1.
French Navy
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The French Navy, informally La Royale, is the maritime arm of the French Armed Forces. As of June 2014, the French Navy employed a total of 36,776 personnel, the reserve element of the French Navy consisted of 4,827 personnel of the Operational Reserve. The French naval fleet includes more than a hundred vessels and nuclear type submarines, the history of the French Navy dates back to the History of the French Navy of Antiquity to the Renaissance, part of the History of the French Navy. The French Royal Navy was quasi inexistent prior 1624, the Ordre de Saint-Jean de Jérusalem, which was both a religious and military order, had its own respective international war fleet which assured the policing of the seas in the Mediterranean. The members which had satisfied obligations for periods in service at sea fulfilling their service, were granted the rank of Knights Hospitaller, however, many considered the naval service formation to integrate later, while being well formed, their respective navy. The Ordre de Saint-Jean de Jérusalem was one of the ancestors of the French naval schools and in principal, the Order accordingly formed most of the ships Captains, Officers of the French Royal Navy and Admirals of the Marine française de guerre de la Méditerranée. During the Revolution, the French Navy succeeded to the French Royal Navy, under the First French Empire and the Second French Empire, the navy was designated as the Imperial French Navy. The French Navy is still designated today familiarly as La Royale and this expression was used by commercial sailors due to their military service at the corps of the navy by the institution of maritime inscription. The implementation then of the Ministère de la Marine later the de la Marine de guerre française at rue Royale. The symbol of the French Navy, which was since origin a golden anchor » and this symbol featured on all naval vessels, the arms, uniforms, the couriers, equipment, and general arms of the navy. This symbol was replaced in 1990 by a logo featuring a bow section of a warship with two ascending red and blue spray foams, and the inscription Marine nationale. The Chief of Staff of the French Navy was Admiral Bernard Louzeau, the navy became a consistent instrument of national power around the seventeenth century with Richelieus efforts under Louis XIII, and Colberts under Louis XIV. Under the tutelage of the Sun King, the French Navy was well-financed and -equipped, managing to score several victories in the Nine Years War against the Royal Navy. Financial troubles, however, forced the navy back to port and allowed the English, before the Nine Years War, in the Franco-Dutch War, it managed to score a decisive victory over a combined Spanish-Dutch fleet at the Battle of Palermo. The French Navy scored various successes, as in the campaigns led in the Atlantic by Picquet de la Motte, in 1766, Bougainville led the first French circumnavigation. During the American Revolutionary War the French Navy played a role in supporting the Americans. French warships participated in the battle by bombarding British ground forces, in India, Suffren waged campaigns against the British, successfully contending for supremacy against Vice-Admiral Sir Edward Hughes. In the Mediterranean, the French Navy waged a campaign during a 1798 French invasion of Egypt
French Navy
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French Navy ships of the line in the
Battle of the Chesapeake.
French Navy
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French Navy
French Navy
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Abel Aubert Dupetit Thouars taking over
Tahiti on 9 September 1842. July Monarchy.
French Navy
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Le Napoléon (1850), the first steam
battleship in history.
2.
Marina Militare
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The Italian Navy is the maritime defence force of the Italian Republic. It is one of the four branches of Italian Armed Forces and was formed in 1946 from what remained of the Regia Marina after World War II. As of August 2014, the Italian Navy had a strength of 30,923 active personnel with approximately 184 vessels in service, the Regia Marina was formed on March 17,1861, after the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy. The Italian Navy assumed its present name after the Italian monarchy was abolished following a referendum held on June 2,1946. At the end of its five years involvement in World War II, however, a large number of its naval units had survived the war, albeit in a low efficiency state, which was due to the conflict and the age of many vessels. A ban on owning Battleships, Aircraft carriers, Submarines and Amphibious Assault units, a ban on operating military installations on the islands of Pantelleria, Pianosa and on the archipelago of Pelagie Islands. The total displacement, battleships excluded, of the navy was not allowed to be greater than 67,500 tons. Some had already been dismantled in La Spezia between 1948 and 1955, including the aircraft carrier Aquila. However, the Soviet Union demanded the surrender of the battleship Giulio Cesare, the cruisers Attilio Regolo and Scipione Africano became the French Chateaurenault and Guichen, while Eugenio di Savoia became the Greek Helli. After break up and/or transfers, only a part of the fleet remained to be recommissioned into the Marina. With the new elections in 1946, the Kingdom of Italy became a Republic, the US government in Washington wished to keep its own installations on the Italian Peninsula and relaxed the Treaty restrictions by including Italy in the Mutual Defense Assistance Programme. Within NATO, the Marina Militare was assigned control of the Adriatic Sea and Strait of Otranto. This solution required a great effort to rebuild and transform the fleet. Progress was slow due to pressures on Italy and due to opposition from other European governments. These nations were concerned at seeing an Italian Navy capable of rivaling the Western naval forces, the ensign of the Italian Navy is the Italian tricolour defaced with the coat of arms of the Marina Militare. A further difference is that St, in 2012 the Navy began a restructuring process that will see a 21% decrease in personnel by 2025. A new structure was implemented in January 2014, the command structure is depicted below, Reporting to the Logistics Command is Maritime Command – divided into four areas who provide logistic support for their areas. The Corps of the Port Captaincies – Coast Guard is the coast guard of Italy and is part of the Italian Navy under the control of the Ministry of Infrastructures, in Italy, it is commonly known as simply the Guardia costiera
Marina Militare
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La Spezia, 1951:
Aquila just before being scrapped.
