1.
City of Brussels
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The City of Brussels is the largest municipality of the Brussels-Capital Region, and the de jure capital of Belgium. The City of Brussels covers most of the Regions centre, as well as northern outskirts where it borders municipalities in Flanders and it is the administrative centre of the European Union. On 1 January 2016, the City of Brussels had a population of 178,552. The total area is 32.61 km2 which gives a density of 5,475 inhabitants per square kilometre. As of 2007, there were approximately 50,000 registered non-Belgians in the City of Brussels, at first, the City of Brussels was simply defined, being the area within the second walls of Brussels, the modern-day small ring. As the city grew, the villages grew as well, eventually growing into a contiguous city. The construction of Avenue Louise was commissioned in 1847 as an avenue bordered by chestnut trees that would allow easy access to the popular recreational area of the Bois de la Cambre. However, fierce resistance to the project was put up by the town of Ixelles through whose land the avenue was supposed to run. After years of negotiations, Brussels finally annexed the narrow band of land needed for the avenue plus the Bois de la Cambre itself in 1864. That decision accounts for the unusual southeastern protrusion of the City of Brussels, the Université Libre de Bruxelles Solbosch campus is also part of the City of Brussels, partially accounting for the bulge in the southeast end. Unlike most of the municipalities in Belgium, the ones located in the Brussels-Capital Region were not merged with others during mergers occurring in 1964,1970, however, a few neighbouring municipalities have been merged into the City of Brussels, including Haren, Laken and Neder-Over-Heembeek in 1921. These comprise the northern bulge in the municipality, to the south-east is also a strip of land along Avenue Louise that was annexed from the Ixelles municipality
2.
Iranian Americans
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Iranian Americans or Persian Americans, are Americans of Iranian ancestry or people possessing Iranian and American dual citizenship. Iranian Americans are among the highest educated people in the United States and they have historically excelled in business, academia, the sciences, arts, and entertainment – but have traditionally shied away from participating in American politics and other civic activities. The Collins English Dictionary uses a variety of similar and overlapping definitions for the terms Persian and Iranian, one of the very first recorded Iranians to visit North America was Martin the Armenian, an Iranian-Armenian tobacco grower who settled in Jamestown, Virginia in 1618. Mirza Mohammad Ali, who is known as Hajj Sayyah is another Iranian who came to North America in the 1800s. He was inspired to travel around the world due to the contradiction between the ideals he read about around the world and how his fellow Iranians were treated by their leaders. He began his travel as a 23-year-old looking for knowledge and to gain perspective on the lives of others to bring back him to help Irans progress. His stay in the United States lasted 10 years, and took him across the country from New York to San Francisco. He also met with a variety of influential American figures including Ulysses S. Grant who was a president during that time, Hajj Sayyah was the first Iranian to become an American Citizen on May 26,1875. He was imprisoned upon his return to Iran for making a stand against the conditions there. He looked to the United States to protect him but to no avail, during the peak period of worldwide emigration to the United States, only 130 Iranian nationals were known to have immigrated. The first wave of Iranian migration to the United States occurred between the late 1940s to 1979, or alternatively 1977, Iranian students, most of whom had learned English as a second language in Iran, were highly desirable as new students in the United States colleges and universities. By the mid-1970s, nearly half of all Iranian students who studied abroad did so in the United States, as the Iranian economy continued to rise steadily in the 70s, it enabled many more Iranians to travel abroad freely. As reported by Bozorgmehr and Sabagh, consequently, the number of Iranian visitors to the United States also increased considerably, during the 1977–78 academic year, of about 100,000 Iranian students abroad,36,220 were enrolled in American institutions of higher learning. It is notable to mention that the pattern of Iranian migration during this phase usually only involved individuals- not whole families. However, Due to the events that followed very soon afterwards in the 1979 Revolution, matters changed. The second phase of Iranian migration began immediately before and after the Iranian Revolution of 1979 and the overthrow of the Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, and became significant in the early 1980s. As Prof. Ronald H. Bayor adds, The 1979 Revolution and the 1980–88 war with Iraq transformed Irans class structure, politically, socially, and economically. During and after the revolution, most students did not return to Iran, Many students who graduated abroad after the revolution also did not return, due to ruling clergys repression
3.
Futures studies
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Futures studies is the study of postulating possible, probable, and preferable futures and the worldviews and myths that underlie them. There is a debate as to whether this discipline is an art or science, in general, it can be considered as a branch of the social sciences and parallel to the field of history. History studies the past, futures studies considers the future, Futures studies seeks to understand what is likely to continue and what could plausibly change. Part of the discipline thus seeks a systematic and pattern-based understanding of past and present, unlike the physical sciences where a narrower, more specified system is studied, futures studies concerns a much bigger and more complex world system. The methodology and knowledge are much less proven as compared to science or even social science like sociology, economics. Futures studies is a field, studying yesterdays and todays changes. It includes analyzing the sources, patterns, and causes of change and stability in an attempt to develop foresight, around the world the field is variously referred to as futures studies, strategic foresight, futuristics, futures thinking, futuring, and futurology. Futures studies and strategic foresight are the fields most commonly used terms in the English-speaking world. Foresight was the term and was first used in this sense by H. G. Wells in 1932. Futurology is a common in encyclopedias, though it is used almost exclusively by nonpractitioners today. Futurology is defined as the study of the future, the term was coined by German professor Ossip K. Flechtheim in the mid-1940s, who proposed it as a new branch of knowledge that would include a new science of probability. Three factors usually distinguish futures studies from the conducted by other disciplines. First, futures studies often examines not only possible but also probable, preferable, third, futures studies challenges and unpacks the assumptions behind dominant and contending views of the future. The future thus is not empty but fraught with hidden assumptions, for example, many people expect the collapse of the Earths ecosystem in the near future, while others believe the current ecosystem will survive indefinitely. A foresight approach would seek to analyze and highlight the assumptions underpinning such views and it is in this regard, that futures studies evolves from an academic exercise to a more traditional business-like practice, looking to better prepare organizations for the future. Futures studies does not generally focus on short term such as interest rates over the next business cycle. Most strategic planning, which develops operational plans for preferred futures with time horizons of one to three years, is not considered futures. Plans and strategies with longer time horizons that specifically attempt to anticipate future events are definitely part of the field
4.
