1.
Terre Haute, Indiana
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Terre Haute is a city in and the county seat of Vigo County, Indiana, United States, near the states western border with Illinois. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 60,785. Located along the Wabash River, Terre Haute is the capital of the Wabash Valley. The city is home to higher education institutions, including Indiana State University, Saint Mary-of-the-Woods College. Terre Haute is notable for being the home of Socialist Party of America leader and five-time presidential nominee, Debs and the Federal Correctional Complex. Terre Haute is located alongside the bank of the Wabash River in western Indiana. The city lies about 75 miles west of Indianapolis, according to the 2010 census, Terre Haute has a total area of 35.272 square miles, of which 34.54 square miles is land and 0.732 square miles is water. The Wabash River dominates the geography of the city, forming its western border. Small bluffs on the east side of city mark the edge of the flood plain. Lost Creek and Honey Creek drain the northern and southern sections of the city, in the late 19th century, several oil and mineral wells were productive in and near the center of the city. That well produced oil into the 1920s, Terre Haute is at the intersection of two major roadways, U. S.40 from California to Maryland and US41 from Copper Harbor, Michigan to Miami, Florida. Terre Haute is located 77 miles southwest of Indianapolis and within 185 miles of Chicago, St. Louis, Louisville, Climate is characterized by relatively high temperatures and evenly distributed precipitation throughout the year. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is Dfa, Terre Hautes name was derived from the French phrase terre haute, meaning Highland. It was likely named by French explorers in the area in the early 18th century to describe the unique location above the Wabash River, at the time the area was claimed by the French and British, these highlands were considered the border between Canada and Louisiana. The construction of Fort Harrison in 1811 marked the beginning of a permanent population of European-Americans. A Wea Indian village already existed near the fort, and the orchards, the village of Terre Haute, then a part of Knox County, Indiana, was platted in 1816. Growth really began when the founders won the bid to make it the county seat when Vigo County was formed in March 1818. When the villages 1,000 residents voted to incorporate in 1832, Terre Haute became a town, early Terre Haute was a center of farming, milling and pork processing
2.
Elmhurst, Illinois
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Elmhurst is a city mostly in DuPage County and overlapping into Cook County in the U. S. state of Illinois, and a western suburb of Chicago. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 44,121. Members of the Potawatomi Native American people, who settled along Salt Creek just south of where the city would develop, are the earliest known settlers of the Elmhurst area, around 1836, European-American immigrants settled on tracts of land along the same creek. At what would become Elmhurst City Centre, a native of Ohio named Gerry Bates established a community on a tract of land in 1842. The following year, Hill Cottage Tavern opened where St. Charles Road, in 1845, the community was officially named Cottage Hill when a post office was established. Four years later the Galena and Chicago Union Railroad was given right-of-way through Cottage Hill giving farmers easier access to Chicago, the community changed its name to Elmhurst in 1869. In 1871, Elmhurst College was organized and currently has 3,500 undergraduates, Elmhurst Memorial Hospital was founded in 1926 as the first hospital in DuPage County. Since 1964, it has been home to Elmhurst CRC, one of the largest congregations of the Christian Reformed Church in North America, the Keebler Companys corporate headquarters was in Elmhurst until 2001, when the Kellogg Company purchased the company. The city is home to the headquarters of Sunshine Biscuits and McMaster-Carr Supply Co, famous Amos cookies are also distributed from Elmhurst. In 2014, Family Circle magazine ranked Elmhurst as one of the Ten Best U. S. According to the 2010 census, Elmhurst has an area of 10.306 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 42,762 people,15,627 households, the population density was 4,165.9 people per square mile. There were 16,147 housing units at a density of 1,573.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 93. 40% White,0. 94% African American,0. 06% Native American,3. 67% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,0. 97% from other races, and 0. 95% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4. 02% of the population,24. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.63 and the family size was 3.19. In the city, the population was out with 25. 6% under the age of 18,7. 0% from 18 to 24,28. 5% from 25 to 44,23. 0% from 45 to 64. The median age was 39 years, for every 100 females there were 92.5 males
3.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
4.
Social Democracy of America
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It was an organizational forerunner of both the Socialist Party of America and the Burley, Washington cooperative socialist colony. After being jailed in the aftermath of the 1894 Pullman Strike, despite supporting William Jennings Bryan in the 1896 presidential race, Debs announced his conversion to socialism in January 1897. In June of that year he held a convention of his American Railway Union in Chicago, there it was decided to merge the ARU with a faction of the Brotherhood of the Cooperative Commonwealth and other elements to create a new organization, the Social Democracy of America. The magazine of the ARU, Railway Times, became the new organizations official organ, among the elements that joined the ARU and BCC in forming the new party was a faction of independent Midwestern socialists centered around Victor Berger. This mainly German-American group kept up a loosely organized Social Democratisher Verein and published the oldest socialist daily in the country and this tendency emphasized electoral socialism, especially in local politics, in order to appeal to workers on issues of immediate, day-to-day importance. Prominent American adherents to this faction included Seymour Stedman and Frederic Heath, while the SDA was being organized, there was some factional trouble within the older Socialist Labor Party. Some elements within the SLPs Jewish membership, concentrated in Manhattans Lower East Side, had objected to the partys dual unionism policy, as a consequence the Partys Yiddish language papers, the Dos Abend Blatt and Arbeter-Zeitung were put under direct party control. The expelled branches held a convention July 31 to August 2, among the prominent members of this faction were Abraham Cahan, Meyer London, Isaac Hourwich, Morris Winchevsky, Michael Zametkin, Max Pine and Louis F. Miller. This papers editorial policy was condemned and the paper disaffiliated with the Party at its 1896 convention, in January 1897 the St. Louis local readmitted a member named Priestbach into the party, after he had left in 1896 to work for William Jennings Bryans campaign. The vote for readmittance was 28 to 24 in Priesterbachs favor, on petition of loyal members the St. Louis local was reorganized and the dissident members went into the new Social Democracy of America. Nevertheless, a colonization commission criss crossed the country visiting possible sites, especially in Colorado. The divisions came to a head on June 10, when the heard the reports of its platform committee. The majority report, presented by Victor Berger and Margaret Haile, the minority report written by John F. Lloyd, but read to the convention by J. S. Ingalls, favored the two pronged approach adopted a year earlier, the platform question caused long and bitter debate, lasting until 2 AM the next morning when a roll call vote showed 53 for the colonization platform and 37 against. With the defeat of the political platform, Isaac Hourwich led a walk out of the minority to Revere House across the street. There the dissidents founded the Social Democratic Party of America, which in 1901 would merge with other groups to become the Socialist Party of America, the majority, however, attempted to carry out their colonization scheme. They published three issues of the Social Democrat, but financial difficulties made them halt the fourth issue while in type. Willard went to Seattle to consult with SDA member J. B. Fowler, here they found Henry W. Stein, who was sympathetic to them politically and had just become the executor of some land in rural Kitsap County that was open for sale
5.
Social Democratic Party of America
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The Social Democratic Party of America was a short-lived political party in the United States, established in 1898. The group was formed out of elements of the Social Democracy of America, following the defeat of the 1894 American Railway Union strike, the former populist Eugene V. Debs exhaustively read socialist literature provided to him by Milwaukee publisher Victor L. Berger and other independent Socialists and this paper was a major success, quickly gaining a paid subscribership of 80,000 and invigorating the Socialist movement. Debs was named the head of project and the planets were thus aligned for the formation of a new national political organization. A convention of the remnant of the American Railway Union was called for June 15,1897 in Chicago. The convention which gave birth to the new organization actually began as a final conclave of the American Railway Union, director William E. Burns called the meeting to order and A. B. Adair of the Typographical Union presided. President of the ARU Eugene Debs delivered an address to the assembled delegates, the first three days of the convention were occupied with hearing reports of officers and of committees and closing up the affairs of the American Railway Union. On Friday, June 18, the organization changed its name to the Social Democracy of America. The convention was thrown open to delegates representing other organizations. The Social Democracy of America initially did not have an official head — its executive powers were vested in an Executive Board, the unit of organization of the Social Democracy was the Local Branch of at least 5 members. On the first Tuesday in April, each of these Local Branches was to elect a representative to the State Union. An initiation fee of 25 cents was set, and monthly dues pegged at 15 cents per month, office of the organization was established at 504 Trude Building, Corner of Randolph and Wabash Aves. The Social Democracy of America proved to be a short lived and disparate group of Marxists, trade unionists, Owenite socialists, populists, the SDA initially sought to establish socialist cooperative colonies. In August 1897 a three-member Colonization Committee was established, consisting of Col. Richard J. Hinton, Wilfred P. Borland and this trio explored the possibility of establishing a colony to seed the future Cooperative Commonwealth in the Cumberland plateau of Tennessee. The colonization scheme failed to materialize by the time of the convention of the SDA, held in Chicago from June 7–11,1898. Frederic Heath, the first historian of the movement, recounted the gathering in a 1900 book, outwardly the meeting presented the picture of a pleasing and harmonious gathering, creditable to the Socialist movement. Under the surface, however, there was a hostility that meant almost certain rupture, the presence of such well-known Anarchists as Mrs. These branches had been organized by William Burns and the members of the national board
6.
Socialist Party of America
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In the first decades of the 20th century, it drew significant support from many different groups, including trade unionists, progressive social reformers, populist farmers, and immigrants. However it refused to form coalitions with other parties, or even to allow its members to vote for other parties, the partys staunch opposition to American involvement in World War I, although welcomed by many, also led to prominent defections, official repression and vigilante persecution. After endorsing Robert La Follette Sr. s presidential campaign in 1924 and it had modest growth in the early 1930s behind presidential candidate Norman Thomas. While the party was always strongly anti-Fascist, as well as anti-Stalinist, the party stopped running presidential candidates after 1956, when its nominee Darlington Hoopes won fewer than 6,000 votes. In 1970–1973, these differences had become so acute that the Socialist Party changed its name to Social Democrats. Leaders of two of its caucuses formed separate socialist organizations, the Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee and the Socialist Party USA, from 1901 to the onset of World War I, the Socialist Party had numerous elected officials throughout the United States. There were two Socialist members of Congress, Meyer London of New York City and Victor Berger of Milwaukee, over 70 mayors and its voting strength was greatest among recent Jewish, Finnish and German immigrants, coal miners, and former Populist farmers in the Midwest. From 1900 to 1912, the Socialist Party ran Eugene Debs for president at each election, the best showing ever for a Socialist ticket was in 1912, when Debs gained 901,551 total votes, or 6% of the popular vote. In 1920 Debs ran again, this time imprisoned for opposing World War I. Debs, on the wing of the party. The party outsourced its newspapers and publications so that it would not have an editorial board that was a power in its own right. The Appeal to Reason newspaper thus became part of its radical left-wing, kerr Publishing Company of Chicago, which produced over half of the pamphlets and books that were sold at party meetings. The party had a tense and complicated relationship with the American Federation of Labor, many moderate Socialists, such as Victor Berger and International Typographical Union President Max S. Hayes, urged close cooperation with the American Federation of Labor and its member unions. In 1911, IWW leader William Big Bill Haywood was elected to the National Executive Committee of the Socialist Party, Hillquit replied that he had no new message rather than to reiterate a belief in a two-sided workers movement, with separate and equal political and trade union arms. A mere change of structural forms would not revolutionize the American labor movement as claimed by our extreme industrialists, the memory of this split made the intra-party battles of 1919-1921 all the more bitter. The partys opposition to World War I caused a decline in membership. An increase in the membership of its language federations from areas involved in the Bolshevik Revolution proved illusory, since these members were soon lost to the Communist Party. The party also lost some of its most prominent members, who had been in favor of Americas entry into World War I, including Walter Lippmann, John Spargo, phelps Stokes, and William English Walling
7.