Marina Militare
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Italian Navy
Marina Militare
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The aircraft carrier
Cavour in 2008
Marina Militare
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The carrier Cavour in the
Gulf of Oman, 2013
3.
Royal Moroccan Navy
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The Royal Navy of Morocco is a branch of the military of Morocco responsible for conducting naval operations. The Royal Moroccan Navy is administratively managed by the Administration of Defence, which is commanded by King Mohammed VI, the Royal Moroccan Navy is part of the Moroccan Armed Forces. Its mission includes the protection of Moroccan territory and sovereignty, as well as the control of Moroccos 81, given Moroccos significant coastline and strategic position overseeing the Strait of Gibraltar, it is deeply involved in the security of this important international waterway. With the Almohad dynasty taking over most of northern Africa, together with Al-Andalus, at its peak, the Almohad navys military reputation was well known, inciting Ayyubid dynasty Egypt and Saladin to seek its help in preventing Crusades expeditions. The 16th century had the starting decline of the Moroccan state, the capture of major coastal cities and locations by Spain and Portugal much affected Moroccos naval capabilities. Later on, under pressure from a coalition of European powers, russia has offered the sub for sale to India, but in 2005, India ordered Scorpène-class submarines instead. On 4 July 2013, Rosoboronexport announced they will offer the Amur 1650 to the Moroccan Navy if they announce a tender for new submarines, abdellah Ben Aïcha, admiral of Salé, ambassador to king Louis XIV of France in 1689. Abdelkader Perez, ambassador to England in 1723 and again in 1737, vice Admiral Mohammed Triki of Safi, Commander in Chief of the Royal Moroccan Navy from 1991 to 2005. Military of Morocco Baker III, A. D, combat Fleets of the World 1998-1999
Royal Moroccan Navy
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FREMM Frigate
Royal Moroccan Navy
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Descubierta Class
Royal Moroccan Navy
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FMMM
Royal Moroccan Navy
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Floréal
4.
Egyptian Navy
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The Egyptian Navy is the maritime branch of the Egyptian Armed Forces. It is the largest navy in the Middle East and Africa, the navys missions include protection of more than 2,000 kilometers of coastline of the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, defense of approaches to the Suez Canal, and support for army operations. The majority of the Egyptian Navy was created with the help of the Soviet Union in the 1960s, the navy received ships in the 1980s from China and other, western, sources. In 1989, the Egyptian Navy had 18,000 personnel as well as 2,000 personnel in the Coast Guard, Egypt has had a navy since Ancient Egyptian times. The Ancient Egyptian Navy imported many of their ships from countries such as the Kingdom of Cyprus, several Ancient Egyptian solar ships are still present today. In the early 1800s, Egypt under Muhammad Ali Pasha developed a modern European-style army, after intervening in the Greek War of Independence at Ottoman Turkeys request, the Egyptian navy was destroyed in 1827 at the Battle of Navarino by the fleets of Great Britain, France and Russia. With the Egyptian army in Greece then isolated, Muhammad Ali made terms with the British, a replacement fleet was built for the First Egyptian-Ottoman War in 1831, and landed troops at Jaffa in support of the main Egyptian army marching into Syria. In the Second Egyptian–Ottoman War in 1839, following Egyptian victory in the Battle of Nezib, however, these victories provoked decisive European intervention to support the Turks, and while Muhammad Alis dynasty continued to reign, Egypt ended up effectively a British colony until the 1950s. The Egyptian navy was only involved in the series of conflicts with Israel. During the Suez Crisis, Egypt dispatched the Ibrahim el Awal, Egyptian destroyers and torpedo boats engaged larger British vessels in a move aimed at undermining the amphibious operations of the British and French. On the night of 31 October in the northern Red Sea, the Egyptian warship was then sunk by escorting destroyer HMS Diana, with 69 surviving Egyptian sailors rescued. The Egyptian Navys blockade of Israeli ships in the Strait of Tiran that were headed toward the Israeli port of Eilat was one of the causes of the Six-Day War. During the war, the Israeli Navy landed six combat divers from the Shayetet 13 naval commando unit to infiltrate Alexandria harbor, the divers sank