1.
Rite Aid
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Rite Aid Corporation is an American drugstore chain in the United States and a Fortune 500 company headquartered in East Pennsboro Township, Cumberland County, Pennsylvania, near Camp Hill. Rite Aid is the largest drugstore chain on the East Coast, Rite Aid began in 1962 as a single store opened in Scranton, Pennsylvania called Thrift D Discount Center. After several years of growth, Rite Aid adopted its current name, today, Rite Aid is publicly traded on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker RAD. Its major competitors are CVS and Walgreens, the latter announced on October 27,2015, that it would acquire Rite Aid for $17.4 billion pending approval. Alex Grass founded the Rite Aid chain in Scranton, Pennsylvania in September 1962, the first store was called Thrift D Discount Center, a health and beauty aids store, without a pharmacy. It was an offshoot of Rack Rite Distributors, a subsidiary of his father-in law’s Lehrman & Sons which Alex Grass launched in 1958, the company rented and stocked racks with health and beauty aids in grocery stores. In 1965, Thrift Ds 23rd store added a pharmacy and the name was changed to Rite Aid. Through acquisitions and new stores, Rite Aid quickly expanded into 5 northeast states by 1965, the chain was officially named Rite Aid Corporation in 1968 and made its debut on the American Stock Exchange. It moved to the New York Stock Exchange in 1970, in 2011, Rite Aid was ranked #100 on Fortune 500 Largest U. S. Corporations. Ten years after its first store opened, Rite Aid operated 267 locations in 10 states,1983 marked a sales milestone of $1 billion. A 420-store acquisition along the east coast expanded Rite Aids holdings beyond 2,000 locations, among the companies acquired was Baltimore, Marylands Reads Drug Store. On April 10,1989, Peoples Drugs 114 unit Lane Drug of Ohio was purchased by Rite Aid, Rite Aid acquired twenty-four Hooks Drug stores from Revco in 1994, selling nine of those stores to Perry Drug Stores, a Michigan-based pharmacy chain. One year later, in turn, the 224-store Perry chain was acquired by Rite Aid, the 1, 000-store West Coast chain Thrifty PayLess was later acquired in 1996. The acquisition of Thrifty PayLess included the Northwest-based Bi-Mart membership discount stores, acquisitions of Harco, Inc. and K&B, Inc. brought Rite Aid into the Gulf Coast area. In the 1990s, Rite Aid partnered with Carl Paladinos Ellicott Development Co. to expand the presence in Upstate New York. In 2015, Rite Aid purchased EnvisionRx, a pharmacy manager, which owns subsidiary PBMs MedTrak, Connect Health Solutions. General Nutrition Corporation and Rite Aid formed a partnership in January 1999, a partnership with drugstore. com in June 1999 allowed customers of Rite Aid to place medical prescription orders online for same-day, in-store pickup. Rite Aid had an accounting scandal that led to the departure of several top ranking executives
2.
Tampon
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A tampon is a mass of absorbent material, primarily used as a feminine hygiene product. Historically, the word originated from the medieval French word tampion, meaning a piece of cloth to stop a hole. At present, tampons are designed to be inserted into the vagina during menstruation. However, using tampons may be difficult or impossible for those with untreated vaginismus or an untreated imperforate hymen, several countries regulate tampons as medical devices. In the United States, they are considered to be a Class II medical device by the Food and they are sometimes used for hemostasis in surgery. Women have used tampons during menstruation for thousands of years, in her book Everything You Must Know About Tampons, Nancy Friedman writes, here is evidence of tampon use throughout history in a multitude of cultures. The oldest printed medical document, Papyrus Ebers, refers to the use of soft papyrus tampons by Egyptian women in the fifteenth century B. C. Roman women used wool tampons. Women in ancient Japan fashioned tampons out of paper, held them in place with a bandage, traditional Hawaiian women used the furry part of a native fern called hapuu, and grasses, mosses and other plants are still used by women in parts of Asia. R. G. Dr. Earle Haas patented the first modern tampon, Tampax, gertrude Tendrich bought the patent rights to their company trademark Tampax and started as a seller and spokesperson in 1933. During her study of anatomy, German gynecologist Dr. Judith Esser-Mittag developed a digital style tampon. In the late 1940s, Dr. Carl Hahn, together with Heinz Mittag, Dr. Hahn sold his company to Johnson and Johnson in 1974. Several political statements have made in regards to tampon use. In 2000, a 10% Goods and Services Tax was introduced in Australia, while lubricant, condoms, incontinence pads and numerous medical items were regarded as essential and exempt from the tax, tampons continue to be charged GST. Prior to the introduction of GST, several states also applied a tax to tampons at a higher rate than GST. Specific petitions such as Axe the Tampon Tax have been created to oppose this tax, although no change has been made. In the UK, tampons are subject to Value Added Tax at a rate of 5%. In 2014 a petition, started by Laura Coryton founder of the Stop Taxing Periods campaign, the petition pointed out that there is no tax on exotic meats, but it has also been noted that there is a 20% rate on toilet paper and toothpaste. Changes to EU legislation, which would require the approval of all 27 EU member states, Tampon design varies between companies and across product lines in order to offer a variety of applicators, materials and absorbencies
3.
Sanitary napkin
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These pads are not to be confused with generally higher absorbency incontinence pads, which are worn by men or women who have urinary incontinence problems or experience stress incontinence. Menstrual pads may be used by people for this purpose. Through the ages women have used different forms of menstrual protection, women often used strips of folded old cloth to catch their menstrual flow, which is why the term on the rag is used to refer to menstruation. The first commercially available American disposable napkins were Listers Towels created by Johnson & Johnson in 1888, kotexs first advertisement for products made with this wood pulp appeared in 1888. Several of the first disposable pad manufacturers were also manufacturers of bandages, until disposable sanitary pads were created, cloth or reusable pads were widely used to collect menstrual blood. Women often used a variety of home-made menstrual pads which they crafted from various fabrics, or other absorbent materials, even after disposable pads were commercially available, for several years they were too expensive for many women to afford. When they could be afforded, women were allowed to place money in a box so that they would not have to speak to the clerk and it took several years for disposable menstrual pads to become commonplace. However, they are now used exclusively in most of the industrialized world. The first of the pads were generally in the form of a cotton wool or similar fibrous rectangle covered with an absorbent liner. The liner ends were extended front and back so as to fit through loops in a special girdle or belt worn beneath undergarments and this design was notorious for slipping either forward or back of the intended position. Later an adhesive strip was placed on the bottom of the pad for attachment to the saddle of the panties, the belted sanitary napkin quickly disappeared during the early 1980s. The ergonomic design and materials used to make pads also changed through the 1980s to today, with earlier materials not being as absorbent and effective, and early pads being up to two centimetres thick, leaks were a major problem. The materials used to manufacture most pads are derived from the industry and forestry. The remaining materials are derived from the petroleum industry, the cover stock used is polypropylene non woven. Cloth menstrual pads made a comeback around the 1970s, with their popularity increasing in the late 80s, reasons women choose to switch to cloth menstrual pads include comfort, savings over time, environmental impact and health reasons. There are many styles of cloth menstrual pads available today, cloth menstrual pads can have waterproof lining, which provides more leak protection but may also be less breathable. In underdeveloped countries, reusable or makeshift pads are used to collect menstrual blood. Rags, soil, and mud are also used for collecting menstrual flow
4.
