1.
President of Ireland
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The President of Ireland is the head of state of Ireland and the Supreme Commander of the Irish Defence Forces. The President holds office for seven years, and can be elected for a maximum of two terms, unless a candidate runs unopposed, the President is directly elected by the people. The presidency is largely a ceremonial office, but the President does exercise certain limited powers with absolute discretion, the President acts as a representative of the Irish state. Former President Mary McAleese described the office as the guardian of the constitution, the Presidents official residence is Áras an Uachtaráin, which is located in the Phoenix Park in Dublin. The office was established by the Constitution of Ireland in 1937, the current president is His Excellency Michael D Higgins, who was elected on 29 October 2011. His inauguration was held on 11 November 2011, President Higgins is a veteran left-wing politician and human rights campaigner. As a member of the Labour Party, he has served in both houses of the Oireachtas, President Higgins is also a poet and speaks the Irish language fluently. The Constitution of Ireland provides for a system of government. The President is formally one of three parts of the Oireachtas, which also comprises Dáil Éireann and Seanad Éireann, unlike most other parliamentary democracies, the President is not even the nominal chief executive. Rather, executive authority is vested in the Government. The Government is obliged, however, to keep the President generally informed on matters of domestic, most of the functions of the President may be carried out only in accordance with the strict instructions of the Constitution, or the binding advice of the Government. The President does, however, possess certain personal powers that may be exercised at his or her discretion, the main functions are prescribed by the Constitution, Appoints the government The President formally appoints the Taoiseach and other ministers, and accepts their resignations. The Taoiseach is appointed upon the nomination of the Dáil, ministers are dismissed on the advice of the Taoiseach and the Taoiseach must, unless there is a dissolution of the Dáil, resign upon losing the confidence of the house. Appoints the judiciary The President appoints the judges to all Courts of the Republic of Ireland, convenes and dissolves the Dáil This power is exercised on the advice of the Taoiseach, government or Dáil approval is not needed. The President may only refuse a dissolution when a Taoiseach has lost the confidence of the Dáil, signs bills into law The President cannot veto a bill that the Dáil and the Seanad have adopted. However, he/she may refer it to the Supreme Court to test its constitutionality, if the Supreme Court upholds the bill, the President must sign it. If, however, it is found to be unconstitutional, the President will decline to give assent, represents the state in foreign affairs This power is exercised only on the advice of the Government. The President accredits ambassadors and receives the letters of credence of foreign diplomats, ministers sign international treaties in the Presidents name
2.
Liam Cosgrave
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Liam Cosgrave is a former Irish Fine Gael politician who served as Taoiseach and as Leader of Fine Gael. He was a Teachta Dála from 1943 to 1981, born in Castleknock, Dublin, Cosgrave was the son of W. T. Cosgrave, the first President of the Executive Council in the newly formed Irish Free State. After qualifying as a barrister he decided to embark on a political career and he was elected to Dáil Éireann at the 1943 general election and sat in opposition alongside his father. The formation of the first inter-party government in 1948 saw Cosgrave become a Parliamentary Secretary to Taoiseach John A. Costello and he formally became a cabinet member in 1954 when he was appointed Minister for External Affairs. The highlight of his tenure was Irelands successful entry into the United Nations. In 1965 Cosgrave was the choice of his colleagues to succeed James Dillon as leader of Fine Gael. He lost the 1969 general election to the incumbent Jack Lynch and he was educated at Synge Street CBS, Castleknock College, Dublin, and Kings Inns. He studied law and was called to the Irish bar in 1943, T. Cosgrave who was one of the founders of the Irish Free State in the 1920s. Cosgrave rapidly rose through the ranks of Fine Gael, and was regarded as being by far the most able, the party was, however, at an extremely low ebb in the 1940s spending many years in opposition. Nevertheless, Cosgrave became the secretary to the Taoiseach and Chief Whip when the party returned to power in 1948. Mulcahy, while remaining leader of Fine Gael, allowed John A Costello to become Taoiseach of the Inter Party Government as the latter had wider appeal, the first coalition Government collapsed in 1951. However, in 1954 a second inter-party Government was formed, on this occasion Liam Cosgrave, at the age of 34, was given a cabinet position. As Minister for External Affairs Cosgrave took part in trade discussions and he also presided over Irelands admission to the United Nations in 1955. Ireland was non aligned in favour of the United States and he did not speak to Sweetman for some years. Cosgrave remained active in opposition but he privately supported Fianna Fáils referendum to abolish the system of representation in June 1959. This opposition was to count against him later that year in the leadership contest, in October 1959, the dual leadership of Fine Gael, Mulcahy and Costello, stood down. Costello wanted to continue his practice as a counsel as well as being leader. He had asked Cosgrave to be his managing director in the Dáil while he was absent on legal work, Cosgrave, not surprisingly, had declined this
3.
Jack Lynch
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John Mary Jack Lynch was the Taoiseach of Ireland, serving two terms in office, from 1966 to 1973 and 1977 to 1979. Lynch was first elected to Dáil Éireann as a Teachta Dála for Cork in 1948 and he previously served as Minister for Finance, Minister for Industry and Commerce, Minister for Education, Minister for the Gaeltacht and as a Parliamentary Secretary. He was the leader of Fianna Fáil from 1966 until 1979. Lynch was the last Fianna Fáil leader to secure a majority in the Dáil. Historian and journalist T. Ryle Dwyer has called him the most popular Irish politician since Daniel OConnell, before his political career Lynch had a successful sporting career as a dual player of Gaelic games. He played hurling with his local club Glen Rovers and with the Cork senior inter-county team from 1936 until 1950, Lynch also played Gaelic football with his local club St Nicholas and with the Cork senior inter-county team from 1936 until 1946. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest dual players of all-time, in a senior inter-county hurling career that lasted for fourteen years he won five All-Ireland titles, seven Munster titles, three National Hurling League titles and seven Railway Cup titles. In a senior inter-county football career lasted for ten years Lynch won one All-Ireland title. Lynch was later named at midfield on the Hurling Team of the Century, John Mary Lynch was born on 15 August 1917, just yards from the famous Shandon bells and St. Annes in Cork City. The youngest of five boys, with two girls born after him, Jack, as he was known, was regarded as the wild boy of the family. He was educated at St. Vincents Convent on Peacock Lane, and later at the famous North Mon, when Lynch was just thirteen years old his mother died suddenly. Lynch, who had particularly close to his mother, was deeply affected by her death. His aunt, who herself had a family of six, stepped in to look after the family in time of great upheaval for them. Lynch sat his Leaving Certificate in 1936, after which he moved to Dublin and worked with the Dublin District Milk Board, Lynch began working at the Cork Circuit Court as a clerk while still only nineteen years old. His work in the court ignited his interest in law and in 1941 he began a course at University College Cork studying law. After two years in UCC he moved to Dublin to complete his studies at Kings Inns, while continuing his studies he started work with the Department of Justice. In 1945 Lynch was called to the Bar and had to decide whether to remain in his Civil Service job or practice as a barrister, Lynch made the decision to move back to Cork and began a private practice on the Cork Circuit. It was in 1943, while on holidays in Glengariff, West Cork, that Lynch met his wife, Máirín OConnor
4.
