1.
Milan
–
Milan is a city in Italy, capital of the Lombardy region, and the most populous metropolitan area and the second most populous comune in Italy. The population of the city proper is 1,351,000, Milan has a population of about 8,500,000 people. It is the industrial and financial centre of Italy and one of global significance. In terms of GDP, it has the largest economy among European non-capital cities, Milan is considered part of the Blue Banana and lies at the heart of one of the Four Motors for Europe. Milan is an Alpha leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts Italys Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks, the city is a major world fashion and design capital, well known for several international events and fairs, including Milan Fashion Week and the Milan Furniture Fair. The city hosts numerous cultural institutions, academies and universities, with 11% of the national total enrolled students, Milans museums, theatres and landmarks attract over 9 million visitors annually. Milan – after Naples – is the second Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, the city hosted the Universal Exposition in 1906 and 2015. Milan is home to two of Europes major football teams, A. C. Milan and F. C. Internazionale, the etymology of Milan is uncertain. One theory holds that the Latin name Mediolanum comes from the Latin words medio, however, some scholars believe lanum comes from the Celtic root lan, meaning an enclosure or demarcated territory in which Celtic communities used to build shrines. Hence, Mediolanum could signify the central town or sanctuary of a Celtic tribe, indeed, the name Mediolanum is borne by about sixty Gallo-Roman sites in France, e. g. Saintes and Évreux. Alciato credits Ambrose for his account, around 400 BC, the Celtic Insubres settled Milan and the surrounding region. In 222 BC, the Romans conquered the settlement, renaming it Mediolanum, Milan was eventually declared the capital of the Western Roman Empire by Emperor Diocletian in 286 AD. Diocletian chose to stay in the Eastern Roman Empire and his colleague Maximianus ruled the Western one, immediately Maximian built several monuments, such as a large circus 470 m ×85 m, the Thermae Herculeae, a large complex of imperial palaces and several other buildings. With the Edict of Milan of 313, Emperor Constantine I guaranteed freedom of religion for Christians, after the city was besieged by the Visigoths in 402, the imperial residence was moved to Ravenna. In 452, the Huns overran the city, in 539, the Ostrogoths conquered and destroyed Milan during the Gothic War against Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. In the summer of 569, a Teutonic tribe, the Lombards, conquered Milan, some Roman structures remained in use in Milan under Lombard rule. Milan surrendered to the Franks in 774 when Charlemagne took the title of King of the Lombards, the Iron Crown of Lombardy dates from this period
2.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
3.
Bugatti
–
Automobiles Ettore Bugatti was a French car manufacturer of high-performance automobiles, founded in 1909 in the then German city of Molsheim, Alsace by Italian-born Ettore Bugatti. Bugatti cars were known for their beauty and for their many race victories. Famous Bugattis include the Type 35 Grand Prix cars, the Type 41 Royale, the Type 57 Atlantic and the Type 55 sports car. The death of Ettore Bugatti in 1947 proved to be the end for the marque, no more than about 8,000 cars were made. The company struggled financially, and released one last model in the 1950s, in the 1990s, an Italian entrepreneur revived it as a builder of limited production exclusive sports cars. Today, the name is owned by German automobile manufacturing group Volkswagen, the company was known both for the level of detail of its engineering in its automobiles, and for the artistic manner in which the designs were executed, given the artistic nature of Ettores family. During the war Ettore Bugatti was sent away, initially to Milan and later to Paris and he exhibited three light cars, all of them closely based on their pre-war equivalents, and each fitted with the same overhead camshaft 4-cylinder 1, 368cc engine with four valves per cylinder. Smallest of the three was a Type 13 with a body and using a chassis with a 2,000 mm wheelbase. The others were a Type 22 and a Type 23 with wheelbases of 2,250 and 2,400 mm respectively, the company also enjoyed great success in early Grand Prix motor racing, in 1929 a privately entered Bugatti won the first ever Monaco Grand Prix. Racing success culminated with driver Jean-Pierre Wimille winning the 24 hours of Le Mans twice, Bugatti cars were extremely successful in racing. The little Bugatti Type 10 swept the top four positions at its first race, the 1924 Bugatti Type 35 is probably the most successful racing car of all time, with over 2,000 wins. The Type 35 was developed by Bugatti with master engineer and racing driver Jean Chassagne who also drove it in the car’s first ever Grand Prix in 1924 Lyon, Bugattis swept to victory in the Targa Florio for five years straight from 1925 through 1929. Louis Chiron held the most podiums in Bugatti cars, and the modern marque revival Bugatti Automobiles S. A. S. named the 1999 Bugatti 18/3 Chiron concept car in his honour. But it was the racing success at Le Mans that is most remembered—Jean-Pierre Wimille and Pierre Veyron won the 1939 race with just one car. In the 1930s, Ettore Bugatti got involved in the creation of a racer airplane and this would be the Bugatti 100P, which never flew. It was designed by Belgian engineer Louis de Monge who had already applied Bugatti Brescia engines in his Type 7.5 lifting body, Ettore Bugatti also designed a successful motorised railcar, the Autorail Bugatti. The death of Ettore Bugattis son, Jean Bugatti, on 11 August 1939 marked a point in the companys fortunes. Jean died while testing a Type 57 tank-bodied race car near the Molsheim factory, World War II left the Molsheim factory in ruins and the company lost control of the property
4.
Carlo Bugatti
–
Carlo Bugatti was an Italian decorator, designer and manufacturer of Art Nouveau furniture, models of jewelry, and musical instruments. Bugatti was born 2 February 1856 in Milan, in what would remain till 1859 the kingdom of Lombardy, he died in Molsheim, France. Son of Giovanni Luigi Bugatti, a specialist on internal decorations, Carlo studied firstly at the Brera Academy in Milan, in 1880 he started to manufacture furniture in Milan, later transferring to France. From 1888 he began to be successful beyond Italy, nevertheless, till 1904 he maintained a Milan workshop in the citys Via Castelfiardo 6. He was also, like his father, trained as an architect and he triumphed at the exhibition of decorative art in Turin in 1902 and returned to Paris in 1904. Father of sculptor Rembrandt Bugatti and automobile manufacturer Ettore Bugatti, he moved in 1910 to Pierrefonds where he established an atelier. From 1914 to 1918 he was nominated mayor of the village, and the outspoken anti-German industrialist Adolphe Clément-Bayard, from then on, he devoted himself entirely to painting. After the suicide of his son Rembrandt in 1916, Bugatti, then 60, produced less, in 1935, at the age of 79, he retired near his son Ettores family in Alsace. He settled in a north of Château Saint-Jean, Dorlisheim, with his wife Teresa. He spent his last months at his apartment at the Bugatti factory in Molsheim, where he frequented the workmen, in April 1940, he died at the hospital in Molsheim. He is buried in the Bugatti family cemetery at Dorlisheim, media related to Carlo Bugatti at Wikimedia Commons Bugatti. com Bio Carlo Bugatti, Furniture as Futuristic Sculpture Some examples of his furniture Bugatti Trust Bio
5.
Rembrandt Bugatti
–
Rembrandt Bugatti was an Italian sculptor, known primarily for his bronze sculptures of wildlife subjects. He was only 31 years old, born in Milan, into an artistic family, Rembrandt Bugatti was the second son of Carlo Bugatti and his wife, Teresa Lorioli. His older brother Ettore Bugatti became one of the worlds most famous automobile manufacturers and he was given his first name by his uncle, the painter Giovanni Segantini. His father was an important Art Nouveau furniture and jewelry designer who worked in textiles, ceramics. As such, Rembrandt Bugatti grew up in an environment where a great many of his parents friends were from the artistic world, in 1902, the family moved to Paris, where they lived in a community of artisans. As a child he hung around his fathers workshop and was encouraged to try sculpting in plasticine by family friend the Russian sculptor, Rembrandt Bugatti was a young man when he began to work with the art foundry and gallery owner, Adrian Hébrard. He produced a number of bronzes which were exhibited and promoted by Hébrard. His sculptures of animals such as elephants, panthers and lions became his most valuable, the silver elephant mascot that sits on top of the radiator of the Bugatti Royale was cast from one of Rembrandts original sculptures. His art works are now also highly priced, a cast of his 1909-1910 bronze, Babouin Sacré Hamadryas, was auctioned at Sothebys in 2006 for $2.56 million. One of the Bugatti pieces was reported sold apparently as part of a group of sculptures for an aggregate of $20 million. At the same time Antwerp Zoo was forced, by shortages, to start killing its animals. In 1916, at the age of 31, he killed himself and he is interred in the Bugatti family plot at the municipal cemetery in Dorlisheim in the Bas-Rhin département of the Alsace region of France
6.
Giovanni Segantini
–
Giovanni Segantini was an Italian painter known for his large pastoral landscapes of the Alps. He was one of the most famous artists in Europe in the late 19th century, in later life he combined a Divisionist painting style with Symbolist images of nature. He was active in Switzerland for most of his life, Giovanni Battista Emanuele Maria Segatini was born at Arco in Trentino, which was then part of the County of Tyrol in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He later changed his name by adding another n after the a. He was the child of Agostino Segatini and Margherita de Giradi. His older brother, Lodovico, died in a fire the year Giovanni was born, during the first seven years of his life his father, who was a tradesman, traveled extensively while looking for work. Except for a period in 1864 when Agostino returned to Trentino, Segantini spent his early years with his mother. These years were marked by poverty, hunger and limited due to his mothers inability to cope. In the spring of 1865 his mother died after spending the past seven years in poor health. His father left Giovanni under the care of Irene, his child from a previous marriage. He died a year later without returning home and leaving his family nothing, without money from her father, Irene lived in extreme poverty. She was forced to spend most of her time working menial jobs while leaving Giovanni to subsist on his own, Irene hoped to improve her life by moving to Milan, and in late 1865 she submitted an application to relinquish Austrian citizenship for both her brother and her. She either misunderstood the process or simply did not have time to follow through. As a result, both Segantini and his sister remained stateless for the rest of their lives, after he became famous Switzerland offered him citizenship on more than one occasion, but he refused in spite of many hardships, saying Italy was his true homeland. After his death the Swiss government successfully awarded him citizenship, at age seven Segantini ran away and was later found living on the streets of Milan. The police committed him to the Marchiondi Reformatory, where he learned basic cobbling skills, for much of his early life he could barely read or write, he finally learned both skills when he was in his mid-30s. Fortunately a chaplain at the reformatory noticed that he could quite well. In 1873 Segantinis half-brother Napoleon claimed him from the reformatory, Napoleon ran a photography studio, and Segantini learned the basics of this relatively new art form while working there with his half-brother
7.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
8.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
9.