Utopian socialism
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Utopian socialism is a label used to define the first currents of modern socialist thought as exemplified by the work of Henri de Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, Étienne Cabet, and Robert Owen. Later socialists and critics of utopian socialism viewed utopian socialism as not being grounded in actual material conditions of existing society and these visions of ideal societies competed with Marxist-inspired revolutionary social democratic movements. A similar school of thought emerged in the early 20th century is ethical socialism. Utopians believe that people of all classes can voluntarily adopt their plan for society if it is presented convincingly, the thinkers identified as utopian socialist did not use the term utopian to refer to their ideas. This distinction was made clear in Engels work Socialism, Utopian, Utopian socialists were seen as wanting to expand the principles of the French revolution in order to create a more rational society. Marx accused Proudhon of wanting to rise above the bourgeoisie, in the history of Marxs thought and Marxism, this work is pivotal in the distinction between the concepts of utopian socialism and what Marx and the Marxists claimed as scientific socialism. Although utopian socialists shared few political, social, or economic perspectives, Marx and they want to improve the condition of every member of society, even that of the most favored. Hence, they appeal to society at large, without distinction of class, nay, by preference. For how can people, when once they understand their system, Marx and Engels used the term scientific socialism to describe the type of socialism they saw themselves developing. Since the mid-19th century, Marxism and Marxism-Leninism overtook utopian socialism in terms of intellectual development, at one time, almost half of the worlds population was governed by self-proclaimed Marxists. It has been noted that they exerted a significant influence on the emergence of new movements such as Spiritualism and Occultism. Perhaps the first utopian socialist was Thomas More, who wrote about an imaginary socialist society in his book Utopia, the contemporary definition of the English word utopia derives from this work. Many aspects of Mores description of Utopia was influenced by life in monasteries, saint-Simonianism was a French political and social movement of the first half of the 19th century, inspired by the ideas of Claude Henri de Rouvroy, comte de Saint-Simon. His ideas influenced Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, John Stuart Mill, Robert Owen was a successful Welsh businessman who devoted much of his profits to improving the lives of his employees. He wrote about his ideas in his book A New View of Society, which was published in 1813 and he also set up an Owenite commune called New Harmony in Indiana, USA. This collapsed when one of his business partners ran off all the profits. Charles Fourier was by far the most utopian of socialists, rejecting the industrial revolution altogether and thus the problems that arose with it, he made various fanciful claims about the ideal world he envisioned. Despite some clearly non-socialist inclinations, he contributed significantly - if indirectly - to the socialist movement and his writings about turning work into play influenced the young Karl Marx and helped him devise his theory of alienation
8.
New Harmony, Indiana
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New Harmony is a historic town on the Wabash River in Harmony Township, Posey County, in the U. S. state of Indiana. It lies 15 miles north of Mount Vernon, the county seat, the population was 789 at the 2010 census. It is part of the Evansville metropolitan area, established by the Harmony Society in 1814, the town was originally known as Harmony. Bought at two dollars an acre, the 20, 000-acre settlement was the brainchild of George Rapp and was home exclusively to German Lutherans in its early years. Here, the Harmonists built a new town in the wilderness, Robert Owen, a Welsh industrialist and social reformer, purchased the town in 1825 with the intention of creating a new utopian community and renamed it New Harmony. While the Owenite social experiment was a failure just two years after it began, the community made some important contributions to American society. New Harmony became known as a center for advances in education, New Harmonys residents established the first free library, a civic drama club, and a public school system open to men and women. The town served as the headquarters of the U. S. Many of the towns old Harmonist buildings still stand and have been restored and these structures, along with others related to the Owenite community, are included in the New Harmony Historic District. Contemporary additions to the include the Roofless Church and Atheneum. The New Harmony State Memorial is located there, just to the south of town on State Road 69 is Harmonie State Park. In April 1814 Anna Mayrisch, John L. Baker, and Ludwick Shirver traveled west in search of a new location for their congregation, one that would have fertile soil and access to a navigable waterway. By May 10 the men had found suitable land along the Wabash River in the Indiana Territory, Rapp wrote on May 10, The place is 25 miles from the Ohio mouth of the Wabash, and 12 miles from where the Ohio makes its curve first before the mouth. The town will be located about 1/4 mile from the river above on the channel on a plane as level as the floor of a room, the first Harmonists left Pennsylvania in June 1814 and traveled by flatboat to their new land in the Indiana Territory. In May 1815 the last of the Harmonists who had remained behind until the sale of their town in Pennsylvania was completed departed for their new town along the Wabash River. By 1816, the year that Indiana became a state, the Harmonists had acquired 20,000 acres of land, built 160 homes and other buildings. However, the new arrivals were more of a liability than an asset, Visitors to Harmony commented on the commercial and industrial work being done in this religious settlement along the Wabash River. It seemed as though I found myself in the midst of Germany, in 1819 the town had a steam-operated wool carding and spinning factory, a horse-drawn and human-powered threshing machine, a brewery, distillery, vineyards, and a winery
9.
Brook Farm
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Founded as a joint stock company, it promised its participants a portion of the profits from the farm in exchange for performing an equal share of the work. Brook Farmers believed that by sharing the workload, ample time would be available for leisure activities, Life on Brook Farm was based on balancing labor and leisure while working together for the benefit of the greater community. Each member could choose to do whatever work they found most appealing and all were paid equally, revenue for the community came from farming and from selling handmade products like clothing as well as through fees paid by the many visitors to Brook Farm. The main source of income was the school, which was overseen by Mrs. Ripley, a pre-school, primary school, and a college preparatory school attracted children internationally and each child was charged for his or her education. The community was never stable and had difficulty profiting from its agricultural pursuits. By 1844, the Brook Farmers adopted a model based on the socialist concepts of Charles Fourier. Following his vision, the community began building an ambitious structure called the Phalanstery. When the uninsured building was destroyed in a fire, the community was financially devastated and it was fully closed by 1847. Despite the experimental communes failure, many Brook Farmers looked back on their experience positively, critics of the commune included Charles Lane, founder of another utopian community called Fruitlands. Nathaniel Hawthorne was a member of Brook Farm, though he was not a strong adherent of the communitys ideals. He later fictionalized his experience in his novel The Blithedale Romance, after the communitys failure, the property was operated for most of the next 130 years by a Lutheran organization as first an orphanage, and then a treatment center and school. The buildings of the Transcendentalists were destroyed by fire over the years, in 1988 the State of Massachusetts acquired 148 acres of the farm, which is now operated by the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation as a historic site. In October 1840, George Ripley announced to the Transcendental Club that he was planning to form a Utopian community. The experiment was meant to serve as an example for the rest of the world, based on the principles of industry without drudgery, at Brook Farm, as in other communities, physical labor was perceived as a condition of mental well-being and health. Brook Farm was one of at least 80 communal experiments active in the United States throughout the 1840s, Ripley believed his experiment would be a model for the rest of society. He predicted, If wisely executed, it will be a light over this country, If not the sunrise, it will be the morning star. As more interested people began to part in planning, Ripley relocated meetings from his home to the West Street bookshop operated by Elizabeth Palmer Peabody. Ripley and his wife Sophia formed a joint stock company in 1841 along with 10 other initial investors and he sold shares of the company $500 apiece with a promise of five percent of the profits to each investor
10.
Oneida Community
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The Oneida Community was a Perfectionist religious communal society founded by John Humphrey Noyes in 1848 in Oneida, New York. The Oneida Community practiced communalism, complex marriage, male sexual continence, there were smaller Noyesian communities in Wallingford, Connecticut, Newark, New Jersey, Putney and Cambridge, Vermont. The communitys original 87 members grew to 172 by February 1850,208 by 1852, the branches were closed in 1854 except for the Wallingford branch, which operated until devastated by a tornado in 1878. The Oneida Community dissolved in 1881, and eventually became the giant silverware company Oneida Limited, even though the community reached a maximum population of about 300, it had a complex bureaucracy of 27 standing committees and 48 administrative sections. The manufacturing of silverware, the remaining industry, began in 1877, relatively late in the life of the Community. Secondary industries included the manufacture of leather bags, the weaving of palm frond hats, the construction of rustic garden furniture, game traps. All Community members were expected to work, each according to his or her abilities, Women tended to do much of the domestic duties. Although more skilled jobs tended to remain with a member, Community members rotated through the more unskilled jobs, working in the house. As Oneida thrived, it began to hire outsiders to work in positions as well. They were a major employer in the area, with approximately 200 employees by 1870, the Oneida community believed strongly in a system of free love known as complex marriage, where any member was free to have sex with any other who consented. Possessiveness and exclusive relationships were frowned upon, Women over the age of 40 were to act as sexual mentors to adolescent boys, as these relationships had minimal chance of conceiving. Furthermore, these women became religious role models for the young men, likewise, older men often introduced young women to sex. In 1993, the archives of the community were available to scholars for the first time. Contained within the archives was the journal of Tirzah Miller, Noyes niece, every member of the community was subject to criticism by committee or the community as a whole, during a general meeting. The goal was to eliminate undesirable character traits, various contemporary sources contend that Noyes himself was the subject of criticism, although less often and of probably less severe criticism than the rest of the community. The remarks I have reported took up half an hour. He said that Charles had some faults, that he had watched him with some care. He spoke in praise of his ability, his good character
11.
Icarians
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The Icarians /ɪˈkɛriənz/ were a French-based utopian socialist movement, established by the followers of politician, journalist, and author Étienne Cabet. The movement split several times due to factional disagreements, the last community of Icarians, located a few miles outside of Corning, Iowa, disbanded voluntarily in 1898. The 46 years of tenure at this location made the Corning Icarian Colony one of the longest-lived non-religious communal living experiments in American history, Étienne Cabet was born in Dijon, France in 1788 to a middle-class family of artisans. Cabet attended a Roman Catholic secondary school and continued his education, Cabet was not inclined towards jurisprudence, however, preferring the rough and tumble of politics and journalism. In 1820 Cabet moved to Paris, the center of the French nation. There he continued to participate in secret societies, at considerable personal risk. This Revolution of 1830 in a matter of a few frenzied days forced the abdication of the conservative monarch Charles X and this brought about Cabets prompt removal from office by the new regime in Paris, at whose pleasure Cabet served. Following his dismissal as Corsican Attorney-General, Cabet turned his hand to writing, authoring a four volume history of the French Revolution and he also remained active in politics and was elected as a deputy to the lower chamber of the National Assembly in 1834. Cabet emerged as an opponent of the new conservative regime. In an effort to eliminate the dangerous democratic agitator, Cabet was given the choice of two years imprisonment or five years in foreign exile and he decided upon the latter punishment and immediately went into exile in England. To change all this, to find the means of preventing one portion of humanity from being eternally the prey of the other — such was his desire, the goal of all his efforts. Cabet turned to the idea of reorganization of society on a communal basis — known as Communism in the terminology of the day and his ideas for the modification of society closely paralleled those of a man he met in English exile, Robert Owen. In 1839, his five years exile in England completed, Cabet returned to his native France, the result of Cabets writing was published in 1840 as Voyage en Icarie. A basic plot outline was published by Morris Hillquit in 1903, Lord Carisdall, the unusual mode of life, habits, and form of government of the Icarians excite his lordships curiosity, and he decides to visit their country. Voyage en Icarie purports to be a journal in which our traveler records his experiences and discoveries in the strange country. The second part contains a history of Icaria, in March 1841 Cabet launched a monthly magazine, Le Populaire, as well as an annual Icarian Almanac to help propagandize and organize the new political movements supporters. These supporters began to see Cabet as a messiah and sought to implement the leaders ideas in a practical setting. The wheels were set in motion for the formation of what was intended to be a prosperous
12.