Transhumanism
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Transhumanist thinkers study the potential benefits and dangers of emerging technologies that could overcome fundamental human limitations, as well as the ethics of using such technologies. The transhumanist philosophies of Max More and Stefan Lorenz Sorgner have been influenced strongly by Nietzschean thinking, by way of contrast, The Transhumanist Declaration. advocates the well-being of all sentience. Fundamental ideas of transhumanism were first advanced in 1923 by the British geneticist J. B. S, in particular, he was interested in the development of the science of eugenics, ectogenesis, and the application of genetics to improve human characteristics, such as health and intelligence. His article inspired academic and popular interest and these ideas have been common transhumanist themes ever since. The biologist Julian Huxley is generally regarded as the founder of transhumanism, the term itself, however, derives from an earlier 1940 paper by the Canadian philosopher W. D. Lighthall. Huxleys definition differs, albeit not substantially, from the one commonly in use since the 1980s, the ideas raised by these thinkers were explored in the science fiction of the 1960s, notably in Arthur C. Clarkes 2001, A Space Odyssey, in which an alien artifact grants transcendent power to its wielder, japanese Metabolist architects produced a manifesto in 1960 which outlined goals to encourage active metabolic development of our society through design and technology. What I think will be known by all the people, there is no more individual consciousness, only the will of mankind as a whole. The concept of the singularity, or the ultra-rapid advent of superhuman intelligence, was first proposed by the British cryptologist I. J. Good in 1965, Let an ultraintelligent machine be defined as a machine that can far surpass all the activities of any man however clever. Thus the first ultraintelligent machine is the last invention that man need ever make, computer scientist Marvin Minsky wrote on relationships between human and artificial intelligence beginning in the 1960s. The coalescence of an identifiable transhumanist movement began in the last decades of the 20th century, in 1972, Robert Ettinger contributed to the conceptualization of transhumanity in his book Man into Superman. FM-2030 published the Upwingers Manifesto in 1973, the first self-described transhumanists met formally in the early 1980s at the University of California, Los Angeles, which became the main center of transhumanist thought. Here, FM-2030 lectured on his Third Way futurist ideology, FM-2030 and Vita-More soon began holding gatherings for transhumanists in Los Angeles, which included students from FM-2030s courses and audiences from Vita-Mores artistic productions. In 1982, Vita-More authored the Transhumanist Arts Statement and, six years later, produced the cable TV show TransCentury Update on transhumanity, a program which reached over 100,000 viewers. In 1986, Eric Drexler published Engines of Creation, The Coming Era of Nanotechnology, which discussed the prospects for nanotechnology and molecular assemblers, and founded the Foresight Institute. As the first non-profit organization to research, advocate for, and perform cryonics, in 1988, the first issue of Extropy Magazine was published by Max More and Tom Morrow. Transhumanism shares many elements of humanism, including a respect for reason and science, a commitment to progress, Transhumanism differs from humanism in recognizing and anticipating the radical alterations in the nature and possibilities of our lives resulting from various sciences and technologies
5.
Persian alphabet
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The Persian alphabet or Perso-Arabic alphabet is a writing system based on the Arabic script and used for the Persian language. It has four more than the Arabic alphabet, پ, چ, ژ. The Persian script is an abjad and is exclusively written cursively and that is, the majority of the letters in a word connect to each other. This is also implemented on computers, whenever the Persian alphabet is typed, the computer automatically connects the letters to each other. Words are written right to left. Also, vowels are underrepresented in writing, see below for details, the replacement of the Pahlavi scripts with the Persian alphabet in order to write the Persian language was done by the Tahirid dynasty in ninth century Greater Khorasan. Below are the 32 letters of the modern Persian alphabet, since the script is cursive, the appearance of a letter changes depending on its position, isolated, initial, medial, and final of a word. The names of the letter are mostly the ones used in Arabic, the only ambiguous name is he, which is used for both ﺡ and ه. For clarification, these are often called ḥe-ye jimi and he-ye do-češm, respectively. Letters which do not link to a following letter Seven letters – و, ژ, ﺯ, ﺭ, ﺫ, ﺩ, ﺍ – do not connect to a letter as the rest of the letters of the alphabet do. These seven letters have the form in isolated and initial position. For example, when the letter ا alef is at the beginning of a such as اینجا injā. Persian script has adopted a subset of Arabic diacritics which consists of zabar /æ/, zir /e/, other Arabic diacritics may be seen in Arabic loan-words. The following are not actual letters but different orthographical shapes for letters, and in the case of the lām alef, as to ﺀ hamze, it has only a single graphic, since it is never tied to a preceding or following letter. However, it is seated on a vāv, ye or alef. Technically, hamze is not a letter but a diacritic, although at first glance they may seem similar, there are many differences in the way the different languages use the alphabets. For example, similar words are written differently in Persian and Arabic, vowel notation is simple but its history is complicated. Classical Arabic has a length distinction, in writing, long vowels are normally written ambiguously by letters known as matres lectionis while short ones are normally omitted entirely
6.