Automobile
–
A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
10.
Art Nouveau
–
Art Nouveau is an international style of art, architecture and applied art, especially the decorative arts, that was most popular between 1890 and 1910. A reaction to the art of the 19th century, it was inspired by natural forms and structures, particularly the curved lines of plants. English uses the French name Art Nouveau, according to the philosophy of the style, art should be a way of life. For many well-off Europeans, it was possible to live in an art nouveau-inspired house with art nouveau furniture, silverware, fabrics, ceramics including tableware, jewellery, cigarette cases, artists desired to combine the fine arts and applied arts, even for utilitarian objects. By 1910, Art Nouveau was already out of style and it was replaced as the dominant European architectural and decorative style first by Art Deco and then by Modernism. Art Nouveau took its name from the Maison de lArt Nouveau, in France, Art Nouveau was also sometimes called by the British term Modern Style due to its roots in the Arts and Crafts Movement, Style moderne, or Style 1900. It was also sometimes called Style Jules Verne, Le Style Métro, Art Belle Époque, in Belgium, where the architectural movement began, it was sometimes termed Style nouille or Style coup de fouet. In Britain, it was known as the Modern Style, or, because of the arts and crafts movement led by Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, as the Glasgow style. In Italy, because of the popularity in Italy of designs from Londons Liberty & Co department store, in the United States, due to its association with Louis Comfort Tiffany, it was often called the Tiffany style. In Germany and Scandinavia, a style emerged at about the same time, it was called Jugendstil. In Catalonia the related style was known as Modernisme, in Spain as Modernismo, Arte joven, in Russia, it was called Modern, and Jugendstil, and Nieuwe Kunst in the Netherlands. Some names refer specifically to the forms that were popular with the Art Nouveau artists, Stile Floreal in France, Paling Stijl in the Netherlands. The new art movement had its roots in Britain, in the designs of William Morris. Early prototypes of the include the Red House of Morris. In France, the style combined several different tendencies, in architecture, it was influenced by the architectural theorist and historian Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, a declared enemy of the historical Beaux-Arts architectural style. For each function its material, for each material its form and this book influenced a generation of architects, including Louis Sullivan, Victor Horta, Hector Guimard, and Antoni Gaudí. The French painters Maurice Denis, Pierre Bonnard and Édouard Vuillard played an important part in integrating fine arts painting with decoration, I believe that before everything a painting must decorate, Denis wrote in 1891. The choice of subjects or scenes is nothing and it is by the value of tones, the colored surface and the harmony of lines that I can reach the spirit and wake up the emotions
11.
Prinetti & Stucchi
–
Prinetti & Stucchi, Stucchi & Co. from 1901, was an Italian maker of sewing machines, bicycles and motorized vehicles, established in Milan in 1883. It was owned by engineers and politicians Augusto Stucchi and Giulio Prinetti, in 1892 Stucchi Prinetti & Stucchi began manufacturing bicycles. In 1914 Alfonso Calzolari rode a Stucchi to victory in the Giro dItalia, in 1899 Prinetti & Stucchi started manufacturing motorized tricycles and quadricycles. The Tipo 1, a motorized tricycle utilizing two De Dion engines and a Rochet-Schneider frame, was designed by Ettore Bugatti, in 1900 Bugatti participated in the Targa Rignano in a quadricycle. In 1901 the company was renamed Stucchi & Co. when Giulio Prinetti left to become Italian minister of foreign affairs 1901-03, the reorganisation also triggered Ettore Bugattis emigration to France where he established the Bugatti car works. The Stucchi-Prinetti family founded the Società Generale Elettrica dellAdamello electric company in 1907 and it is the owner of the Badia a Coltibuono castle in Tuscany. List of bicycle parts List of Italian companies
12.
Lorraine-Dietrich
–
The Franco-Prussian War divided the companys manufacturing capacity, one plant in Niederbronn-les-Bains, Alsace, the other in Lunéville, Lorraine. In 1896, managing director of the Lunéville plant, Adrien, Baron de Turckheim and this used a front-mounted horizontal twin engine with sliding clutches and belt drive. It had a top, three acetylene headlights, and, very unusual for the period, plate glass windshield. While the company started out using engines from Bollée, de Dietrich eventually produced the entire vehicle themselves, the response was substantial, exceeding one million gold francs. He also created their 30/35 of 1903, before quitting to join Mathis in 1904, the same year, management at Niederbronn quit car production, leaving it entirely to Lunéville, with the Alsace market being sold a Turcat-Méry badge-engineered as a de Dietrich. Even at the time, this was seen with some disdain, nevertheless, under the skin they were little different, nor would they be until 1911. De Dietrich bought out Isotta-Fraschini in 1907, producing two OHC cars to Isotta-Fraschini designs, including a 10 hp allegedly created by Bugatti. For 1908, de Dietrich offered a line of chain-driven touring fours, the 18/28 hp, 28/38 hp, 40/45 hp, the British version differed, having shaft drive. That year, the names of the automotive and aero-engine divisions were changed to Lorraine-Dietrich, by 1914, all de Dietrichs were shaft-driven, and numbered a 12/16, an 18/20, a new 20/30 tourers, and a sporting four-cylinder 40/75, all built at Argenteuil, Seine-et-Oise. After World War I, with Lorraine restored to France, the company restarted manufacture of automobiles and aero-engines and their 12-cylinder aero-engines were used by Breguet, IAR, and Aero, among others. In 1919, new technical director Marius Barbarou introduced a new model in two wheelbases, the A1-6 and B2-6, joined three years later by the B3-6, with short or long wheelbase. All fell in the 15 CV fiscal horsepower category, sharing the 3,445 cc six cylinder engine, which had overhead valves, hemispherical head, aluminium pistons, and four-bearing crankshaft. The 15 CV Sport did better in 1925, winning Le Mans, followed home by a sister in third, while in 1926, Bloch and Rossignol won at an average 106 km/h, leading a 1-2-3 sweep by Lorraines. Lorraine-Dietrich thus became the first marque to win Le Mans twice and this publicity contributed to touring 15s being bodied by Gaston Grummer, also Argenteuils director, who produced coachwork for the likes of Aurora, Olympia, Gloriosa, and Chiquita. The de Dietrich family sold its share in the company, which became known as Lorraine from 1928 on. The 15 CV was supplanted by the 20 CV, which had a 4,086 cc engine, automobile production eventually became unprofitable and, after the failure of their 20 CV model, the concern ceased production of automobiles in 1935. In 1930, de Dietrich was absorbed by Société Générale Aéronautique, by 1935, Lorraine-Dietrich had disappeared from the automobile industry. Until World War II, Lorraine concentrated on the military market, the Lunéville plant returned to rail locomotives
13.
Niederbronn-les-Bains
–
Niederbronn-les-Bains is a commune in the Bas-Rhin department in Grand Est in north-eastern France. It is positioned between Bitche and Wissembourg, close to the current frontier with Germany, Niederbronn-les-Bains is part of the Northern Vosges Regional Natural Park. It has a tradition as a spa town, and continues to attract tourists, Niederbronn-les-Bains was founded in 48 BC when the Romans discovered the healing properties of the local water. The earliest bathing place was in or near the now occupied by the towns casino. During the fifth century the town fell victim to the violence that accompanied the period of intense migrations that followed the disappearance from the western empire of Roman governance. The waters curative properties are recommended against rheumatism and degenerative illnesses, the spa tradition today supports a more general tourist industry in the little town, which even boasts its own casino. The little town also contains a museum containing remnants of North Vosgean settlements. The strategic importance, during the Second World War, of the Wissembourg Gap is reflected in the approximately 15,403 buried in the war cemetery, more than 95% of these were German soldiers, but other nations and civilians are also represented here. A meeting place called the Albert Schweitzer Centre was set up in 1993 to foster contacts between French and German young people, other nearby attractions in the area include the ruined Wasenbourg and the look-out tower on the Grand Wintersberg, some four kilometers to the north. Suzanne de Dietrich, the Protestant theologian, was born in Niederbronn-les-Bains in 1881, Élisabeth Eppinger, the Catholic founder of the Sisters of the Divine Redeemer, was born in Niederbronn-les-Bains in 1814. Communes of the Bas-Rhin department INSEE commune file
14.
Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)
–
The Treaty of Frankfurt was a peace treaty signed in Frankfurt on 10 May 1871, at the end of the Franco-Prussian War. Gave residents of the Alsace-Lorraine region until 1 October 1872 to decide between keeping their French nationality and emigrating, or remaining in the region and becoming German citizens, set a framework for the withdrawal of German troops from certain areas. Regulated the payment of Frances war indemnity of five billion francs, recognized the acceptance of Wilhelm I of Prussia as German Emperor. Required military occupation in parts of France until the indemnity was paid, most importantly, the German military regarded control of the route between Thionville and Metz as the most important area of control if there were ever to be a future war with France. A shift in the frontier alleviated these issues, the new political border largely followed the linguistic border. The fact that the majority of the population in the new Imperial Territory territory spoke Germanic dialects allowed Berlin to justify the annexation on nationalistic grounds, natural resources in Alsace-Lorraine do not appear to have played a role in Germanys fight for the areas annexed. Military annexation was the stated goal along with unification of the German people. At the same time, France lost 1,447,000 hectares,1,694 villages and 1,597,000 inhabitants and it also lost 20% of its mining and steel potential. The treaty of trade of 1862 with Prussia was not renewed but France granted Germany, for trade and navigation, France would respect the clauses of the Treaty of Frankfurt in their entirety until 1914. France also had to pay a full payment of 5,000,000,000 francs in gold, with one billion in 1871 and this treaty polarized French policy towards Germany for the next 40 years. The reconquest of Alsace-Lorraine, the lost provinces, became an obsession characterized by a revanchism which would be one of the most powerful motives in Frances involvement in World War I. In 1918, U. S. President Woodrow Wilson addressed the issue as Point 8 in his Fourteen Points speech, thus Alsace-Lorraine returned to the French Republic under the 1919 Treaty of Versailles. The Germans accepted to surrender under the term of the American proposal, the Franco-German Boundary of 1871, World Politics, pp. 209-250. The Alsace-Lorraine Question, The Scientific Monthly, Vol.6, No
15.
Franco-Prussian War
–
The conflict was caused by Prussian ambitions to extend German unification and French fears of the shift in the European balance of power that would result if the Prussians succeeded. On 16 July 1870, the French parliament voted to declare war on the German Kingdom of Prussia, the German coalition mobilised its troops much more quickly than the French and rapidly invaded northeastern France. The German forces were superior in numbers, had training and leadership and made more effective use of modern technology, particularly railroads. The German states proclaimed their union as the German Empire under the Prussian king Wilhelm I, the Treaty of Frankfurt of 10 May 1871 gave Germany most of Alsace and some parts of Lorraine, which became the Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine. French determination to regain Alsace-Lorraine and fear of another Franco-German war, along with British apprehension about the balance of power, the causes of the Franco-Prussian War are deeply rooted in the events surrounding the unification of Germany. In the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Prussia had annexed numerous territories and this new power destabilized the European balance of power established by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 after the Napoleonic Wars. France was strongly opposed to any further alliance of German states, in Prussia, some officials considered a war against France both inevitable and necessary to arouse German nationalism in those states that would allow the unification of a great German empire. Bismarck also knew that France should be the aggressor in the conflict to bring the southern German states to side with Prussia, many Germans also viewed the French as the traditional destabilizer of Europe, and sought to weaken France to prevent further breaches of the peace. The immediate cause of the war resided in the candidacy of Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, France feared encirclement by an alliance between Prussia and Spain. The Hohenzollern princes candidacy was withdrawn under French diplomatic pressure, releasing the Ems Dispatch to the public, Bismarck made it sound as if the king had treated the French envoy in a demeaning fashion, which inflamed public opinion in France. They also argue that he wanted a war to resolve growing domestic political problems, other historians, notably French historian Pierre Milza, dispute this. According to Milza, the Emperor had no need for a war to increase his popularity, the Ems telegram had exactly the effect on French public opinion that Bismarck had intended. This text produced the effect of a red flag on the Gallic bull, gramont, the French foreign minister, declared that he felt he had just received a slap. Napoleons new prime minister, Emile Ollivier, declared that France had done all that it could humanly and honorably do to prevent the war, a crowd of 15–20,000 people, carrying flags and patriotic banners, marched through the streets of Paris, demanding war. On 19 July 1870 a declaration of war was sent to the Prussian government, the southern German states immediately sided with Prussia. The French Army consisted in peacetime of approximately 400,000 soldiers, some of them were veterans of previous French campaigns in the Crimean War, Algeria, the Franco-Austrian War in Italy, and in the Mexican campaign. Under Marshal Adolphe Niel, urgent reforms were made, universal conscription and a shorter period of service gave increased numbers of reservists, who would swell the army to a planned strength of 800,000 on mobilisation. Those who for any reason were not conscripted were to be enrolled in the Garde Mobile, however, the Franco-Prussian War broke out before these reforms could be completely implemented
16.
Alsace
–
Alsace is a cultural and historical region in eastern France now located in the administrative region of Grand Est. Alsace is located on Frances eastern border and on the west bank of the upper Rhine adjacent to Germany, from 1982 until January 2016, Alsace was the smallest of 22 administrative regions in metropolitan France, consisting of the Bas-Rhin and Haut-Rhin departments. Territorial reform passed by the French legislature in 2014 resulted in the merger of the Alsace administrative region with Champagne-Ardenne and Lorraine to form Grand Est. The predominant historical language of Alsace is Alsatian, a Germanic dialect also spoken across the Rhine, but today most Alsatians primarily speak French, the political status of Alsace has been heavily influenced by historical decisions, wars, and strategic politics. The economic and cultural capital as well as largest city of Alsace is Strasbourg, the city is the seat of several international organizations and bodies. The name Alsace can be traced to the Old High German Ali-saz or Elisaz, an alternative explanation is from a Germanic Ell-sass, meaning seated on the Ill, a river in Alsace. In prehistoric times, Alsace was inhabited by nomadic hunters, by 1500 BC, Celts began to settle in Alsace, clearing and cultivating the land. It should be noted that Alsace is a surrounded by the Vosges mountains. It creates Foehn winds which, along with irrigation, contributes to the fertility of the soil. In a world of agriculture, Alsace has always been a region which explains why it suffered so many invasions and annexations in its history. By 58 BC, the Romans had invaded and established Alsace as a center of viticulture, to protect this highly valued industry, the Romans built fortifications and military camps that evolved into various communities which have been inhabited continuously to the present day. While part of the Roman Empire, Alsace was part of Germania Superior, with the decline of the Roman Empire, Alsace became the territory of the Germanic Alemanni. The Alemanni were agricultural people, and their Germanic language formed the basis of modern-day dialects spoken along the Upper Rhine, Clovis and the Franks defeated the Alemanni during the 5th century AD, culminating with the Battle of Tolbiac, and Alsace became part of the Kingdom of Austrasia. Under Clovis Merovingian successors the inhabitants were Christianized, Alsace formed part of the Middle Francia, which was ruled by the eldest grandson Lothar I. Lothar died early in 855 and his realm was divided into three parts, the part known as Lotharingia, or Lorraine, was given to Lothars son. The rest was shared between Lothars brothers Charles the Bald and Louis the German, the Kingdom of Lotharingia was short-lived, however, becoming the stem duchy of Lorraine in Eastern Francia after the Treaty of Ribemont in 880. Alsace was united with the other Alemanni east of the Rhine into the duchy of Swabia. Alsace experienced great prosperity during the 12th and 13th centuries under Hohenstaufen emperors, Frederick I set up Alsace as a province to be ruled by ministeriales, a non-noble class of civil servants
17.
German Empire
–
The German Empire was the historical German nation state that existed from the unification of Germany in 1871 to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1918, when Germany became a federal republic. The German Empire consisted of 26 constituent territories, with most being ruled by royal families and this included four kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies, seven principalities, three free Hanseatic cities, and one imperial territory. Although Prussia became one of kingdoms in the new realm, it contained most of its population and territory. Its influence also helped define modern German culture, after 1850, the states of Germany had rapidly become industrialized, with particular strengths in coal, iron, chemicals, and railways. In 1871, it had a population of 41 million people, and by 1913, a heavily rural collection of states in 1815, now united Germany became predominantly urban. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire operated as an industrial, technological, Germany became a great power, boasting a rapidly growing rail network, the worlds strongest army, and a fast-growing industrial base. In less than a decade, its navy became second only to Britains Royal Navy, after the removal of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck by Wilhelm II, the Empire embarked on a bellicose new course that ultimately led to World War I. When the great crisis of 1914 arrived, the German Empire had two allies, Italy and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Italy, however, left the once the First World War started in August 1914. In the First World War, German plans to capture Paris quickly in autumn 1914 failed, the Allied naval blockade caused severe shortages of food. Germany was repeatedly forced to send troops to bolster Austria and Turkey on other fronts, however, Germany had great success on the Eastern Front, it occupied large Eastern territories following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. German declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917 was designed to strangle the British, it failed, but the declaration—along with the Zimmermann Telegram—did bring the United States into the war. Meanwhile, German civilians and soldiers had become war-weary and radicalised by the Russian Revolution and this failed, and by October the armies were in retreat, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had collapsed, Bulgaria had surrendered and the German people had lost faith in their political system. After at first attempting to control, causing massive uprisings. This left a republic to manage a devastated and unsatisfied populace, the German Confederation had been created by an act of the Congress of Vienna on 8 June 1815 as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, after being alluded to in Article 6 of the 1814 Treaty of Paris. German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848, called Pan-Germanism and he envisioned a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany. The war resulted in the Confederation being partially replaced by a North German Confederation in 1867, the new constitution and the title Emperor came into effect on 1 January 1871. During the Siege of Paris on 18 January 1871, William accepted to be proclaimed Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. The second German Constitution was adopted by the Reichstag on 14 April 1871 and proclaimed by the Emperor on 16 April, the political system remained the same
18.