Frank Aiken
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Frank Aiken was an Irish politician and a Chief of Staff of the Irish Republican Army. Originally a member of Sinn Féin, he was later a member of Fianna Fáil. Aiken was first elected to Dáil Éireann in 1923 and at each subsequent election until 1973, Aiken served as Minister for Defence, Minister for the Co-ordination of Defensive Measures, Minister for Finance and Minister for External Affairs. He also served as Minister for Lands and Fisheries, Aiken served as Tánaiste of Ireland from 1965 until 1969. He holds the distinction of being the second longest-serving member of Dáil Éireann, James built Catholic churches in South Armagh. Aiken was a nationalist, a member of the IRB and a county councillor, James was Chairman of the Local Board of the Poor Guardians. In 1900, on her visit to Ireland, he told Queen Victoria that he would welcome her only until Ireland has become free and he was educated in Newry by Irish Christian Brothers at Abbey Christian Brothers Grammar School and at St Colmans College, Newry. In 1914 he joined the Irish Volunteers and the Gaelic League and he became secretary of the local branch in 1917, and joining Sinn Féin, founded a Sinn Féin club or cumann at Camlough, County Armagh, while working at the Co-Operative Flax-Scutching society. Aiken was committed to Gaelic speech which he learnt at the Donegal Gaeltacht, Aiken was 6 ft tall as a teenager, and owing to this was elected Lieutenant of the local Irish Volunteers. He got his first taste of politics helping Éamon De Valera in the Clare election of July 1917, at the rowdy by-election at Bessbrook in February 1918, Aiken was elected a Captain of Volunteers, stewarding electioneering. As Comhairle Ceanntair it was job to be chief fund-raiser for the Dublin Executive, responsible for the Dáil Loan and he was quickly promoted through the ranks, rising to Commandant of Newry and then brigadier of 4th Northern. The area he controlled extended to northern County Louth, southern and western County Down, parts of Counties Tyrone and Antrim, from autumn 1919 Aiken was on the run, wanted by the British troops who burnt down his house. As a symbolic gesture of Catholic radicalism he replaced Eoin MacNeill as patron with Thomas Ashe, also setting up GAA Club, Gaelic League branch, a Cumann na mBan camogie league. Within a few years becoming Chairman of the Armagh branch of Sinn Féin, making an outward display of defiance, Aiken raised the republican Irish tricolor, the Sinn Féin flag, opposite Camlough Barracks in Armagh, designed as deliberate provocation. During the War of Independence Aiken commanded the Fourth Northern Division of the Irish Republican Army, Aiken was notable by his absence when Gen. OMalley called a commanders meeting to GHQ on the Truce of 27 July 1921. The IRA spent £6,000 per month nonetheless, throughout this period both British and Irish contingents displayed brutality due to drunkenness. For example, Aiken was forced to two of his officers for breach of discipline. Mulcahy was instructed to issue orders to all commanders to this effect, alike to De Valera, Aiken was an Anti-Treaty northern Sinn Féiner, but after many months the republicans were in a weaker position
5.
Minister for Health (Ireland)
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The Minister for Health is the senior minister at the Department of Health in the Government of Ireland and is responsible for healthcare in the Republic of Ireland and related services. The current Minister for Health is Simon Harris, TD, on that date the new position of Minister for Health was created, with complete control over all policy regarding health care provision in Ireland. In later years, the portfolio was occasionally coupled with that for social welfare portfolio, in which case the incumbent was known as the Minister for Health. A number of scandals, mostly due to negligence, have meant that the minister immediately becomes identified with the scandal. Additionally the minister has to deal with issues not seen in other departments such as strikes, shortages and queues which are all too familiar in clinics. The Ministers duties include the creation and assessment of policy for the health services, Department of Health Health Information and Quality Authority
6.
Minister for Transport, Tourism and Sport
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The Minister for Transport, Tourism and Sport is the senior minister at the Department of Transport, Tourism and Sport in the Government of Ireland. The current Minister for Transport, Tourism and Sport is Shane Ross, through the integrated approach the Department will develop and implement policies designed to improve regional balance, and reduce rural isolation and social exclusion. It is also responsible for ports and shipping policy, in 1991 the functions of the Minister for Communications were transferred to the Minister for Transport. In January 2006 several areas relating to the Marine were moved to the Department of Transport from the then Department of Communications, Marine and these included the Irish Coast Guard, Marine Survey Office, Aids to Navigation Section and the Marine Environment Division. Irish cabinets since 1919 Department of Transport, Tourism and Sport
7.
Brian Lenihan, Snr
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Brian Patrick Lenihan was an Irish Fianna Fáil politician, who served in a range of cabinet positions, most notably as Tánaiste, Minister for Foreign Affairs and Minister for Justice. Lenihan sat for years as a Fianna Fáil representative in both houses of the Irish parliament, Dáil Éireann and Seanad Éireann. He served numerous terms as a government minister, was appointed Tánaiste in 1987 and he was a member of a family political dynasty, his father, Patrick Lenihan, and sister both followed him into Dáil Éireann, his sister Mary ORourke sitting in cabinet with him. Two of his sons, Brian Lenihan, Jnr and Conor Lenihan, Brian Lenihan, Jnr served as Minister for Finance and Conor was Minister of State in the government of Taoiseach Brian Cowen. Two phrases associated with him, No problem and On mature recollection, born in Dundalk, County Louth, Lenihan was the son of Patrick Lenihan and Anne Scanlon. His father had been active in the Old IRA and saw action during the Irish War of Independence and he had been an admirer of Michael Collins and took the pro-Treaty side in 1922 before later returning to his studies and qualifying as a teacher. Lenihan, who was one of five children, grew up in Athlone and he was educated at Marist College in the town before later studying law at University College Dublin, where he was actively involved as a Committee Member on the Law Society. He later qualified as a barrister from Kings Inns practised law for a few years becoming a full-time politician. Lenihan first entered politics in 1954 when he ran as a Fianna Fáil candidate in Longford–Westmeath in that general election. Of the four Fianna Fáil candidates Lenihan was the one not to be elected. Three years later Lenihan contested the 1957 general election, this time in the Roscommon constituency, although he received more first preferences than any of the other Fianna Fáil candidates, he lost out on a Dáil seat once again. In spite of this he joined Seanad Éireann as one of Taoiseach Éamon de Valeras nominees, after four years as a senator, Lenihan finally secured a seat in Dáil Éireann following success in the 1961 general election. He had the distinction of being made a Parliamentary Secretary on his first day in the Dáil, a cabinet reshuffle in 1964 saw Lenihan join the cabinet of Seán Lemass as Minister for Justice. His predecessor, Charles Haughey, systematically reviewed, repealed or amended Acts dating back 700 years in the single largest reform of the Irish civil, Lenihan carried the legislative programme, covering everything from repealing mediæval laws to granting succession rights to married women. As Minister it was Lenihan who repealed Irelands notorious censorship laws, in 1968 Lemasss successor Jack Lynch appointed Lenihan as Minister for Education. As Minister he controversially proposed the merger of Dublins two universities, Trinity College Dublin and University College Dublin, the scheme was abandoned after mass opposition, Lenihan famously being forced to flee student protests in Trinity through a toilet window. Lenihan was also minister during a 19-day secondary teachers strike in February 1969, following the 1969 general election, Fianna Fáil returned to power for a fourth successive term of office. Lenihan had hopes of further promotion within the cabinet, however, his appointment as Minister for Transport, in 1973 Patrick Hillery was appointed EEC Commissioner and Lenihan finally secured his much sought-after portfolio, that of Minister for Foreign Affairs
8.