Bishop Hill, Illinois
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Bishop Hill is a village in Henry County, Illinois, United States, along the South Edwards River. The population was 128 at the 2010 census, up from 125 in 2000 and it is the home of the Bishop Hill State Historic Site, a park operated by the Illinois Historic Preservation Agency. Bishop Hill is located at 41°12′3″N 90°7′6″W, according to the 2010 census, Bishop Hill has a total area of 0.53 square miles, all land. The village was founded in 1846 by Swedish immigrants affiliated with the Pietist movement, as Janssons ideas became more radical, he began to lose support from many of his sympathizers and was forced to leave Sweden in the midst of growing persecution. According to Jansson, this community would become the New Jerusalem, as a result,1400 colonists emigrated from Sweden to their new home in western Illinois. The colony struggled early on after its founding, many of the first 1000 colonists died from disease on the way to Bishop Hill, while others became disillusioned and stayed in New York. The quarters in Bishop Hill were cold and crowded and food was scarce, after the first winter, life at the colony began to improve. In the next few years housing was upgraded from dugouts to brick living areas, by 1849, Bishop Hill had constructed a flour mill, two sawmills, a three story frame church, and various other buildings. The Bishop Hill Colony was communistic in nature, as dictated by Jansson, thus, everything was owned by everyone and no one had more possessions than another. Work in the colony was highly rigorous and regimented and it wasnt uncommon to see hundreds of people working together in the fields or large groups of laborers engaged in other tasks. The Bishop Hill colony underwent a major upheaval in 1850 after the murder of Erik Jansson, Jansson was assassinated by a former colony member, John Root, who was upset with Jansson for interfering with his marriage to one of Janssons cousins. After their leaders death, the people of Bishop Hill appointed a group of seven trustees to run the affairs of the colony. Among the trustees were Jonas Olsson and Olof Johnson, who would become the leaders of the colony as they had been two of Janssons closest aides. Under these two men and the rest of the trustees, the continued to grow and flourish. The workforce was reorganized to become efficient and more buildings were erected. However, despite Bishop Hills success, in 1857 financial problems arose in the midst of accusations of mismanagement against Olof Johnson, Johnson had made several large investments, without colony approval, that had turned out to be disastrous. As Bishop Hill headed for ruin, colonists voted to end the communal system. In 1861 the formal dissolution of the colony was official, the Janssonist emigrants were a significant group of men and women to move from Sweden to the United States
13.
Progressive Era
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The Progressive Era was a period of widespread social activism and political reform across the United States, from the 1890s to the 1920s. The main objectives of the Progressive movement were eliminating problems caused by industrialization, urbanization, immigration, the movement primarily targeted political machines and their bosses. By taking down these corrupt representatives in office a further means of democracy would be established. They also sought regulation of monopolies and corporations through antitrust laws and these antitrust laws were seen as a way to promote equal competition for the advantage of legitimate competitors. Many progressives supported prohibition in the United States, ostensibly to destroy the power of local bosses based in saloons. At the same time, womens suffrage was promoted to bring a purer female vote into the arena, many activists joined efforts to reform local government, public education, medicine, finance, insurance, industry, railroads, churches, and many other areas. Progressives transformed, professionalized and made scientific the social sciences, especially history, economics, in academic fields the day of the amateur author gave way to the research professor who published in the new scholarly journals and presses. The national political leaders included Theodore Roosevelt, Robert M, La Follette, Sr. and Charles Evans Hughes on the Republican side, and William Jennings Bryan, Woodrow Wilson and Al Smith on the Democratic side. Yet, leaders of the movement also existed far from presidential politics, jane Addams, Grace Abbott, Edith Abbott and Sophonisba Breckinridge were among the most influential Progressive Era reformers. Initially the movement operated chiefly at local levels, later, it expanded to state, Progressives drew support from the middle class, and supporters included many lawyers, teachers, physicians, ministers and business people. Some Progressives strongly supported scientific methods as applied to economics, government, industry, finance, medicine, schooling, theology, education, reformers felt that old-fashioned ways meant waste and inefficiency, and eagerly sought out the one best system. S. Magazines were not a new medium but they became more popular around 1900. It was an age of Mass media, thanks to the rapid expansion of national advertising, the cover price fell sharply to about 10 cents. One cause was the coverage of corruption in politics, local government and big business. They were journalists who wrote for magazines to expose social and political sins. They relied on their own investigative journalism reporting, muckrakers often worked to expose social ills and corporate, the journalists who specialized in exposing waste, corruption, and scandal operated at the state and local level, like Ray Stannard Baker, George Creel, and Brand Whitlock. Other like Lincoln Steffens exposed political corruption in many large cities, Roosevelt gave these journalists their nickname when he complained they were not being helpful by raking up all the muck. The Progressives were avid modernizers, with a belief in science and they looked to education as the key
14.
1912 Lawrence textile strike
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The Lawrence textile strike was a strike of immigrant workers in Lawrence, Massachusetts, in 1912 led by the Industrial Workers of the World. The strike united workers from more than 40 different nationalities, in late January, when a bystander was killed during a protest, IWW organizers Joseph Ettor and Arturo Giovannitti were arrested on charges of being accessories to the murder. IWW leaders Bill Haywood and Elizabeth Gurley Flynn came to Lawrence to run the strike, together they masterminded its signature move, sending hundreds of the strikers hungry children to sympathetic families in New York, New Jersey, and Vermont. The move drew widespread sympathy, especially after police stopped a further exodus, congressional hearings followed, resulting in exposure of shocking conditions in the Lawrence mills and calls for investigation of the wool trust. Mill owners soon decided to settle the strike, giving workers in Lawrence, within a year, however, the IWW had largely collapsed in Lawrence. The Lawrence strike is referred to as the Bread and Roses strike. It has also called the strike for three loaves. The phrase bread and roses actually preceded the strike, appearing in a poem by James Oppenheim published in The Atlantic Monthly in December 1911. A1916 labor anthology, The Cry for Justice, An Anthology of the Literature of Social Protest by Upton Sinclair, attributed the phrase to the Lawrence strike, Bread and roses has also been attributed to socialist union organizer Rose Schneiderman. Founded in 1845, Lawrence was a flourishing but deeply troubled textile city, work in a textile mill took place at a grueling pace and the labor was repetitive and dangerous. In addition, a number of children under the age of 14 worked in the mills, half of the workers in the four Lawrence mills of the American Woolen Company, the leading employer in the industry and the town, were females between the ages of 14 and 18. By 1912, the Lawrence mills at maximum capacity employed about 32,000 men, women, conditions had grown even worse for workers in the decade before the strike. The introduction of the system in the woolen mills led to a dramatic speedup in the pace of work. The increase in production enabled the owners to lay off large numbers of workers. Those who kept their jobs earned, on average, $8.76 for 56 hours of work, the workers in Lawrence lived in crowded and dangerous apartment buildings, often with many families sharing each apartment. The mortality rate for children was 50% by age six,36 out of every 100 men and women who worked in the mill died before they reached 25, the average life expectancy was 39. Several thousand skilled workers belonged, in theory at least, to the American Federation of Labor-affiliated United Textile Workers, the Industrial Workers of the World had also been organizing for five years among workers in Lawrence, but also had only a few hundred actual members. On January 1,1912, a new law took effect in Massachusetts reducing the fifty-six-hour workweek to fifty-four hours for women and children
15.
Labor history of the United States
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The labor history of the United States describes the history of organized labor, as well as more general history of working people, in the United States. Unions have been important components of the Democratic Party, but that began in the 1930s, however, historians have long debated why no Labor Party emerged in the United States, in contrast to Western Europe. As commentator E. J. Dionne has noted, the movement has traditionally espoused a set of values—solidarity being the most important. Dionne notes that these values are increasingly foreign to American culture, in most industrial nations the labor movement sponsored its own political parties, with the U. S. as a conspicuous exception. Both major American parties vied for votes, with the Democrats usually much more successful. Labor unions became an element of the New Deal Coalition that dominated national politics from the 1930s into the mid-1960s during the Fifth Party System. Liberal Republicans who supported unions in the Northeast lost power after 1964, the history of organized labor has been a specialty of scholars since the 1890s, and has produced a large amount of scholarly literature focused on the structure of organized unions. In the 1960s, as social history gained popularity, a new emphasis emerged on the history of workers, including unorganized workers and this is called the new labor history. Much scholarship has attempted to bring the social history perspectives into the study of organized labor, the history of labor disputes in America substantially precedes the Revolutionary period. In 1636, for instance, there was a strike on an island off the coast of Maine. However, most instances of labor unrest during the period were temporary and isolated. Little legal recourse was available to those injured by the unrest, the only known case of criminal prosecution of workers in the colonial era occurred as a result of a carpenters strike in Savannah, Georgia, in 1746. By the beginning of the 19th century, after the revolution, the career path for most artisans still involved apprenticeship under a master, followed by moving into independent production. However, over the course of the Industrial Revolution, this rapidly changed. For instance, in Boston in 1790, the vast majority of the 1,300 artisans in the city described themselves as master workman, by 1815, journeymen workers without independent means of production had displaced these masters as the majority. By that time journeymen also outnumbered masters in New York City and this shift occurred as a result of large-scale transatlantic and rural-urban migration. Migration into the cities created a larger population of potential laborers. These conditions led to the first labor combination cases in America, the cases overwhelmingly resulted in convictions
16.
Women's suffrage in the United States
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The demand for womens suffrage began to gather strength in the 1840s, emerging from the broader movement for womens rights. By the time of the first National Womens Rights Convention in 1850, however, the first national suffrage organizations were established in 1869 when two competing organizations were formed, one led by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton and the other by Lucy Stone, after years of rivalry, they merged in 1890 as the National American Woman Suffrage Association with Anthony as its leading force. Hoping the U. S. Supreme Court would rule that women had a right to vote, suffragists made several attempts to vote in the early 1870s. Anthony actually succeeded in voting in 1872 but was arrested for that act, after the Supreme Court ruled against them in 1875, suffragists began the decades-long campaign for an amendment to the U. S. Much of the energy, however, went toward working for suffrage on a state-by-state basis. In 1916 Alice Paul formed the National Womans Party, a militant group focused on the passage of a national suffrage amendment. Over 200 NWP supporters, the Silent Sentinels, were arrested in 1917 while picketing the White House, some of whom went on hunger strike, under the leadership of Carrie Chapman Catt, the two-million-member NAWSA also made a national suffrage amendment its top priority. After a hard-fought series of votes in the U. S. Congress and in state legislatures and it states, The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex. Lydia Taft, a widow, was allowed to vote in town meetings in Uxbridge. No other women in the era are known to have voted. The New Jersey constitution of 1776 enfranchised all adult inhabitants who owned a specified amount of property, laws enacted in 1790 and 1797 referred to voters as he or she, and women regularly voted. A law passed in 1807, however, excluded women from voting in that state, the demand for womens suffrage emerged as part of the broader movement for womens rights. In England in 1792 Mary Wollenstonecraft wrote a book called A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. In Boston in 1838 Sarah Grimké published The Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Women, significant barriers had to be overcome, however, before a campaign for womens suffrage could develop significant strength. One barrier was strong opposition to involvement in public affairs. Opposition was especially strong against the idea of speaking to audiences of both men and women. Frances Wright, a Scottish woman, was subjected to criticism for delivering public lectures in the U. S. in 1826 and 1827
17.