an Egyptian minesweeper before being taken prisoner. Both Egyptian and Israeli warships made movements at sea to intimidate the other throughout the war. However, Israeli warships and aircraft did hunt for Egyptian submarines throughout the war and this was a milestone of modern naval warfare, and for the first time anti-ship missiles showed their potential, sinking the destroyer 17 km off Port Said. On the night of 15–16 November 1969, Egyptian Navy frogmen attacked the port of Eilat, on 5–6 February 1970, the frogmen attacked the Israeli landing ships at the same port and same piers causing severe damages to the landing ship Bait Shivaa and transport armed ship Hydroma. In the Yom Kippur War, Egypt blocked commercial traffic to Eilat in the Gulf of Aqaba by laying mines, the navy also used the coastal artillery to the east of Port Fouad to support the Egyptian Army in order to prepare for the assault on the Suez Canal. In the Battle of Baltim, three Egyptian Osa-class missile boats were sunk, the Egyptian navys headquarters and main base is at Alexandria on the Mediterranean Sea with other Mediterranean naval bases at Port Said and Mersa Matruh
Egyptian Navy
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Ramses III at the Battle of the delta between the Egyptian Navy and the Sea Peoples approximately 1198-1166 BC
Egyptian Navy
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Naval Ensign
Egyptian Navy
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Muhammad Ali pasha of Egypt displaying his army and navy 1830-1848
Egyptian Navy
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Egyptian and Ottoman Navy during the war of Greece's independence from the Ottoman Empire
5.
Cassard-class frigate
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The Cassard class is a class of anti-air warfare destroyers of the French Navy. The class is an air defence variant of the Georges Leygues class, the two classes have a different armament and propulsion system mounted on an identical hull. Their primary role is to provide air cover for a fleet, an aeronaval group and their secondary role is to manage air assets coordination & aircraft control for the force, especially through Link 16. They can also be used for research, identification or presence missions. Both ships are assigned to the Force dAction Navale, the experience gained during the design and construction of the Cassard type was used for the design of the La Fayette class. The Cassard-class frigate was designed to replace the four T 47-class anti-air warfare vessels in service at the time. Initially procured with four ships in the class, the class was cut back to two vessels after the United States chose to terminate the production of the Standard SM-1MR missile, the prolonged design period led to the plans being redrawn several times. The class shares a hull design with the Georges Leygues class. The superstructure is composed of an aluminum alloy that is resistant to fire. However the adoption of a propulsion system was abandoned early on. The hot exhaust from the Olympus turbines found on the Georges Leygues class was thought to be incompatible with the numerous arrays required in the new design, the ships are crewed by 244 personnel but can accommodate 251. The class carries one helicopter on a deck placed aft with a hangar provided for storage. Originally supplied with a Eurocopter AS565 Panther, they were replaced with the Westland Lynx. The Cassard class is powered by four SEMT Pielstick 18 PA6V280 BTC diesels creating a sustained 43,200 hp driving two shafts and this gives the ships a maximum speed of 29.5 kn and a range of 8,000 nmi at 17 kn. The SEMT Pielstick diesels are capable of double super-charging, the engines are placed upon flexible mountings reducing the noise signature of the ship. The Cassard frigates are armed with one Mk 13 launcher for the 40 Standard SM-1MR anti-air missiles, the missiles have semi-active rader homing out to 46 km at Mach 2 with a ceiling limit of 18,288 m. The Mk 13 single arm launchers and SPG51 tracker/illuminators were taken off the T47 destroyers Bouvet and Kersaint, the Cassards are also provided with two Sadral sextuple launchers for 39 Mistral CIWS anti-air missiles. The Mistrals have infrared homing out to 4 km and have a 3 kg warhead and they are anti-sea skimmer missiles and are able to engage incoming targets down to 10 ft above sea level. For anti-ship weaponry, the class is provided with eight MM40 Exocet anti-ship missiles, the MM40 Exocet missiles are sea-skimmers with a warhead of 165 kg and have a range of 70 km at Mach 0.9
Cassard-class frigate
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Cassard
Cassard-class frigate
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Jean Bart beside the stealth frigates Surcouf and Courbet
6.