Specials (Unicode block)
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Specials is a short Unicode block allocated at the very end of the Basic Multilingual Plane, at U+FFF0–FFFF. Of these 16 codepoints, five are assigned as of Unicode 9, U+FFFD � REPLACEMENT CHARACTER used to replace an unknown, unrecognized or unrepresentable character U+FFFE <noncharacter-FFFE> not a character. FFFE and FFFF are not unassigned in the sense. They can be used to guess a texts encoding scheme, since any text containing these is by not a correctly encoded Unicode text. The replacement character � is a found in the Unicode standard at codepoint U+FFFD in the Specials table. It is used to indicate problems when a system is unable to render a stream of data to a correct symbol and it is usually seen when the data is invalid and does not match any character, Consider a text file containing the German word für in the ISO-8859-1 encoding. This file is now opened with an editor that assumes the input is UTF-8. The first and last byte are valid UTF-8 encodings of ASCII, therefore, a text editor could replace this byte with the replacement character symbol to produce a valid string of Unicode code points. The whole string now displays like this, f�r, a poorly implemented text editor might save the replacement in UTF-8 form, the text file data will then look like this, 0x66 0xEF 0xBF 0xBD 0x72, which will be displayed in ISO-8859-1 as f�r. Since the replacement is the same for all errors this makes it impossible to recover the original character, a better design is to preserve the original bytes, including the error, and only convert to the replacement when displaying the text. This will allow the text editor to save the original byte sequence and it has become increasingly common for software to interpret invalid UTF-8 by guessing the bytes are in another byte-based encoding such as ISO-8859-1. This allows correct display of both valid and invalid UTF-8 pasted together, Unicode control characters UTF-8 Mojibake Unicodes Specials table Decodeunicodes entry for the replacement character
7.
Persian language
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Persian, also known by its endonym Farsi, is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan and it is mostly written in the Persian alphabet, a modified variant of the Arabic script. Its grammar is similar to that of many contemporary European languages, Persian gets its name from its origin at the capital of the Achaemenid Empire, Persis, hence the name Persian. A Persian-speaking person may be referred to as Persophone, there are approximately 110 million Persian speakers worldwide, with the language holding official status in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. For centuries, Persian has also been a cultural language in other regions of Western Asia, Central Asia. It also exerted influence on Arabic, particularly Bahrani Arabic. Persian is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-European family, other Western Iranian languages are the Kurdish languages, Gilaki, Mazanderani, Talysh, and Balochi. Persian is classified as a member of the Southwestern subgroup within Western Iranian along with Lari, Kumzari, in Persian, the language is known by several names, Western Persian, Parsi or Farsi has been the name used by all native speakers until the 20th century. Since the latter decades of the 20th century, for reasons, in English. Tajiki is the variety of Persian spoken in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan by the Tajiks, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term Persian as a language name is first attested in English in the mid-16th century. Native Iranian Persian speakers call it Fārsi, Farsi is the Arabicized form of Pārsi, subsequent to Muslim conquest of Persia, due to a lack of the phoneme /p/ in Standard Arabic. The origin of the name Farsi and the place of origin of the language which is Fars Province is the Arabicized form of Pārs, in English, this language has historically been known as Persian, though Farsi has also gained some currency. Farsi is encountered in some literature as a name for the language. In modern English the word Farsi refers to the language while Parsi describes Zoroastrians, some Persian language scholars such as Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, and University of Arizona professor Kamran Talattof, have also rejected the usage of Farsi in their articles. The international language-encoding standard ISO 639-1 uses the code fa, as its system is mostly based on the local names. The more detailed standard ISO 639-3 uses the name Persian for the dialect continuum spoken across Iran and Afghanistan and this consists of the individual languages Dari and Iranian Persian. Currently, Voice of America, BBC World Service, Deutsche Welle, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty also includes a Tajik service and an Afghan service. This is also the case for the American Association of Teachers of Persian, The Centre for Promotion of Persian Language and Literature, Persian is an Iranian language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages
8.
Foreign relations of Iran
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Foreign relations of Iran refers to inter-governmental relationships between the Islamic Republic of Iran and other countries. Geography is a significant factor in informing Irans foreign policy. Irans bilateral dealings are accordingly sometimes confused and contradictory, Iran currently maintains full diplomatic relations with 97 countries worldwide. It is entirely plausible that the BBC did indeed help hasten revolutionary events, in Khomeinis own words, We shall export our revolution to the whole world. Until the cry There is no God but God resounds over the whole world, the nerve centre of the revolutionary crusade, operational since shortly after the 1979 revolution, was located in downtown Tehran and known to outsiders as the Taleghani Centre. These groups came under the umbrella of the Council for the Islamic Revolution, which was supervised by Ayatollah Hussein Ali Montazeri, most of the councils members were clerics, but they also reportedly included advisors from the Syrian and Libyan intelligence agencies. The council apparently received more than $1 billion annually in contributions from the faithful in other countries, for example, the Islamic Republic expressed its opinion of Egypts secular government by naming a street in Tehran after Egyptian President Anwar Sadats killer, Khalid al-Istanbuli. Arab and other Muslim volunteers who came to Iran were trained in camps run by the Revolutionary Guards. There were three primary bases in Tehran, and others in Ahvaz, Isfahan, Qom, Shiraz, and Mashad, nations with strong fundamentalist movements, such as Egypt and Algeria, also began to mistrust Iran. With the Israeli invasion of Lebanon, Iran was thought to be supporting the creation of the Hizballah organization, furthermore, Iran went on to oppose the Arab–Israeli peace process, because it saw Israel as an illegal country. Relations with Iraq had never been historically, however, they took a turn for the worse in 1980. The stated reason for Iraqs invasion was the sovereignty over the Shatt al-Arab waterway. Iran demanded the withdrawal of Iraqi troops from Iranian territory and the return to the status quo ante for the Shatt al-Arab and this period saw Iran become even more isolated, with virtually no allies. Exhausted by the war, Iran signed UN Security Council Resolution 598 in July 1988, after the United States, the ceasefire resulting from the UN resolution was implemented on 20 August 1988. Neither nation had any real gains in the war, which left one million dead and had a dramatic effect on the countrys foreign policy. From this point on, the Islamic Republic recognized that it had no choice but to moderate its radical approach and this was the beginning of what Anoushiravan Ehteshami calls the reorientation phase of Iranian foreign policy. Like other revolutionary states, practical considerations have led the Islamic Republic to inconsistency. In this regard the Islamic Republic resembles another revolutionary state, the old Soviet Union, since the end of the Iran–Iraq War, Irans new foreign policy has had a dramatic effect on its global standing
9.