Haymarket affair
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The Haymarket affair was the aftermath of a bombing that took place at a labor demonstration on Tuesday May 4,1886, at Haymarket Square in Chicago. It began as a rally in support of workers striking for an eight-hour day. An unknown person threw a bomb at police as they acted to disperse the public meeting. The bomb blast and ensuing gunfire resulted in the deaths of seven officers and at least four civilians. In the internationally publicized legal proceedings followed, eight anarchists were convicted of conspiracy. The evidence was one of the defendants may have built the bomb. Seven were sentenced to death and one to a term of 15 years in prison, the death sentences of two of the defendants were commuted by Illinois governor Richard J. Oglesby to terms of life in prison, and another committed suicide in jail rather than face the gallows. The other four were hanged on November 11,1887, in 1893, Illinois new governor John Peter Altgeld pardoned the remaining defendants and criticized the trial. The Haymarket affair is considered significant as the origin of international May Day observances for workers. The site of the incident was designated a Chicago Landmark in 1992, in addition, the Haymarket Martyrs Monument at the defendants burial site in nearby Forest Park was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1997. No single event has influenced the history of labor in Illinois, the United States and it began with a rally on May 4,1886, but the consequences are still being felt today. Although the rally is included in American history textbooks, very few present the event accurately or point out its significance, following the Civil War, particularly following the Depression of 1873–79, there was a rapid expansion of industrial production in the United States. Chicago was an industrial center and tens of thousands of German and Bohemian immigrants were employed at about $1.50 a day. American workers worked on average slightly over 60 hours, during a work week. The city became a center for many attempts to organize labors demands for better working conditions, mainstream newspapers supported business interests, and were opposed by the labor and immigrant press. During the economic slowdown between 1882 and 1886, socialist and anarchist organizations were active, membership of the Knights of Labor, which rejected socialism and radicalism, but supported the 8-hour work day, grew from 70,000 in 1884 to over 700,000 by 1886. In Chicago, the anarchist movement of several thousand, mostly immigrant, workers centered about the German-language newspaper Arbeiter-Zeitung, other anarchists operated a militant revolutionary force with an armed section that was equipped with guns and explosives. In October 1884, a held by the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions unanimously set May 1,1886
18.
International Workers' Day
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Being a traditional European spring celebration, May Day is a national public holiday in several European countries. The date is currently celebrated specifically as Labour Day or International Workers Day in the majority of countries, some countries celebrate a Labour Day on other dates significant to them, such as the United States, which celebrates Labor Day on the first Monday of September. Beginning in the late 19th century, as the union and labour movements grew. In the United States and Canada, a September holiday, called Labor or Labour Day, was first proposed in the 1880s. In 1882, Matthew Maguire, a machinist, first proposed a Labor Day holiday on the first Monday of September while serving as secretary of the Central Labor Union of New York. Others argue that it was first proposed by Peter J. McGuire of the American Federation of Labor in May 1882, after witnessing the annual festival held in Toronto. In 1887, Oregon was the first state of the United States to make it a public holiday. By the time it became a federal holiday in 1894. Thus by 1887 in North America, Labor Day was an established, official holiday but in September,1 May was chosen to be International Workers Day to commemorate the 4 May 1886 Haymarket affair in Chicago. The police were trying to disperse an assembly during a general strike for the eight-hour workday. The police responded by firing on the workers, killing four demonstrators, the following day on 5 May in Milwaukee Wisconsin, the state militia fired on a crowd of strikers killing seven, including a schoolboy and a man feeding chickens in his yard. May Day was formally recognised as an event at the Internationals second congress in 1891. Subsequently, the May Day riots of 1894 occurred, the congress made it mandatory upon the proletarian organisations of all countries to stop work on 1 May, wherever it is possible without injury to the workers. May Day has long been a point for demonstrations by various socialist, communist and anarchist groups. May Day is one of the most important holidays in countries such as the Peoples Republic of China, North Korea, Cuba. May Day celebrations in these countries typically feature elaborate workforce parades, in 1955, the Catholic Church dedicated 1 May to Saint Joseph the Worker. Saint Joseph is the saint of workers and craftsmen, among others. It became an symbol of that period
19.
Green Corn Rebellion
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The Green Corn Rebellion was an armed uprising that took place in rural Oklahoma on August 2 and 3,1917. Betrayed by an informer in their midst, the rebels met with a well-armed posse of townsmen, with whom shots were exchanged. The incident was used as a pretext for national reprisals against the Industrial Workers of the World. Congress readily obliged the Presidents request, voting to declare war on Germany by a margin of 373-50 in the House and 82-6 in the Senate. This decision of the United States government to enter World War I was backed up with additional legislation imposing military conscription in America to staff the nations wartime Army, on May 18,1917, a draft bill became law. The bill called for all young men nationwide to register for the draft on a single day — June 5,1917. On July 20,1917, a blindfolded Newton D. Baker, opponents of American participation in the war continued their efforts to change the countrys course, holding meetings and distributing pamphlets. Tenant farmers were predominantly young – the age group most impacted by conscription, some 76% of Oklahoma farmers under age 24 rented their land, while 45% of those between the ages of 25 and 33 found themselves tenants. Most tenant farmers were white and African-American, many of these young dirt farmers found their economic prospects hopeless, squeezed between a usurious credit system practiced by stores and substantial crop liens inflicted by landlords. The depleted condition of Oklahomas land forced the input of twice as much labor as the sharecroppers of Mississippi, disaffection was rife and proposals for radical solutions found ready ears. The organization was not a one, taking the form of secret society, with activities which included night riding. The controversy was punctuated by a shotgun blast fired through the window of the Pontotoc County Attorney early in 1916, the Muscogee Creek Nation at time of the rebellion was controlled by only 61 mixed blood Creek and intermarried white individuals. August 3 marked the end of the Muscogee Creek Green Corn Ceremony, raiding parties followed this action, cutting telephone lines and burning railroad bridges. Boys, get together and dont go, the war is over with Germany if you dont go and J. P. Morgan & Co. is lost. Their great speculation is the cause of the war. Unfortunately, no documents written by WCU members have survived and the mentality of those taking up arms must be considered speculative, historian Garin Burbank argues that the coming of conscription threatened to decimate family economies by removing able-bodied young men needed to harvest cotton. The country folk, in short, saw military conscription as an invasion of their rights and these plans, if such a whimsical scheme may be called such, were instantly betrayed to local authorities by an informer. A posse of townsmen was formed and headed to the banks to meet the ostensible revolutionaries
20.
Red Scare
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A Red Scare is the promotion of fear of a potential rise of communism or radical leftism. In the United States, the First Red Scare was about worker revolution, the Second Red Scare was focused on national and foreign communists infiltrating or subverting U. S. society, the federal government, or both. Political scientist, and former member of the Communist Party Murray B and those on the side of the IWW claim that the press misrepresented legitimate labor strikes as crimes against society, conspiracies against the government, and plots to establish communism. On June 2,1919, in eight cities, eight bombs simultaneously exploded, afterwards, Palmer ordered the U. S. Justice Department to launch the Palmer Raids. Law professor David D. Cole reports that President Wilson’s federal government consistently targeted alien radicals, for their speech or associations, making little effort to distinguish terrorists from ideological dissidents. S. Constitution via Palmer-authorized “illegal acts” and “wanton violence”, defensively, Palmer then warned that a government-deposing left-wing revolution would begin on 1 May 1920 — May Day, the International Workers’ Day. When it failed to happen, he was ridiculed and lost much credibility, strengthening the legal criticism of Palmer was that fewer than 600 deportations were substantiated with evidence, out of the thousands of resident aliens arrested and deported. In July 1920, Palmer’s once-promising Democratic Party bid for the U. S. presidency failed, wall Street was bombed on September 2,1920, near Federal Hall National Memorial and the JP Morgan Bank. Although both anarchists and Communists were suspected as being responsible for the bombing, ultimately no individuals were indicted for the bombing in which 38 died and 141 were injured, in 1919–20, several states enacted criminal syndicalism laws outlawing advocacy of violence in effecting and securing social change. The restrictions included free speech limitations, passage of these laws, in turn, provoked aggressive police investigation of the accused persons, their jailing, and deportation for being suspected of being either communist or left-wing. Regardless of ideological gradation, the Red Scare did not distinguish between communism, anarchism, socialism, or social democracy, the second Red Scare occurred after World War II, and was popularly known as McCarthyism after its most famous supporter, Senator Joseph McCarthy. S. Government officials, and the Korean War. S, National Security, that, in turn, connected to fear of the Soviet Union hydrogen-bombing the United States, and fear of the Communist Party of the United States of America. In Canada, the 1946 Kellock–Taschereau Commission investigated espionage after top secret documents concerning RDX, radar, government before, during and after World War II. Other U. S. citizen spies confessed, some with pride, a few of the events during the Red Scare were also due to a power struggle between J. Edgar Hoover and the Central Intelligence Agency. Hoover had instigated and aided some of the investigations of members of the CIA with leftist history and this conflict could also be traced back to the conflict between Hoover and William J. Donovan, going back to the first Red Scare, but especially during World War II. They had differing opinions on the nature of the alliance with the Soviet Union, conflicts over jurisdiction, conflicts of personality, by the 1930s, communism had become an attractive economic ideology among some in the United States, particularly among labor leaders and the intelligentsia. At its zenith in 1939, the CPUSA had some 50,000 members, in 1940, soon after World War II began in Europe, the U. S. With the slogan Communism is Twentieth-Century Americanism, the chairman, Earl Browder, in contrast, the Trotskyist Socialist Workers Party opposed U. S. participation in the war and supported labor strikes, even in the war-effort industry
21.
Espionage Act of 1917
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The Espionage Act of 1917 is a United States federal law passed on June 15,1917, shortly after the U. S. entry into World War I. It has been amended numerous times over the years and it was originally found in Title 50 of the U. S. Code but is now found under Title 18, Crime. In 1919, the Supreme Court of the United States unanimously ruled through Schenck v. United States that the act did not violate the freedom of speech of those convicted under its provisions. The constitutionality of the law, its relationship to free speech, although the most controversial sections of the Act, a set of amendments commonly called the Sedition Act of 1918, were repealed on March 3,1921, the original Espionage Act was left intact. The Espionage Act of 1917 was passed, along with the Trading with the Enemy Act, the Espionage Act law imposed much stiffer penalties than the 1911 law, including the death penalty. I urge you to such laws at the earliest possible moment and feel that in doing so I am urging you to do nothing less than save the honor. Such creatures of passion, disloyalty, and anarchy must be crushed out and they are not many, but they are infinitely malignant, and the hand of our power should close over them at once. It is possible to deal with these things very effectually, I need not suggest the terms in which they may be dealt with. Even after the U. S. broke diplomatic relations with Germany, when the Senate passed a version on February 20,1917, after the declaration of war in April 1917, both houses debated versions of the Wilson administrations drafts that included press censorship. That provision aroused opposition, with critics charging it established a system of prior restraint, after weeks of intermittent debate, the Senate removed the censorship provision by a one-vote margin, voting 39 to 38. Attorney General Thomas Watt Gregory supported passage of the act, the resulting Act was far more aggressive and restrictive than they wanted, but it silenced citizens opposed to the war. It made it a crime, To convey information with intent to interfere with the operation or success of the forces of the United States or to promote the success of its enemies. This was punishable by death or by imprisonment for not more than 30 years or both and this was punishable by a maximum fine of $10,000 or by imprisonment for not more than 20 years or both. The Act also gave the Postmaster General authority to impound or to refuse to mail publications that he determined to be in violation of its prohibitions. The Act also forbids the transfer of any naval vessel equipped for combat to any nation engaged in a conflict in which the United States is neutral. On March 3,1921, the Sedition Act amendments were repealed, Title 18, Part 1, Chapter 37. The Act was amended in 1940 to increase the penalties it imposed, in the late 1940s, the U. S. Code was re-organized and much of Title 50 was moved to Title 18. The McCarran Internal Security Act added 18 U. S. C. §793 in 1950 and 18 U. S. C. §798 was added the same year. S. C
22.