Minister for Posts and Telegraphs
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The Minister for Posts and Telegraphs was a senior post in the government of the Irish Free State and Ireland from 1924 to 1984, when the post and the department were abolished. The office of Minister for Posts and Telegraphs was created in the Ministers and Secretaries Act,1924 and it assumed the role in the Irish Free State of that formerly exercised by the Postmaster General of the United Kingdom. Legislation of 1831 had amalgamated the offices of Postmaster General of Great Britain and Postmasters General of Ireland, at its height time the department was one of the largest civil service departments in Ireland. The reform of the sector and department began in 1978 with the creation of the Posts and these two boards continued to sit until An Post and Telecom Éireann, respectively, replaced them. These state-sponsored bodies were created in 1984, as a result, the number of civil service employees nearly halved overnight because of the transfer of personnel
9.
Minister without portfolio
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A minister without portfolio is either a government minister with no specific responsibilities or a minister who does not head a particular ministry. Stanley Bruce was given the title of Minister without Portfolio when he took up his position in 1932 as the Commonwealth Minister in London and he was given the title by Lyons Cabinet so that he could better represent the PM and his colleagues free from the limitations of a portfolio. In this case the title was a promotion and carried considerable responsibilities, bangladesh appoints ministers without portfolio during cabinet reshuffles or fresh appointments. Ministers are not usually appointed without portfolio as a coalition negotiation – all long run ministers end up with a portfolio, suranjit Sengupta was a minister without portfolio in Sheikh Hasinas second government. Notable Conservatives who filled the role include R. B, bennett, and Arthur Meighen, however, Meighen served this role after he had been prime minister. The practice has continued under the guise of ministers of state without responsibilities in the ministers titles, three control ministers served as ministers without portfolio during World War I. After the Liberation of Denmark in May 1945, the first Danish cabinet included four ministers without portfolio, kauffmann served in this capacity from 12 May to 7 November 1945. The three other holders of this title had joined the cabinet a few days before – Aksel Larsen, lise Østergaard held a position as minister without portfolio with special attention to foreign policy issues in Anker Jørgensens cabinet from 26 February 1977 to 28 February 1980. Anders Fogh Rasmussen appointed Bertel Haarder to Minister without Portfolio, Haarder served in this capacity from 27 November 2001 to 18 February 2005. The reason for appointing a minister without a ministry was the Danish European Union Presidency of 2002, Haarder was considered the most experienced Danish politician on European affairs. Tamás Fellegi Kunwar Natwar Singh Since the inception of the state, Indonesia had ministers without portfolio, the number was not fixed, entirely depended on the behest of the President. Below is the list of Ministers without Portfolio in each Cabinet, Mohammad Amir Abdul Wahid Hasyim Sartono Alexander Andries Maramis Mohammad Amir Oto Iskandar di Nata Rasjidi Wikana Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwana IX Abdul Wahid Hasyim Wikana Dr. Such a minister may nevertheless be given a specific title, the only substantive minister without portfolio has been Frank Aiken, the Minister for the Co-ordination of Defensive Measures during World War II. By the Emergency Powers Act 1939 then in force, the Minister for Defence was able to delegate some competences to him, such delegation is now done instead with Ministers of State, junior ministers who are not members of the government. Junior ministers can be given a right to sit at cabinet and this allows the Government to circumvent the Constitutional limit on the number of Senior Ministers. On several occasions a minister has been appointed to a government with the title of a new Department of State. Between the date of appointment and the date of creation of the department, examples include, It is common practice in Israel to appoint ministers without portfolio as part of the coalition negotiations. All cabinets in recent years have had at least some such appointment, departments on equalities, European affairs and relations with regions, for example, are usually led by ministers without portfolio
10.
Irish general election, 1961
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The Irish general election of 1961 was held on 4 October 1961, just over three weeks after the dissolution of the Dáil on 8 September. The newly elected members of the 17th Dáil assembled at Leinster House on 11 October when the new Taoiseach, the general election of 1961 saw the three main parties being led by three new leaders. Seán Lemass had taken charge of Fianna Fáil in 1959 and it was also the first time Fianna Fáil faced a general election campaign without Éamon de Valera. James Dillon took over at Fine Gael in 1959 also, while the Labour Party was now under the leadership of Brendan Corish. While the 1961 general election has become known as the dullest campaign on record, Fianna Fáil were fighting the election on their record in government and a reforming theme, Fine Gael presented itself as the party of free enterprise. The Labour Party campaigned strongly against the conservative Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael parties and it also favoured major expansion in the public sector. It was the first and only election for the new National Progressive Democrats party led by Noël Browne. The opposition parties gained ground on Fianna Fáil, while Sinn Féin failed to defend the four seats it had won in the previous election
11.