Profanity
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Profanity is socially offensive language, which may also be called bad language, strong language, coarse language, foul language, bad words, vulgar language, lewd language, choice words or expletives. The use of language is swearing, cursing or cussing. Used in this sense, profanity is a subset of a languages lexicon that is considered to be strongly impolite. It can show a debasement of someone or something, or show intense emotion, linguistically, profanity takes the form of words or verbal expressions that fall into the category of formulaic language. The term profane originates from classical Latin profanus, literally before the temple and it carried the meaning of either desecrating what is holy or with a secular purpose as early as the 1450s CE. Moreover, many Bible verses speak against swearing, profanities, in the original meaning of blasphemous profanity, are part of the ancient tradition of the comic cults, which laughed and scoffed at the deity or deities. An example from Gargantua and Pantagruel is Christ, look ye, in English, swear words and curse words tend to have Germanic, rather than Latin etymology. Shit has a Germanic root, as, probably, does fuck, the more technical alternatives are often Latin in origin, such as defecate or excrete, and fornicate or copulate respectively. Strong language is by no means a recent phenomenon, the Bible records instances, such as mention of men who eat their own dung, and drink their own piss in the Authorized King James Version of the 1611 translation of Hebrew text of 2 Kings 18,27. Analyses of recorded conversations reveal that an average of roughly 80–90 words that a person each day –0. 5% to 0. 7% of all words – are swear words. In comparison, first-person plural pronouns make up 1% of spoken words, Swearing performs certain psychological functions, and uses particular linguistic and neurological mechanisms, all these are avenues of research. Functionally similar behavior can be observed in chimpanzees, and may contribute to our understanding, Keele University researchers Stephens, Atkins, and Kingston found that swearing relieves the effects of physical pain. Stephens said I would advise people, if they hurt themselves, however, the overuse of swear words tends to diminish this effect. The Keele team won the Ig Nobel Peace Prize in 2010 for their research, a team of neurologists and psychologists at the UCLA Easton Center for Alzheimers Disease Research suggested that swearing may help differentiate Alzheimers disease from frontotemporal dementia. Neurologist Antonio Damasio noted that loss of language due to damage to the language areas of the brain. A group of researchers from Wright State University studied why people swear in the world by collecting tweets posted on Twitter. An interdisciplinary team of researchers from the University of Warsaw investigated bilingual swearing and it listed the profanities in order of decreasing severity. A similar survey was carried out in 2009 by New Zealands Broadcasting Standards Authority, the results were published in March 2010, in a report called What Not to Swear
5.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
6.
Ancient Greece
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Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th-9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and this was followed by the period of Classical Greece, an era that began with the Greco-Persian Wars, lasting from the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Due to the conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedonia, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the end of the Mediterranean Sea. Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a influence on ancient Rome. For this reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered the cradle of Western civilization. Classical Antiquity in the Mediterranean region is considered to have begun in the 8th century BC. Classical Antiquity in Greece is preceded by the Greek Dark Ages and this period is succeeded, around the 8th century BC, by the Orientalizing Period during which a strong influence of Syro-Hittite, Jewish, Assyrian, Phoenician and Egyptian cultures becomes apparent. The end of the Dark Ages is also dated to 776 BC. The Archaic period gives way to the Classical period around 500 BC, Ancient Periods Astronomical year numbering Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details The history of Greece during Classical Antiquity may be subdivided into five major periods. The earliest of these is the Archaic period, in which artists made larger free-standing sculptures in stiff, the Archaic period is often taken to end with the overthrow of the last tyrant of Athens and the start of Athenian Democracy in 508 BC. It was followed by the Classical period, characterized by a style which was considered by observers to be exemplary, i. e. classical, as shown in the Parthenon. This period saw the Greco-Persian Wars and the Rise of Macedon, following the Classical period was the Hellenistic period, during which Greek culture and power expanded into the Near and Middle East. This period begins with the death of Alexander and ends with the Roman conquest, Herodotus is widely known as the father of history, his Histories are eponymous of the entire field. Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Plato, most of these authors were either Athenian or pro-Athenian, which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than those of many other cities. Their scope is limited by a focus on political, military and diplomatic history, ignoring economic. In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization, literacy had been lost and Mycenaean script forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. The Lelantine War is the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period and it was fought between the important poleis of Chalcis and Eretria over the fertile Lelantine plain of Euboea. Both cities seem to have suffered a decline as result of the long war, a mercantile class arose in the first half of the 7th century BC, shown by the introduction of coinage in about 680 BC
7.