1948 Summer Olympics
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The 1948 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XIV Olympiad, were an international multi-sport event which was held in London, England, United Kingdom. After a 12-year hiatus because of World War II, these were the first Summer Olympics since the 1936 Games in Berlin, the 1940 Games had been scheduled for Tokyo, and then for Helsinki, the 1944 Games had been provisionally planned for London. This was the occasion that London had hosted the Olympic Games. The 1948 games were the first of two summer Olympic Games under the IOC presidency of Sigfrid Edström, the event came to be known as the Austerity Games, because of the economic climate and post-war rationing. No new venues were built for the games, and athletes were housed in existing accommodation in the Wembley area instead of an Olympic Village, as were the 1936 Games and the subsequent 1952 Games. A record 59 nations were represented by 4,104 athletes,3,714 men and 390 women, germany and Japan were refused permission to participate, the USSR was invited but chose not to send any athletes. The United States team won the most total medals,84, the host nation won 23 medals, three of them gold. One of the performers at the Games was Dutch sprinter Fanny Blankers-Koen. Dubbed The Flying Housewife, the 30-year-old mother of two won four medals in athletics. In the decathlon, American Bob Mathias became the youngest male ever to win an Olympic gold medal at the age of 17, the most individual medals were won by Veikko Huhtanen of Finland who took three golds, a silver and a bronze in mens gymnastics. In June 1939, the International Olympic Committee awarded the 1944 Olympic Summer Games to London, ahead of Rome, Detroit, Budapest, Lausanne, Helsinki, Montreal, World War II stopped the plans and the Games were cancelled so London again stood as a candidate for 1948. Britain almost handed the 1948 games to the USA due to financial and rationing problems. The official report of the London Olympics shows that there was no case of London being pressed to run the Games against its will. As a result, a committee was set up by the British Olympic Council to work out in some detail the possibility of holding the Games. After several meetings they recommended to the council that the Lord Mayor of London should be invited to apply for the allocation of the Games in 1948. In March 1946 the IOC, through a vote, gave the summer Games to London. London was selected ahead of Baltimore, Minneapolis, Lausanne, Los Angeles, London, which had previously hosted the 1908 Summer Olympics, became the second city to host the Olympics twice, Paris hosted the event in 1900 and 1924. It became the first city to host the Olympics for the time when London hosted the 2012 Summer Olympics. E
10.
Collectivist
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Collectivism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes the group and its interests. Collectivism is the opposite of individualism, collectivists focus on communal, societal, or national interests in various types of political, economic and educational systems. Horizontal collectivism is based on the assumption that individual is more or less equal. Horizontal collectivists tend to favor democratic decision-making, while vertical collectivists believe in a strict chain of command. Horizontal collectivism stresses common goals, interdependence and sociability, vertical collectivism stresses the integrity of the in-group, expects individuals to sacrifice themselves for the in-group if necessary, and promotes competition between different in-groups. For example, worker cooperatives operate on a basis but require the direct input of each individual member. Theoretically, collectivism goes beyond considering the individual as the prime mover of society, in doing so it recognizes society as a collection of individuals and so remains with the understanding that any collective organization is fundamentally composed of individuals. Depending on how conscious a collectivity is of this reality determines how genuinely it maintains respect for individuality, on the other hand, individualism which encourages individuality at the expense of others cannot be considered collectivist, nor even individualist, since individualism is not the same as egotism. Research has proposed that collectivism and individualism came about through an evolutionary adaptation, some societies are on the whole more collectivist and some on the whole more individualist. Harmony within these groups is considered paramount, for example, it may be considered inappropriate for a member of an in-group to openly criticize another in public. There are two objections to collectivism from the ideas of individualism. One is that collectivism stifles individuality and diversity by insisting upon a social identity. The other is that collectivism is linked to statism and the diminution of freedom when political authority is used to advance collectivist goals, criticism of collectivism comes from liberal individualists, such as classical liberals, libertarians, Objectivists, and individualist anarchists. A notable modern criticism of economic collectivism is the one put forward by Friedrich Hayek in his book The Road to Serfdom, published in 1944. Ludwig von Mises wrote, On the other hand the application of the ideas of collectivism cannot result in anything but social disintegration. Many socialists, particularly libertarian socialists, individualist anarchists, and De Leonists criticise the concept of collectivism, some anti-collectivists often argue that all authoritarian and totalitarian societies are collectivist in nature. Yet in the subsequent sentence he also warns of the tyranny of private ownership over the means of production and that a return to free competition means for the great mass of people a tyranny probably worse, because more irresponsible, than that of the state. Marxists criticize this use of the term collectivism, on the grounds that all societies are based on class interests, the liberal ideal of the free individual is seen from a Marxist perspective as a smokescreen for the collective interests of the capitalist class
11.