First Red Scare
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The Scare had its origins in the hyper-nationalism of World War I as well as the Russian Revolution. Fear of radicalism was used to explain the suppression of freedom of expression in form of display of certain flags, the First Red Scare effectively ended in mid-1920, after Attorney General Palmer forecast a massive radical uprising on May Day and the day passed without incident. In 1917, President Woodrow Wilson established the Committee on Public Information to circulate and distribute anti-German and pro-Allied propaganda, revolutionary and pacifist groups, such as the Socialist Party of America and the Industrial Workers of the World, strongly opposed the war. Many leaders of groups, most notably Eugene V. Debs, were prosecuted for giving speeches urging resistance to the draft. Members of the Ghadar Party were also put on trial in the Hindu–German Conspiracy Trial, the effort was also helped by the United States Congress, with the passing of the Espionage Act in 1917 and its sister act the Sedition Act of 1918. After the war ended, the government investigations abated for a few months. They soon resumed in the context of the Russian Revolution of 1917, the Russian Civil War, to some Americans, this was a time of uncertainty and fear over the prospects of an anarchist, socialist or communist revolution in the United States. On January 21,1919,35,000 shipyard workers in Seattle went on strike seeking wage increases and they appealed to the Seattle Central Labor Council for support from other unions and found widespread enthusiasm. Within two weeks, more than 100 local unions joined in a call on February 3 for general strike to begin on the morning of February 6, even before the strike began, the press begged the unions to reconsider. In part they were frightened by some of labor’s rhetoric, like the labor newspaper editorial that proclaimed and we are starting on a road that leads – NO ONE KNOWS WHERE. Daily newspapers saw the strike as a foreign import, This is America – not Russia. The non-striking part of Seattles population imagined the worst and stocked up on food, hardware stores sold their stock of guns. Seattle Mayor Ole Hanson announced that he had 1500 police and 1500 federal troops on hand to put down any disturbances and he personally oversaw their deployment throughout the city. The time has come, he said, for the people in Seattle to show their Americanism, the anarchists in this community shall not rule its affairs. He promised to use them to replace striking workers, but never carried out that threat, press and political reaction made the general strike untenable, and they feared Seattle labor would lose gains made during the war if it continued. The national press called the general strike Marxian and a movement aimed at existing government. It is only a step, said the Chicago Tribune. As early as February 8 some unions began to return to work at the urging of their leaders
23.
American Defense Society
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The American Defense Society was a nationalist American political group founded in 1915. It advocated American intervention against Germany during World War I and opposition to the Bolsheviks when they came to power in Russia after the October Revolution of 1917. Clarence Smedley Thomas, Cushing Stetson, and John F. Hubbard formed the ADS in August 1915 as a group from the National Security League. They objected to the NSL for being uncritical in support of the Wilson administration, like the NSL, the ADS favored progressivism and its reform programs, but it was much more militarist and nationalistic than the NSL. Its first honorary president was former U. S. President Theodore Roosevelt, the Chairman was Richard Melancthon Hurd. S. Politics Suppression of sedition One hundred percent Americanism In February 1918 and it wanted an overwhelming force sent to France, the quicker we put our full strength into the war the sooner it will be over. It called for the internment of aliens and sympathizers, to prevent sabotage because if enough munition factories are blown up here we shall lose the war. It claimed that England saw an end to plots and propaganda after interning 70,000. The close scrutiny of German thought induced by Hun frightfulness in war has revealed abhorrent qualities hitherto unknown. Hereafter, throughout every English-speaking country on the globe, the German language will be a dead language. The ADS also called for military training for all men between the ages of 18 and 21 At the end of 1918 it launched a campaign to eliminate instruction in German nationwide. Following World War I, the ADS joined the campaign against American participation in the League of Nations and it described the League as a surrender of national sovereignty obnoxious to the Constitution of the United States. It denounced the impossible doctrines of the self-determination of races which is contrary to our fundamental doctrines as a nation, the manager of the ADS Washington Bureau in the 1920s was Richard Merrill Whitney, the author of an expose of radical activity called The Reds in America. The ADS made a resurgence during the years immediately preceding World War II. The group conducted a campaign against the attempt of President Franklin D. Roosevelt to pack the Supreme Court by expanding the number of members in that body. Later, the group was hamstrung by the death of two of its principals, Chairman of the Board of Trustees Davison in 1942 and Board Chairman Elon Huntington Hooker in 1948, in its later years, it maintained its public profile by giving awards. In 1939, it presented awards called the Atlantic Fleet Silver Cup for excellence in gunnery, in 1943, it honored Theodore Roosevelt on the eighty-fifth anniversary of his birth. The Society seems to have essentially been terminated with Davisons death, hand Book of the American Defense Society, New York, National Headquarters, February 1918
24.
American Protective League
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At its zenith the APL claimed 250,000 members in 600 cities. The APL was formed in 1917 by A. M. Briggs, Briggs was given authority to proceed with his plan by the Department of Justice on March 22,1917, and the American Protective League was born. Although technically an organization, the APL nevertheless was the beneficiary of semi-official status. Under this directive, the APL worked with the Bureau of Investigation — precursor to the FBI — which gathered information for U. S. District Attorneys. APL assistance was welcomed by the BOI, which in 1915 had only 219 field agents, APL members sometimes wore badges suggesting a quasi-official status, American Protective League –Secret Service. The Attorney General boasted of the manpower they provided, I have today several hundred thousand private citizens, assisting the heavily overworked Federal authorities in keeping an eye on disloyal individuals and making reports of disloyal utterances. At its zenith the American Protective League claimed 250,000 dues-paying members in 600 cities and it was claimed that 52 million Americans — approximately half of the countrys population — lived in communities in which the APL maintained an active presence. The national headquarters of the APL was established in Washington, D. C. with Briggs installed as the Chairman of the governing National Board of Directors, charles Daniel Frey, of Chicago, served as the national director of the American Protective League. Teams of APL members conducted numerous raids and surveillance activities aimed at those who failed to register for the draft, in the most extraordinary cooperative action, thousands of APL members joined authorities in New York City for three days of checking registration cards. This resulted in more than 75,000 arrests, though fewer than 400 of those arrested were shown to be guilty of anything more than failing to carry their cards. APL agents, many of them female, worked undercover in factories and attended meetings in hope of uncovering saboteurs. The APL was also accused of illegally detaining citizens associated with anarchist, labor, an APL report on its actions in the Northwest for five months in 1918 showed that among its 25 activities, its largest effort, was in disrupting the IWW. Some IWW members had been involved in violent labor disputes and bomb plots against U. S. businessmen, in turn, the IWW alleged that APL members burgled and vandalized IWW offices and harassed IWW members. During World War I, the APL was joined by many similar societies and groups formed by civilians to fight against foreign infiltration. The Anti Yellow Dog League was an organization composed of school boys over the age of ten. Such leagues and societies branched across the nation, president Woodrow Wilson knew of the APLs activities and had misgivings about their methods. But he deferred to Gregorys judgment and took no action to curtail the APL, the APL also worked with the armys Military Intelligence Division, the governments principal investigatory agency in this period. When the relationship between the APL and the MID became public early in 1919, the revelations embarrassed Secretary of War Newton D. Baker, Baker tried to end the War Departments use of volunteer spies
25.
Seattle General Strike
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The Seattle General Strike of 1919 was a five-day general work stoppage by more than 65,000 workers in the city of Seattle, Washington, which lasted from February 6 to February 11 of that year. Dissatisfied workers in several unions began the strike to gain higher wages after two years of World War I wage controls, most other local unions, including members of the American Federation of Labor and the Industrial Workers of the World, joined the walkout. Although the strike was non-violent and lasted less than a week, government officials, the press, in these years, more workers in the city were organized in unions than ever before. There was a 400 percent increase in membership from 1915 to 1918. In the fall of 1919, for instance, Seattle longshoremen refused to load arms destined for the anti-Bolshevik White Army in Russia, most unions in Seattle were officially affiliated with the AFL, but the ideas of ordinary workers tended to be more radical than their leaders. A local labor leader from the time discussed the politics of Seattles workers in June 1919, nearly all of us agree on that but very strenuously disagree on the method. Some of us think we can get control through the Cooperative movement, some of us think through political action, Seattles businessmen commented on the phenomenon sourly, it was plain to everyone that these workers were conscientiously and energetically studying how to organize their coming to power. Already, workers in Seattle talked about workers power as a policy for the not far distant future. A few weeks after the November 1918 armistice ended World War I, in an attempt to divide the ranks of the union, the yard owners responded by offering a pay increase only to skilled workers. The union rejected that offer and Seattles 35,000 shipyard workers went on strike on January 21,1919, the message intended for the Metal Trades Association, the owners, was accidentally delivered to the Metal Trades Council, the union. The shipyard workers responded with anger directed at both their employers and the government which, through the EFC, seemed to be siding with corporate interests. The workers immediately appealed to the Seattle Central Labor Council for a strike of all workers in Seattle. Members of various unions were polled, with almost unanimous support in favor–even among traditionally conservative unions, as many as 110 locals officially supported the call for a general strike to begin on February 6,1919, at 10,00 am. Among the strikers were war veterans who wore their uniforms as they went on strike, a cooperative body made up of rank and file workers from all the striking locals was formed during the strike, called the General Strike Committee. It acted as a virtual counter-government for the city, the committee organized to provide essential services for the people of Seattle during the work stoppage. For instance, garbage that would create a health hazard was collected, laundry workers continued to handle hospital laundry, exemptions to the stoppage of labor had to be passed by the Strike Committee, and authorized vehicles bore signs to that effect. In general, work was not halted if doing so would endanger lives, in other cases, workers acted on their own initiative to create new institutions. Milk wagon drivers, after being denied the right by their employers to keep certain dairies open, a system of food distribution was also established, which throughout the strike committee distributed as many as 30,000 meals each day
26.