Irish general election, 1948
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The Irish general election of 1948 was held on 4 February 1948. The 147 newly elected members of the 13th Dáil assembled on 18 February when the First Inter-Party government in the history of the Irish state was appointed, the general election took place in 40 parliamentary constituencies throughout Ireland for 147 seats in the lower house of parliament, Dáil Éireann. For this election the membership of the Dáil was increased to 147 seats, the 1948 general election is considered an important election in 20th-century Ireland, as it paved the way for the First Inter-Party Government. The general election of 1948 was caused by a desire by the Taoiseach Éamon de Valera, to stop the rise of a new party, in 1947 the rapid rise of Clann na Poblachta threatened the position of Fianna Fáil. The result was described by historian Tim Pat Coogan as a blatant attempt at gerrymander which no Six County Unionist could have bettered, a number of other issues were raised on the campaign that the parties didnt foresee. Fianna Fáil had enjoyed an uninterrupted sixteen years of dominance in government, many people believed that the party had become stale and there was a strong desire for a fresh change. Although World War II had ended three years earlier, rationing continued, and massive inflation plagued the economy, a prolonged teachers strike during the lifetime of the previous Dáil damaged the government due to its inability to settle the dispute. Bad weather added to the woes of the farmers, and poor harvests resulted in anger at the ballot box, allegations that Éamon de Valera and Seán Lemass were involved in bribery and corruption raised questions about certain public officials. Despite these issues, Fianna Fáil still expected to retain power and this prospect seemed very likely, however, an unlikely coalition was soon to be formed. When the votes were counted Fianna Fáil remained the largest party in spite of dropping 8 seats, Clann na Poblachta secured ten seats instead of the nineteen they would have received proportional to their vote. The other parties remained roughly the same, with Fine Gael only gaining an extra seat, Fianna Fáil remained the largest party and it looked as if it were the only one capable of forming a government. The election left de Valera six seats short of a majority in the 147 seat Dáil, Fianna Fáil had long refused to enter a formal coalition with another party, instead preferring confidence and supply agreements with other parties when it was short of an outright majority. This time, however, de Valera was unable to reach an agreement with National Labour and it seemed unlikely that the other political parties could join together to oust Fianna Fáil. However, the leaders of the other parties discovered that between them, they only had one fewer than Fianna Fáil. If they could get the support of at least seven independents, on paper, such a motley coalition appeared politically unrealistic. However, a dislike of Fianna Fáil and de Valera overcame all other difficulties to knock Fianna Fáil from power for the first time in 16 years. As the largest party in the coalition, it was a conclusion that Fine Gael would provide the nominee for Taoiseach. The natural choice was the party leader, Richard Mulcahy, however, republicans such as Seán MacBride refused to serve under the man who had been the commander of the Free State forces during the civil war
12.
Irish general election, 1938
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The Irish general election of 1938 was held on 17 June 1938. The 138 newly elected members of the 10th Dáil assembled on 30 June when the new Taoiseach, fianna Fáil retained power, and won the first overall majority in the history of the State. The general election took place in 34 parliamentary constituencies throughout Ireland for 138 seats in the house of parliament
13.
Westminster
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Westminster is an area of central London within the City of Westminster, part of the West End, on the north bank of the River Thames. Historically the area lay within St Margarets parish, City & Liberty of Westminster and it has been the home of the permanent institutions of Englands government continuously since about 1200 and is now the seat of British government. In a government context, Westminster often refers to the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the closest tube stations are Westminster, St Jamess Park on the Jubilee, Circle, and District lines. Within the area is Westminster School, a public school which grew out of the Abbey. Bounding Westminster to the north is Green Park, a Royal Park of London, the area has a substantial resident population, indeed most of its listed buildings are residential. A proportion of residents are people of limited means, living in council, hotels, large Victorian homes and barracks exist nearer to Buckingham Palace. The name describes an area no more than 1 mile from Westminster Abbey, the settlement grew up around the palace and abbey, as a service area for them. The need for a church, St Margarets Westminster for the servants of the palace. It became larger and in the Georgian period became connected through urban development with the City along the Strand. It did not become a local government unit until created as a civil parish. Indeed, the Cathedral and diocesan status of the church lasted only from 1539 to 1556, as such it is first known to have had two Members of Parliament in 1545 as a new Parliamentary Borough, centuries after the City of London and Southwark were enfranchised. The historic core of Westminster is the former Thorney Island on which Westminster Abbey was built, the abbey became the traditional venue of the coronation of the kings and queens of England from that of Harold Godwinson onwards. From about 1200, near the abbey, the Palace of Westminster became the royal residence, marked by the transfer of royal treasury. Later the palace housed the developing Parliament and Englands law courts, thus London developed two focal points, the City of London and Westminster. The monarchs later moved to St James Palace and the Palace of Whitehall a little towards the north-east, the main law courts have since moved to the Royal Courts of Justice. The Westminster area formed part of the City and Liberty of Westminster in Middlesex, the ancient parish was St Margaret, after 1727 this became the civil parish of St Margaret and St John, the latter a new church required for the increasing population. The area around Westminster Abbey formed the extra-parochial Close of the Collegiate Church of St Peter surrounded by —, until 1900 the local authority was the combined vestry of St Margaret and St John, which was based at Westminster City Hall in Caxton Street from 1883. The Liberty of Westminster, governed by the Westminster Court of Burgesses, also included St Martin in the Fields, Westminster had its own quarter sessions, but the Middlesex sessions also had jurisdiction
14.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
15.
Roundwood
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Roundwood, historically known as Tóchar, is a village in County Wicklow, Ireland. It was listed as having a population of 833 in the 2011 census, Roundwood is located where the R755 road joins the R764 and R765. The R755 is part of the route from Dublin to Glendalough in the Wicklow Mountains. At 238 metres above sea level, Roundwood is one of the highest villages in Ireland, vartry Reservoir Lakes are close by. Roundwood is twinned with the village of Spézet, in Brittany, the schools in both areas regularly communicate and engage with another. For many years, exchange programmes have been in place for the students, List of towns and villages in Ireland List of twin towns and sister cities in Ireland Media related to Roundwood at Wikimedia Commons Roundwood travel guide from Wikivoyage Official website
16.
County Wicklow
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County Wicklow is a county in Ireland. The second last of the traditional 32 counties to be formed, as late as 1606 and it is named after the town of Wicklow, which derives from the Old Norse name Víkingaló, which means Vikings Meadow. Wicklow County Council is the authority for the county. The population of the county is 142,332 according to the 2016 census, Wicklow is colloquially known as the Garden of Ireland. It is the 17th-largest of Irelands 32 counties by area, being thirty-three miles in length by twenty miles in breadth and it is the fourth-largest of Leinsters twelve counties by size and the fifth-largest in terms of population. Between 2011 and 2016 the population of the county grew by 4. 2%, the adjoining counties are Wexford to the south, Carlow to the south-west, Kildare to the west and Dublin to the north. The Wicklow Mountains range is the largest continuous upland region in Ireland, the highest mountain in the range, Lugnaquilla, rises to 925 metres, making Wicklow the second-highest county peak after Kerry. The River Slaney is in the part of the county. The Turlough Hill pumped-storage scheme, a significant civil engineering project, was carried out in the mountains in the 1960s and 1970s, the lakes are small but numerous, located mainly in mountain valleys or glacial corries. They include Lough Dan, Lough Tay, Lough Brae, the lakes of Glendalough as well as the Poulaphouca reservoir, County Wicklow was the last of the traditional counties of Ireland to be shired in 1606 from land previously part of counties Dublin and Carlow. Established as a county, it was aimed at controlling local groups such as the OByrnes. It provided them access to an area that had been a hotbed of Irish rebellion for centuries. Several barracks to house the soldiers were built along the route, the ancient monastery of Glendalough is located in County Wicklow. During the Cromwellian invasion of Ireland, local authorities immediately surrendered without a fight, the local government authority is Wicklow County Council which returns 32 councillors from five municipal districts. All of the previous Town Councils were abolished under a new Local Government Act at the 2014 Local Elections, for elections to Dáil Éireann, the entire county in included in the Wicklow constituency along with some eastern parts of County Carlow. The constituency returns five TDs to the Dáil, mermaid, County Wicklow Arts Centre is based in Bray. Two of the festivals take place in Arklow, the Arklow music Festival. The county is a popular film-making location in Ireland, the BBC series Ballykissangel was also filmed in County Wicklow
17.