Treaty of Versailles
–
The Treaty of Versailles was the most important of the peace treaties that brought World War I to an end. The Treaty ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers and it was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of World War I signed separate treaties, although the armistice, signed on 11 November 1918, ended the actual fighting, it took six months of Allied negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty. The treaty was registered by the Secretariat of the League of Nations on 21 October 1919 and this article, Article 231, later became known as the War Guilt clause. The treaty forced Germany to disarm, make substantial territorial concessions, in 1921 the total cost of these reparations was assessed at 132 billion marks. On the other hand, prominent figures on the Allied side such as French Marshal Ferdinand Foch criticized the treaty for treating Germany too leniently, although it is often referred to as the Versailles Conference, only the actual signing of the treaty took place at the historic palace. Most of the negotiations were in Paris, with the Big Four meetings taking place generally at the Quai dOrsay, the First World War was fought across Europe, the Middle East, Africa and Asia. Countries beyond the war zones were also affected by the disruption of trade, finance. In 1917, two revolutions occurred within the Russian Empire, which led to the collapse of the Imperial Government, the American war aim was to detach the war from nationalistic disputes and ambitions after the Bolshevik disclosure of secret treaties between the Allies. The existence of these treaties tended to discredit Allied claims that Germany was the power with aggressive ambitions. On 8 January 1918, United States President Woodrow Wilson issued a statement that became known as the Fourteen Points and this speech outlined a policy of free trade, open agreements, democracy and self-determination. After the Central Powers launched Operation Faustschlag on the Eastern Front and this treaty ended the war between Russia and the Central powers and annexed 1,300,000 square miles of territory and 62 million people. During the autumn of 1918, the Central Powers began to collapse, desertion rates within the German army began to increase, and civilian strikes drastically reduced war production. On the Western Front, the Allied forces launched the Hundred Days Offensive, sailors of the Imperial German Navy at Kiel mutinied, which prompted uprisings in Germany, which became known as the German Revolution. The German government tried to obtain a settlement based on the Fourteen Points. Following negotiations, the Allied powers and Germany signed an armistice, the terms of the armistice called for an immediate evacuation of German troops from occupied Belgium, France, and Luxembourg within fifteen days. In addition, it established that Allied forces would occupy the Rhineland, in late 1918, Allied troops entered Germany and began the occupation. Both the German Empire and Great Britain were dependent on imports of food and raw materials, primarily from the Americas, the Blockade of Germany was a naval operation conducted by the Allied Powers to stop the supply of raw materials and foodstuffs reaching the Central Powers
19.
De Dietrich
–
The history of the de Dietrich family has been linked to that of France and of Europe for over three centuries. To this day, the company bears the family name continues to play a major role in the economic life of Alsace. De Dietrich is a company based in France which traces its history back to 1684. The incumbent chairman of the supervisory board Marc-Antoine de Dietrich represents the 11th consecutive generation at the helm of the company, De Dietrich has been active in the automobile, railway and industrial equipment industry amongst others. 1684, Johann von Dietrich acquires the Jaegerthal forge,1719, The family is made Baron by the Holy Roman Empire. He becomes the largest land owner in Alsace and expands the familys industrial empire by building or acquiring forges and furnaces,1778, Louis XVI grants Jean de Dietrich the use of a hunting horn trademark to deter counterfeiters. This logo still serves as a symbol of quality today,1792, Philippe-Frédéric de Dietrich, first mayor of Strasbourg in republican France, orders captain Rouget de Lisle a military hymn for the Army of the Rhine. First sung in Philippe-Frederics parlor on Place Broglie, the La Marseillaise became Frances national anthem,1804, After the havoc left by the French Revolution, Napoleon Bonaparte helps De Dietrich rebuild. 1848, De Dietrich embraces the industrial era by progressively reducing the production of cast irons in favor of mechanical,1870, Despite the annexation by Germany of Alsace-Lorraine, the Dietrich family decides to remain close to the factories and employees and stays in Alsace. This choice calls for a diversification of De Dietrichs activities in order to adapt to German market demands,1896, De Dietrich enters automobile manufacturing. Eugene, Baron de Turckheim, buys manufacturing rights to Amédée Bollée, during its automotive development it hired amongst others the services of famous car builder Ettore Bugatti to design of the cars and Émile Mathis to handle commercialization. 1905, De Dietrich decides to out of automobile manufacturing to focus on mechanical construction, railroad equipment, process systems, central heating equipment. 1995, De Dietrich sells its interest in rolling stock railroad equipment manufacturing De Dietrich Ferroviaire (DDFs factory is in Reichshoffen, a majority stake in DDF was acquired by Alstom and the company is now known as Alstom-DDF. 2000, After the successive acquisitions of Rosenmund-Guedu and QVF, De Dietrich renames its chemical equipment division De Dietrich Process Systems. De Dietrich is the object a Public Tender Offer by the la Société Industrielle du Hanau, controlled by ABN AMRO Capital Investissement France,2001, In July 2001, after 50 years of quotation, De Dietrich is pulled out the market. 2002, In September 2002, De Dietrich sells the control of Cogifer and Cogifer TF, in December 2002, the Société Industrielles du Hanau takes over De Dietrich & Cie and assumes the name De Dietrich. 2004, In July 2004, De Dietrich divests from De Dietrich Thermique, the new entity formed De Dietrich Remeha, becomes one of Europes largest heating industry player, particularly in the fields of condensing boilers and renewable energies. In December 2004, the family regained 100% control of the holding company and this operation represents one of Europes largest family re-investments in recent years
20.
Illkirch-Graffenstaden
–
Illkirch-Graffenstaden is a commune in the Bas-Rhin department in Grand Est in north-eastern France. It is the second-largest suburb of the city of Strasbourg, and is adjacent to it on the south-southwest, Illkirch-Graffenstaden is one of the fastest growing cities in France and probably in Europe, its population having more than doubled in less than forty years. In the past Illkirch and Grafenstaden were two separate villages, during periods when Alsace-Lorraine was part of Germany the commune was known as Illkirch-Grafenstaden, this spelling is still used in German. The larger adjacent communes, like Illkirch-Graffenstaden, are effectively suburbs of the Strasbourg conurbation. These include Strasbourg-Meinau, Ostwald and Geispolsheim, the town also lies by the Rhône-Rhine Canal which here runs between the two rivers. Illkirch is believed to be a Frankish foundation, the town, like Alsace takes the first syllable of its name from the river that crosses it, the second syllable is simply the local word for a church. As a reward for their services, Rudolf in 1284 elevated several leading Strasbourgers to the knighthood, historians know of Illkirch from the Illkirch Capitulation Document. Imperial support did not materialize, however, and in order to avoid greater suffering von Zedlitz was finally obliged to sign the Surrender Document of Illkirch on 30 September 1681, graffenstaden was a village bordering Illkirch, the two communes were merged for economic reasons between 1790 and 1794. The factory had originally built before the annexation of Alsace by Germany. Today it is the sector that provides most of the employment in the area. Another important employer is Leclerc barracks, home to the German 291st Light Infantry Battalion, jean-Baptiste Schwilgué, horologist Frédéric Rollé, horologist Mehdi Baala, track and field athlete Communes of the Bas-Rhin department Official website
21.
Strasbourg
–
Strasbourg is the capital and largest city of the Grand Est region of France and is the official seat of the European Parliament. Located close to the border with Germany in the region of Alsace. In 2014, the city proper had 276,170 inhabitants, Strasbourgs metropolitan area had a population of 773,347 in 2013, making it the ninth largest metro area in France and home to 13% of the Grand Est regions inhabitants. The transnational Eurodistrict Strasbourg-Ortenau had a population of 915,000 inhabitants in 2014, Strasbourg is the seat of several European institutions, such as the Council of Europe and the Eurocorps, as well as the European Parliament and the European Ombudsman of the European Union. The city is also the seat of the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine, Strasbourgs historic city centre, the Grande Île, was classified a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1988, the first time such an honour was placed on an entire city centre. The largest Islamic place of worship in France, the Strasbourg Grand Mosque, was inaugurated by French Interior Minister Manuel Valls on 27 September 2012. Economically, Strasbourg is an important centre of manufacturing and engineering, as well as a hub of road, rail, the port of Strasbourg is the second largest on the Rhine after Duisburg, Germany. Before the 5th century, the city was known as Argantorati, a Celtic Gaulish name Latinized first as Argentorate, after the 5h century, the city became known by a completely different name Gallicized as Strasbourg. That name is of Germanic origin and means Town of roads, Strasbourg is situated on the eastern border of France with Germany. This border is formed by the River Rhine, which forms the eastern border of the modern city. The historic core of Strasbourg however lies on the Grande Île in the River Ill, which flows parallel to, and roughly 4 kilometres from. The natural courses of the two eventually join some distance downstream of Strasbourg, although several artificial waterways now connect them within the city. This section of the Rhine valley is an axis of north-south travel, with river traffic on the Rhine itself. The city is some 400 kilometres east of Paris, in spite of its position far inland, Strasbourgs climate is classified as Oceanic, with warm, relatively sunny summers and cold, overcast winters. Precipitation is elevated from mid-spring to the end of summer, but remains largely constant throughout the year, on average, snow falls 30 days per year. The highest temperature recorded was 38.5 °C in August 2003. The lowest temperature recorded was −23.4 °C in December 1938. Nonetheless, the disappearance of heavy industry on both banks of the Rhine, as well as effective measures of traffic regulation in and around the city have reduced air pollution
22.
Cologne
–
Cologne is the largest city in the German federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia and the fourth-largest city in Germany. It is located within the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region, one of the major European metropolitan areas, and with more than ten million inhabitants, Cologne is located on both sides of the Rhine River, less than eighty kilometres from Belgium. The citys famous Cologne Cathedral is the seat of the Catholic Archbishop of Cologne, the University of Cologne is one of Europes oldest and largest universities. Cologne was founded and established in Ubii territory in the first century AD as the Roman Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium, Cologne, the French version of the citys name, has become standard in English as well. The city functioned as the capital of the Roman province of Germania Inferior, during the Middle Ages it flourished on one of the most important major trade routes between east and west in Europe. Cologne was one of the members of the Hanseatic League and one of the largest cities north of the Alps in medieval. Up until World War II the city had several occupations by the French. Cologne was one of the most heavily bombed cities in Germany during World War II, the bombing reduced the population by 95%, mainly due to evacuation, and destroyed almost the entire city. With the intention of restoring as many buildings as possible. Cologne is a cultural centre for the Rhineland, it hosts more than thirty museums. Exhibitions range from local ancient Roman archeological sites to contemporary graphics, the Cologne Trade Fair hosts a number of trade shows such as Art Cologne, imm Cologne, Gamescom, and the Photokina. The first urban settlement on the grounds of modern-day Cologne was Oppidum Ubiorum, founded in 38 BC by the Ubii, in 50 AD, the Romans founded Colonia on the Rhine and the city became the provincial capital of Germania Inferior in 85 AD. The city was named Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium in 50 AD, considerable Roman remains can be found in present-day Cologne, especially near the wharf area, where a notable discovery of a 1900-year-old Roman boat was made in late 2007. From 260 to 271 Cologne was the capital of the Gallic Empire under Postumus, Marius, in 310 under Constantine a bridge was built over the Rhine at Cologne. Roman imperial governors resided in the city and it one of the most important trade. Cologne is shown on the 4th century Peutinger Map, maternus, who was elected as bishop in 313, was the first known bishop of Cologne. The city was the capital of a Roman province until occupied by the Ripuarian Franks in 462, parts of the original Roman sewers are preserved underneath the city, with the new sewerage system having opened in 1890. Early medieval Cologne was part of Austrasia within the Frankish Empire, Cologne had been the seat of a bishop since the Roman period, under Charlemagne, in 795, bishop Hildebold was promoted to archbishop
23.