Auschwitz concentration camp
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Auschwitz concentration camp was a network of German Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps built and operated by the Third Reich in Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany during World War II. It consisted of Auschwitz I, Auschwitz II–Birkenau, Auschwitz III–Monowitz, Auschwitz I was first constructed to hold Polish political prisoners, who began to arrive in May 1940. The first extermination of prisoners took place in September 1941, from early 1942 until late 1944, transport trains delivered Jews to the camps gas chambers from all over German-occupied Europe, where they were killed with the pesticide Zyklon B. An estimated 1.3 million people were sent to the camp, around 90 percent of those killed were Jewish, approximately 1 in 6 Jews killed in the Holocaust died at the camp. Many of those not killed in the gas chambers died of starvation, forced labor, infectious diseases, individual executions, and medical experiments. In the course of the war, the camp was staffed by 7,000 members of the German Schutzstaffel, some, including camp commandant Rudolf Höss, were executed. The Allied Powers refused to believe reports of the atrocities at the camp. As Soviet troops approached Auschwitz in January 1945, most of its population was sent west on a death march, the prisoners remaining at the camp were liberated on 27 January 1945, a day now commemorated as International Holocaust Remembrance Day. In the following decades, survivors, such as Primo Levi, Viktor Frankl, and Elie Wiesel, wrote memoirs of their experiences in Auschwitz, and the camp became a dominant symbol of the Holocaust. In 1947, Poland founded the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum on the site of Auschwitz I and II, immediately after the Nazi seizure of power in Germany, acts of violence perpetrated against Jews became ubiquitous. The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, passed on 7 April 1933 excluded most Jews from the legal profession, similar legislation soon deprived Jewish members of other professions of the right to practise. Harassment and economic pressure were used by the regime to encourage Jews to leave the country voluntarily and their businesses were denied access to markets, forbidden to advertise in newspapers, and deprived of government contracts. German Jews were subjected to violent attacks and boycotts, in September 1935 the Nuremberg Laws were enacted. The Reich Citizenship Law stated that only those of Germanic or related blood were defined as citizens, thus Jews and other minority groups were stripped of their German citizenship. The laws were expanded on 26 November 1935 to include Romani people and this supplementary decree defined Gypsies as enemies of the race-based state, the same category as Jews. By the start of World War II in 1939, around 250,000 of Germanys 437,000 Jews had emigrated to the United States, Palestine, the United Kingdom, Nazi Germany invaded Poland in September 1939. German dictator Adolf Hitler ordered that the Polish leadership and intelligentsia be destroyed, approximately 65,000 civilians, who were viewed as being inferior to the Aryan master race, were killed by the end of 1939. In addition to leaders of Polish society, the Nazis killed Jews, prostitutes, Romani, sS-Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich, then head of the Gestapo, ordered on 21 September that Polish Jews should be rounded up and concentrated into cities with good rail links
8.
Enhanced interrogation techniques
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Armed Forces at black sites around the world, including Bagram, Guantanamo Bay, and Abu Ghraib, authorized by officials of the George W. Bush administration. Several detainees endured medically-unnecessary rectal rehydration, rectal fluid resuscitation, in addition to brutalizing detainees, there were threats to their families such as threats to harm children, and threats to sexually abuse or to cut the throat of detainees mothers. The CIA admits to waterboarding three people implicated in the September 11 attacks, Abu Zubaydah, Khalid Shaikh Mohammed, and Mohammed al-Qahtani. A Senate Intelligence Committee found photos of a surrounded by buckets of water at the Salt Pit prison. Former guards and inmates at Guantánamo have said that deaths which the US military called suicides at the time, were in fact homicides under torture, no murder charges have been brought for these or for acknowledged torture related homicides at Abu Ghraib and at Bagram. Debates arose over whether enhanced interrogation violated U. S. anti-torture statutes or international laws such as the UN Convention against Torture. The United Nations special rapporteur on torture, Juan Mendez stated that waterboarding is torture—immoral and illegal, in 2009 both President Barack Obama and Attorney General Eric Holder said that certain of the techniques are torture, and repudiated their use. In July 2014, the European Court of Human Rights formally ruled that enhanced interrogation is torture, and ordered Poland to pay restitution to men tortured at a CIA black site there. In December 2014, the U. S. Senate made public around 10% of the Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture, a report about the CIAs use of torture during the George W. Bush administration. Almost immediately after the 9/11 attacks, Bush administration officials conferring by video link from bunkers decided to treat the attacks as acts of war, the question arose, were captured prisoners to be treated as prisoners of war. On September 17,2001, President Bush signed a still-classified directive giving the CIA the power secretly to imprison and interrogate detainees. By putting them outside the law, the President was asserting the power to do anything he or his commanders wanted at any time, in total darkness, regardless of the consequences. They were subjected to beatings, electric shocks, exposure to cold, suspension from the ceiling by their arms. An unknown number died as a result, in late 2001 and early 2002 interrogation under torture at secret sites was still ad hoc, not yet organized as a bureaucratic program, nor sanctioned under Justice Department legal cover. As early as November 2001 the CIA general counsel began considering the legality of torture, Torture was necessary to prevent imminent, significant, physical harm to persons, where there is no other available means to prevent the harm. Later that April Dr. Jose Rodriguez, head of the CIAs clandestine service, the CIA sought immunity from prosecution, sometimes known as a get out of jail free card. Condoleezza Rice recalled being told that U. S. military personnel were subjected in training to certain physical and psychological interrogation techniques, during the discussions, John Ashcroft is reported to have said, Why are we talking about this in the White House. History will not judge this kindly, after the Justice Department completed what are now known as the Torture Memos, Condoleezza Rice told the CIA that the techniques were approved in July 2002
9.
David Brooks (cultural commentator)
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David Brooks is an American conservative political and cultural commentator who writes for The New York Times. He is currently a columnist for The New York Times and commentator on PBS NewsHour, Brooks was born in Toronto, Ontario—his father was working on his PhD in Canada at the time—and spent his early years in the middle-income Stuyvesant Town housing development in Lower Manhattan. His father taught English literature at New York University, while his mother studied nineteenth-century British history at Columbia, although his family was Jewish, Brooks himself is not religiously observant. As a young child, Brooks attended the Grace Church School, when he was 12, his family moved to the Philadelphia Main Line, the affluent suburbs of Philadelphia. He graduated from Radnor High School in 1979, in 1983, Brooks graduated from the University of Chicago with a degree in history. His senior thesis was on popular science writer Robert Ardrey, as an undergraduate, Brooks frequently contributed reviews and satirical pieces to campus publications. The evenings are reserved for extended bouts of name-dropping, to his piece, Brooks appended the note, “Some would say I’m envious of Mr. Buckley. But if truth be known, I just want a job and have a way of asking. When Buckley arrived to give his talk, he asked whether Brooks was in the lecture audience, upon graduation, Brooks became a police reporter for the City News Bureau of Chicago, a wire service owned jointly by the Chicago Tribune and Chicago Sun Times. Brooks was an outsider in more ways than his relative inexperience, national Review was a Catholic magazine, and Brooks is not Catholic. Sam Tanenhaus later reported in The New Republic that Buckley might have eventually named Brooks his successor if it hadn’t been for his being Jewish, “If true, it would be upsetting, ” Brooks says. After his internship with Buckley ended, Brooks spent some time at the conservative Hoover Institution at Stanford University and he also filled in for five months as a movie critic. From 1990–94, The Wall Street Journal posted Brooks as an op-ed columnist to Brussels, whence he covered Russia, the Middle East, South Africa, on his return, Brooks joined the neo-conservative Weekly Standard when it was launched in 1994–95. In 1996, he edited an anthology, Backward and Upward, in 2000, Brooks published a book of cultural commentary titled Bobos in Paradise, The New Upper Class and How They Got There to considerable acclaim. The book, a paean to consumerism, argued that the new managerial or new upper class represents a marriage between the idealism of the 1960s and the self-interest of the 1980s. According to a 2010 article in New York Magazine written by Christopher Beam, New York Times editorial-page editor Gail Collins called Brooks in 2003, Collins was looking for a conservative to replace outgoing columnist William Safire, but one who understood how liberals think. “I was looking for the kind of conservative writer that wouldn’t make our readers shriek and throw the paper out the window, Brooks started writing in September 2003. “The first six months were miserable, ” Brooks says
10.