Irish people
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The Irish people are a nation and ethnic group native to the island of Ireland, who share a common Irish ancestry, identity and culture. Ireland has been inhabited for about 9,000 years according to archaeological studies, for most of Irelands recorded history, the Irish have been primarily a Gaelic people. Today, Ireland is made up of the Republic of Ireland, the people of Northern Ireland hold various national identities, including Irish, Northern Irish, British, or some combination thereof. The Irish have their own customs, language, music, dance, sports, cuisine, although Irish was their main language in the past, today the huge majority of Irish people speak English as their first language. Historically, the Irish nation was made up of kin groups or clans, there have been many notable Irish people throughout history. After Irelands conversion to Christianity, Irish missionaries and scholars exerted great influence on Western Europe, the 6th-century Irish monk and missionary Columbanus is regarded as one of the fathers of Europe, followed by saints Cillian and Fergal. The scientist Robert Boyle is considered the father of chemistry, famous Irish writers include Oscar Wilde, W. B. Yeats, George Bernard Shaw, Bram Stoker and James Joyce, notable Irish explorers include Brendan the Navigator, Robert McClure, Ernest Shackleton and Tom Crean. By some accounts, the first European child born in North America had Irish descent on both sides, many presidents of the United States have had some Irish ancestry. The population of Ireland is about 6.3 million, but it is estimated that 50 to 80 million people around the world have Irish forebears, historically, emigration from Ireland has been the result of conflict, famine and economic issues. People of Irish descent are mainly in English-speaking countries, especially the United Kingdom. There are also significant numbers in Argentina, Mexico and New Zealand, the United States has the most people of Irish descent, while in Australia those of Irish descent are a higher percentage of the population than in any other country. Many Icelanders have Irish and Scottish Gaelic forebears, in its summary of their article Who were the Celts. The National Museum Wales notes It is possible that genetic studies of ancient. However, early studies have, so far, tended to produce implausible conclusions from very small numbers of people and using outdated assumptions about linguistics, nineteenth century anthropology studied the physical characteristics of Irish people in minute detail. During the past 10,000 years of inhabitation, Ireland has witnessed some different peoples arrive on its shores, the ancient peoples of Ireland—such as the creators of the Céide Fields and Newgrange—are almost unknown. Neither their languages nor terms they used to describe themselves have survived, as late as the middle centuries of the 1st millennium the inhabitants of Ireland did not appear to have a collective name for themselves. Ireland itself was known by a number of different names, including Banba, Fódla, Ériu by the islanders, Iouerne and Hiverne to the Greeks, other Latin names for people from Ireland in Classic and Mediaeval sources include Attacotti and Gael
18.
Rita Childers
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Margaret Rita Childers was First Lady of Ireland from 1973 to 1974, as the wife of former Cabinet Minister and 4th President of Ireland, Erskine Hamilton Childers. She formerly worked as a press attaché in the British Embassy in Dublin, born as Margaret Dudley, her father was James John Dudley. Childers met her husband, a widower who was also a member of the Fianna Fáil. The couples mixed marriage caused controversy, the then Roman Catholic Archbishop of Dublin. They eventually opted to marry in Paris, Erskine was elected President of Ireland in June 1973, but died suddenly in November 1974. The political parties agreed a deal to make Mrs Childers the new president. Her late husbands party, Fianna Fáil, withdrew its support for her. Ó Dálaigh was eventually elected unopposed as the joint nominee of the government, having left Áras an Uachtaráin Mrs Childers became an outspoken critic both of her late husbands former colleagues in Fianna Fáil, and of the office of president. Following the resignation of Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh as president in October 1976, Childers daughter, Nessa, entered politics in 2004 when she was elected as a councillor on Dún Laoghaire-Rathdown County Council for the Green Party. Childers stepson, Erskine Barton Childers served as an official in the United Nations
19.
Erskine Barton Childers
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Erskine Barton Childers was an Irish writer, BBC correspondent and United Nations senior civil servant. He was the eldest son of Erskine Hamilton Childers and Ruth Ellen Dow Childers and his great aunt was Gretchen Osgood Warren. Erskine Childers was born in Dublin to Erskine Hamilton Childers and his first wife Ruth Ellen Dow and he grew up in a multi cultural atmosphere which was to influence his whole life. From an early age, he had a fascination with history. He studied at Newtown School, Waterford and much later on at Trinity College, Dublin, at Stanford University he was actively involved with the National Student Association and rose to Vice-President of the organisation by 1949. By 1960, Childers was in London working for the BBC in both Radio and Television and his broadcasts from the BBC World Service ranged on varying topics from the Suez Crisis and Palestine to the John F. Kennedy assassination in 1963. He was one of the first presenters at the start of the BBC TV show The Money Programme in 1966, the Suez Canal and Palestine issues would later form the basis of his writing on the subjects. He specialised in UN issues, even serving as a periodic consultant including a mission in the Congo for Secretary-General U Thant. In 1967, under the leadership of Henry Richardson Labouisse, Jr. Childers was hired to lead a United Nations, UNICEF & UNDP programme called Development Support Communication, or DSCS. In 1968 Childers co-authored a paper with United Nations colleague Mallica Vajrathon called Project Support Communication and you have got to communicate the techniques that they need in order that they will decide on their own development. If you do not do that, you continue to have weak or failing development programs. No innovation, however brilliantly designed and set down in a plan of operations. From 1975 to 1988, Childers was based in New York as Director of Information for UNDP, after his retirement, Erskine Childers continued to strive relentlessly for the ideals for which he had worked so hard. The best known of these publications is A World in Need of Leadership and he became Secretary General of the World Federation of United Nations Associations in March 1996. He served for five months, and died on 25 August 1996 during the organisations fiftieth anniversary congress. He is buried in Roundwood, Ireland. harpers
20.