Deutz Gasmotoren Fabrik
–
Deutz AG is an engine manufacturer, based in Cologne, Germany. The company was founded in 1864 as N. A, Otto & Cie by Nikolaus Otto, inventor of the four-stroke internal combustion engine. In the early years, Otto and his partner Eugen Langen, were interested in production of stationary engines. In the middle of the 1870s, technical director Gottlieb Daimler and he resigned, taking Wilhelm Maybach with him. Deutz also produced agricultural machines such as combine harvesters and tractors, as well as commercial vehicles such as trucks, famous people who worked for Deutz include Eugen Langen, Gottlieb Daimler, Wilhelm Maybach, Prosper LOrange, Rudolf Diesel, Robert Bosch and Ettore Bugatti. During World War II, the company was ordered to produce artillery, commercial vehicles powered by Deutz engines were popular from 1960 to 1980, sold under the brand name Magirus Deutz. Deutzs head office is in the Porz district of Cologne and as of 2004 was manufacturing liquid, the larger engines in the Deutz range were manufactured in Mannheim, at a production facility that once belonged to Süddeutsche Bremsen-AG as MWM-Diesel. Deutz also have facilities in other countries including Spain and a joint venture production facility in China. After Deutz took over, the plant specialised in marine engines and this facility now produces engines for marine and power generation which can run on either fuel oils or fuel gases. In 1995 Deutz sold its agricultural machinery division – Deutz-Fahr – to the Italian company SAME, forming SAME Deutz-Fahr. Deutz engines are available in the power range 4 to 500 kW, with air, oil or water cooling and with life expectancy of 20,000 and 30,000 running hours TBO on rebuilt, parts and service are available worldwide. In the United States and Canada, a network of distributors was established a few years ago, providing parts, deutz-powered air-cooled machines are well-suited for many applications since they cannot freeze or boil-over during normal operation. These can provide the power as other engine designs, but in a smaller package. Deutz also makes engines with a tandem oil cooler/radiator configuration, these also do not require antifreeze or coolant agents, Deutz also has line of economical liquid-cooled engines. In 2007, the Deutz Power Systems division was sold to 3i and they are focusing on manufacturing engines only for the customer, without competing for the entire piece of finished machinery. On October 1,2008, the former Deutz Power Systems division received a new, old, the company traces its roots to Karl Benz, who set up the foundations of the company in 1871. After splitting the business off from Benz AG, it became Motoren-Werke Mannheim AG. Klöckner-Humboldt-Deutz AG took over in 1985, later becoming Deutz AG, after spinning off Deutz Power Systems, the company has made a full circle back to MWM
24.
Bugatti Type 10
–
The Type 13 was the first true Bugatti car. Production of the Type 13 and later Types 15,17,22, most road cars used an eight-valve engine, though five Type 13 racers had 16-valve heads, some of the first ever produced. The road cars became known as pur-sang in keeping with Ettore Bugattis feelings for his designs, the car was brought back after World War I with a multi-valve engine to bring fame to the marque at Brescia. The production Brescia tourer also brought in much-needed cash, the Bugatti automobile was prototyped as the Type 10 in Ettore Bugattis basement in 1908 and 1909 while he was chief engineer at Deutz Gasmotoren Fabrik in Cologne, Germany. The Type 10 used a monobloc engine of Ettores own design. It was an overhead cam unit with two valves per cylinder, which was advanced for the time. A very-undersquare design, it had a 60 mm bore and 100 mm stroke for a total of 1.1 L and this was attached to an open roadster body with solid axles front and rear. Leaf springs suspended the front with no suspension at all in the rear, after World War I, Alsace became a part of France again, and with it Bugatti. The car was preserved and nicknamed la baignoire by the staff at Molsheim in later years due to its shape, Ettore restored it in 1939 and repainted it an orange-red color, earning it a new nickname, le homard. It was moved to Bordeaux for the duration of World War II, today, the car is in California in the hands of a private collector. Upon starting operations at his new factory in Molsheim, Bugatti refined his light shaft-driven car into the Type 13 racer and this included boring the engine out to 65 mm for a total of 1.4 L. A major advance was the 4-valve head Bugatti designed — one of the first of its type ever conceived, power output with dual Zenith Carburetters reached 30 hp at 4500 rpm, more than adequate for the 660 lb car. Leaf springs were now fitted all around, and the car rode on a roughly 2 m wheelbase, the new company produced five examples in 1910, and entered the French Grand Prix at Le Mans in 1911. The tiny Bugatti looked out of place at the race, World War I caused production to halt in the disputed region. Ettore took two completed Type 13 cars with him to Milan for the duration of the war, leaving the parts for three more buried near the factory, after the war, Bugatti returned, unearthed the parts, and prepared five Type 13s for racing. The Type 15 was a version of the Type 13 with a longer,2400 mm and it had a six-sided radiator in front and semi-elliptic rear leaf springs. Another version, the Type 17, was also produced and this used a 2550 mm wheelbase. It shared its hexagonal radiator and rear springs with the Type 15, the Type 15 was updated in 1913 as the Type 22
25.
Peugeot
–
For the article about the bicycle manufacturer, see Cycles Peugeot. Peugeot is a French car manufacturer, part of Groupe PSA, the family business that preceded the current Peugeot company was founded in 1810, and manufactured coffee mills and bicycles. On 20 November 1858, Émile Peugeot applied for the lion trademark, due to family discord, Armand Peugeot in 1896 founded the Société des Automobiles Peugeot. The Peugeot company and family are originally from Sochaux, France, Peugeot retains a large manufacturing plant and Peugeot museum there. In February 2014, the agreed to a recapitalisation plan, in which Dongfeng Motors. Peugeot has received international awards for its vehicles, including five European Car of the Year awards. In 2013 and 2014, Peugeot ranked the second lowest for average CO2 emissions among generalist brands in Europe, the Renault car maker group being ranked first, with 114. 9g CO2/km. Peugeot is known as a very reliable brand, citing how its 1950s and 1960s models are running in Africa and Cuba in the 2010s. Peugeot has been involved in sport for more than a century. In 2015, Peugeot returned to the Dakar Rally after its four victories in the 1980s, the Peugeot family of Valentigney, Montbéliard, Franche-Comté, France, began in the manufacturing business in the 19th century. In 1842, they added production of coffee, pepper, the companys entry into the vehicle market was by means of crinoline dresses, which used steel rods, leading to umbrella frames, saw blades, chisels, wire wheels, and bicycles. Armand Peugeot introduced his Le Grand Bi penny-farthing in 1882, along with a range of other bicycles, the car company and bike company parted ways in 1926 but Peugeot bicycles continued to be built until very recently. Armand Peugeot became interested in the early on and, after meeting with Gottlieb Daimler. The first Peugeot automobile, a three-wheeled, steam-powered car designed by Léon Serpollet, was produced in 1889, steam power was heavy and bulky and required lengthy warmup times. In 1890, after meeting Daimler and Émile Levassor, steam was abandoned in favour of a car with a petrol-fuelled internal combustion engine built by Panhard under Daimler licence. The car was more sophisticated than many of its contemporaries, with a three-point suspension, an example was sold to the young Alberto Santos-Dumont, who exported it to Brazil. More cars followed,29 being built in 1892,40 in 1894,72 in 1895,156 in 1898 and these early models were given type numbers. Peugeot became the first manufacturer to fit rubber tyres to a petrol-powered car, Peugeot was an early pioneer in motor racing, with Albert Lemaître winning the worlds first motor race, the Paris–Rouen, in a 3 hp Peugeot
26.
Grand Prix motor racing
–
Grand Prix motor racing has its roots in organised automobile racing that began in France as far back as 1894. It quickly evolved from a road race from one town to the next, to endurance tests for car. Grand Prix motor racing eventually evolved into formula racing, and Formula One can be seen as its direct descendant, each event of the Formula One World Championships is still called a Grand Prix, Formula One is referred to as Grand Prix racing. Motor racing was started in France, as a result of the enthusiasm with which the French public embraced the motor car. Manufacturers were enthusiastic due to the possibility of using motor racing as a window for their cars. The first motoring contest took place on July 22,1894 and was organised by a Paris newspaper, the Paris–Rouen rally was 126 km, from Porte Maillot in Paris, through the Bois de Boulogne, to Rouen. Count Jules-Albert de Dion was first into Rouen after 6 hours 48 minutes at an speed of 19 km/h. He finished 3 minutes 30 seconds ahead of Albert Lemaître, followed by Doriot, René Panhard, in 1900, James Gordon Bennett, Jr. the owner of the New York Herald and the International Herald Tribune, established the Gordon Bennett Cup. He hoped the creation of an event would drive automobile manufacturers to improve their cars. Each country was allowed to enter up to three cars, which had to be built in the country that they represented and entered by that countrys automotive governing body. International racing colours were established in this event, in the United States, William Kissam Vanderbilt II launched the Vanderbilt Cup at Long Island, New York in 1904. Some anglophone sources wrongly list a race called the Pau Grand Prix in 1901 and this may stem from a mistranslation of the contemporary French sources such as the magazine La France Auto of March 1901. The name of the 1901 event was the Circuit du Sud-Ouest, the Grand Prix du Palais d’Hiver was the name of the prizes awarded for the lesser classes. The Grand Prix de Pau was the name of the awarded for the Heavy class. Thus Maurice Farman was awarded the Grand Prix de Pau for his victory in the Circuit du Sud-Ouest driving a Panhard 24 hp. In L’Histoire de l’Automobile/Paris 1907 Pierre Souvestre described the 1901 event as, dans le Circuit du Sud-Ouest, à l’occasion du meeting de Pau. ” The only race at the time to carry the name Grand Prix was organised by the Automobile Club de France. The circuit used, which was based in Le Mans, was triangular in shape
27.