Abu Ghraib
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Abu Ghraib is a city in the Baghdad Governorate of Iraq, located just west of Baghdads city center, or northwest of Baghdad International Airport. It has a population of 189,000, the old road to Jordan passes through Abu Ghraib. The government of Iraq created the city and Abu Ghraib District in 1944, the placename has been translated as father of little crows, but this translation has been suspected of being a folk etymology, and the name may be related to gharb west instead. Abu Ghraib was known for the Abu Ghraib Infant Formula Plant, the plant was built in 1980 and painted with a dappled camouflage pattern during the Iran–Iraq War. It was bombed during the Gulf War, and the Iraqi government allowed CNN reporter Peter Arnett to film the building along with a conspicuous hand-painted sign that read. The city is also the site of Abu Ghraib prison, which was one of the sites where political dissidents were incarcerated under former ruler Saddam Hussein, thousands of these dissidents were tortured and executed. After Saddam Husseins fall, the Abu Ghraib prison was used by American forces in Iraq, in 2003, Abu Ghraib prison earned international notoriety for the torture and abuses by members of the United States Army during the post-invasion period. - NPR story on Abu-Ghraib pronunciation]
11.
Frak (expletive)
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Frak or frack is a fictional version of fuck first used in the 1978-Battlestar Galactica television series. It continues to be used throughout different versions of the Battlestar Galactica franchise as a profanity in science fiction, there are other uses, however, companies have adopted it as the name for commercial products, notably a computer game. Frak is a censored version of fuck first used in the 1978 Battlestar Galactica series. In the re-imagined version, and subsequently in Caprica, it appears with greater frequency and with the revised spelling frak, in that framework it seems to function as a substitute for fuck in several different forms. Frak. was the title of a game released on the BBC Micro B and Acorn Electron in 1984. The game saw the user controlling a caveman called Trogg, who had to navigate various maze-like scenarios, when coming into contact with such an obstacle or falling a substantial distance, Trogg would cry Frak. before the user restarting the level. The word is also a direct Battlestar Galactica reference in the Periphery song Frak the Gods, a campaign in the United Kingdom aimed at banning hydraulic fracturing, the controversial method of shale gas extraction known as fracking, have organised themselves under the name Frack Off
12.
Ambiguity
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Ambiguity is a type of uncertainty of meaning in which several interpretations are plausible. It is thus an attribute of any idea or statement whose intended meaning cannot be resolved according to a rule or process with a finite number of steps. The concept of ambiguity is contrasted with vagueness. In ambiguity, specific and distinct interpretations are permitted, whereas with information that is vague, context may play a role in resolving ambiguity. For example, the piece of information may be ambiguous in one context. The lexical ambiguity of a word or phrase pertains to its more than one meaning in the language to which the word belongs. Meaning here refers to whatever should be captured by a good dictionary, for instance, the word bank has several distinct lexical definitions, including financial institution and edge of a river. Another example is as in apothecary, one could say I bought herbs from the apothecary. This could mean one actually spoke to the apothecary or went to the apothecary, the context in which an ambiguous word is used often makes it evident which of the meanings is intended. If, for instance, someone says I buried $100 in the bank, however, some linguistic contexts do not provide sufficient information to disambiguate a used word. Lexical ambiguity can be addressed by algorithmic methods that automatically associate the meaning with a word in context. The use of multi-defined words requires the author or speaker to clarify their context, the goal of clear concise communication is that the receiver have no misunderstanding about what was meant to be conveyed. Ambiguity is a tool of political science. More problematic are words whose senses express closely related concepts, good, for example, can mean useful or functional, exemplary, pleasing, moral, righteous, etc. I have a daughter is not clear about which sense is intended. The various ways to apply prefixes and suffixes can also create ambiguity, syntactic ambiguity arises when a sentence can have two different meanings because of the structure of the sentence—its syntax. This is often due to an expression, such as a prepositional phrase. He ate the cookies on the couch, for example, could mean that he ate those cookies that were on the couch, to get in, you will need an entrance fee of $10 or your voucher and your drivers license
13.
Tired and emotional
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The phrase tired and emotional is a chiefly British euphemism for alcohol intoxication. The Guardian describes the phrase as having joined those that are part of every journalists vocabulary, because of this widespread interpretation, one source cautions professional British journalists against its use as even if the journalist meant it literally, it could be considered defamatory. According to a legend, Brown appeared on the BBC following the assassination of John F. Kennedy in 1963. In reality, Brown appeared on ITV, and although he was criticised for his apparent intoxication, no evidence of the phrase being broadcast has been found. It is also said to have its origin in a statement to the press by Browns agent, Edward Eldred, the phrase became associated with Brown, who already had a reputation for alcohol abuse. The 1993 biography by journalist Peter Paterson, which other things described his fondness for the bottle, was titled Tired and Emotional. Dunphy subsequently apologised to viewers, saying, I arrived for work tired and emotional, I hadnt slept and I think wasnt fit to fulfill my contract. In 2004, Private Eye noted when The Sun newspaper, after an incident involving Prince Harry, then 20, hed been drinking and was tired and emotional. The only remaining description of Drašković in this way is in the article by Simpson entitled Change in the air in Belgrade, recurring in-jokes in Private Eye Colourful racing identity
14.