The New School
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The New School is a private research university in Lower Manhattan, New York City, located mostly in Greenwich Village. From its founding in 1919 by progressive New York educators, and for most of its history, between 1997 and 2005 it was known as New School University. The university and each of its colleges were renamed in 2005, in 1934, the University in Exile was chartered by New York State and its name was changed to the Graduate Faculty of Political and Social Science. In 2005, it adopted what had initially been the name of the whole institution, Parsons School of Design is the New Schools art school. Founders included economist and literary scholar Alvin Johnson, historian Charles A. Beard, economists Thorstein Veblen and James Harvey Robinson, several founders were former professors at Columbia University. In October 1917, after Columbia University imposed a loyalty oath to the United States upon the faculty and student body. Charles A. Beard, Professor of Political Science, resigned his professorship at Columbia in protest and his colleague James Harvey Robinson resigned in 1919 to join the faculty at the New School. The New School plan was to offer the rigorousness of postgraduate education without degree matriculation or degree prerequisites and it was theoretically open to anyone, as the adult division today called Schools of Public Engagement remains. The first classes at the New School took the form of lectures followed by discussions, for groups, or as smaller conferences. Davenport, Elsie Clews Parsons, and Roscoe Pound, John Cage later pioneered the subject of Experimental Composition at the school. The New School uses To the Living Spirit as its motto, in 1937, Thomas Mann remarked that a plaque bearing the inscription be the Living Spirit had been torn down by the Nazis from a building at the University of Heidelberg. He suggested that the University in Exile adopt that inscription as its motto, to indicate that the spirit, mortally threatened in Europe. The University in Exile was initially founded by the director of the New School, Alvin Johnson, through the financial contributions of Hiram Halle. The University in Exile and its subsequent incarnations have been the heart of the New School. In 1934, the University in Exile was chartered by New York State, in 2005 the Graduate Faculty was again renamed, this time taking the original name of the university, The New School for Social Research. The New School played a role with the founding of the École Libre des Hautes Études after the Nazi invasion of France. The École Libre gradually evolved into one of the institutions of research in Paris. Between 1940 and 1949, the New School was host to the Dramatic Workshop, important acting teachers during this period were Stella Adler and Elia Kazan
12.
University of California, Los Angeles
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The University of California, Los Angeles is a public research university in the Westwood district of Los Angeles, California, United States. It became the Southern Branch of the University of California in 1919 and it offers 337 undergraduate and graduate degree programs in a wide range of disciplines. UCLA enrolls about 31,000 undergraduate and 13,000 graduate students, and had 119,000 applicants for Fall 2016, including transfer applicants, the university is organized into six undergraduate colleges, seven professional schools, and four professional health science schools. Fourteen Nobel laureates, three Fields Medalists, two Chief Scientists of the U. S. Air Force and three Turing Award winners have been faculty, researchers, or alumni, the university was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1974. The Times Higher Education World University Rankings for 2015–2016 ranked UCLA 16th in the world for academics, in 2015-2016, UCLA ranked 12th in the world by the Academic Ranking of World Universities and 31st in the 2016/17 QS World University Rankings. UCLA student-athletes compete as the Bruins in the Pac-12 Conference, the Bruins won 126 national championships, including 113 NCAA team championships, more than any other university. UCLA student-athletes, coaches and staff won 251 Olympic medals,126 gold,65 silver and 60 bronze, UCLA student-athletes competed in every Olympics since 1920 with one exception, and won a gold medal in every Olympics that the United States participated in since 1932. The State Normal School at Los Angeles opened on August 29,1882, the facility included an elementary school where teachers-in-training could practice their technique with children. That elementary school is related to the present day version, UCLA Lab School, in 1887, the school became known as the Los Angeles State Normal School. In 1914, the moved to a new campus on Vermont Avenue in East Hollywood. However, David Prescott Barrows, the new President of the University of California, the same legislation added its general undergraduate program, the College of Letters and Science. After the athletic teams entered the Pacific Coast conference in 1926, the Southern Branch student council adopted the nickname Bruins, in 1927, the Regents renamed the Southern Branch the University of California at Los Angeles. In the same year, the state broke ground in Westwood on land sold for $1 million, less than one-third its value, by real estate developers Edwin and Harold Janss, the campus in Westwood opened to students in 1929. The original four buildings were the College Library, Royce Hall, the Physics-Biology Building, the first undergraduate classes on the new campus were held in 1929 with 5,500 students. A timeline of the history can be found on its website, during its first 32 years, UCLA was treated as an off-site department of UC. As such, its presiding officer was called a provost, in 1951, UCLA was formally elevated to co-equal status with UC Berkeley, and its presiding officer Raymond B. Allen was the first chief executive to be granted the title of chancellor. The appointment of Franklin David Murphy to the position of Chancellor in 1960 helped spark an era of growth of facilities. By the end of the decade, UCLA had achieved distinction in a range of subjects
13.