Nessa Childers
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Nessa Maria Vereker Childers is an Irish politician who has been a Member of the European Parliament since 2009. She is the daughter of the fourth President of Ireland, Erskine H. Childers and his second wife and her paternal grandfather was Robert Erskine Childers, a leading Irish republican and author of the espionage thriller The Riddle of the Sands. She has an Arts and Psychology degree from Trinity College, Dublin, during her time at Trinity she served as Registrar of the University Philosophical Society. She previously worked as a psychoanalyst in private practice and she is a former councillor for the Green Party in Blackrock in south Dublin. She was elected in 2004 and resigned from her seat in August 2008, in September 2008 she resigned from the Green Party to run for the Labour Party in the East constituency at the 2009 European Parliament election. She was elected in May 2009, between 2009 and 2014 Childers was a member of the European Parliaments Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety and the delegation for relations with Japan. She was also a member of the Committee on Culture. Childers said she had concerns about his suitability given the uncertainty around his role in the Irish Bank Guarantee, the reason the Commission gave was that the findings do not represent the verdict of a court after due process. She resigned from the Parliamentary Labour Party on 5 April 2013 and she resigned from the Labour Party itself in July 2013. She was a member of the Parliament from 2013 to 2014. In June 2013 she called upon Minister Phil Hogan to convene a commission to decide on new constituency boundaries and she noted a reduction in European Parliamentary seats allocated to Irish constituencies, which had fallen from 12 to 11 as a consequence of the accession of Croatia to EU membership. She further called for a ban on the placement of election posters on local council-owned poles, the Commission was appointed in July 2013. In January 2014 Childers announced that she would switch from the East constituency to the Dublin constituency at the 2014 European Parliament election. For the 2014 election the East constituency was abolished with the northern part transferred to the new Midlands–North-West constituency, Childers was elected for the Dublin constituency at the 2014 European election. On 18 June 2014 she was re-admitted to the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats, families in the Oireachtas Official website Personal profile of Nessa Childers in the European Parliaments database of members
21.
Robert Erskine Childers
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He was executed by the authorities of the nascent Irish Free State during the Irish Civil War. He was the son of British Orientalist scholar Robert Caesar Childers, the cousin of Hugh Childers and Robert Barton, when Erskine was six his father died from tuberculosis and, although seemingly healthy, Anna was confined to an isolation hospital, where she died six years later. The five children were sent to the Bartons, the family of their fathers uncle, at Glendalough and they were treated kindly there and Erskine grew up knowing and loving Ireland, albeit at that stage from the comfortable viewpoint of the Protestant Ascendancy. At the recommendation of his grandfather, Canon Charles Childers, he was sent to Haileybury College, there he won an exhibition to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he studied the classical tripos and then law. He distinguished himself as the editor of Cambridge Review, the university magazine, notwithstanding his unattractive voice and poor debating skills, he became president of the Trinity College Debating Society. Although Erskine was an admirer of his cousin Hugh Childers, a member of the British Cabinet working for Irish home rule, at this stage he spoke vehemently against the policy in college debates. With many sporting ventures now closed to him because of his injury, Childers was encouraged by Walter Runciman. After picking up the fundamentals of seamanship as a deckhand on Runcimans yacht, in 1893 he bought his own scrubby little yacht Shulah and he sold the Shulah in 1895 to a Plymouth man following a trip around the Lizard in a heavyish sea. In 1894 while he was living in Glendalough, he bought a Dublin Bay Water Wag and he sailed this boat on Lough Dan, close to Glendalough, and he and his brother Henry used to take friends for a sail in the Water Wag. These were the adventures he was to fictionalise in 1903 as The Riddle of the Sands, his most famous book and a huge bestseller. In 1903 Childers, now accompanied by his new wife Molly, was cruising in the Frisian Islands, in Sunbeam. Mollys father, Dr Hamilton Osgood, arranged for a fine 28-ton yacht, Asgard, to be built for the couple as a wedding gift and Sunbeam was only a temporary measure while Asgard was being fitted out. (The Asgard was acquired by the Irish government as a training vessel in 1961, stored on dry land in the yard of Kilmainham Gaol in 1979. As with most men of his background and education, Childers was originally a steadfast believer in the British Empire. He was an artilleryman classed as a driver, caring for a pair of horses. The unit set off for South Africa on 2 February 1900, most of the new volunteers, after the three-week voyage it was something of a disappointment that the HAC detachment was, initially, not used. On 26 June, while escorting a train of slow ox-wagons, Childers first came under fire. However it was a smartly executed defence of an infantry regiment on 3 July that established their worth
22.
Molly Childers
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Mary Alden Osgood Childers, MBE was an American-born Irish writer and Irish nationalist. She was the daughter of Dr Hamilton Osgood and Margaret Cushing Osgood of Beacon Hill, Boston and her older sister was Gretchen Osgood Warren. Molly married the writer and Irish nationalist, Robert Erskine Childers and their son Erskine Hamilton Childers, would be elected the fourth President of Ireland. Childers, affectionately called Molly, was born into a reputable Bostonian family that lived at 8 Beacon Street on Beacon Hill, Boston, Massachusetts. Physically disabled from the age of three following an accident, Childers was educated at home and wasnt mobile for the first 12 years of her life. Eventually she was able to move enough to ride horses, and her father, Dr Osgood, was a student of Dr Louis Pasteur and spent time with him in France. It was this research with Pasteur that enabled him to bring the first rabies antitoxin back to Boston, the Osgoods ancestry was directly linked to John Quincy Adams and Anne Hutchinson, and Molly was very proud and outspoken about this connection. Mollys mother Margaret Cushing Osgood encouraged her to read and to pursue a life in academia, the Osgood family home on Beacon Street was next door to the Boston Athenæum. Molly spent years of her childhood inside this library, reading for every day. In late 1903, Molly was seated next to Erskine Childers at a given by her aunt on Beacon Hill. Erskine was in Boston on a trip with Lord Denbigh. By January 1904, after weeks of courtship, the two were married at Trinity Church in Boston. Molly raised funds for them alongside her sister and mother, in 1918, King George V conferred an MBE on her for this work. She was also awarded the Médaille de la Reine Elisabeth from Queen Elisabeth of Belgium. She and her husband Erskine Childers were members of the Irish White Cross Society, which existed before the Irish Red Cross, she as a trustee, activist Maud Gonne was also a member of this organisation. From 1916 to 1918 Molly was honorary secretary of the Chelsea War Refugees Fund. After the Great War, in 1920 she joined the Womens International League for Peace and Freedom, one of the worlds oldest peace organisations and she was central to the July 1914 Irish Volunteers Howth gun-running on her and her husbands yacht Asgard. A photograph taken at the time with fellow-sailor Mary Spring Rice shows her beside the rifles, in 2006, historian Michael T. Foy speculated that she volunteered for British intelligence before the couple moved to Ireland in 1918
23.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
24.