Metaphor
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A metaphor is a figure of speech that refers, for rhetorical effect, to one thing by mentioning another thing. It may provide clarity or identify hidden similarities between two ideas, antithesis, hyperbole, metonymy and simile are all types of metaphor. The Philosophy of Rhetoric by rhetorician I. A. Richards describes a metaphor as having two parts, the tenor and the vehicle, the tenor is the subject to which attributes are ascribed. The vehicle is the object whose attributes are borrowed, other writers employ the general terms ground and figure to denote the tenor and the vehicle. Cognitive linguistics uses the target and source, respectively. Metaphors are most frequently compared with similes, a simile is a specific type of metaphor that uses the words like or as in comparing two objects, whereas what is commonly referred to as a metaphor states that A is B or substitutes B for A. What is usually referred to as a metaphor asserts the two objects in the comparison are identical on the point of comparison, a simile merely asserts a similarity, for this reason a common-type metaphor is generally considered more forceful than a simile. The metaphor category also contains these types, Allegory, An extended metaphor wherein a story illustrates an important attribute of the subject. Antithesis, A rhetorical contrast of ideas by means of parallel arrangements of words, clauses, or sentences Catachresis, A mixed metaphor used by design and accident. Hyperbole, Excessive exaggeration to illustrate a point Metonymy, A figure of speech using the name of one thing in reference to a different thing of which the first is associated, example, in lands belonging to the crown the word crown is metonymy for ruler or monarch. Parable, An extended metaphor narrated as an anecdote illustrating and teaching such as in Aesops fables, pun, Similar to a metaphor, a pun alludes to another term. However, the difference is that a pun is a frivolous allusion between two different things whereas a metaphor is a purposeful allusion between two different things. Metaphor, like other types of analogy, can usefully be distinguished from metonymy as one of two modes of thought. Thus, a metaphor creates new links between otherwise distinct conceptual domains, whereas a metonymy relies on the links within them. A dead metaphor is one in which the sense of an image has become absent. Examples, to grasp a concept and to gather what youve understood use physical action as a metaphor for understanding, the audience does not need to visualize the action, dead metaphors normally go unnoticed. Some people distinguish between a dead metaphor and a cliché, others use dead metaphor to denote both. A mixed metaphor is one that leaps from one identification to a second identification inconsistent with the first, e. g. Checkmate
15.
Periphrasis
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In linguistics, periphrasis is a device by which grammatical meaning is expressed by one or more free morphemes, instead of by inflectional affixes or derivation. Periphrastic forms are analytic, whereas the absence of periphrasis is a characteristic of synthesis, while periphrasis concerns all categories of syntax, it is most visible with verb catenae. The verb catenae of English are highly periphrastic, the distinction between inflected and periphrastic forms is usually illustrated across distinct languages. However, comparative and superlative forms of adjectives in English provide an illustration of the phenomenon. The words more and most contribute functional meaning only, just like the inflectional affixes -er, the distinction is also evident across full verbs and the corresponding light verb constructions, The light verb constructions are periphrastic because the light verbs have little semantic content. The main semantic content of light verb constructions lies with the noun phrase. Distinctions of this sort abound across languages, the following table provides some examples across Latin and English, Periphrasis is a characteristic of analytic languages, which tend to avoid inflection. Even strongly inflected synthetic languages sometimes make use of periphrasis to fill out a paradigm that is missing certain forms. A comparison of some Latin forms of the verb dūcere lead with their English translations illustrates further that English uses periphrasis in many instances where Latin uses inflection, English often needs two or three verbs to express the same meaning that Latin expresses with a single verb. The correspondence in meaning across inflected forms and their periphrastic equivalents within the language or across different languages leads to a basic question. Individual words are always constituents, but their periphrastic equivalents are often NOT constituents, given this mismatch in syntactic form, one can pose the following questions, how should the form-meaning correspondence across periphrastic and non-periphrastic forms be understood. How does it come to pass that a specific meaning bearing unit can be a constituent in one case but in another case, an answer to this question that has recently come to light is expressed in terms of the catena unit, as implied above. The periphrastic word combinations are catenae even when they are not constituents, the form-meaning correspondence is therefore consistent. A given inflected one-word catena corresponds to a periphrastic multiple-word catena, the role of catenae for the theory of periphrasis is illustrated with the trees that follow. The first example is across French and English, future tense/time in French is often constructed with an inflected form, whereas English typically employs a periphrastic form, e. g. The next example is across German and English, German often expresses a benefitor with a dative case pronoun. For English to express the meaning, it usually employs the periphrastic two-word prepositional phrase with for. The following trees illustrate the periphrasis of light verb constructions, Each time, Each of these predicates is a periphrastic form insofar at least one function word is present
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Fuck
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Fuck is an obscene English-language word, which refers to the act of sexual intercourse and is also commonly used as an intensifier or to denote disdain. Its origin is obscure but is considered to be first attested to around 1475. In modern usage, the term fuck and its derivatives can be used as a noun, a verb, an adjective, there are many common phrases that employ the word, as well as compounds that incorporate it, such as motherfucker, fuckwit and fucknut. The word is considered obscene, but is common in many informal, some English-speaking countries censor it on television and radio. Andrea Millwood Hargraves 2000 study of the attitudes of the British public found that fuck was considered the third most severe profanity, cunt was considered the most severe. Nevertheless, the word has become increasingly less vulgar and more publicly acceptable, because of its increasing usage in the public forum, in 2005 the word was included for the first time as one of three vulgarities in The Canadian Presss Canadian Press Caps and Spelling guide. Journalists were advised to refrain from censoring the word but use it sparingly and only when its inclusion was essential to the story. An earlier name, that of John le Fucker recorded in 1278, has been the subject of debate, otherwise, the usually accepted first known occurrence of the word is found in code in a poem in a mixture of Latin and English composed in the 15th century. The poem, which satirizes the Carmelite friars of Cambridge, England, takes its title, Flen flyys, from the first words of its line, Flen, flyys. The