Florida International University
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Florida International University is an American metropolitan public research university in Greater Miami, Florida, United States. FIU has two campuses in Miami-Dade County, with its main campus in University Park. Florida International University is classified as a university with highest research activity by the Carnegie Foundation. Founded in 1965, FIU is the youngest university to be awarded a Phi Beta Kappa chapter by the Phi Beta Kappa Society, the countrys oldest academic honor society. FIU belongs to the 12-campus State University System of Florida and is one of Floridas primary graduate research universities, awarding over 3,400 graduate, the university offers 191 programs of study with more than 280 majors in 23 colleges and schools. FIU offers many programs, including architecture, business administration, engineering, law, and medicine, offering 81 masters degrees,34 doctoral degrees. FIU is the largest university in South Florida, the 2nd-largest in Florida, total enrollment in 2014-2015 was 54,099 students, including 7,814 graduate students. According to U. S. News college rankings and reviews, since 2007, more valedictorians from South Florida choose to attend FIU than any other university in the country. As Miamis public research university, competition to enroll at FIU has heightened as more students each year. While his bill did not pass, Graham persisted in presenting his proposal to colleagues and he felt the establishment of a public university was necessary to serve the citys growing population. In 1964, Senate Bill 711 was introduced by Florida Senator Robert M. Haverfield and it instructed the state Board of Education and the Board of Regents, to begin planning for the development of a state university in Miami. The bill was signed into law by then-governor W. Haydon Burns in June 1965, FIUs founding president Charles Chuck Perry was appointed by the Board of Regents in July 1969 after a nationwide search. At 32 years old, the new president was the youngest in the history of the State University System and, at the time, Perry recruited three co-founders, Butler Waugh, Donald McDowell and Nick Sileo. Alvah Chapman, Jr. former Miami Herald publisher and Knight Ridder chairman, used his civic standing, in the 1980s, Chapman became chair of the FIU Foundation Board of Trustees. The abandoned airports air traffic control tower became FIUs first building and it originally had no telephones, no drinking water, and no furniture. In September 1972,5,667 students entered the new state university, previously, Miami had been the largest city in the country lacking a public baccalaureate-granting institution. Eighty percent of the student body had just graduated from Dade County Junior College, a typical student entering FIU was 25 years old and attending school full-time while holding down a full-time job. Negotiations with the University of Miami and Dade County Junior College led FIU to open as an upper-division only school and it would be 9 years before lower-division classes were added
14.
Lockheed Corporation
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The Lockheed Corporation was an American aerospace company. Lockheed was founded in 1912 and later merged with Martin Marietta to form Lockheed Martin in 1995, the Alco Hydro-Aeroplane Company was established in San Francisco in 1912 by the brothers Allan and Malcolm Loughead. Following the Model F-1, the company invested heavily in the design, however, the asking price of $2500 could not compete in a market that was saturated with post World War 1 $350 Curtiss JN-4s and De Haviland trainers. The Loughead Aircraft Manufacturing Company closed its doors in 1921, in 1926, Allan Loughead, Jack Northrop, and Kenneth Jay secured funding to form the Lockheed Aircraft Company in Hollywood. This new company utilized some of the technology originally developed for the Model S-1 to design the Vega Model. In March 1928, the relocated to Burbank, California. From 1926-28 the company produced over 80 aircraft and employed more than 300 workers who by April 1929 were building five aircraft per week, in July 1929, majority shareholder Fred Keeler sold 87% of the Lockheed Aircraft Company to Detroit Aircraft Corporation. In August 1929, Allan Lockheed resigned, the Great Depression ruined the aircraft market, and Detroit Aircraft went bankrupt. A group of headed by brothers Robert and Courtland Gross. The syndicate bought the company for a mere $40,000, ironically, Allan Lockheed himself had planned to bid for his own company, but had raised only $50,000, which he felt was too small a sum for a serious bid. In 1934, Robert E. Gross was named chairman of the new company, the Lockheed Aircraft Corporation and his brother Courtlandt S. Gross was a co-founder and executive, succeeding Robert as Chairman following his death in 1961. The company was named the Lockheed Corporation in 1977, in the 1930s, Lockheed spent $139,400 to develop the Model 10 Electra, a small twin-engined transport. The company sold 40 in the first year of production, amelia Earhart and her navigator, Fred Noonan, flew it in their failed attempt to circumnavigate the world in 1937. Subsequent designs, the Lockheed Model 12 Electra Junior and the Lockheed Model 14 Super Electra expanded their market. The Lockheed Model 14 formed the basis for the Hudson bomber and its primary role was submarine hunting. The Model 14 Super Electra were sold abroad, and more than 100 were license-built in Japan for use by the Imperial Japanese Army, the P-38 was the only American fighter aircraft in production throughout American involvement in the war, from Pearl Harbor to Victory over Japan Day. It filled ground-attack, air-to-air, and even strategic bombing roles in all theaters of the war in which the United States operated, the Lockheed Vega factory was located next to Burbanks Union Airport which it had purchased in 1940. During the war, the area was camouflaged to fool enemy aerial reconnaissance
15.
J. C. Penney
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J. C. Penney Company, Inc. is a department store with 1,014 locations in 49 U. S. states and Puerto Rico. Most JCPenney stores are located in shopping malls. Before 1966, most of its stores were located in downtown areas, as shopping malls became more popular during the latter half of the 20th century, JCPenney followed the trend by relocating and developing stores to anchor the malls. In more recent years, the chain has continued to follow consumer traffic, echoing the retailing trend of opening some freestanding stores, certain stores are located in power centers. The company has been an Internet retailer since 1998 and it has streamlined its catalog and distribution while undergoing renovation improvements at store level. James Cash Penney was born in Hamilton, Missouri, after graduating from high school, Penney worked for a local retailer. He relocated to Colorado at the advice of a doctor, hoping that a better climate would improve his health, in 1898, Penney went to work for Thomas Callahan and Guy Johnson, who owned dry goods stores called Golden Rule stores in Colorado and Wyoming. In 1899, Callahan sent Penney to Evanston, Wyoming, to work with Johnson in another Golden Rule store, Callahan and Johnson asked Penney to join them in opening a new Golden Rule store. Using money from savings and a loan, Penney joined the partnership and moved with his wife and infant son to Kemmerer, Wyoming, Penney opened the store on April 14,1902. He participated in the creation of two stores, and purchased full interest in all three locations when Callahan and Johnson dissolved their partnership in 1907. In 1909, Penney moved his headquarters to Salt Lake City, Utah to be closer to banks. By 1912, Penney had 34 stores in the Rocky Mountain States, in 1913, all stores were consolidated under the J. C. Penney banner. The so-called mother store, in Kemmerer, opened as the second location in 1904. It still operates, as of 2011, albeit with shorter hours than other locations. In 1913, the company was incorporated under the new name, J. C. Penney Company, in 1914, the headquarters was moved to New York City to simplify buying, financing, and transportation of goods. By 1917, the company operated 175 stores in 22 states in the United States, J. C. Penney acquired The Crescent Corset Company in 1920, the companys first wholly owned subsidiary. In 1922, the companys oldest active private brand, Big Mac work clothes, was launched, the company opened its 500th store in 1924 in Hamilton, Missouri, James Cash Penneys hometown. By the opening of the 1, 000th store in 1928, in 1940, Sam Walton began working at a J. C. Penney in Des Moines, Iowa
16.