Soldati-class frigate
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The Lupo class is a class of frigates built by Cantieri Navali Riuniti for the Italian Navy. Designed as multipurpose warships with emphasis on warfare, they have enjoyed some success in the export market, being acquired by the navies of Peru. A small run of an updated version is known as the Soldati class. To parry this menace, Italy started an expansion program which included frigates focused on ASuW. For the first part of the requirement, CNR presented a design for a 2, 500-ton frigate with a high speed, the ship employed a CODOG propulsion plant to achieve 35 knots, making it one of the fastest warships at the time. Armament included 8 SSMs,8 SAMs, several gun systems,2 triple torpedo tubes and an ASW helicopter, Lupo-class frigates have a crew of around 200. The Italian Navy commissioned four Lupo-class frigates between 1977 and 1980 and these ships were deployed to the Persian Gulf first as escorts for tankers during the last stages of the Iran–Iraq War and then as part of the Coalition forces during the 1990–1991 Gulf War. After this operations the class underwent modernization which included fitting an SPS-702 CORA surface search radar. After two decades in service, the four Italian Lupo-class frigates were decommissioned and sold to Peru in the early 2000s, in 1996 four new Lupo-class frigates which had been built for Iraq in 1985-87, were incorporated into the Italian Navy as the Artigliere class. These ships feature a telescopic hangar, they were refitted as patrol ships, the four ships are Artigliere, Aviere, Bersagliere and Granatiere, and are used in fleet escort or long range patrolling duties. Iraq ordered four Lupo-class frigates from CNR in 1980 as part of an expansion program just before the Iran–Iraq War. These ships, which feature a telescopic hangar were completed between 1985 and 1987, due to restrictions on arm sales to Iraq because of the Iran-Iraq War placed by the Italian prime minister Bettino Craxi, the ships remained interned in Italy until the end of that war in 1988. Iraqi President Saddam Hussein then tried to renegotiate the price of these ships, negotiations and court proceedings were still ongoing when Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990 and a new arms embargo against Iraq was placed by the United Nations, again blocking the sale. In 1993 all of them were seized and, after being refitted as patrol ships, changes made for Italian service included the removal of all ASW equipment. The four ships are Artigliere, Aviere, Bersagliere and Granatiere, the Philippines considered acquiring the Soldati class in 2012. Artigliere has been placed in reserve, Peru became involved early in the Lupo-class frigate program, ordering four ships in 1973. The Peruvian ships were built to a design which included different radars, Aspide instead of Sea Sparrow SAMs. The first two were built by CNR at its shipyard in Riva Trigoso, Genoa, and commissioned in 1979, construction work for the second pair was carried out under license by SIMA at Callao, with the ships commissioning in 1984 and 1987
Soldati-class frigate
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Peruvian Navy frigate BAP Carvajal participating in Southern Seas 2010
Soldati-class frigate
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A starboard view of the Italian Lupo -class frigate Sagittario underway during exercise Distant Drum in 1983
Soldati-class frigate
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BAP Villavisencio underway off
Dungeness Spit,
Washington, June 2015
Soldati-class frigate
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Peruvian frigate BAP Carvajal maneuvers through the Caribbean Sea during UNITAS 46-05
7.