line that contains fuck reads Non sunt in coeli, quia gxddbov xxkxzt pg ifmk, the phrase was probably encoded because it accused monks of breaking their vows of celibacy, it is uncertain to what extent the word fuck was considered acceptable at the time. The stem of fvccant is an English word used as Latin, English medieval Latin has many examples of writers using English words when they did not know the Latin word, in the Middle English of this poem, the term wife was still used generically for woman. The word has cognates in other Germanic languages, such as German ficken, Dutch fokken, dialectal Norwegian fukka. This points to a possible etymology where Common Germanic fuk– comes from an Indo-European root meaning to strike, by application of Grimms law, this hypothetical root has the form *pug–. Yet another possible etymology is from the Old High German word pfluog, meaning to plow, there is a theory that fuck is most likely derived from Flemish, German, or Dutch roots, and is probably not from Old English roots. There may be a kinship with the Latin futuere, a verb with almost exactly the meaning as the English verb to fuck. However, there is no clear past lineage or derivation for the Latin word and these roots, even if cognates, are not the original Indo-European word for to copulate, but Wayland Young argues that they derive from the Indo-European *bhu– or *bhug–, or as causative create. A possible intermediate might be a Latin 4th-declension verbal noun *fūtus, however, the connection to futuere has been disputed—Anatoly Liberman calls it a coincidence and writes that it is not likely to have been borrowed from the Low German precursors to fuck. Greek phyō has various meanings, including to beget, or and its perfect pephyka can be likened to fuck and its equivalents in other Germanic languages
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Bureaucracy
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Bureaucracy means both a body of non-elective government officials and an administrative policy-making group. Historically, a bureaucracy was a government administration managed by departments staffed with non-elected officials, today, bureaucracy is the administrative system governing any large institution. The public administration in many countries is an example of a bureaucracy, since being coined, the word bureaucracy has developed negative connotations. Bureaucracies have been criticized as being inefficient, convoluted, or too inflexible to individuals, the dehumanizing effects of excessive bureaucracy became a major theme in the work of German-language writer Franz Kafka and are central to his novels The Trial and The Castle. The elimination of bureaucracy is a key concept in modern managerial theory and has been an issue in some political campaigns. Others have noted the necessity of bureaucracies in modern life, the term bureaucracy is French in origin and combines the French word bureau – desk or office – with the Greek word κράτος kratos – rule or political power. It was coined in the century by the French economist Jacques Claude Marie Vincent de Gournay and was a satirical pejorative from the outset. Gournay never wrote the term down but was quoted at length in a letter from a contemporary. Here, too, the sense was pejorative, with Irish novelist Lady Morgan referring to the Bureaucratie, or office tyranny, by which Ireland has so long been governed. By the mid-19th century, the word was being used in a neutral sense. In this sense bureaucracy was seen as a form of management. In the1920s, the definition was expanded by the German sociologist Max Weber to include any system of administration conducted by trained professionals according to fixed rules, although the term bureaucracy was not coined until the mid 18th century, organized and consistent administrative systems are much older. Ancient Egypt also had a class of scribes that administered the civil service bureaucracy. The Roman Empire was administered by a hierarchy of regional proconsuls, the reforms of Diocletian doubled the number of administrative districts and led to a large-scale expansion in Roman bureaucracy. After the Empire split, the Byzantine Empire developed a complicated administrative hierarchy. In Ancient China, the Han dynasty established a complicated bureaucracy based on the teachings of Confucius, who emphasized the importance of ritual in family, relationships, with each subsequent Dynasty, the bureaucracy evolved. During the Song dynasty, the bureaucracy became meritocratic, following the Song reforms, competitive exams were held to determine who could hold which positions. The imperial examination system lasted until 1905, six years before the collapse of the Qing Dynasty, a modern form of bureaucracy evolved in the expanding Department of Excise in the United Kingdom, during the 18th century
18.
Radionuclide
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A radionuclide is an atom that has excess nuclear energy, making it unstable. During those processes, the radionuclide is said to undergo radioactive decay, the unstable nucleus is more stable following the emission, but will sometimes undergo further decay. Radioactive decay is a process at the level of single atoms. However, for a collection of atoms of an element the decay rate. The range of the half-lives of radioactive atoms have no known limits, Radionuclides occur naturally and are artificially produced in nuclear reactors, cyclotrons, particle accelerators or radionuclide generators. There are about 730 radionuclides with half-lives longer than 60 minutes, with the longest half lives are the 32 primordial radionuclides that have survived from the creation of the Solar System. Over 60 further radionuclides are detectable in nature, either as daughters of these, more than 2400 radionuclides have half-lives less than 60 minutes. Most of those are produced artificially, and have very short half-lives. For comparison, there are about 254 stable nuclides, even the lightest element, hydrogen, has a well-known radionuclide, tritium. Elements heavier than lead, and the elements technetium and promethium, unplanned exposure to radionuclides generally has a harmful effect on living organisms including humans, although low levels of exposure occur naturally without harm. However, radionuclides with suitable properties are used in medicine for both diagnosis and treatment. An imaging tracer made with radionuclides is called a radioactive tracer, a pharmaceutical drug made with radionuclides is called a radiopharmaceutical. On Earth, naturally occurring radionuclides fall into three categories, primordial radionuclides, secondary radionuclides, and cosmogenic radionuclides, Radionuclides are produced in stellar nucleosynthesis and supernova explosions along with stable nuclides. Most decay quickly but can still be observed astronomically and can play a part in understanding astronomic processes, primordial radionuclides, such as uranium and thorium, exist in the present time because their half-lives are so long they have not yet completely decayed. It is possible decay may be observed in other nuclides adding to this list of primordial radionuclides, secondary radionuclides are radiogenic isotopes derived from the decay of primordial radionuclides. They have shorter half-lives than primordial radionuclides and they arise in the decay chain of the primordial isotopes thorium-232, uranium-238 and uranium-235. Examples include the natural isotopes of polonium and radium, cosmogenic isotopes, such as carbon-14, are present because they are continually being formed in the atmosphere due to cosmic rays. Many of these radionuclides exist only in trace amounts in nature, secondary radionuclides will occur in proportion to their half-lives, so short-lived ones will be very rare
19.
