a global hub for commerce, culture, education, tourism and traffic. Its the site of many global and European headquarters, Frankfurt Airport is among the worlds busiest. Automotive, technology and research, services, consulting, media, Frankfurts DE-CIX is the worlds largest internet exchange point. Messe Frankfurt is one of the worlds largest trade fairs, major fairs include the Frankfurt Motor Show, the worlds largest motor show, the Music Fair, and the Frankfurt Book Fair, the worlds largest book fair. Frankfurt is home to educational institutions, including the Goethe University, the UAS, the FUMPA. Its renowned cultural venues include the concert hall Alte Oper, Europes largest English Theatre and many museums, Frankfurts skyline is shaped by some of Europes tallest skyscrapers. In sports, the city is known as the home of the top football club Eintracht Frankfurt, the basketball club Frankfurt Skyliners, the Frankfurt Marathon. Its the seat of German sport unions for Olympics, football, Frankfurt is the largest financial centre in continental Europe. It is home to the European Central Bank, Deutsche Bundesbank, Frankfurt Stock Exchange, the Frankfurt Stock Exchange is one of the worlds largest stock exchanges by market capitalization and accounts for more than 90 percent of the turnover in the German market. Frankfurt is considered a city as listed by the GaWC groups 2012 inventory. Among global cities it was ranked 10th by the Global Power City Index 2011, among financial centres it was ranked 8th by the International Financial Centers Development Index 2013 and 9th by the Global Financial Centres Index 2013. Its central location within Germany and Europe makes Frankfurt a major air, rail, Frankfurt Airport is one of the worlds busiest international airports by passenger traffic and the main hub for Germanys flag carrier Lufthansa. Frankfurter Kreuz, the Autobahn interchange close to the airport, is the most heavily used interchange in the EU, in 2011 human-resource-consulting firm Mercer ranked Frankfurt as seventh in its annual Quality of Living survey of cities around the world. According to The Economist cost-of-living survey, Frankfurt is Germanys most expensive city, Frankfurt has many high-rise buildings in the city centre, forming the Frankfurt skyline. It is one of the few cities in the European Union to have such a skyline and because of it Germans sometimes refer to Frankfurt as Mainhattan, the other well known and obvious nickname is Bankfurt
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Davos
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Davos is a municipality in the Prättigau/Davos Region in the canton of Graubünden, Switzerland. It has a permanent population of 11,109, Davos is located on the river Landwasser, in the Rhaetian Alps, between the Plessur and Albula Range. At 1,560 m, it is the highest town in Europe, Davos is host to the World Economic Forum, an annual meeting of global political and business elites and the home of one of Switzerlands biggest ski resorts. At the end of year it serves as the site of the annual Spengler Cup ice hockey tournament. The current settlement of the Davos area began in the High Middle Ages with the immigration of Rhaeto-Romans, the village of Davos is first mentioned in 1213 as Tavaus. Natives still speak a dialect that is atypical for Graubünden, showing similarities with German idioms of western parts of Switzerland, in 1436, the League of the Ten Jurisdictions was founded in Davos. Robert Louis Stevenson, who suffered from tuberculosis, wintered in Davos in 1880 upon the recommendation of his Edinburgh physician Dr. George Balfour, arthur Conan Doyle wrote an article about skiing in Davos in 1899. A sanatorium in Davos is also the inspiration for the Berghof Sanitorium in Thomas Manns novel Der Zauberberg, between 1936 and 1938, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, then at the end of his life and living in Davos since 1917, depicted Davos and the Junkerboden. His painting has a both Romantic and pantheistic atmosphere and simplified formal structure, during the natural ice era of winter sports, Davos and the Davos Eisstadion were a mecca for speed skating. Many international championships were held here, and many records were set. The only European Bandy Championship was held in the town in 1913, subsequently, Davos became a famous ski resort, especially frequented by tourists from the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. After peaking in the 1970s and 1980s, the city settled down as a leading, Davos has an area, of 283.98 km2. Of this area, about 35. 0% is used for agricultural purposes, of the rest of the land,2. 3% is settled and 40. 5% is unproductive land. In the 2004/09 survey a total of 337 ha or about 1. 2% of the area was covered with buildings. Over the same period, the amount of recreational space in the municipality increased by 10 ha and is now about 0. 22% of the total area. Of the agricultural land,1,296 ha is fields and grasslands and 9,056 ha consists of alpine grazing areas, since 1985 the amount of agricultural land has decreased by 736 ha. Over the same period the amount of forested land has increased by 481 ha. Rivers and lakes cover 285 ha in the municipality, until 2017 the municipality was located in the Davos subdistrict of the Prättigau/Davos district, after 2017 it was part of the Prättigau/Davos Region