Monaco Grand Prix
–
The Monaco Grand Prix is a Formula One motor race held each year on the Circuit de Monaco. The circuit has been called an exceptional location of glamour and prestige. The race is held on a course laid out in the streets of Monaco, with many elevation changes and tight corners as well as a tunnel. In spite of the low average speeds, it is a dangerous place to race. It is the only Grand Prix that does not adhere to the FIAs mandated 305-kilometre minimum race distance, the event was part of the pre-Second World War European Championship and was included in the first World Championship of Drivers in 1950. It was designated the European Grand Prix two times,1955 and 1963, when title was an honorary designation given each year to one Grand Prix race in Europe. Graham Hill was known as Mr. Monaco due to his five Monaco wins in the 1960s, brazils Ayrton Senna won the race more times than any other driver, with six victories, winning five races consecutively between 1989 and 1993. Fernando Alonso is the driver to have won the race in consecutive years for different constructors, winning for Renault in 2006. Like many European races, the Monaco Grand Prix predates the current World Championship, the principalitys first Grand Prix was organised in 1929 by Antony Noghès, under the auspices of Prince Louis II, through the Automobile Club de Monaco. Alexandre Noghès, Antonys father, was founding president of the ACM, the ACM made their first foray into motorsport by holding the Rallye Automobile Monte Carlo in 1911. Their application was refused due to the lack of a major event held wholly within Monacos boundaries. The rally could not be considered as it used the roads of other European countries. To attain full national status, Noghès proposed the creation of an automobile Grand Prix in the streets of Monte Carlo, Noghès obtained the official support of Prince Louis II. Noghès also gained support for his plans from Monegasque Louis Chiron, Chiron thought that the topography of the location would be well suited to setting up a race track. The first race, held on 14 April 1929, was won by William Grover-Williams driving a Bugatti, the first Grand Prix Automobile de Monaco was an invitation-only event, but not all of those invited decided to attend. The leading Maserati and Alfa Romeo drivers decided not to compete, Mercedes sent their leading driver Rudolf Caracciola to drive a Mercedes SSK. Caracciola drove a race, bringing his SSK up to second position at the end of the race. The race was won by Williams driving a Bugatti Type 35B painted dark green, another driver who competed using a pseudonym was Georges Philippe, the Baron Philippe de Rothschild
28.
World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
29.
Bugatti u-16
–
The Bugatti U-16 was a 16-cylinder water-cooled double-8 vertical in-line U engine, designed by Ettore Bugatti in 1915-1916 and built in France in small numbers. The US Bolling Commission bought a license to build the engine in the US, probably about 40 King-Bugattis were made before the end of World War I caused building contracts to be canceled. The U-16 engine was designed to use as many features of a previous Bugatti 8-cylinder in-line engine as possible, two eight-cylinder banks were mounted vertically side by side on a common cast aluminium crankcase, each bank driving its own crankshaft. The two crankshafts were geared to and drove a single airscrew shaft. The shaft was bored to accept a 37-mm gun barrel, each eight-cylinder bank was made up of two cast iron four-cylinder blocks, the crankshafts were each made up of two standard four-cylinder crankshafts joined end to end by a fine taper cone joint. To reduce overall length, these crankshafts were undercut, a typical Bugatti approach, a bevel gear at the junction drove a vertical shaft from which the single overhead camshaft and dual magnetos for each bank were driven. Two magnetos were mounted on the outside of each cylinder bank, each magneto fired all eight cylinders for that bank, driven by bevel gear from the vertical shaft that also drove the banks single overhead camshaft. Each cylinder had two vertical inlet valves and a vertical exhaust valve, all driven by rocking levers from the camshaft. Four carburettors each fed four cylinders via a water jacketed manifold, each cylinder exhausted into an individual pipe in the space between the cylinder blocks. The whole construction was protected by patents until 1935, the engine completed ten-hour and fifty-hour endurance tests in 1917, and the French government purchased a license and arranged for production by Peugeot. In 1917 a US military mission headed by Colonel R. C. Bolling visited Europe to choose aero engines to be produced for the Aviation Section, the mission was accompanied by a group of civilian experts headed by the engine manufacturer Howard Marmon. The Bugatti U-16 aroused interest and Marmon arranged for a license to be purchased for $100,000 by the US government, the US government engaged one Colonel Charles B. King to redesign the engine for production in the US, much to Ettore Bugattis irritation. Col. King did not approve of some of the design of the engine, such as the lack of water cooling around the valve seats. Accordingly Kings revisions to the design altered the cylinder heads to provide freer water circulation, better cooling. Neither Bugattis U-16 or the King-Bugatti were particularly successful engines, few were installed in aircraft, and even fewer actually flew. After World War I no further developments were made in the US, while in France Breguet took over the license, the Musee de lair at Chalais-Meudon,2 rue des Vertugadins, Meudon holds a French U-16 engine and two Breguet-Bugatti engines. A King-Bugatti can be seen at the National Air Museum of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington D. C. and another in the USAF museum at the Wright-Patterson AF Base at Fairborn, Ohio. The Auburn-Cord-Duesenberg Museum in Auburn, Indiana also has a King-Bugatti engine on display in their Hall of Technology Data from Janes except where indicated, later specifications quote slightly varied detail dimensions and increased horsepower ratings
30.
Bugatti Model 100
–
The Bugatti Model 100 was a purpose built air racer designed to compete in the 1939 Deutsch de la Meurthe Cup Race. The aircraft was not completed by the September 1939 deadline and was put in storage prior to the German invasion of France. Ettore Bugatti started work in 1938 to design a racer to compete in the Deutsch de la Meurthe Cup Race, bugattis chief engineer was Louis de Monge, with whom Bugatti had worked before. Bugatti was also approached by the French Government to use the technology of the aircraft to develop a fighter variant for mass production. The aircraft was the source of five modern patents including the engines, V tail mixer controls. The Model 100 had an unusual inboard mounted twin engine arrangement driving forward mounted contra-rotating propellers through driveshafts, the aircraft also featured a 120 degree V-tail arrangement and retractable landing gear. The construction was mostly of wood, with sandwiched layers of balsa and hardwoods, with the outbreak of WWII and the imminent fall of Paris, Bugatti had the aircraft disassembled and hidden on his estate. Bugatti died in 1947, having never resumed work on it, the aircraft remained in storage throughout World War II. It was sold several times, and its twin Bugatti 50P engines were removed for automotive restorations, in 1971 a restoration effort was started. A full scale flying reproduction was constructed by a team of enthusiasts, most notably Scotty Wilson, modern materials were used within reason, allowing for cost and safety. The use of magnesium, named in the design to save weight, was rejected due to its flammability. A composite wood was used in place of the original tulipwood, the doped fabric was replaced with fiberglass. The partially completed aircraft was displayed at the 2011 EAA Airventure airshow, on July 4,2015 the reproduction aircraft, named Blue Dream taxied under the power of its two Suzuki Hayabusa engines at Tulsa, Oklahoma. On August 19,2015 the team announced that they had completed their first successful test flight of the replica aircraft and its handling characteristics were as expected by the team, and it achieved a maximum altitude of 100 feet AGL at a maximum speed of 110 knots. On landing though the plane floated much more than anticipated and landed significantly farther down the runway than intended, because of this the wheel brakes needed to be applied to keep from overrunning the end of the runway. Subsequently the right failed, sending the aircraft into the muddy soil adjacent to the runway, tipping it up in its nose and generating a prop. In October it made a successful flight, on August 6,2016 the reproduction aircraft crashed during its third test flight near Clinton-Sherman Air Force Base in Oklahoma, killing the pilot Scotty Wilson. Less than a minute into its third, and last, flight, the plane went in nose-first, instantly killing the pilot
31.
Jean Bugatti
–
Jean Bugatti was a French automotive designer and test engineer. Born Gianoberto Maria Carlo Bugatti in Cologne, he was the eldest son of Ettore Bugatti, soon after his birth the family moved to the village of Dorlisheim near Molsheim in Alsace, Germany, where his father built the new Bugatti automobile manufacturing plant. Born into a family of people, from boyhood he was interested in his fathers business. His grandfather Carlo Bugatti had lived in France for several years when he relocated from his native Milan to live in Paris. His fathers factory had clients in Germany and France and his father had developed a car for the German Wanderer company, the Bugatti family were multilingual and in France, Gianoberto became known as Jean. During World War I, the family lived in Milan, Italy, after the ceding of Alsace by Germany to France after the end of the war in 1919, the company became subject to French jurisdiction. By the late 1920s, young Jean Bugatti was a part of the company and had already demonstrated his vehicle design abilities. In 1932, at the age of years, he did most of the design for the companys Type 41 Royale. His body designs complemented his fathers engineering skill, making Bugatti one of the greatest names in automobile manufacturing, additionally, Jean Bugatti designed four bodies for the Type 57, the Ventoux, Stelvio, Atalante and Atlantic models. Regarded as the finest of all touring Bugatti models, the vehicle was displayed first at the 1936 Paris Salon. Jean Bugatti also showed his skills by working on new independent suspension systems to replace solid front axles. He frequently tested the companys prototypes and he is interred in the Bugatti family plot at the municipal cemetery in Dorlisheim. There is a monument to him at the site of his accident
32.