Great Purge
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The Great Purge or the Great Terror was a campaign of political repression in the Soviet Union which occurred from 1936 to 1938. In Russian historiography, the period of the most intense purge, 1937–1938, is called Yezhovshchina, after Nikolai Yezhov and it has been estimated between 600,000 and 3 million people died at the hands of the Soviet government during the Purge. In the Western world, Robert Conquests 1968 book The Great Terror popularized that phrase, Conquests title was in turn an allusion to the period called the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution. The term repression was used to describe the prosecution of people considered counter-revolutionaries and enemies of the people by the leadership of the Soviet Union. The purge was motivated by the desire to remove dissenters from the Communist Party, most public attention was focused on the purge of the leadership of the Communist Party, as well as of government bureaucrats and leaders of the armed forces, most of whom were Party members. The campaigns also affected many other categories of the society, intelligentsia, peasants and especially those branded as too rich for a peasant, a series of NKVD operations affected a number of national minorities, accused of being fifth column communities. Due legal process, as defined by Soviet law in force at the time, was largely replaced with summary proceedings by NKVD troikas. Hundreds of thousands of victims were accused of political crimes, they were quickly executed by shooting. Many died at the labor camps of starvation, disease, exposure. Other methods of dispatching victims were used on an experimental basis, one secret policeman, for example, gassed people to death in batches in the back of a specially adapted airtight van. The campaigns were carried out according to the line, and often by direct orders. The threat of war heightened Stalins perception of marginal and politically suspect populations as the source of an uprising in case of invasion. He began to plan for the elimination of such potential recruits for a mythical fifth column of wreckers, terrorists. The term purge in Soviet political slang was an abbreviation of the purge of the Party ranks. In 1933, for example, the Party expelled some 400,000 people, but from 1936 until 1953, the term changed its meaning, because being expelled from the Party came to mean almost certain arrest, imprisonment, and often execution. Stalins opponents on both sides of the political spectrum chided him as undemocratic and lax on bureaucratic corruption and these tendencies may have accumulated substantial support among the working class by attacking the privileges and luxuries the state offered to its high-paid elite. The Ryutin Affair seemed to vindicate Stalins suspicions and he enforced a ban on party factions and banned those party members who had opposed him, effectively ending democratic centralism. In the new form of Party organization, the Politburo, and this required the elimination of all Marxists with different views, especially those among the prestigious old guard of revolutionaries
20.
Reinhard Heydrich
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Reinhard Tristan Eugen Heydrich was a high-ranking German Nazi official during World War II, and a main architect of the Holocaust. He was an SS-Obergruppenführer und General der Polizei as well as chief of the Reich Main Security Office and he was also Stellvertretender Reichsprotektor of Bohemia and Moravia, in what is now the Czech Republic. Many historians regard him as the darkest figure within the Nazi elite and he was the founding head of the Sicherheitsdienst, an intelligence organisation charged with seeking out and neutralising resistance to the Nazi Party via arrests, deportations, and murders. He helped organise Kristallnacht, a series of co-ordinated attacks against Jews throughout Nazi Germany, the attacks, carried out by SA stormtroopers and civilians, presaged the Holocaust. Upon his arrival in Prague, Heydrich sought to eliminate opposition to the Nazi occupation by suppressing Czech culture and he died from his injuries a week later. Nazi intelligence falsely linked the assassins to the villages of Lidice, both villages were razed, all men and boys over the age of 16 were shot, and all but a handful of its women and children were deported and killed in Nazi concentration camps. Reinhard Tristan Eugen Heydrich was born in 1904 in Halle an der Saale to composer and opera singer Richard Bruno Heydrich and his wife and his father was Protestant and his mother was Roman Catholic. His two forenames were patriotic musical tributes, Reinhard referred to the hero from his fathers opera Amen. Heydrichs third name, Eugen, was his maternal grandfathers forename. Heydrichs family held social standing and substantial financial means, Music was a part of Heydrichs everyday life, his father founded the Halle Conservatory of Music, Theatre and Teaching and his mother taught piano there. Heydrich developed a passion for the violin and carried that interest into adulthood and his father was a German nationalist who instilled patriotic ideas in his three children, but was not affiliated with any political party until after World War I. As a youth, he engaged his younger brother, Heinz and he excelled in his schoolwork—especially in science—at the Reformgymnasium. A talented athlete, he became a swimmer and fencer. He was shy, insecure, and was bullied for his high-pitched voice. The latter claim earned him the nickname Moses Handel, in 1918, World War I ended with Germanys defeat. In late February 1919, civil unrest—including strikes and clashes between communist and anti-communist groups—took place in Heydrichs home town of Halle, under Defense Minister Gustav Noskes directives, a right-wing paramilitary unit was formed and ordered to recapture Halle. Heydrich, then 15 years old, joined Maerckers Volunteer Rifles, when the skirmishes ended, Heydrich was part of the force assigned to protect private property. Little is known about his role, but the left a strong impression
21.
Sonderbehandlung
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Sonderbehandlung is a German noun meaning special treatment in English, also existing as a verb, sonderbehandeln. While it can refer to any sort of treatment, it is known primarily as a euphemism used by Nazi functionaries. Another notable example was Sonderbehandlung 14f13 and this term was also used to imprecisely refer to the equipment used to perpetrate their crimes, such as gas chambers and Zyklon B. Berel Lang states that language was used. Hitler did not want to run the risk of an order publicly embarrassing him again and, as a result, even if there had been any written instances of this order, they would have almost certainly been destroyed by the Nazis when they realised their defeat was inevitable. Where the Nazis had to document murder, Sonderbehandlung was one of a number of euphemisms used, the Action T4 doctors used desinfiziert to document the gassing of mentally ill and handicapped individuals. The actual plan to exterminate the Jews of Europe was called Die Endlösung der Judenfrage, at one point in the speech, Himmler says, elimination of the Jews, extermination, were doing it, briefly pausing in the middle of elimination before going on to say extermination. His hesitation in the middle of saying elimination can be considered as a quick check to see whether or not it is acceptable to use such words in front of his given audience. The answer is yes, it is the seniority of the SS in private, schaltung des Judentums, which can be likened to exterm. Elimination in English. a distinction must be made between those who may be dealt with in the way and those who must be given special treatment. However, the usage is directed against Germans rather than Jews, nevertheless, the law allowed for the killing of any person the regime wished. A memo dated six days later from a meeting at the SS-Reichssicherheitshauptamt defines Sonderbehandlung with execution following it in brackets. A report from the Eastern Front dated October 25,1941, reads that due to the danger of epidemic. The number of Jews to whom special treatment is to be applied is around 3,000, in a letter to the RSHA, SS-Hauptsturmführer Heinz Trühe requests additional gas vans for. a transport of Jews, which has to be treated in a special way. In German, Sonder-, meaning special, can be used to form compound nouns, as well as in reference to actions, the Nazis used euphemisms to refer to the actual equipment used to carry out killing. In his letter, Trühe refers to the vans as S-wagen, Sonderwagen in full, other documented references include Sonderfahrzeug, Spezialwagen, and Hilfsmittel. Several instances of this language in reference to equipment can be found in documents concerning Auschwitz concentration camp. A letter dated August 21,1942 referred to Bunker 1, in the letter, this is given in quotes, further suggesting the euphemistic nature of what is meant
22.