Cryonics
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Cryopreservation of humans is not reversible with present technology, cryonicists hope that medical advances will someday allow cryopreserved people to be revived. Cryonics is regarded with skepticism within the scientific community and is not part of normal medical practice. It is not known if it ever be possible to revive a cryopreserved human being. Cryonics depends on beliefs that the patient has not experienced information-theoretic death. Such views are at the edge of medicine. Cryonics procedures can only begin after legal death, and cryonics patients are considered legally dead, Cryonics procedures ideally begin within minutes of cardiac arrest, and use cryoprotectants to prevent ice formation during cryopreservation. The first corpse to be cryopreserved was that of Dr. James Bedford in 1967, as of 2014, about 250 bodies were cryopreserved in the United States, and 1,500 people had made arrangements for cryopreservation after their legal death. Long-term memory is stored in cell structures and molecules within the brain, the metabolic rate can be reduced by around 50% at 28 °C, and by around 80% at 18 °C or profound hypothermia. Cryonics goes further than the consensus that the brain doesnt have to be continuously active to survive or retain memory. Cryonicists argue that as long as brain structure remains intact, there is no barrier, given our current understanding of physical law. Cryonicists argue that death should be defined as irreversible loss of brain information critical to personal identity. Cryonics uses temperatures below −130°C, called cryopreservation, in an attempt to preserve enough brain information to permit future revival of the cryopreserved person, cryopreservation may be accomplished by freezing, freezing with cryoprotectant to reduce ice damage, or by vitrification to avoid ice damage. Even using the best methods, cryopreservation of whole bodies or brains is very damaging, Cryonics requires future technology to repair or regenerate tissue that is diseased, damaged, or missing. Brain repairs in particular will require analysis at the molecular level and this far-future technology is usually assumed to be nanomedicine based on molecular nanotechnology. Biological repair methods or mind uploading have also been proposed, as of 2011, U. S. cryopreservation costs can range from $28,000 to $200,000, and are often financed via life insurance. KrioRus, which stores bodies communally in large dewars, charges $12,000 to $36,000 for the procedure, some patients opt to have only their head, rather than their whole body, cryopreserved. As of 2016, four facilities exist in the world to retain cryopreserved bodies, as of 2014, about 250 people have been cryogenically preserved in the U. S. and around 1,500 more have signed up to be preserved. Long-term preservation of tissue can be achieved by cooling to temperatures below −130°C
17.
Alcor Life Extension Foundation
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As of January 31,2017, Alcor had more than 1,618 members, including 354 associate members and 149 in cryopreservation, as whole bodies or brains. As of November 15,2007, there were 33 animals preserved, the organization was established as a nonprofit organization by Fred and Linda Chamberlain in California in 1972 as the Alcor Society for Solid State Hypothermia. Alcor was named after a faint star in the Big Dipper, the name was changed to Alcor Life Extension Foundation in 1977. The organization was conceived as a rational, technology-oriented cryonics organization that would be managed on a conservative basis. Alcor advertised in direct mailings and offered seminars in order to attract members, the first of these seminars attracted 30 people. On July 16,1976, Alcor performed its first human cryopreservation on Fred Chamberlains father and that same year, research in cryonics began with initial funding provided by the Manrise Corporation. At that time, Alcor’s office consisted of a surgical unit in a large van. Trans Time, Inc. a cryonics organization in the San Francisco Bay area, provided initial preservation procedures, in 1977, articles of incorporation were filed in Indianapolis by the Institute for Advanced Biological Studies and Soma, Inc. Its president, Mike Darwin, subsequently became a president of Alcor, bridge filled the same position many years later. IABS and Soma relocated to California in 1981, Soma was disbanded, while IABS merged with Alcor in 1982. In 1978, Cryovita Laboratories was founded by Jerry Leaf, who had been teaching surgery at UCLA, Cryovita was a for-profit organization which provided cryopreservation and transport services for Alcor in the 1980s until Leafs death, at which time Alcor began providing these services on its own. Leaf and Michael Darwin collaborated to bring the first cryonics patient, Dr. James Bedford, whose body was preserved in 1967, the blood substitute which was developed for these experiments became the basis for the washout solution used at Alcor. Together, Leaf and Darwin developed a model for human cryonics cases with the goal of intervening immediately after cardiac arrest. Leaf was cryopreserved by Alcor in 1991, since 1992, Alcor has provided its own cryopreservation as well as storage services, today, Alcor is the only full-service cryonics organization that performs remote standbys. Alcor grew slowly in its early years, in 1984, it merged with the Cryonics Society of South Florida. Alcor counted only 50 members in 1985, which was the year it cryopreserved its third patient, however, during this time researchers associated with Alcor contributed some of the most important techniques related to cryopreservation, eventually leading to todays method of vitrification. In 1986, a group of Alcor members formed Symbex, an investment company which funded a building in Riverside, California. Alcor moved from Fullerton, California, to the new building in Riverside in 1987, Alcor cryopreserved a member’s companion animal in 1986, and two people in 1987
18.