Bugatti Type 57
–
The Bugatti Type 57 and later variants was an entirely new design created by Jean Bugatti, son of founder Ettore. Type 57s were built from 1934 through 1940, with a total of 710 examples produced. Type 57s used a twin-cam 3, 257cc engine based on that of the Type 49 but heavily modified by Jean Bugatti, unlike the single cam engines of the Type 49 and earlier models. There were two variants of the Type 57 car, The original Type 57 The lowered Type 57S/SC The Type 57 chassis. A rediscovered Type 57 sold for 3.4 million euros at auction on 7 February 2009 at a show in Paris. The original Type 57 was a car model produced from 1934 through 1940. It used the 3.3 L engine from the Type 59 Grand Prix cars, top speed was 153 kilometres per hour. It rode on a 3,302 mm wheelbase and had a 1,349 mm wide track, road-going versions weighed about 950 kg. Hydraulic brakes replaced the units in 1938, a modification Ettore Bugatti hotly contested. The original road-going Type 57 included a version of the Royales square-bottom horseshoe grille. The sides of the compartment were covered with thermostatically-controlled shutters. It was a car, contrary to the tastes of the time. Dimensions, Wheelbase,3,302 mm Track,1,349 mm Weight,950 kg The tuned Type 57T pushed the performance of the basic Type 57 and it was capable of reaching 185 kilometres per hour. A Type 57C racing car was built from 1937 through 1940 and it shared the 3.3 L engine from the road-going Type 57 but produced 160 hp with a Roots-type supercharger fitted. The 2nd incarnation Tank, this based on the Type 57C. Shortly afterwards, Jean Bugatti took the car for a test on the Molsheim-Strasbourg road. Swerving to avoid a drunken bicyclist on the road, Bugatti crashed the car. The Type 57S/SC variants are some of the most iconic Bugatti cars, the S stood for Surbaissé and the C for Compresseur
33.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
34.
Automotive Hall of Fame
–
The Automotive Hall of Fame is an American museum. It was founded in 1939 and has over 800 worldwide inductees and it is part of the MotorCities National Heritage Area. They include award recipients from advertising, car rental, dealerships, designers, racing, financiers, engineers, mechanics, drivers, executives, managers, dealers, inventors and it includes the automotive industry, suppliers, dealers, and support. The Automotive Hall of Fame has conferred four different awards, the Automotive Hall of Fame was founded on October 18,1939 in New York City by a group called the Automobile Old Timers. Its original mission was to perpetuate the memories of early automotive pioneers, for its first three decades, The Automotive Hall of Fame had four name changes. Its second iteration was Automotive Old Timers adopted in 1957 and intended to recognize its broader base, in 1971 it became The Automotive Organization Team. Finally, it became The Automotive Hall of Fame which resulted in greater growth, the organization moved to Washington, D. C. in 1960, sharing space in the National Automobile Dealers Association building. In 1971, it moved to Midland, Michigan where it got its first home at Northwood University, in 1997, it moved to its present home in Dearborn, Michigan, adjacent to The Henry Ford museum. It is within the MotorCities National Heritage Area, an affiliate of the U. S. National Park Service dedicated to preserving and promoting the automotive and labor history of Michigan. The facilities, with automobile history artifacts, are in a 25, 000-square-foot building containing a small theater, the Hall honors members of the automotive industry each year. There were 271 people inducted into the Automotive Hall of Fame through 2016, in 1946 the hall worked with the National Golden Jubilee. As General William S. Knudsen stated, the selection to the Hall of Fame included Ten pioneers whose engineering, the selection was done in cooperation with the Automobile Manufacturers Association, the National Automotive Golden Jubilee committee of which Knudeson was president. Edgar Apperson, William Crapo Durant, J. Frank Jersey, Henry Ford, George OMalley, king, Charles W Nash, Barney Oldfield, Ransom E. Olds, and Alfred P Sloan Jr. were selected. The Hall celebrated its 75th anniversary in 2014, a private tour with the Hall of Fame president, William R. Chapin, is available. At annual induction ceremonies an occasion is made to honor and remember past inductees, the Hall of Fame is reported to be moving to downtown Detroit. A person must be notable in the industry to be eligible for induction. To receive the award is considered recognition that the person has made a significant contribution to the automotive industry, along with the Hall of Fame induction awards, the Hall also honors individuals with significant awards each year. For the awards 1,3 and 4, anyone can submit a nomination by filling out the form or sending a letter, the Industry Leader of the Year Award is nominated and awarded solely by the Awards Committee, so no external nominations are accepted
35.
Roland Bugatti
–
Roland Bugatti was a French engineer and automotive industrialist. He was one of the three sons of Ettore Bugatti, founder and builder of the car brand Bugatti, and younger brother of Jean Bugatti. In 1951, after the death of his brother Jean Bugatti in 1939 and they produced the Bugatti Type 101, successor of the Bugatti Type 57, It is considered by many to be the last true Bugatti car. Eight models were produced in 1951 and 1952 and six of them were sold, in 1956 the company attempted a comeback in Formula One competition with the Bugatti Type 251. In 1963 Bugatti was sold to the aerospace company Hispano-Suiza, Bugatti died in Aix-en-Provence on 29 March 1977
36.
Neuilly-sur-Seine
–
Neuilly-sur-Seine is a French commune just west of Paris, in the department of Hauts-de-Seine. A suburb of Paris, Neuilly is immediately adjacent to the city, the area is composed of mostly wealthy, select residential neighbourhoods, and many corporate headquarters are located there. Originally, Neuilly was a hamlet under the jurisdiction of Villiers. In 1224 another charter of Saint-Denis recorded the name as Lugniacum, in a sales contract dated 1266 the name was also recorded as Luingni. In 1316, however, in a ruling of the parlement of Paris, the name was recorded as Nully, in a document dated 1376 the name was again recorded as Nulliacum. Then in the centuries the name recorded alternated between Luny and Nully, and it is only after 1648 that the name was definitely set as Nully. The name spelt Neuilly after the French Academy standard of pronunciation of the ill as a y, various explanations and etymologies have been proposed to explain these discrepancies in the names of Neuilly recorded over the centuries. The original name of Neuilly may have been Lulliacum or Lugniacum, some interpret Lulliacum or Lugniacum as meaning estate of Lullius, probably a Gallo-Roman landowner. This interpretation is based on the many placenames of France made up of the names of Gallo-Roman landowners and these researchers contend that it is only after the fall of the Roman Empire and the Germanic invasions that the area of Neuilly was deforested and settled. Thus, they think that the name Lulliacum or Lugniacum comes from the ancient Germanic word lund meaning forest, akin to Old Norse lundr meaning grove, however, this interesting theory fails to explain why the d of lund is missing in Lulliacum or Lugniacum. Or perhaps the consonants were simply inverted under the influence of the settlements of France called Neuilly. On 1 January 1860, the city of Paris was enlarged by annexing neighbouring communes, on that occasion, a part of the territory of Neuilly-sur-Seine was annexed by the city of Paris, and forms now the neighbourhood of Ternes, in the 17th arrondissement of Paris. On 11 January 1867, part of the territory of Neuilly-sur-Seine was detached and merged with a part of the territory of Clichy to create the commune of Levallois-Perret. On 2 May 1897, the name officially became Neuilly-sur-Seine. However, most people continue to refer to Neuilly-sur-Seine as simply Neuilly, during the 1900 Summer Olympics, it hosted the basque pelota events. The American Hospital of Paris was founded in 1906, in 1919, the Treaty of Neuilly was signed with Bulgaria in Neuilly-sur-Seine to conclude its role in World War I. In 1929, the Bois de Boulogne, which was divided between the communes of Neuilly-sur-Seine and Boulogne-Billancourt, was annexed in its entirety by the city of Paris. It was the site of the Château de Neuilly, an important royal residence during the July Monarchy, Neuilly-sur-Seine is served by three stations on Paris Métro Line 1, Porte Maillot, Les Sablons and Pont de Neuilly
37.
Bas-Rhin
–
Bas-Rhin is a department in the Grand Est region of France. The name means Lower Rhine, however, geographically speaking it belongs to the Upper Rhine region and it is the more populous and densely populated of the two departments of the traditional Alsace region, with 1,112,815 inhabitants in 2014. The prefecture and the General Council are based in Strasbourg, the INSEE and Post Code is 67. The area is home to some of the foothills of the Vosges Mountains. To the north of Bas-Rhin lies the Palatinate forest in the German State of Rhineland-Palatinate, to the south lies the department of Haut-Rhin, the town of Colmar and southern Alsace, and to the west the department of Moselle. On its southwestern corner, Bas-Rhin also joins the department of Vosges, the Bas-Rhin has a continental-type climate, characterised by cold, dry winters and hot, stormy summers, due to the western protection provided by the Vosges. However, the Alsatian climate is less continental than that of Burgundy, the average annual temperature is 10.4 °C in the lowlands and 7 °C on high ground. The annual maximum temperature is high, the average rainfall is 700 mm per year. Established according to data from the Infoclimat station at Strasbourg-Entzheim, over the period from 1961 to 1990 and this is the last French department to have kept the term Bas meaning Lower in its name. The same phenomenon was observed for the inférieur departments such as Charente-Inférieure, Seine-Inférieure, Bas-Rhin is one of the original 83 departments created on 4 March 1790, during the French Revolution. Strasbourg, the lieu of Bas-Rhin is the official seat of the European Parliament as well as of the Council of Europe. The demography of Bas-Rhin is characterized by density and high population growth since the 1950s. In January 2014 Bas-Rhin officially had 1,112,815 inhabitants and was 18th by population at the national level, in fifteen years, from 1999 to 2014, its population grew by more than 86,000 people, or about 5,800 people per year. But this variation is differentiated among the 527 communes that make up the department, the population density of Bas-Rhin is 234 inhabitants per square kilometre in 2014 which is more than twice the average in France, which was 112 in 2009. The first census was conducted in 1801 and this count, renewed every five years from 1821, with 540,213 inhabitants in 1831, the department represented 1. 66% of the total French population, which was then 32,569,000 inhabitants. From 1831 to 1866, the department gained 48,757 people, demographic change between the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 and the First World War was higher than the national average. Over this period, the population increased by 100,532 inhabitants, the population increased by 9. 23% between the two world wars from 1921 to 1936 compared to a national growth of 6. 9%. Like other French departments, Bas-Rhin experienced a boom after the Second World War
38.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
39.