McCarthyism
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McCarthyism is the practice of making accusations of subversion or treason without proper regard for evidence. It originated with President Trumans Executive Order 9835 of March 21,1947, McCarthyism soon took on a broader meaning, describing the excesses of similar efforts. The term is now used more generally to describe reckless, unsubstantiated accusations. The primary targets of such suspicions were government employees, those in the entertainment industry, educators, many people suffered loss of employment or destruction of their careers, some even suffered imprisonment. McCarthyism was a social and cultural phenomenon that affected all levels of society and was the source of a great deal of debate. The historical period that came to be known as the McCarthy era began well before Joseph McCarthys own involvement in it, many factors contributed to McCarthyism, some of them extending back to the years of the First Red Scare, inspired by Communisms emergence as a recognized political force. While the United States was engaged in World War II and allied with the Soviet Union, the Soviet Union tested an atomic bomb in 1949, earlier than many analysts had expected. That same year, Mao Zedongs Communist army gained control of mainland China despite heavy American financial support of the opposing Kuomintang, in 1950, the Korean War began, pitting U. S. U. N. and South Korean forces against Communists from North Korea and China. The following year saw several significant developments regarding Soviet Cold War espionage activities. In January 1950, Alger Hiss, a high-level State Department official, was convicted of perjury, in Great Britain, Klaus Fuchs confessed to committing espionage on behalf of the Soviet Union while working on the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos National Laboratory during the War. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were arrested in 1950 on charges of stealing atomic bomb secrets for the Soviets and were executed in 1953, there were also more subtle forces encouraging the rise of McCarthyism. It had long been a practice of conservative politicians to refer to progressive reforms such as child labor laws. This tendency increased in the 1930s in reaction to the New Deal policies of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, in general, the vaguely defined danger of Communist influence was a more common theme in the rhetoric of anti-Communist politicians than was espionage or any other specific activity. He produced a piece of paper which he claimed contained a list of known Communists working for the State Department and this speech resulted in a flood of press attention to McCarthy and established the path that made him one of the most recognized politicians in the United States. The first recorded use of the term McCarthyism was in a cartoon by Washington Post editorial cartoonist Herbert Block. The cartoon depicted four leading Republicans trying to push an elephant to stand on a platform atop a stack of ten tar buckets. Block later wrote that there was nothing particularly ingenious about the term, if anyone has a prior claim on it, hes welcome to the word and to the junior senator from Wisconsin along with it. I will also throw in a set of dishes and a case of soap
27.
Smith Act
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The Alien Registration Act of 1940, 76th United States Congress, 3d session, ch. Approximately 215 people were indicted under the legislation, including alleged communists, anarchists, prosecutions under the Smith Act continued until a series of United States Supreme Court decisions in 1957 reversed a number of convictions under the Act as unconstitutional. The statute has been amended several times, the U. S. government has attempted on several occasions to regulate speech in wartime, beginning with the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798. Congressional investigations of extremist organizations in 1935 resulted in calls for the renewal of those statutes, the Foreign Agents Registration Act of 1938 addressed a particular concern, but not the general problem. As U. S. involvement in the European war seemed more likely. Patriotic organizations and the press raised alarms and provided examples. In July 1940, Time magazine called fifth column talk a national phenomenon. S, an omnibus bill that included several measures died in 1939, but the Senate Judiciary Committee revived it in May 1940. With little debate, the House of Representatives approved it by a vote of 382 to 4, with 45 not voting, on June 22,1940, the Senate did not take a recorded vote. It was signed into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on June 28,1940, the Act is referred to by the name of its principal author, for Rep. Howard W. Smith of Virginia, a Democrat and a leader of the anti-labor bloc in Congress. Suddenly the European war seemed almost at our doors, and who could tell what secret agents were already at work in America. So, partly because some such bill would be adopted anyway, and partly because the step, normally distasteful, appeared inevitable, in mid-August, officials of the DOJ held a two-day conference with state officials they called Law Enforcement Problems of National Defense. Attorney General Jackson and FBI Director Hoover delineated the roles for federal. On October 13,1941, the 77th United States Congress amended the Smith Act of 1940 authorizing a criminal offense for the reproduction of alien registration receipt cards. The law was repealed June 27,1952, ch,477, title IV, §403,66 Stat. The Smith Acts prohibition of proselytizing on behalf of revolution repeated language found in previous statutes, because the Supreme Court in Kessler v. at any time thereafter was a member of or affiliated with such an organization. The Smith Act expanded the grounds for deporting aliens to include weapons violations and it added heroin to the category of drug violations. The Smith Act required aliens applying for visas to register and be fingerprinted, every other alien resident of the United States, who is fourteen years of age or older. And remains in the United States for thirty days or longer, to apply for registration, guardians had to register minors, who had to register in person and be fingerprinted within 30 days of their fourteenth birthday
28.
Smith Act trials of Communist Party leaders
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The trials led to the US Supreme Court decisions Dennis v. United States and Yates v. United States. The first trial, held in New York in 1949, was one of the lengthiest trials in American history, large numbers of supporters of the defendants protested outside the courthouse on a daily basis. The trial featured twice on the cover of Time magazine, the defense frequently antagonized the judge and prosecution, and five defendants were jailed for contempt of court because they disrupted the proceedings. Public opinion was overwhelmingly against the defendants, two of the attorneys were subsequently disbarred. After the first trial, the prosecutors – encouraged by their success – prosecuted over 100 further CPUSA officers for violating the Smith Act, some were tried solely because they were members of the Party. Many of these defendants had difficulty finding attorneys to represent them, the trials decimated the leadership of the CPUSA. After the revolution in Russia in 1917, the communist movement gradually gained footholds in many countries around the world, in Europe and the US, communist parties were formed, generally allied with trade union and labor causes. During the First Red Scare of 1919–1920, many Americans were fearful that Bolshevism and anarchism would lead to disruption within the US. In the late 1930s, state and federal legislatures passed laws designed to expose communists, including laws requiring loyalty oaths, even the American Civil Liberties Union, a free-speech advocacy organization, passed a resolution in 1939 expelling communists from its leadership ranks. Following Congressional investigation of left-wing and right-wing extremist political groups in the mid-1930s, the alliance of Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in the August 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and their invasion of Poland in September gave the movement added impetus. In 1940 the Congress passed the Alien Registration Act of 1940 which required all adult residents to register with the government. The duty, necessity, desirability. of overthrowing or destroying any government in the United States by force or violence, with the intent to cause the overthrow or destruction of any government in the United States. Five million non-citizens were fingerprinted and registered following passage of the Act, the first persons convicted under the Smith Act were members of the Socialist Workers Party in Minneapolis in 1941. Leaders of the CPUSA, bitter rivals of the Trotskyist SWP, in 1943, the government used the Smith Act to prosecute American Nazis, that case ended in a mistrial when the judge died of a heart attack. Anxious to avoid alienating the Soviet Union, then an ally, the CPUSAs membership peaked at around 80,000 members during World War II under the leadership of Earl Browder, who was not a strict Stalinist and cooperated with the US government during the war. In late 1945, hardliner William Z. Foster took over leadership of the CPUSA, the CPUSA was not very influential in American politics, and by 1948 its membership had declined to 60,000 members. Truman did not feel that the CPUSA was a threat yet he made the specter of communism a campaign issue during the 1948 election. The perception of communism in the US was shaped by the Cold War, instead of holding elections for new governments, as agreed at Yalta, the Soviet Union occupied several Eastern European countries, leading to a strained relationship with the US
29.
John Birch Society
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The John Birch Society is, in its own words, a conservative advocacy group supporting anti-communism and limited government. It has been described as a right and far-right organization. Businessman and founder Robert W. Welch, Jr. developed an infrastructure in 1958 of chapters nationwide. Originally based in Belmont, Massachusetts, it is now headquartered in Appleton, Wisconsin, the organization owns American Opinion Publishing, which publishes The New American. The organization supports limited government and opposes wealth redistribution and economic interventionism and it opposes collectivism, totalitarianism, and communism. It opposes socialism as well, which it asserts is infiltrating U. S. governmental administration, in a 1983 edition of Crossfire, Congressman Larry McDonald, then its newly appointed president, characterized the society as belonging to the Old Right rather than the New Right. The society opposed the 1960s civil rights movement and claimed the movement had Communists in important positions, in the latter half of 1965, the JBS produced a flyer titled Whats Wrong With Civil Rights. Which was used as a newspaper advertisement and it has been deliberately and almost wholly created by the Communists patiently building up to this present stage for more than forty years. The society also opposed the Equal Rights Amendment, the society opposes one world government, and it has an immigration reduction view on immigration reform. It opposes the United Nations, the North American Free Trade Agreement, the Central America Free Trade Agreement, the Free Trade Area of the Americas, Constitution has been devalued in favor of political and economic globalization, and that this alleged trend is not accidental. It cited the existence of the former Security and Prosperity Partnership as evidence of a push towards a North American Union, the society has been described as ultraconservative, far right, and extremist. Other sources consider the society part of the patriot movement, the Southern Poverty Law Center, for example, lists the society as a Patriot Group. The society was established in Indianapolis, Indiana, on December 9,1958, by a group of 12 led by Robert W. Welch, Jr. a retired candy manufacturer from Belmont, Massachusetts. Welch claimed that Birch was an unknown but dedicated anti-communist, Harry Lynde Bradley, co-founder of the Allen Bradley Company and the Lynde and Harry Bradley Foundation, Fred C. Koch, founder of Koch Industries Robert Waring Stoddard, President of Wyman-Gordon, another was Revilo P. Oliver, a University of Illinois professor who was later expelled from the Society and helped found the National Alliance. According to Welch, both the U. S. and Soviet governments are controlled by the same furtive conspiratorial cabal of internationalists, greedy bankers, and corrupt politicians. If left unexposed, the traitors inside the U. S. government would betray the countrys sovereignty to the United Nations for a collectivist New World Order, managed by a one-world socialist government. There are many stages of welfarism, socialism, and collectivism in general, he wrote, but Communism is the state of them all
30.
COINTELPRO
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White supremacist groups, such as the Ku Klux Klan, were also targeted. Under Hoover, the agent in charge of COINTELPRO was William C, attorney General Robert F. Kennedy personally authorized some of the programs. Centralized operations under COINTELPRO officially began in August 1956 with a designed to increase factionalism, cause disruption. Tactics included anonymous phone calls, IRS audits, and the creation of documents that would divide the American communist organization internally. An October 1956 memo from Hoover reclassified the FBIs ongoing surveillance of black leaders, including it within COINTELPRO, in 1956, Hoover sent an open letter denouncing Dr. T. R. M. Howard, a civil leader, surgeon, and wealthy entrepreneur in Mississippi who had criticized FBI inaction in solving recent murders of George W. Lee, Emmett Till. After the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, Hoover singled out King as a target for COINTELPRO. Under pressure from Hoover to focus on King, Sullivan wrote and we must mark him now, if we have not done so before, as the most dangerous Negro of the future in this nation from the standpoint of communism, the Negro, and national security. Soon after, the FBI was systematically bugging Kings home and his hotel rooms, in the mid-1960s, King began publicly criticizing the Bureau for giving insufficient attention to the use of terrorism by white supremacists. Hoover responded by publicly calling King the most notorious liar in the United States, in his 1991 memoir, Washington Post journalist Carl Rowan asserted that the FBI had sent at least one anonymous letter to King encouraging him to commit suicide. You better take it before your filthy, abnormal, fraudulent self is bared to the nation, and even by 1969, as has been noted elsewhere, efforts to expose Martin Luther King, Jr. had not slackened even though King had been dead for a year. Furnished ammunition to conservatives to attack Kings memory, and. tried to block efforts to honor the slain leader, during the same period the program also targeted Malcolm X. The FBI heavily infiltrated Malcolms Organization of Afro-American Unity in the months of his life. To Prevent militant black nationalist groups and leaders from gaining RESPECTABILITY, and to prevent the long-range GROWTH of militant black organizations, especially among youth. The CIA launched its own domestic espionage project in 1967 called Operation CHAOS, a particular target was the Poor Peoples Campaign, a national effort organized by King and the SCLC to occupy Washington, D. C. The FBI monitored and disrupted the campaign on a national level, many news organizations initially refused to publish the information. Within the year, Director J. Edgar Hoover declared that the centralized COINTELPRO was over, additional documents were revealed in the course of separate lawsuits filed against the FBI by NBC correspondent Carl Stern, the Socialist Workers Party, and a number of other groups. Journalists and historians speculate that the government has not released many dossiers, many released documents have been partly, or entirely, redacted
31.