Scottsdale, Arizona
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Scottsdale is a city in the eastern part of Maricopa County, Arizona, adjacent to the Greater Phoenix Area. The New York Times described downtown Scottsdale as a version of Miamis South Beach and as having plenty of late night partying. Its slogan is The Wests Most Western Town, Scottsdale,31 miles long and 11.4 miles wide at its widest point, shares boundaries with many other municipalities and entities. On the west, Scottsdale is bordered by Phoenix, Paradise Valley, carefree is located along the western boundary, as well as sharing Scottsdales northern boundary with the Tonto National Forest. To the south Scottsdale is bordered by Tempe, the area which would include what would become Scottsdale was originally inhabited by the Hohokam, from approximately 300 BC to 1450 AD. This ancient civilization farmed the area and developed a network of canals for irrigation which was unsurpassed in pre-Columbian North America. At its peak, the canals stretched over 250 miles, many of which remains extant today, some having been renovated. Under still-mysterious circumstances, the Hohokam disappeared around 1450 or 1500, the areas later occupants, the Pima and Oodham, are thought to be the direct descendants of the Hohokam people. Before European settlement, Scottsdale was a Pima village known as Vaṣai S-vaṣonĭ, some Pima remained in their original homes well into the 20th century. For example, until the late 1960s, there was a traditional dwelling on the southeast corner of Indian Bend Road. Currently, those Pima who live within Scottsdale reside in homes rather than traditional dwellings. Many Pima and Maricopa people continue to reside on the Salt River Pima-Maricopa Indian Community, in the early to mid 1880s, U. S. Army Chaplain Winfield Scott visited the Salt River Valley and was impressed with the region and its potential for agriculture. Returning in 1888 with his wife, Helen, he purchased 640 acres for $3.50 an acre for a stretch of land where downtown Scottsdale is now located. Many of the original settlers, recruited by Scott from the East and Midwest, were educated and had an appreciation for cultural activities. The towns name was changed to Scottsdale in 1894, after its founder, while not in its original building, Cavallieres has been in continuance operation since that time. Between 1908 and 1933, due to the construction of the Granite Reef and Roosevelt dams, Scottsdales population experienced a boom, Scottsdale became a small market town providing services for families involved in the agricultural industry. Although cotton is grown in southern Arizona, Scottsdales cotton boom ended with the loss of government contracts at the end of the war. In 1920, a resort was opened on 12 acres of the property owned by the artist Jessie Benton Evans
19.
Cryopreservation
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At low enough temperatures, any enzymatic or chemical activity which might cause damage to the biological material in question is effectively stopped. Cryopreservation methods seek to reach low temperatures without causing additional damage caused by the formation of ice during freezing, traditional cryopreservation has relied on coating the material to be frozen with a class of molecules termed cryoprotectants. New methods are constantly being investigated due to the inherent toxicity of many cryoprotectants, by default it should be considered that cryopreservation alters or compromises the structure and function of cells unless it is proven otherwise for a particular cell population. Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources is the process in which genetic material is collected and stored with the intention of conservation of the breed. Mixtures of solutes can achieve similar effects, some solutes, including salts, have the disadvantage that they may be toxic at intense concentrations. In addition to the water-bear, wood frogs can tolerate the freezing of their blood, urea is accumulated in tissues in preparation for overwintering, and liver glycogen is converted in large quantities to glucose in response to internal ice formation. Both urea and glucose act as cryoprotectants to limit the amount of ice that forms, frogs can survive many freeze/thaw events during winter if not more than about 65% of the total body water freezes. Research exploring the phenomenon of Freezing frogs has been performed primarily by the Canadian researcher, snapping turtles Chelydra serpentina and wall lizards Podarcis muralis also survive nominal freezing but it has not been established to be adaptive for overwintering. In the case of Rana sylvatica one cryopreservant is ordinary glucose, one of the most important early theoreticians of cryopreservation was James Lovelock known for Gaia theory. He suggested that damage to red blood cells during freezing was due to osmotic stress, during the early 1950s, Lovelock had also suggested that increasing salt concentrations in a cell as it dehydrates to lose water to the external ice might cause damage to the cell. Cryopreservation of tissue during recent times began with the freezing of fowl sperm, the process was applied to humans during the 1950s with pregnancies obtained after insemination of frozen sperm. Increased understanding of the mechanism of freezing injury to cells emphasised the importance of controlled or slow cooling to obtain maximum survival on thawing of the living cells, the ability of cryoprotectants, in the early cases glycerol, to protect cells from freezing injury was discovered accidentally. Freezing injury has two aspects, direct damage from the ice crystals and secondary damage caused by the increase in concentration of solutes as progressively more ice is formed. Storage at very cold temperatures is presumed to provide an indefinite longevity to cells, researchers experimenting with dried seeds found that there was noticeable variability of deterioration when samples were kept at different temperatures – even ultra-cold temperatures. Many of these effects can be reduced by cryoprotectants, once the preserved material has become frozen, it is relatively safe from further damage. However, estimates based on the accumulation of radiation-induced DNA damage during cryonic storage have suggested a maximum period of 1000 years. Solution effects As ice crystals grow in freezing water, solutes are excluded, high concentrations of some solutes can be very damaging. Extracellular ice formation When tissues are cooled slowly, water migrates out of cells, too much extracellular ice can cause mechanical damage to the cell membrane due to crushing
20.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
21.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
22.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
23.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