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Ferdinand Hodler
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Ferdinand Hodler was one of the best-known Swiss painters of the nineteenth century. His early works were portraits, landscapes, and genre paintings in a realistic style, later, he adopted a personal form of symbolism he called parallelism. Hodler was born in Bern, the eldest of six children and his father, Jean Hodler, made a meager living as a carpenter, his mother, Marguerite, was from a peasant family. By the time Hodler was eight years old, he had lost his father and his mother remarried, to a decorative painter named Gottlieb Schüpach who had five children from a previous marriage. The birth of children brought the size of Hodlers family to thirteen. The familys finances were poor, and the nine-year-old Hodler was put to work assisting his stepfather in painting signs, after the death of his mother from tuberculosis in 1867, Hodler was sent to Thun to apprentice with a local painter, Ferdinand Sommer. From Sommer, Hodler learned the craft of painting conventional Alpine landscapes, typically copied from prints, in 1871, at the age of 18, Hodler traveled on foot to Geneva to start his career as a painter. He attended science lectures at the Collège de Genève, and in the museum there he copied paintings by Alexandre Calame, in 1873 he became a student of Barthélemy Menn, and investigated Dürer’s writings on proportions. He made a trip to Basel in 1875, where he studied the paintings of Hans Holbein—especially Dead Christ in the Tomb, which influenced Hodlers many treatments of the theme of death. He traveled to Madrid in 1878, where he stayed for months and studied the works of masters such as Titian, Poussin. The works of Hodlers early maturity consisted of landscapes, figure compositions, in 1884, Hodler met Augustine Dupin, who became his companion and model for the next several years. Their son, Hector Hodler—who would found the World Esperanto Association in 1908—was born in 1887, from 1889 until their divorce in 1891, Hodler was married to Bertha Stucki, who is depicted in his painting, Poetry. In 1898, Hodler married Berthe Jacques, in the last decade of the nineteenth century his work evolved to combine influences from several genres including symbolism and art nouveau. In 1890 he completed Night, a work that marked Hodlers turn toward symbolist imagery and it depicts several recumbent figures, all of them relaxed in sleep except for an agitated man who is menaced by a figure shrouded in black, which Hodler intended as a symbol of death. A few months later, Hodler exhibited Night in Paris at the Salon, Hodler developed a style he called parallelism that emphasized the symmetry and rhythm he believed formed the basis of human society. In paintings such as The Chosen One, groupings of figures are arranged in poses suggestive of ritual or dance. Hodler conceived of woman as the embodiment of the desire for harmony with nature, while a child or youth represented innocence and vitality. In Eurythmy, the theme of death is represented by a row of five men in ceremonial robes walking in a procession on a path strewn with fallen leaves
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Botho Graef
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Franz Botho Graef was a German classical archaeologist and art historian. His father was painter Gustav Graef, and his sister, Sabine Lepsius, was also an artist of some note, Graef taught at the University of Jena from 1904 until 1917. Hodlers und Hofmanns Wandbilder in der Universität Jena, henry van de Velde In, Der Bücherwurm. Written with Ernst Langlotz, Die antiken Vasen von der Akropolis zu Athen, biographie Stadt Jena Botho Graef in the German National Library catalogue
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Henry van de Velde
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Henry Clemens van de Velde was a Belgian painter, architect and interior designer. Together with Victor Horta and Paul Hankar he could be considered as one of the main founders, Van de Velde spent the most important part of his career in Germany and had a decisive influence on German architecture and design at the beginning of the 20th century. Van de Velde was born in Antwerp, where he studied painting under Charles Verlat at the famous Royal Academy of Fine Arts and he then went on to study at Carolus-Duran in Paris. As a young painter he was influenced by Paul Signac and Georges Seurat. In 1889 he became a member of the Brussels-based artist group Les XX, after Vincent van Gogh exhibited some