Maestrale-class frigate
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The Maestrale class is a class of frigates of the Marina Militare. The class is composed of eight vessels, all of which were built by Fincantieri S. p. A, Riva Trigoso, except for Grecale, which was built by Fincantieri S. p. A. The Maestrale-class frigates were designed for anti-submarine warfare, however the ships are highly flexible so they are also capable of anti-air. Ships of this class have been used in various international missions, either under NATO or UN flag. The first of these ships entered in service in early 1982, the rest of the fleet was launched over the next three years. The ships of the Maestrale class will be replaced by the Bergamini class and these ships were built with the experience and the technology already developed for the previous Lupo class. The Maestrales were quite bigger and heavier, so they were slower, the ships have a large superstructure, with one large turret and only one funnel. There are two enclosed pyramid masts, one of which is low, the other much taller. The superstructure continues without interruption until the hangar, and is made, as usual, the propulsion system is based on two gas-turbine GE-Avio LM-2500 and two diesel engines, in a combined diesel or gas configuration, that make use of diesel for cruising and turbines for high speed. In this case, the solution, already developed for the Lupo-class ships, was successful, the ships have a maximum range of 6,000 nautical miles at 15 knots. The Maestrale class ships are armed with an array of systems, mounted on the foredeck is an Oto Melara 127 mm/54 gun, capable of shooting 40 rounds per minute. Despite its large size, it was possible to fit it in the small hull. It has 66 shells on three ready-fire carousels and it also had low reaction times and high elevation, with a 32-kilogram shells and 23-kilometre range. The ships also carry the Albatross missile system, with an octuple cell capable of firing Sea Sparrow or Aspide missiles and this modern weapon contains a monopulse guide and a powerful rocket-engine, and advanced flight controls. After the turret there are two CIWS DARDO, with two 40 mm/L70 Bofors guns and they have very rapid mechanical systems, and depots with over 700 shells, and can fire around 600 rounds per minute. The proximity fuses and the control systems help this unmanned turret to react quickly to incoming missiles. Also on deck are four Otomat anti-ship missiles, capable of striking a target 180 km or more away and they are fitted over the hangar, where there are two AB-212 helicopters ASW multi-role machines. Finally, there are four torpedo-launchers, two triple ILAS-3324 mm tubes, with 12 torpedoes available, and the A.184, a wired torpedo with two launch tubes and six to eight torpedoes
Maestrale-class frigate
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Maestrale at sea in the
Indian Ocean
Maestrale-class frigate
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Maestrale, underway at high-speed, during Operation Enduring Freedom
8.
Frigate
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A frigate /ˈfrɪɡᵻt/ is any of several types of warship, the term having been used for ships of various sizes and roles over the last few centuries. In the 17th century, this term was used for any warship built for speed and maneuverability and these could be warships carrying their principal batteries of carriage-mounted guns on a single deck or on two decks. The term was used for ships too small to stand in the line of battle. In the late 19th century, the frigate was a type of ironclad warship that for a time was the most powerful type of vessel afloat. The term frigate was used because such ships still mounted their principal armaments on a continuous upper deck. Ship classes dubbed frigates have more closely resembled corvettes, destroyers, cruisers. The rank frigate captain derives from the name of type of ship. The term frigate originated in the Mediterranean in the late 15th century, referring to a lighter galleass type ship with oars, sails and a light armament, built for speed and maneuverability. The etymology of the word is unknown, although it may have originated as a corruption of aphractus, aphractus was, in turn, derived from the Ancient Greek phrase ἄφρακτος ναῦς, or undefended ship. In 1583, during the Eighty Years War, Habsburg Spain recovered the Southern Netherlands from the rebellious Dutch and this soon led to the occupied ports being used as bases for privateers, the Dunkirkers, to attack the shipping of the Dutch and their allies. To achieve this they developed small, maneuverable, sailing vessels that came to be referred to as frigates, in French, the term frigate became a verb, meaning to build long and low, and an adjective, adding further confusion. Even the huge English Sovereign of the Seas could be described as a frigate by a contemporary after her upper decks were reduced in 1651. The navy of the Dutch Republic was the first navy to build the larger ocean-going frigates, the first two tasks required speed, shallowness of draft for the shallow waters around the Netherlands, and the ability to carry sufficient supplies to maintain a blockade. The third task required heavy armament, sufficient to fight against the Spanish fleet, the first of these larger battle-capable frigates were built around 1600 at Hoorn in Holland. The effectiveness of the Dutch frigates became most visible in the Battle of the Downs in 1639, encouraging most other navies, especially the English, to adopt similar designs. The fleets built by the Commonwealth of England in the 1650s generally consisted of ships described as frigates, the largest of which were two-decker great frigates of the third rate. Carrying 60 guns, these vessels were as big and capable as great ships of the time, however, most other frigates at the time were used as cruisers, independent fast ships. The term frigate implied a long hull design, which relates directly to speed and also, in turn, in Danish, the word fregat is often applied to warships carrying as few as 16 guns, such as HMS Falcon which the British classified as a sloop
Frigate
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The Portuguese sailing frigate
Dom Fernando II e Gloria in
1878
Frigate
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The modern air-defence and command frigate
HNLMS Evertsen
Frigate
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Light frigate, circa 1675–1680
Frigate
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Boudeuse, of
Louis Antoine de Bougainville
9.