Trinity College, Cambridge
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Trinity College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge in England. With around 600 undergraduates,300 graduates, and over 180 fellows, by combined student numbers, it is second to Homerton College, Cambridge. Members of Trinity have won 32 Nobel Prizes out of the 91 won by members of Cambridge University, five Fields Medals in mathematics were won by members of the college and one Abel Prize was won. Other royal family members have studied there without obtaining degrees, including King Edward VII, King George VI, along with Christs, Jesus, Kings and St Johns colleges, it has also provided several of the well known members of the Apostles, an intellectual secret society. In 1848, Trinity hosted the meeting at which Cambridge undergraduates representing private schools such as Westminster drew up the first formal rules of football, Trinitys sister college in Oxford is Christ Church. Like that college, Trinity has been linked with Westminster School since the schools re-foundation in 1560, the college was founded by Henry VIII in 1546, from the merger of two existing colleges, Michaelhouse, and Kings Hall. At the time, Henry had been seizing church lands from abbeys, the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, being both religious institutions and quite rich, expected to be next in line. The King duly passed an Act of Parliament that allowed him to any college he wished. The universities used their contacts to plead with his sixth wife, the Queen persuaded her husband not to close them down, but to create a new college. The king did not want to use royal funds, so he combined two colleges and seven hostels to form Trinity. Contrary to popular belief, the lands granted by Henry VIII were not on their own sufficient to ensure Trinitys eventual rise. In its infancy Trinity had owed a great deal to its college of St Johns. Its first four Masters were educated at St Johns, and it took until around 1575 for the two colleges application numbers to draw even, a position in which they have remained since the Civil War. Bentley himself was notorious for the construction of a hugely expensive staircase in the Masters Lodge, most of the Trinitys major buildings date from the 16th and 17th centuries. Thomas Nevile, who became Master of Trinity in 1593, rebuilt and this work included the enlargement and completion of Great Court, and the construction of Neviles Court between Great Court and the river Cam. Neviles Court was completed in the late 17th century when the Wren Library, in the 20th century, Trinity College, St Johns College and Kings College were for decades the main recruiting grounds for the Cambridge Apostles, an elite, intellectual secret society. In 2011, the John Templeton Foundation awarded Trinity Colleges Master, Trinity is the richest Oxbridge college, with a landholding alone worth £800 million. Trinity is sometimes suggested to be the second, third or fourth wealthiest landowner in the UK – after the Crown Estate, the National Trust, in 2005, Trinitys annual rental income from its properties was reported to be in excess of £20 million
25.
Irish republicanism
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Irish republicanism is an ideology based on the belief that all of Ireland should be an independent republic. This followed hundreds of years of British conquest and Irish resistance through rebellion and it launched the 1798 Rebellion with the help of French troops. The rebellion had some success, especially in County Wexford, before it was suppressed, a second rising in 1803, led by Robert Emmet, was quickly put down, and Emmet was hanged. The Young Ireland movement, formed in the 1830s, was initially a part of the Repeal Association of Daniel OConnell, primarily a political and cultural organisation, some members of Young Ireland staged an abortive rising, the Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848. Its leaders were transported to Van Diemens Land, some of these escaped to the United States, where they linked up with other Irish exiles to form the Fenian Brotherhood. They staged another rising, the Fenian Rising, in 1867, in the early 20th century IRB members, in particular Tom Clarke and Seán MacDermott, began planning another rising. The execution of the Risings leaders, including Clarke, MacDermott, Patrick Pearse and James Connolly, the elected members did not take their seats but instead set up the First Dáil. Between 1919 and 1921 the Irish Republican Army, who were loyal to the Dáil, fought the British Army and Royal Irish Constabulary in the Irish War of Independence. Talks between the British and Irish in late 1921 led to a treaty by which the British conceded, not a 32-county Irish Republic and this led to the Irish Civil War, in which the republicans were defeated by their former comrades. That same year, the movement took the decision to focus on Northern Ireland thereafter. The Border Campaign, which lasted from 1956 to 1962, involved bombings, the failure of this campaign led the republican leadership to concentrate on political action, and to move to the left. Following the outbreak of The Troubles in 1968-9, the movement split between Officials and Provisionals at the beginning of 1970. The Provisional IRA, except during brief ceasefires in 1972 and 1975, kept up a campaign of violence for nearly thirty years, directed against security forces and civilian targets. This began to change with a speech by Danny Morrison in 1981, advocating what became known as the Armalite. Under the leadership of Gerry Adams, Sinn Féin began to focus on the search for a political settlement. When the party voted in 1986 to take seats in legislative bodies within Ireland, there was a walk-out of die-hard republicans, who set up Republican Sinn Féin and the Continuity IRA. Following the Hume–Adams dialogue, Sinn Féin took part in the Northern Ireland peace process led to the IRA ceasefires of 1994 and 1997. However, another split occurred, with anti-Agreement republicans setting up the 32 County Sovereignty Movement, today, Irish republicanism is divided between those who support the institutions set up under the Good Friday Agreement and the later St Andrews Agreement, and those who oppose them
26.
The Riddle of the Sands
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The Riddle of the Sands, A Record of Secret Service is a 1903 novel by Erskine Childers. The book, which enjoyed popularity in the years before World War I, is an early example of the espionage novel and was extremely influential in the genre of spy fiction. It has been made into films for both cinema and television. The novel owes a lot to the adventure novels of writers like Rider Haggard. Carruthers, an official in the Foreign Office, is contacted by an acquaintance, Davies. Carruthers agrees, as his plans for a holiday have fallen through. He arrives to find that Davies has a sailing boat. However Carruthers agrees to go on the trip and joins Davies in Flensburg on the Baltic, whence they head for the Frisian Islands, Carruthers has to learn quickly how to sail the small boat. Davies gradually reveals that he suspects that the Germans are undertaking something sinister in the German Frisian islands and this is based on his belief that he was nearly wrecked by a German yacht luring him into a shoal in rough weather during a previous trip. Davies is suspicious about what would motivate the Germans to try to kill him, having failed to interest anyone in the government in the incident, he feels it is his patriotic duty to investigate further – hence the invitation to Carruthers. The two men discover that an expatriate Englishman, Dollmann, is involved in the recovery project, Carruthers realises that Davies is in love with Dollmann’s daughter, Clara. Carruthers and Davies try to approach Memmert, they’re warned away by a German navy patrol boat, the Blitz, and its commander Von Bruning. This makes them all the more sure that there is something more than a treasure dig on the island, taking advantage of a thick fog, Davies navigates them covertly through the complicated sandbanks in a small boat to investigate the site. He overhears Von Bruning and Dollmann discussing something more than treasure hunting, including references to Chatham, Seven. The pair return through the fog to the Dulcibella, there, they find Dollmann and Von Bruning have beaten them and are seemingly suspicious. Von Bruning invites them to Dollmanns villa for a dinner, where he attempts to subtly cross-examine them to find out if they are British spies, Carruthers plays a dangerous game, admitting they are curious. But he convinces Von Bruning that he believes the story about treasure. Carruthers announces that the Foreign Office has recalled him to England and he heads off, then doubles back to follow Von Bruning and his men
27.