Summary execution
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A summary execution is an execution in which a person is accused of a crime and immediately killed without benefit of a full and fair trial. Under international law, refusal to accept lawful surrender in combat is also categorized as a summary execution, in nearly all civilian jurisdictions, summary execution is illegal, as it violates the right of the accused to a fair trial. This right shall be protected by law, no man shall be deprived of his life arbitrarily. Penalty can only be carried out pursuant to a final judgment rendered by a competent court, in practice, though, extrajudicial killings have been performed by police and domestic forces in various countries and times, sometimes under martial law. It is also performed by armed bands fighting against governments and common citizens, under military law, summary execution is illegal in almost all circumstances, as a military tribunal would be the competent judge needed to determine guilt and declare a sentence of death. However, there are exceptions to this rule in emergencies. However, some classes of combatants may not be accorded POW status, in the past, summary execution of pirates, spies, and francs-tireurs have been performed and considered legal under existing international law. Many of the victors, such as France, Poland. This was in fact the second Commando Order, the first being issued by Generalfeldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt on July 21,1942, stipulating that parachutists should be handed over to the Gestapo. If they do not meet all of these, they may be considered francs-tireurs and punished as criminals in a military jurisdiction, soldiers who are wearing uniforms of the opposing army after the start of combat may be considered illegal combatants and subject to summary execution. Many armies have performed this kind of false flag ruse in the past, within a states policy, martial law may be declared in emergencies such as invasions or insurrections, and in such a case constitutionally protected rights would be suspended. Note that this would not include killing a suspect who is directly endangering anothers life, which police can always legally do, hence, these kinds of extraordinary acts are almost always seen as illegal violations of human rights. Disappearances Encounter killings by police Extrajudicial punishment Extrajudicial killing Nguyễn Văn Lém Retributive justice Rovetta massacre Vigilante
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The Holocaust
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The Holocaust, also referred to as the Shoah, was a genocide in which some six million European Jews were killed by Adolf Hitlers Nazi Germany, and the World War II collaborators with the Nazis. The victims included 1.5 million children, and represented about two-thirds of the nine million Jews who had resided in Europe, killings took place throughout German-occupied Europe, as well as within Nazi Germany, and across all territories controlled by its allies. Other victims of Nazi crimes included ethnic Poles and other Slavs, Soviet citizens and Soviet POWs, communists, homosexuals, Freemasons, Jehovahs Witnesses, some 42,500 detention facilities were utilized in the concentration of victims for the purpose of gross violations of human rights. Over 200,000 people are estimated to have been Holocaust perpetrators, the persecution was carried out in stages, culminating in the policy of extermination of European Jews termed the Final Solution to the Jewish Question. Following Hitlers rise to power, the German government passed laws to exclude Jews from civil society, starting in 1933 the Nazis began to establish a network of concentration camps. After the outbreak of war in 1939 both German and foreign Jews were herded into wartime ghettos, in 1941, as Germany began to conquer new territory in the East, all anti-Jewish measures radicalized. Specialized paramilitary units called Einsatzgruppen murdered around two million Jews in mass shootings actions in less than a year, by mid-1942, victims were being regularly transported by freight trains to extermination camps where, if they survived the journey, most were systematically killed in gas chambers. This continued until the end of World War II in Europe in April–May 1945, the most notable exception was the Warsaw Ghetto uprising of 1943, when thousands of poorly-armed Jewish fighters held the Waffen-SS at bay for four weeks. An estimated 20, 000–30,000 Jewish partisans actively fought against the Nazis, French Jews took part in the French Resistance, which conducted a guerilla campaign against the Nazis and Vichy French authorities. Over a hundred armed Jewish uprisings took place, the term holocaust comes from the Greek adjective holókaustos, a variant of holókautos, referring to an animal sacrifice offered to a god in which the whole animal is completely burnt. Often used substantively in apposition with the noun thysia, the term appears in a fragment of pseudo-Callisthenes, writing in Latin, Jerome Latinized the Greek word as a neuter noun holocaustum, using it to translate references to the Jewish burnt offering in his translations of Exodus and Leviticus. In his Chronicon de rebus gestis Ricardi Primi, Richard of Devizes, the English poet John Milton had used the word to denote a conflagration in his 1671 poem Samson Agonistes and the word gradually developed to mean a massacre thereon. The term was used in the 1950s by historians as a translation of the Jewish word shoah to refer specifically to the Nazi genocide of Jews, the television mini-series Holocaust is credited with introducing the term into common parlance after 1978. The biblical word shoah, meaning calamity became the standard Hebrew term for the Holocaust as early as the 1940s, especially in Europe and Israel. Shoah is preferred by some Jews for several reasons including the offensive nature of the word holocaust which they take to refer to the Greek pagan custom. The Nazis used the phrase Final Solution to the Jewish Question, all branches of Germanys bureaucracy were engaged in the logistics that led to the genocides, turning the Third Reich into what one Holocaust scholar, Michael Berenbaum, has called a genocidal state. Every arm of the countrys sophisticated bureaucracy was involved in the killing process, as prisoners entered the death camps, they were made to surrender all personal property, which was catalogued and tagged before being sent to Germany to be reused or recycled. Berenbaum writes that the Final Solution of the Jewish question was in the eyes of the perpetrators, through a concealed account, the German National Bank helped launder valuables stolen from the victims
"Euphemism". Encyclopædia Britannica. 9 (11th ed.). 1911.
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The dictionary definition of euphemism at Wiktionary