Motor Sport (magazine)
–
Motor Sport is a magazine was founded in the United Kingdom in 1924 as the Brooklands Gazette, the first edition appearing in July of that year. In August 1925 the title was changed to the all-encompassing Motor Sport, the editor of the magazine was, for many years Bill Boddy. Boddy, who had penned much of the history of British race track Brooklands, Jenkinson, or Jenks as he was known, travelled to all the Grands Prix to cover them for the magazine. His race reports were the way many of the readers could keep up with Grand Prix racing due to the lack of coverage elsewhere. The duo was victorious thanks to Moss supreme talent behind the wheel and Jenks meticulous notes, Moss was in awe of Jenks’ ability to concentrate on delivering accurate hand signals from his notes whilst ignoring the dangers of being driven along country roads at speeds of up to 170 mph. The magazine was owned and published by Wesley J Tee during much of this period, the monthly magazine underwent a revamp in March that year. It changed its emphasis to articles about history and the historic racing scene. In 2006 Haymarket sold the magazine to Chelsea Magazines where it remained for three years before being bought privately, in 2006 it started covering modern motorsport again, including Formula 1 and today it continues to do the same with the help of Nigel Roebuck and Mark Hughes. It remains one of the titles on both modern and historic racing. Many well known names in the world of motorsport make special contributions, amongst them, Patrick Head, Alan Henry, the magazines website also records monthly podcasts with the likes of Christian Horner, Mario Andretti, Patrick Head, Sir Frank Williams, John McGuinness and Gordon Murray
40.
Kingdom of Italy
–
The state was founded as a result of the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which can be considered its legal predecessor state. Italy declared war on Austria in alliance with Prussia in 1866, Italian troops entered Rome in 1870, ending more than one thousand years of Papal temporal power. Italy entered into a Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1882, victory in the war gave Italy a permanent seat in the Council of the League of Nations. Fascist Italy is the era of National Fascist Party rule from 1922 to 1943 with Benito Mussolini as head of government, according to Payne, Fascist regime passed through several relatively distinct phases. The first phase was nominally a continuation of the parliamentary system, then came the second phase, the construction of the Fascist dictatorship proper from 1925 to 1929. The third phase, with activism, was 1929–34. The war itself was the phase with its disasters and defeats. Italy was allied with Nazi Germany in World War II until 1943 and it switched sides to the Allies after ousting Mussolini and shutting down the Fascist party in areas controlled by the Allied invaders. Shortly after the war, civil discontent led to the referendum of 1946 on whether Italy would remain a monarchy or become a republic. Italians decided to abandon the monarchy and form the Italian Republic, the Kingdom of Italy claimed all of the territory which is modern-day Italy. The development of the Kingdoms territory progressed under Italian re-unification until 1870, the state for a long period of time did not include Trieste or Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, which are in Italy today, and only annexed them in 1919. After the Second World War, the borders of present-day Italy were founded, the Kingdom of Italy was theoretically a constitutional monarchy. Executive power belonged to the monarch, as executed through appointed ministers, two chambers of parliament restricted the monarchs power—an appointive Senate and an elective Chamber of Deputies. The kingdoms constitution was the Statuto Albertino, the governing document of the Kingdom of Sardinia. In theory, ministers were responsible to the king. However, in practice, it was impossible for an Italian government to stay in office without the support of Parliament, members of the Chamber of Deputies were elected by plurality voting system elections in uninominal districts. A candidate needed the support of 50% of those voting, and of 25% of all enrolled voters, if not all seats were filled on the first ballot, a runoff was held shortly afterwards for the remaining vacancies. After a brief multinominal experimentation in 1882, proportional representation into large, regional, Socialists became the major party, but they were unable to form a government in a parliament split into three different factions, with Christian Populists and classical liberals
41.
Touring car
–
A touring car is an open car seating four or more. A popular car body style in the twentieth century, it declined in popularity in the 1920s when closed bodies became less expensive. A tourer, in Britain and the Commonwealth, is a vehicle, however. The term all-weather tourer was used to describe open vehicles that could be fully enclosed, a popular version of the touring car style was the torpedo, with the hood/bonnet line at the cars waistline giving the car a straight line from front to back. This eventually became the version of the touring car. In 1916, the US-based Society of Automobile Engineers defined a touring car as, the term has also been defined as an open car seating five or more. Touring cars may have two or four doors, engines on early models were either in the front, or in a mid-body position. When the top was folded down, it formed a bulky mass known as the fan behind the seat, fan covers were made to protect the top. The touring car style was popular in the early 20th century, being an alternative to the runabout. Most of Model Ts produced by Ford between 1908 and 1927 were four and then three-door models touring cars, accounting for 6,519,643 cars sold out of the 15,000,000 estimated Model Ts built. The popularity of the car began to wane in the 1920s when cars with enclosed passenger compartments became more affordable. In Australia tourers may have two or four doors, the belt lines of tourers were often lowered in the front doors to give the car a more sporting character. And would then be named sports tourers, the torpedo body style was a type of touring body used from the early twentieth century until the mid-1920s. A torpedos hood line was level with the waistline, giving a straight line from front to back. The torpedo style became the style of touring car and the name fell into disuse around 1920
42.
Bugatti Type 49
–
The early Bugatti 8-cylinder line began with the 1922 Type 30. The same basic design was used for the 1926 Type 38 as well as the Type 40, Type 43, Type 44, produced from 1922 through 1926, the Type 30 used the 2 L engine of the Type 29 racer. It shared its chassis with the Type 13 Brescia and this engine went on to be used in the cut-cost Type 35A and Type 38. About 600 were built from late 1922 through 1926 in varying specifications, the Type 38 was produced in 1926 and 1927. It used the 2 L engine from the Type 35A Tecla, the supercharger from the Type 37A was later fitted, making the Type 38A. Its gearbox and brakes were used in the Type 40, while its radiator. 385 examples were produced,39 of which were supercharged 38As, the Type 40, introduced in 1926 and produced through 1930, used the 3-valve 1.5 L engine first used in some Type 37s. It was an enclosed tourer or small roadster, the Type 40A shared its block with the Type 40 and displaced 1.6 L. All 40 Type 40As were built in 1930, another evolution of the basic 8 platform, the Type 43 borrowed the supercharged 2.3 L engine from the Type 35B and combined it with the basic chassis of the Type 38. The engine produced about 120 hp, bringing the car to 60 mph in less than 12 seconds. The Type 43 was noted at the time as the worlds first 100 mph production car — in fact,160 of these Grand Sport cars were made from 1927 through 1931, with a Type 43A roadster appearing that year and lasting through 1932. The Type 44 was the variant of this range, with 1,095 known. A larger and sometimes enclosed tourer, it used a new 3-valve SOHC3 L engine derived from the Type 43s unit and it was built from late 1927 through 1930. The Bugatti Type 49 was a touring car similar to the earlier Type 44. Produced from 1930 through 1934, about 470 examples were built, the Type 49 was the last of the early 8-cylinder Bugatti line which began with the Type 30, though its gearbox would later be reused on the Type 55. The Type 49 featured an engine of 3.3 L displacement. Bore and stroke were 72 mm by 100 mm and three valves per cylinder were used with an overhead camshaft. The Illustrated Directory of Sports Cars, super Cars, Classics of Their Time
43.
Bugatti Type 46
–
The Bugatti Type 46 and later Type 50 were large enclosed touring cars and along with the Type 50B racing version, were all produced in the 1930s. Their relative ubiquity and numbers, combined with their styling caused them to receive the appellation of being a Molsheim Buick. The Type 46 used a 5.4 L straight-8 engine with 3 valves per cylinder driven by an overhead camshaft. Power was reported at 140 hp, the engine was undersquare like most Bugatti designs with an 81 mm bore and 130 mm stroke. The Type 46 was a car, weighing 2500 lb. 400 examples were produced from the end of 1929 through 1936, the three speed gearbox was in unit with the live rear axle, resulting in high unsprung weight, and a relatively harsh ride. Despite this, the model was a favourite of Le Patron, and it remained in production longer than might have been expected A supercharged version, with just 160 hp, from its Rootes-type blower, it was not a great success. 18 supercharged cars were made in all, the Type 50 was a sporting coupe version of the Type 46. It rode on a shorter wheelbase,122 in, and used a smaller 5.0 L version of the engine and this engine had squarer dimensions, however, at 86 by 107 mm, and twin camshafts actuated two valves per cylinder. Power output was impressive at 225 hp, many cars had landaulet roofs and Bugatti-style two-tone paint. The Type 50 Touring was a version of the Type 50. It used the same 138 in wheelbase as its predecessor, the Type 46, the engine was tuned for torque, though, with just 200 hp on tap. In total,65 Type 50 and Type 50T Bugattis were produced between 1930 and 1934, a racing version, the Type 50B, was also produced. It shared the 5.0 L 2-valve engine but was blown to produce 470 hp and it was used from 1937 through 1939. A pair of engines were installed in the Bugatti P100 airplane
Ettore Bugatti/Roland Bugatti
Automobiles Ettore Bugatti