Irish Civil War
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The civil war was waged between two opposing groups, Irish republicans and Irish nationalists, over the Anglo-Irish Treaty. The forces of the Provisional Government supported the Treaty, while the Republican opposition saw it as a betrayal of the Irish Republic, many of those who fought on both sides in the conflict had been members of the Irish Republican Army during the War of Independence. The Civil War was won by the Free State forces, which were armed with weapons provided by the British Government. The conflict may have claimed more lives than the War of Independence that preceded it, today, two of the main political parties in the Republic of Ireland, Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael, are direct descendants of the opposing sides of the war. The Anglo-Irish Treaty was agreed to end the 1919–1921 Irish War of Independence between the Irish Republic and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the treaty provided for a self-governing Irish state, having its own army and police. The Treaty also allowed Northern Ireland to opt out of the new state, the British suggested this dominion in secret correspondence even before treaty negotiations began, but Sinn Féin leader Éamon de Valera rejected the dominion. The treaty also stipulated that members of the new Irish Oireachtas would have to take the following Oath of Allegiance I and this oath was highly objectionable to many Irish Republicans. Furthermore, the partition of Ireland, which had already decided by the Westminster parliament in the Government of Ireland Act 1920, was effectively confirmed in the Anglo-Irish treaty. All these issues were the cause of a split in the IRA, however, anti-treaty militants in 1922 believed that the treaty would never deliver full Irish independence. The split over the treaty was deeply personal, many of the leaders on both sides had been close friends and comrades during the War of Independence. This made their disagreement over the treaty all the more bitter and he said that he felt deeply betrayed when de Valera refused to stand by the agreement that the plenipotentiaries had negotiated with David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill. De Valera, for his part, was furious that Collins, Dáil Éireann narrowly passed the Anglo-Irish Treaty by 64 votes to 57 on 7 January 1922. Following the Treatys ratification, in accordance with article 17 of the Treaty and its authority under the Treaty was to provide a provisional arrangement for the administration of Southern Ireland during the interval before the establishment of the Irish Free State. In accordance with the Treaty, the British Government transferred the powers, before the British Government transferred such powers, the members of the Provisional Government each signified in writing acceptance of. Upon the Treatys ratification, de Valera resigned as President of the Republic and he challenged the right of the Dáil to approve the treaty, saying that its members were breaking their oath to the Irish Republic. De Valera continued to promote a compromise whereby the new Irish Free State would be in association with the British Commonwealth rather than be a member of it. In early March, he formed the Cumann na Poblachta party while remaining a member of Sinn Féin and commenced a speaking tour of the more republican province of Munster on 17 March 1922. In a letter to the Irish Independent on 23 March, de Valera accepted the accuracy of their report of his comment about wading through blood, but deplored that the newspaper had published it
28.
Victoria Embankment Gardens
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The Victoria Embankment Gardens are a series of gardens on the north side of the River Thames between Blackfriars Bridge and Westminster Bridge in London. Between 1865 and 1870 the northern embankment and sewer was built by Sir Joseph Bazalgette, in 1874 gardens were created on the reclaimed land on the inward side of the roadway named Victoria Embankment. There were four sections created, the Temple Garden to the east, the Main Gardens to the west, the gardens are now under the control of the City of Westminster. The gardens are fenced and are open during designated hours. They open at 07,30 throughout the year, but close at varying times between 16,30 during the coldest months and 21,30 at the height of summer, all gardens have gravel paths that are well lined with seats mainly given as memorials. The river side of the gardens is lined with mature trees, grass and flower beds are spread throughout the gardens, and on warm days workers from near-by establishments can be seen having picnic lunches both on the seats and the grass. In the Temple section there are statues to Isambard Kingdom Brunel, the main section has memorials to Sir Arthur Sullivan, Robert Burns, Sir Wilfred Lawson, Robert Raikes and the Imperial Camel Corps. The southern section has memorials to General Sir James Outram, General Gordon, Air Marshal Lord Trenchard, although not strictly a statue, there is an equatorial sundial made from stainless steel in the main garden under the Savoy, dedicated to Richard DOyly Carte. In the main garden there is a café, open in the periods. A charge is made for seats in the enclosure, but the concerts can easily be heard outside on the paths seats, the York Water Gate can be seen adjacent to the Villier Street entrance. This marks the original bank of the Thames, which is now 135 metres away, public toilets are outside the gardens Embankment gate next to the underground station
29.
Protestantism
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Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists
30.
Glendalough
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Glendalough is a glacial valley in County Wicklow, Ireland, renowned for an Early Medieval monastic settlement founded in the 6th century by St Kevin. Kevin, a descendant of one of the families in Leinster. During this time, he went to Glendalough and he was to return later, with a small group of monks to found a monastery where the two rivers form a confluence. Kevins writings discuss his fighting knights at Glendalough, scholars believe this refers to his process of self-examination. His fame as a holy man spread and he attracted numerous followers, for six centuries afterwards, Glendalough flourished and the Irish Annals contain references to the deaths of abbots and raids on the settlement. Around 1042, oak timber from Glendalough was used to build the second longest Viking longship ever recorded, a modern replica of that ship was built in 2004 and is currently located in Roskilde, Denmark. At the Synod of Rath Breasail in 1111, Glendalough was designated as one of the two dioceses of North Leinster, the Book of Glendalough was written there about 1131. St. Laurence OToole, born in 1128, became Abbot of Glendalough and was known for his sanctity and hospitality. Even after his appointment as Archbishop of Dublin in 1162, he returned occasionally to Glendalough and he died in Eu, in Normandy in 1180. In 1214, the dioceses of Glendalough and Dublin were united, from that time onwards, the cultural and ecclesiastical status of Glendalough diminished. The destruction of the settlement by English forces in 1398 left it a ruin but it continued as a church of local importance, Glendalough features on the 1598 map A Modern Depiction of Ireland, One of the British Isles by Abraham Ortelius as Glandalag. Descriptions of Glendalough from the 18th and 19th centuries include references to occasions of riotous assembly on the feast of St. Kevin on 3 June, the present remains in Glendalough tell only a small part of its story. The monastery in its heyday included workshops, areas for manuscript writing and copying, guest houses, the buildings which survive probably date from between the 10th and 12th centuries. Glendalough is currently a titular see in the Catholic Church and it is used for bishops who hold no ordinary power of their own and thus are titular bishops. Raymond DMello Marian Przykucki Donal Murray Diarmuid Martin Guy Sansaricq See Annals of Inisfallen AI800.2 Minndenach, abbot of Glenn dá Locha, aI809.2 Échtbrann, abbot of Glenn dá Locha. AI1003.6 Dúnchad Ua Mancháin, abbot of Glenn dá Locha, the Gateway to the monastic city of Glendalough is one of the most important monuments, now totally unique in Ireland. It was originally two-storeyed with two fine, granite arches, the antae or projecting walls at each end suggest that it had a timber roof. Inside the gateway, in the west wall, is a cross-inscribed stone and this denoted sanctuary, the boundary of the area of refuge
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World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
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