New Left
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Sections of the New Left rejected involvement with the labor movement and Marxisms historical theory of class struggle, although others gravitated to variants of Marxism like Maoism. In the United States, the movement was associated with the hippie movement, the origins of the New Left have been traced to several factors. It was from this French new left that the First New Left of Britain borrowed the term, the German-Jewish critical theorist Herbert Marcuse is referred to as the Father of the New Left. He rejected the theory of class struggle and the Marxist concern with labor, according to Leszek Kołakowski, Marcuse argued that since all questions of material existence have been solved, moral commands and prohibitions are no longer relevant. He regarded the realization of mans nature as the true liberation of humanity. Another prominent New Left thinker, Ernst Bloch, believed that socialism would prove the means for all beings to become immortal. The writings of sociologist C. Wright Mills, who popularized the term New Left in a 1960 open letter, Mills biographer, Daniel Geary, writes that his writings had a particularly significant impact on New Left social movements of the 1960s. As a result of Nikita Khrushchevs Secret Speech denouncing Joseph Stalin many abandoned the Communist Party of Great Britain, some joined various Trotskyist groupings or the Labour Party. The Marxist historians E. P. Thompson and John Saville of the Communist Party Historians Group published a dissenting journal within the CPGB called Reasoner. Refusing to discontinue the publication at the behest of the CPGB, Thompson was especially important in bringing the concept of a New Left to the United Kingdom in the Summer of 1959 with a New Reasoner lead essay, in which he described. A generation nourished on 1984 and Animal Farm, which enters politics at the point of disillusion where the middle-aged begin to get out. But their enthusiasm is not for the Party, or the Movement and they do not mean to give their enthusiasm cheaply away to any routine machine. They expect the politicians to do their best to trick or betray them and they prefer the amateur organisation and amateurish platforms of the Nuclear Disarmament Campaign to the method and manner of the left wing professional. They judge with the eyes of the first generation of the Nuclear Age. We have made no sustained critique of the economics of capitalism in the 1950s, but we still have a long way to go, and there are far too many timeless militants for whom the mixture is the same as before. In 1960, The New Reasoner merged with the Universities and Left Review to form the New Left Review and these journals attempted to synthesise a theoretical position of a Marxist revisionism, humanist, socialist Marxism, departing from orthodox Marxist theory. This publishing effort made the ideas of culturally oriented theorists available to a reading audience. In this early period, many on the New Left were involved in the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, under the long-standing editorial leadership of Perry Anderson, the New Left Review popularised the Frankfurt School, Antonio Gramsci, Louis Althusser and other forms of Marxism
32.
Great Society
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The Great Society was a set of domestic programs in the United States launched by Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964–65. The main goal was the elimination of poverty and racial injustice, President Johnson first used the term Great Society during a speech at Ohio University, then unveiled the program in greater detail at an appearance at University of Michigan. New major spending programs that addressed education, medical care, urban problems, rural poverty, the program and its initiatives were subsequently promoted by him and fellow Democrats in Congress in the 1960s and years following. The Great Society in scope and sweep resembled the New Deal domestic agenda of Franklin D. Roosevelt, some Great Society proposals were stalled initiatives from John F. Kennedys New Frontier. Anti-war Democrats complained that spending on the Vietnam War choked off the Great Society, the Great Societys programs expanded under the administrations of Republican presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. Kennedy proposed a tax cut lowering the top marginal income tax rate in the United States by 20%, from 91% to 71%. The tax cut also significantly reduced rates in the lower brackets as well as for corporations. The gross national product rose 10% in the first year of the tax cut, Johnsons tax cut measure triggered what one historian described as the greatest prosperity of the postwar years. GNP increased by 7% in 1964, 8% in 1965, the unemployment rate fell below 5%, and by 1966 the number of families with incomes of $7,000 a year or more had reached 55%, compared with 22% in 1950. In 1968, when John Kenneth Galbraith published a new edition of The Affluent Society, disposable personal income rose 15% in 1966 alone. Federal revenues increased dramatically from $94 billion in 1961 to $150 billion in 1967, as the Baby Boom generation aged, two and a half times more Americans would enter the labor force between 1965 and 1980 than between 1950 and 1965. Racial segregation persisted in the Southern United States, the Civil Rights Movement was gathering momentum, and in 1964, urban riots began within black neighborhoods in New York City and Los Angeles. By 1968 hundreds of cities had major African-American riots that caused a conservative political backlash. Foreign affairs were generally quiet except for the Vietnam War, which escalated from limited involvement in 1963 to a military operation in 1968 that soon overshadowed the Great Society. It is a society where no child will go unfed, and he later formally presented his specific goals for the Great Society in another speech at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan, on May 22,1964. We are going to assemble the best thought and broadest knowledge from all over the world to find these answers. I intend to establish working groups to prepare a series of conferences and meetings—on the cities, on beauty, on the quality of education. From these studies, we begin to set our course toward the Great Society
33.
War on Poverty
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The War on Poverty is the unofficial name for legislation first introduced by United States President Lyndon B. Johnson during his State of the Union address on January 8,1964. This legislation was proposed by Johnson in response to a poverty rate of around nineteen percent. As a part of the Great Society, Johnson believed in expanding the governments roles in education. These policies can also be seen as a continuation of Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal, which ran from 1933 to 1937, Johnson stated Our aim is not only to relieve the symptom of poverty, but to cure it and, above all, to prevent it. The legacy of the War on Poverty policy initiative remains in the existence of such federal programs as Head Start, Volunteers in Service to America, TRiO. The popularity of a war on poverty waned after the 1960s, the OEO was established in 1964 and quickly became a target of both left-wing and right-wing critics of the War on Poverty. Directors of the OEO included Sargent Shriver, Bertrand Harding, the OEO launched Project Head Start as an eight-week summer program in 1965. The project was designed to end poverty by providing preschool children from low-income families with a program that would meet emotional, social, health, nutritional. Head Start was then transferred to the Office of Child Development in the Department of Health, Education, President Johnson also announced a second project to follow children from the Head Start program. This was implemented in 1967 with Project Follow Through, the largest educational experiment ever conducted, Job Corps continues to help 70,000 youths annually at 122 Job Corps centers throughout the country. Besides vocational training, many Job Corps also offer GED programs as well as high school diplomas and they have remained between 11 and 15. 2% ever since. It is important to note, however, that the decline in poverty rates began in 1959,5 years before the introduction of the war on poverty. Poverty among Americans between ages 18–64 has fallen marginally since 1966, from 10. 5% then to 10. 1% today. Poverty has significantly fallen among Americans under 18 years old from 23% in 1964 down to less than 17%, the most dramatic decrease in poverty was among Americans over 65, which fell from 28. 5% in 1966 to 10. 1% today. In 2004, more than 35.9 million, or 12% of Americans including 12.1 million children, were considered to be living in poverty with a growth of almost 1 million per year. A2013 study published by Columbia University asserts that without the safety net. According to OECD data from 2012, the poverty rate before taxes and transfers was 28. 3%, while the poverty rate after taxes, the OEO was dismantled by President Nixon in 1973, though many of the agencys programs were transferred to other government agencies. According to the Readers Companion to U. S. Womens History, Many whites viewed Great Society programs as supporting the economic and social needs of low-income urban minorities, they lost sympathy, especially as the economy declined during the 1970s
34.
Poor People's Campaign
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The Poor Peoples Campaign, or Poor Peoples March on Washington, was a 1968 effort to gain economic justice for poor people in the United States. It was organized by Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, the campaign demanded economic and human rights for poor Americans of diverse backgrounds. The Poor People’s Campaign was motivated by a desire for economic justice, King and the SCLC shifted their focus to these issues after observing that gains in civil rights had not improved the material conditions of life for many African Americans. The Poor People’s Campaign was a multiracial effort—including African-Americans, whites, Mexican-Americans, Puerto Ricans, at the same time, the nature of poverty itself was changing as Americas population increasingly lived in cities, not farms. Poor African-Americans, particularly women, suffered from racism and sexism that amplified the impact of poverty, the Poor People’s Campaign sought to address poverty through income and housing. The campaign would help the poor by dramatizing their needs, uniting all races under the commonality of hardship, the Poor People’s Campaign was part of the second phase of the civil rights movement. King said, We believe the highest patriotism demands the ending of the war, the Poor People’s Campaign had complex origins. King considered bringing poor people to the capital since at least October 1966. The SCLC resolved to expand its civil rights struggle to include demands for economic justice, in his concluding address to the conference, King announced a shift from reform to revolution and stated, We have moved from the era of civil rights to an era of human rights. Moreover, it is difficult for government to quell it by superior force. Mass civil disobedience can use rage as a constructive and creative force and it is purposeless to tell Negroes they should not be enraged when they should be. Indeed, they will be mentally healthier if they do not suppress rage but vent it constructively, Civil disobedience can utilize the militancy wasted in riots to seize clothes or groceries many did not even want. Civil disobedience has never used on a mass scale in the North. It has rarely been seriously organized and resolutely pursued, too often in the past was it employed incorrectly. It was resorted to only when there was an absence of mass support, the exceptions were the massive school boycotts by Northern Negroes. They shook educational systems to their roots but they lasted only single days and were never repeated and this is not an easy program to implement. Riots are easier just because they need no organization, to have effect we will have to develop mass disciplined forces that can remain excited and determined without dramatic conflagrations. At another SCLC retreat in September, Edelman transmitted Kennedys message to King and suggested that King, stanley Levison proposed an even more ambitious crusade that modeled itself on the Bonus Army of 1932
35.
Black Power movement
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The Black Power movement was a political movement to achieve a form of Black Power and the many philosophies it contains. The movement saw various forms of some violent and some peaceful. The Black Power movement also represented socialist movements, all with the motivation of improving the standing of black people in society. Originated during the Civil Rights Movement, some doubted the philosophy of the movement begging for more radical action, the cornerstone of the movement was the Black Panther Party, a Black Power organization dedicated to socialism and the use of violence to achieve it. The Black Power movement developed in the criticisms of the Civil Rights Movement in the early 1960s, and over time and into the 1970s, after years of violence, many left the movement and the police began arresting violent actors in the movement. The Black Power movement also spilled out into the Caribbean creating the Black Power Revolution, on June 16,1966, in a speech in Greenwood, Mississippi after the assassination attempt on James Meredith by Aubrey James Norvell during the March Against Fear, Stokely Carmichael used the term. By the late 1960s Black Power came to represent the demand for more violent action to counter American white supremacy. Most of these ideas were influenced by Malcolm Xs criticism of Martin Luther King, the 1965 assassination of Malcolm X coupled with the urban uprisings of 1964 and 1965 ignited the Black Power movement. By 1968 Black Power was a movement with a growing force of people who sympathize. New organizations began to form such as the Black Panther Party each supporting Black Power philosophies ranging from socialism to black nationalism, the organization Nation of Islam began developing a black nationalist movement in the 1930s, inspiring later black nationalist groups. The Nation of Islam continues to function to this day, in the early 1960s the Almighty Black P. Stone Nation gang developed into a Black Power group supporting black nationalism. Malcolm X rose rapidly to become the minister and national spokesperson for the Nation of Islam, highly influenced by Malcolm Xs membership, the Nation claimed a membership of 30,000. In April 1964, one later, Malcolm X founded Muslim Mosque Inc. stating. It was they who conspired with Captain Joseph here in New York to pressure me out of the Nation, Malcolm X would later be assassinated in February 1965. They argued instead that blacks needed to power of their own rather than seek accommodations from the power structure in place. The organization continued its militancy later on and established ties with groups such as the Students for a Democratic Society. In late October 1966, Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale founded the Black Panther Party, in formulating a new politics, they drew on their experiences working with a variety of Black Power organizations. The initial tactic of the Black Panther Party utilized contemporary open-carry gun laws to protect Party members when policing the police and this act was done in order to record incidents of police brutality by distantly following police cars around neighborhoods
36.