Combined diesel-electric and gasturbine
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Combined diesel-electric and gas is a modification of the combined diesel and gas propulsion system for ships. A variant, called the combined diesel-electric or gas system, contains the basic elements. A CODLAG system employs electric motors which are connected to the propeller shafts, the motors are powered by diesel generators. For higher speeds, a gas turbine powers the shafts via a gearbox, for cruise speed. This has been used extensively by military submarines but surface naval vessels like anti-submarine vessels will benefit as well
Combined diesel-electric and gasturbine
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Integrated electric propulsion in the Type 45 destroyer (GT: gas turbine; DG: diesel generator)
Combined diesel-electric and gasturbine
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Principle of a CODLAG propulsion system
10.
Gas turbine
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A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of internal combustion engine. It has an upstream rotating compressor coupled to a turbine. The basic operation of the gas turbine is similar to that of the power plant except that the working fluid is air instead of water. Fresh atmospheric air flows through a compressor that brings it to higher pressure, energy is then added by spraying fuel into the air and igniting it so the combustion generates a high-temperature flow. This high-temperature high-pressure gas enters a turbine, where it expands down to the exhaust pressure, the turbine shaft work is used to drive the compressor and other devices such as an electric generator that may be coupled to the shaft. The energy that is not used for shaft work comes out in the exhaust gases, the purpose of the gas turbine determines the design so that the most desirable energy form is maximized. Gas turbines are used to power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical generators,50, Heros Engine — Apparently, Heros steam engine was taken to be no more than a toy, and thus its full potential not realized for centuries. 1000, The Trotting Horse Lamp was used by the Chinese at lantern fairs as early as the Northern Song dynasty. When the lamp is lit, the heated airflow rises and drives an impeller with horse-riding figures attached on it,1629, Jets of steam rotated an impulse turbine that then drove a working stamping mill by means of a bevel gear, developed by Giovanni Branca. 1678, Ferdinand Verbiest built a model carriage relying on a jet for power. 1791, A patent was given to John Barber, an Englishman and his invention had most of the elements present in the modern day gas turbines. The turbine was designed to power a horseless carriage,1861, British patent no.1633 was granted to Marc Antoine Francois Mennons for a Caloric engine. The patent shows that it was a gas turbine and the show it applied to a locomotive. Also named in the patent was Nicolas de Telescheff, a Russian aviation pioneer,1872, A gas turbine engine was designed by Franz Stolze, but the engine never ran under its own power. 1894, Sir Charles Parsons patented the idea of propelling a ship with a turbine, and built a demonstration vessel. This principle of propulsion is still of some use,1895, Three 4-ton 100 kW Parsons radial flow generators were installed in Cambridge Power Station, and used to power the first electric street lighting scheme in the city. 1899, Charles Gordon Curtis patented the first gas engine in the USA. 1900, Sanford Alexander Moss submitted a thesis on gas turbines, in 1903, Moss became an engineer for General Electrics Steam Turbine Department in Lynn, Massachusetts
Gas turbine
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Sketch of John Barber's gas turbine, from his patent
Gas turbine
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Examples of gas turbine configurations: (1)
turbojet, (2)
turboprop, (3)
turboshaft (electric generator), (4) high-bypass
turbofan, (5) low-bypass
afterburning turbofan.
Gas turbine
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A typical axial-flow gas turbine turbojet, the
J85, sectioned for display. Flow is left to right, multistage compressor on left, combustion chambers center, two-stage turbine on right.
Gas turbine
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GE H series power generation gas turbine: in
combined cycle configuration, this 480-
megawatt unit has a rated
thermal efficiency of 60%.
11.