work on the yearly exhibition of Les XX van de Velde became one of the first artists to be influenced by the Dutch painter. During this period he developed a friendship with the painter Théo van Rysselberghe. In 1892 he abandoned painting, devoting his time to arts of decoration and his own house, Bloemenwerf in Ukkel, was his first attempt at architecture, and was inspired by the British and American Arts and Crafts Movement. He also designed interiors and furniture for the art gallery LArt Nouveau of Samuel Bing in Paris in 1895. This gave the movement its first designation as Art Nouveau, bing’s pavilion at the 1900 Paris world fair also exhibited work by Van de Velde. Van de Velde set his face against copying historical styles, resolutely opting for original design, banning banality, Van de Veldes design work received good exposure in Germany, through periodicals like Innen-Dekoration, and subsequently he received commissions for interior designs in Berlin. Around the turn of the century, he designed Villa Leuring in the Netherlands and he also designed the interior of the Folkwang Museum in Hagen and the Nietzsche House in Weimar. In 1899 he settled in Weimar, Germany, where in 1905 he established the Grand-Ducal School of Arts and Crafts and he would oppose Hermann Muthesius at the Werkbund meeting of 1914 and their debate would mark the history of Modern Architecture. Van de Velde called for the upholding of the individuality of artists while Hermann Muthesius called for standardization as a key to development, during World War I, Van de Velde, as a foreign national, was obliged to leave Weimar, and returned to his native Belgium. Later, he lived in Switzerland and in the Netherlands where he designed the Kröller-Müller Museum in Otterlo, in 1925 he was appointed professor at the Ghent University Institute of Art History and Archaeology, where he lectured architecture and applied arts from 1926 to 1936. He was instrumental in founding in Brussels, in 1926, todays renowned architecture and visual arts school La Cambre and he continued his practice in architecture and design, which had demarcated itself significantly from the Art Nouveau phase, whose popularity was by 1910 in decline. During this period, he mentored the great Belgian architect, Victor Bourgeois, in 1933 he was commissioned to design the new building for the university library. Construction started in 1936, but the work would not be completed until the end of the Second World War, for budget reasons, the eventual construction did not entirely match the original design. For instance, the reading room floor was executed in marble instead of the black rubber Van de Velde originally intended and he was also involved in the construction of the Ghent University Hospital
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Museum of Modern Art
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The Museum of Modern Art is an art museum located in Midtown Manhattan in New York City, on 53rd Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues. MoMA has been important in developing and collecting modernist art, and is identified as one of the largest and most influential museums of modern art in the world. The MoMA Library includes approximately 300,000 books and exhibition catalogs, over 1,000 periodical titles, the archives holds primary source material related to the history of modern and contemporary art. The idea for The Museum of Modern Art was developed in 1929 primarily by Abby Aldrich Rockefeller and they became known variously as the Ladies, the daring ladies and the adamantine ladies. They rented modest quarters for the new museum in the Heckscher Building at 730 Fifth Avenue in Manhattan, and it opened to the public on November 7,1929, nine days after the Wall Street Crash. Abby had invited A. Conger Goodyear, the president of the board of trustees of the Albright Art Gallery in Buffalo, New York. At the time, it was Americas premier museum devoted exclusively to art. One of Abbys early recruits for the staff was the noted Japanese-American photographer Soichi Sunami. Goodyear enlisted Paul J. Sachs and Frank Crowninshield to join him as founding trustees, Sachs, the associate director and curator of prints and drawings at the Fogg Museum at Harvard University, was referred to in those days as a collector of curators. Goodyear asked him to recommend a director and Sachs suggested Alfred H. Barr, under Barrs guidance, the museums holdings quickly expanded from an initial gift of eight prints and one drawing. Its first successful exhibition was in November 1929, displaying paintings by Van Gogh, Gauguin, Cézanne. Abbys husband was opposed to the museum and refused to release funds for the venture. Nevertheless, he donated the land for the current site of the museum, plus other gifts over time. During that time it initiated many more exhibitions of noted artists, the museum also gained international prominence with the hugely successful and now famous Picasso retrospective of 1939–40, held in conjunction with the Art Institute of Chicago. In its range of presented works, it represented a significant reinterpretation of Picasso for future art scholars, Boy Leading a Horse was briefly contested over ownership with the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. In 1941, MoMA hosted the exhibition, Indian Art of the United States. His brother, David Rockefeller, also joined the board of trustees in 1948. David subsequently employed the noted architect Philip Johnson to redesign the garden and name it in honor of his mother