Communist Party USA
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The Communist Party USA is a communist political party in the United States. Established in 1919 after a split in the Socialist Party of America, it has a long, complex history that is tied with the U. S. labor movement. For the first half of the 20th century, the Communist Party was an influential force in various struggles for democratic rights. It played a prominent role in the U. S. S, by August 1919, only months after its founding, the Communist Party claimed 50,000 to 60,000 members. Members also included anarchists and other radical leftists, at the time, the older and more moderate Socialist Party of America, suffering from criminal prosecutions for its antiwar stance during World War I, had declined to 40,000 members. But the Communist Partys early labor and organizing successes did not last, by 1957, membership had dwindled to less than 10,000, of whom some 1,500 were informants for the FBI. At the same time, the partys aging membership demographics and noticeably hollow calls for peaceful coexistence failed to speak to a new Left in the United States. In 1989, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union cut off funding to the CPUSA due to its opposition to glasnost. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the party held its convention, the majority reasserted the partys now purely Marxist outlook, prompting a minority faction which urged social democrats to exit the now reduced party. The party has since adopted Marxism-Leninism within its program, in 2014, the new draft of the party constitution declared, We apply the scientific outlook developed by Marx, Engels, Lenin and others in the context of our American history, culture, and traditions. The Communist Party USA is based in New York City, for decades, its West Coast newspaper was the Peoples World, and its East Coast newspaper was The Daily World. The two newspapers merged in 1986 into the Peoples Weekly World, the PWW has since become an online only publication, called Peoples World. The partys former theoretical journal, Political Affairs Magazine, is now published exclusively online. In June 2014, the Party held its 30th National Convention in Chicago, against homophobia and all manifestations of discrimination against gays, lesbians, bisexuals and transgender people. Among the points in the partys Immediate Program are a minimum wage for all workers, national universal health care. The Communist Party USA emphasizes a vision of socialism as an extension of American democracy, millions of workers are unemployed, underemployed, or insecure in their jobs, even during economic upswings and periods of recovery from recessions. Most workers experience long years of stagnant and declining wages, while health. Many workers are forced to second and third jobs to make ends meet
37.
Democratic Socialists of America
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Democratic Socialists of America is a democratic socialist organization in the United States. DSA is a member of the Socialist International, a political international of democratic socialist, social democratic and labour political parties. Initially the DSA consisted of approximately 5,000 ex-DSOC members and 1,000 ex-NAM members, upon the DSAs founding, Michael Harrington and socialist-feminist author Barbara Ehrenreich were elected as co-chairs of the organization. The DSA does not run its own candidates in elections, and that will weaken the power of corporations and increase the power of working people. The organization has at times endorsed electoral candidates, notably including Walter Mondale, Jesse Jackson, Ralph Nader, John Kerry, Bernie Sanders, the DSA was formed in 1982 after a merger between the Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee and the New American Movement. At the time of the merger of two organizations, the DSA was said to consist of approximately 5,000 former members of DSOC. In electoral politics, DSA, like DSOC before it, was strongly associated with Michael Harringtons position that the left wing of realism is found today in the Democratic Party. In its early years DSA opposed Republican presidential candidates by giving support to Democratic Party nominees like Walter Mondale in 1984. In 1988, DSA enthusiastically supported Jesse Jacksons second presidential campaign, during the 1990s, DSA gave the Clinton administration an overall rating of C-, less than satisfactory. The DSAs leadership believes working within the Democratic Party is necessary because of the nature of the American political system and that said, DSA is very critical of the corporate-funded Democratic Party leadership. In such instances, democratic socialists will support coalitional campaigns based on labor, women, people of color, electoral tactics are only a means for democratic socialists, the building of a powerful anti-corporate coalition is the end. In 2004, the organization backed John Kerry after he won the Democratic nomination, a Kerry defeat would be taken not as a defeat of the US political center, which Kerry represents, but of the mainstream Left. As a result, it would embolden the Right and demoralize the Left as much as Reagan’s 1984 defeat of Mondale did. On the other hand, a Kerry victory will let us press onward, the only resolution on upcoming elections at the DSAs 2005 convention focused on Bernie Sanderss independent campaign for the U. S. Senate. The organizations 2007 convention in Atlanta featured record-breaking attendance and more participation by the youth wing. In 2008, the DSA supported Democratic presidential candidate Barack Obama in his race against Republican candidate John McCain, in the article, the four issued a joint statement arguing that Obama was the most Progressive of any Democratic Presidential candidate since Robert Kennedy in 1968. Following Obamas election, many on the right began to allege that his administrations policies were socialistic, a claim rejected by DSA, for the 2016 election, DSA endorsed US Senator Bernie Sanders as the favored presidential candidate. DSA managed the campaign, an internally focused initiative directed towards mobilizing DSA supporters for Sanders
38.
Freedom Road Socialist Organization
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The Freedom Road Socialist Organization was formed in 1985 as many of the Maoist-oriented groups formed in the United States New Communist Movement of the 1970s were shrinking or collapsing. The FRSO tried to solidify some of these groups into an organization that would have some longevity. The component groups of the FRSO saw ultraleftism as the error of the New Communist Movement and attempted to reverse what they saw as that movements excessive divisiveness. The FRSO later absorbed other groups too, including the Amílcar Cabral-Paul Robeson Collective in 1988, the FRSO supports self-determination, up to and including independence, for African Americans in the Black Belt Region of the U. S. South, Chicanos in the U. S. Southwest and the Hawaiian nation in the Pacific Ocean, much of the theory regarding this comes from the African American Communist Harry Haywood, as laid out in resolutions at the Comintern in 1928 and 1930. The FRSOs position on the question is a defining feature of its politics. In 1999, the FRSO split into two competing organizations, each retaining the organizations name, each of these groups considers itself to be the only legitimate Freedom Road Socialist Organization. In the 1980s, members of the FRSO and its predecessor organizations worked to build the Rainbow Coalition and they also worked on the successful campaign to get African-American progressive Harold Washington elected as mayor of Chicago in 1983 and reelected in 1987. In the 1980s, the FRSO also played an important role in the U. S. student movement, particularly the FRSO played a role in leading the Progressive Student Network, a national, multi-issue, progressive student activist organization. FRSO played a role in the movement that emerged in 1990 in opposition to the Gulf War. FRSO also helped build the reproductive rights / abortion rights movement in this period, one position saw the events of 1989-1991 as indicative of a deep crisis in socialism that required what they called left refoundation. The other position continued to assess the experience of socialist countries as essentially positive and this side continued to identify itself as Marxist-Leninist. At the organizations 1991 Congress, the groups highest decision-making body and this document was reaffirmed at the 1997 Congress. This internal division solidified throughout the 1990s until the split in 1999. In 1994 the Socialist Organizing Network merged into FRSO, SON was formed out of the dissllution of the League of Revolutionary Struggle in the late 1980s, and included those who had been in LRS that still considered themselves Marxists. A new name never came to fruition, so the name reverted to Freedom Road Socialist Organization, but the 1994 FRSO Congress, at which the FRSO/SON merger was formalized, was referred to as the First Congress of FRSO/SON. Socialist Organizing Networks publication Moving Forward was published by the FRSO for a period after the merger. The FRSO continued to sporadically publish Forward Motion during the 1990s, in 1998, the FRSOs Chicago District and Minnesota / Madison District began to publish a Midwest regional newspaper called Fight Back
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Freedom Socialist Party
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The Freedom Socialist Party is a far-left socialist political party with a revolutionary feminist philosophy that emerged from a split in the United States Socialist Workers Party in 1966. The party views the struggles of women and minorities as part of the struggle of the working class, the SWPs Seattle branch, with support from individuals in other cities, split off from the SWP over what it described as the SWPs entrenched opportunism and undemocratic methods. The current National Secretary of the FSP is Doug Barnes, the immediate forerunner of the FSP was the Kirk-Kaye tendency within the SWP was led by Dick Fraser and Clara Fraser who were at the time husband and wife. At the time Richard Fraser was seen as the leader of the tendency due to his development of the theory of revolutionary integrationism. The FSP became a pole of attraction for Seattle leftists opposed to the SWPs internal politics, FSP leaders Clara Fraser and Gloria Martin built on the socialist analysis of womens oppression to create a Leninist party that is socialist-feminist in ideology and practice. Women comprise a predominant part of the party leadership, overall, membership is very diverse and is composed of all genders and races. The party has frequently supported united front efforts on a number of issues and often helps other socialist groups get on the ballot, the party has branches in a number of U. S. cities and a sympathizing section in Australia. The Freedom Socialist is produced six times a year, Red Letter Press publishes books and pamphlets for the party. The FSP is affiliated with Radical Women, which is an autonomous socialist feminist organization, laRouche alleged that Gilbert and the FSP publishing house, which had issued a pamphlet by Gilbert critical of LaRouches ideology and political history were in violation of campaign finance laws. The FEC found LaRouches complaint to be merit and dismissed it. In 2004, Jordana Sardo, party organizer in Portland, Oregon, ran for the Oregon House of Representatives in Oregons 45th House district, other FSP campaigns have been run in New York, Washington state, and California. In 2012, the party ran a presidential campaign with candidates Stephen Durham for U. S. president. The ticket received 117 votes nationwide, in the 2016 election, FSP critically endorsed Jeff Mackler of Socialist Action for president. PSOL Freedom Socialist Party Red Letter Press Radical Women Freedom Socialist Party Seattle Branch Records, contains records from Windoffers service with the Freedom Socialist Party
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Industrial Workers of the World
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The Industrial Workers of the World, members of which are commonly termed Wobblies, is an international labor union that was founded in 1905 in Chicago, Illinois in the United States of America. The union combines general unionism with industrial unionism, as it is a union whose members are further organized within the industry of their employment. The philosophy and tactics of the IWW are described as industrial unionism. At their peak in August 1917, IWW membership was more than 150,000, Membership declined dramatically in the 1920s due to several factors. Membership also declined due to government crackdowns on radical, anarchist and socialist groups during the First Red Scare after WWI. The most decisive factor in the decline in IWW membership and influence, however, was a 1924 schism in the organization, from which the IWW never fully recovered. The IWW promotes the concept of One Big Union, and contends that all workers should be united as a class to supplant capitalism. They are known for the Wobbly Shop model of democracy, in which workers elect their managers. IWW membership does not require that one work in a represented workplace, in 2012, the IWW moved its General Headquarters offices to 2036 West Montrose, Chicago. The origin of the nickname Wobblies is uncertain, the convention, which took place on June 24,1905, was referred to as the Industrial Congress or the Industrial Union Convention—it would later be known as the First Annual Convention of the IWW. In its time, it was considered one of the most important events in the history of industrial unionism. There can be no peace so long as hunger and want are found among millions of the people and the few. We find that the centering of the management of industries into fewer and fewer hands makes the trade unions unable to cope with the growing power of the employing class. The trade unions foster a state of affairs which allows one set of workers to be pitted against another set of workers in the same industry, thereby helping defeat one another in wage wars. Moreover, the trade unions aid the employing class to mislead the workers into the belief that the class have interests in common with their employers. Instead of the motto, A fair days wage for a fair days work, we must inscribe on our banner the revolutionary watchword. It is the mission of the working class to do away with capitalism. The army of production must be organized, not only for everyday struggle with capitalists, by organizing industrially we are forming the structure of the new society within the shell of the old