General Electric LM2500
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The General Electric LM2500 is an industrial and marine gas turbine produced by GE Aviation. The LM2500 is a derivative of the General Electric CF6 aircraft engine, the LM2500 is available in 3 different versions, The LM2500 delivers 33,600 shaft horsepower with a thermal efficiency of 37 percent at ISO conditions. When coupled with a generator, it delivers 24 MW of electricity at 60 Hz with a thermal efficiency of 36 percent at ISO conditions. The improved, 3rd generation, LM2500+ version of the turbine delivers 40,500 shp with an efficiency of 39 percent at ISO conditions. When coupled with a generator, it delivers 29 MW of electricity at 60 Hz with a thermal efficiency of 38 percent at ISO conditions. The latest, 4th generation, LM2500+G4 version was introduced in November 2005, the turbines have been used in various applications such as in warships of the U. S. and a number of other world navies, hydrofoils, hovercraft and fast ferries. As of 2004, more than one thousand LM2500/LM2500+ gas turbines have been in service for more than 29 international navies, recently, the increasing demands for low weight, high power engines in the oil and gas industry has led to GE developing a dedicated version for offshore use. This FPSO version is lighter and more compact, and is being used both for electricity generation and for directly driving compressors, e. g. for compressing natural gas going out into pipelines. The LM2500 was first used in US Navy warships in the Spruance class of destroyers and the related Kidd class, in this configuration it was rated to 21,500 shp. This configuration was used into the 1980s in the Oliver Hazard Perry class frigates. It was also used by one of Peoples Republic of Chinas Type 052 Luhu Class Missile Destroyer acquired before the embargo. In 2001 the LM2500 was installed in a capsule in the South African Navy Valour class frigates as part of a CODAG propulsion system with two MTU 16V1163 TB93 Propulsion Diesels. The current generation was uprated in the late 1990s to over 30,000 shp, LM2500 installations place the engine inside a metal container for sound and heat isolation from the rest of the machinery spaces. This container is very near the size of a standard 40-foot intermodal shipping container - but not the same, the air intake ducting may be designed and shaped appropriately for easy removal of the LM2500 from their ships. The LM2500+ is an evolution of the LM2500, delivering up to 40,200 shp or 28.6 MW of electric energy when combined with an electrical generator, celebrity Cruises uses two LM2500+ engines in their Millennium-class ships in a COGAS cycle. The LM2500 is license-built in Japan by Ishikawajima-Harima, in India by HAL, the LM2500/LM2500+ can often be found as turbine part of CODAG or CODOG propulsion systems or in pairs as powerplants for COGAG systems. Official GE Aviation page for LM2500+, official GE Aviation page for LM2500+G4. FAS information page on US Navy LM2500 usage SA Navy Valour class frigate page Power Generation plants Simple and combined cycle 50Hz Simple and combined cycle 60Hz
General Electric LM2500
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LM2500
General Electric LM2500
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A heavy lift lowers the main propulsion module into the hull of
USS Bunker Hill (CG-52) during construction at
Ingalls Shipbuilding. The module consists of two General Electric LM2500 gas turbine engines and a Westinghouse gear reduction unit.
12.
Electric motors
–
An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The reverse of this is the conversion of energy into electrical energy and is done by an electric generator. In normal motoring mode, most electric motors operate through the interaction between an electric motors magnetic field and winding currents to generate force within the motor, small motors may be found in electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use, the largest of electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications with ratings reaching 100 megawatts. Electric motors may be classified by electric power source type, internal construction, application, type of motion output, perhaps the first electric motors were simple electrostatic devices created by the Scottish monk Andrew Gordon in the 1740s. The theoretical principle behind production of force by the interactions of an electric current. The conversion of energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed, when a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in experiments, brine substituting for toxic mercury. Though Barlows wheel was a refinement to this Faraday demonstration. In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic coils, after Jedlik solved the technical problems of the continuous rotation with the invention of the commutator, he called his early devices electromagnetic self-rotors. Although they were used only for instructional purposes, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three components of practical DC motors, the stator, rotor and commutator. The device employed no permanent magnets, as the fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced solely by the currents flowing through their windings. His motor set a record which was improved only four years later in September 1838 by Jacobi himself. His second motor was powerful enough to drive a boat with 14 people across a wide river and it was not until 1839/40 that other developers worldwide managed to build motors of similar and later also of higher performance. The first commutator DC electric motor capable of turning machinery was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832, following Sturgeons work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was built by the American inventor Thomas Davenport, which he patented in 1837. The motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per minute, and powered machine tools, due to the high cost of primary battery power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same battery power cost issues, no electricity distribution had been developed at the time
Electric motors
–
Various electric motors, compared to 9 V battery.
Electric motors
–
Cutaway view through stator of induction motor.
Electric motors
–
Faraday's electromagnetic experiment, 1821
Electric motors
–
Jedlik 's "electromagnetic self-rotor", 1827 (Museum of Applied Arts, Budapest). The historic motor still works perfectly today.
13.