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Hermann Scherer
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Hermann Scherer was a German-speaking Swiss Expressionist painter and sculptor. Hermann Scherer was born in Rümmingen, Baden-Württemberg in 1893, after leaving school in 1907, Scherer began an apprenticeship as a stonemason at the Schwab workshop in Lörrach. From 1910 to 1919 he worked as a stonemason with a series of Basel sculptors, Carl Gutknecht, Otto Roos, by working as a labourer and later assistant for Roos, he was able to pay for a small workshop. In 1919, Scherer took a new approach to art. From 1921 to 1922 he was influenced by the work of the German painters Erich Heckel, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner and Karl Schmidt-Rottluff. In the early 1920s he visited an Edvard Munch exhibition at the Kunsthaus Zürich and met Kirchner, in 1924 he finally had the opportunity to take part in an exhibition of new German art in Stuttgart with three of his wood sculptors. Eventually, Scherer founded the artist group Rot-Blau with Albert Müller and Paul Camenisch in late 1924, the group received a strong public reaction when they debuted their work at an exhibition at the Basler Kunstverein in 1925. At this time Müller had already left the group, who had also exhibited at the Kunsthaus Zürich. Individual works were rejected as offensive in both Basel and Zürich, Scherer became seriously ill in autumn 1926 and died in Basel 13 May 1927. The artist was commemorated that year by an exhibition at the Kunsthalle Basel, the Dreiländermuseum in Lörrach holds 118 of Scherer’s works, including many woodcuts and the Portrait of Otto Staiger. A street and bridge in Rümmingen are named after Scherer, in 2004 the Pfalzgalerie Kaiserslautern acquired the sculpture Das kleine Mädchen from a Swiss art gallery for over 140,000 Euros. Eine Gegenüberstellung Galerie Iris Wazzau This article was translated from the German Wikipedia. Beat Stutze, Hermann Scherer – Skulpturen, Gemälde, Holzschnitte
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Prussian Academy of Arts
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The academy had a decisive influence on art and its development in the German-speaking world throughout its existence. For an extended period of time it was also the German artists society and training organisation and it dropped Prussian from its name in 1945 and was finally disbanded in 1955 after the 1954 foundation of two separate academies of art for East Berlin and West Berlin in 1954. Those two separate academies merged in 1993 to form Berlins present-day Academy of Arts, most artists were associated with the academy as members. Membership was an honorary distinction extended to prominent domestic Prussian artists, a deliberative body of senators was chosen from the membership -- some elected, and some automatically included due to other rank. The academy was not a school, although it had associations with educational institutions, the scope was expanded in 1704 to include Mechanical Sciences. The academys first director was Swiss painter Joseph Werner, in 1833 the academy added a fine arts division, and a music division in 1835. Emil Fuchs studied at the Academy under Fritz Schaper and Anton von Werner, Otto Geyer studied there from 1859-1864. Sculptor Wilhelm Neumann-Torborg studied at the academy from 1878 until 1885, under Otto Knille, in 1885, he won the Academys Rome Scholarship for his thesis, The Judgment of Paris. Anna Gerresheim studied there from 1876 for four years in the class under Karl Gussow. Oskar Frenzel studied there between 1884 and 1889 under Paul Friedrich Meyerheim and Eugen Bracht and he was from 1904 until his death a member of the Academy. Painter Friedrich Wachenhusen studied there in 1889 under Eugen Bracht, painter and sculptor Paul Wallat studied there from 1902-1909 under Otto Brausewetter and Carl Saltzmann. On December 29,1906 he received the award of the Ginsberg Foundation of the Berlin Academy, käthe Kollwitz became the first woman elected to the Prussian Academy, but with the coming to power of Adolf Hitler in 1933 she was expelled because of her beliefs and her art. Name changes, 1882–1918 Königliche Akademie der Künste zu Berlin 1918–1926 Akademie der Künste zu Berlin 1926–1931 Preußische Akademie der Künste zu Berlin 1931–1954 Preussische Akademie der Künste
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