Diesel generator
–
A diesel generator is the combination of a diesel engine with an electric generator to generate electrical energy. This is a case of engine-generator. A diesel compression-ignition engine often is designed to run on fuel oil, proper sizing of diesel generators is critical to avoid low-load or a shortage of power. Sizing is complicated by the characteristics of modern electronics, specifically non-linear loads, the packaged combination of a diesel engine, a generator and various ancillary devices is referred to as a generating set or a genset for short. Set sizes range from 8 to 30 kW for homes, small shops and these units, referred to as power modules are gensets on large triple axle trailers weighing 85,000 pounds or more. A combination of these modules are used for power stations and these may use from one to 20 units per power section. In these larger sizes the power module are brought to site on trailers separately and are connected together with large cables, ships often also employ diesel generators, sometimes not only to provide auxiliary power for lights, fans, winches etc. but also indirectly for main propulsion. With electric propulsion the generators can be placed in a convenient position, electric drives for ships were developed prior to World War I. Such a diesel-electric arrangement is used in some very large land vehicles such as railroad locomotives. The expected duty as well as environmental conditions must also be considered, most of the larger generator set manufacturers offer software that will perform the complicated sizing calculations by simply inputting site conditions and connected electrical load characteristics. One or more diesel generators operating without a connection to a grid are referred to as operating in island mode. Operating generators in parallel provides the advantage of redundancy, and can provide efficiency at partial loads. The plant brings generator sets online and takes them off line depending on the demands of the system at a given time. An islanded power plant intended for primary power source of a community will often have at least three diesel generators, any two of which are rated to carry the required load. Groups of up to 20 are not uncommon, generators can be electrically connected together through the process of synchronization. Synchronization involves matching voltage, frequency and phase before connecting the generator to the system, failure to synchronize before connection could cause a high short circuit current or wear and tear on the generator or its switchgear. The synchronization process can be done automatically by an auto-synchronizer module, the auto-synchronizer will read the voltage, frequency and phase parameters from the generator and busbar voltages, while regulating the speed through the engine governor or ECM. Load can be shared among parallel running generators through load sharing, a diesel generator will take more load when the fuel supply to its combustion system is increased, while load is released if fuel supply is decreased
Diesel generator
–
A Cummins diesel generator of 500kVA temporarily parked in a tourist resort in
Egypt.
Diesel generator
–
A 200 kW Caterpillar diesel generator set in a sound attenuated enclosure used as emergency backup at a sewage treatment substation in
Atlanta,
United States.
Diesel generator
–
Diesel generator on an oil tanker.
14.
MTU Friedrichshafen
–
MTU Friedrichshafen GmbH is a manufacturer of commercial internal combustion engines founded by Wilhelm Maybach and his son Karl Maybach in 1909. Wilhelm Maybach was the director of Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft, a predecessor company of the German multinational automotive corporation Daimler AG. On 23 March 1909, he founded the new company, Luftfahrzeug-Motorenbau GmbH, a few years later the company was renamed to Maybach-Motorenbau GmbH, which originally developed and manufactured diesel and petrol engines for Zeppelins, and then railcars. The Maybach Mb. IVa was used in aircraft and airships of World War I, the company first built an experimental car in 1919, with the first production model introduced two years later at the Berlin Motor Show. Between 1921 and 1940, the company produced various classic opulent vehicles, the company also continued to build heavy duty diesel engines for marine and rail purposes. During the Second World War, Maybach produced the engines for Germanys medium, the company was renamed MTU Friedrichshafen in the 1960s and continued to supply the engines for the Leopard 2 main battle tank. MTU derives from Motoren- und Turbinen-Union meaning Motor and Turbine Union, MTU Friedrichshafen remained a subsidiary of DaimlerChrysler until 2006 when it was sold off to the EQT IV private equity fund, becoming a part of the Tognum Corporation. Rolls-Royce Holdings and Daimler AG acquired Tognum in 2011, in 2014, Tognum was renamed Rolls-Royce Power Systems, having become a 100 per cent subsidiary of Rolls-Royce Holdings. 1909, Foundation of Luftfahrzeug-Motorenbau GmbH in Bissingen an der Enz as part of the Zeppelin corporation, the company manufactures engines for airships. 1912, 1911/12 relocation to Friedrichshafen, the name is changed to Motorenbau GmbH,1918, Motorenbau GmbH is renamed Maybach-Motorenbau GmbH. After the end of the First World War the company began to manufacture car engines,1966, Merger of the two companies Mercedes-Benz Motorenbau Friedrichshafen GmbH and Maybach-Motorenbau GmbH to form Maybach Mercedes-Benz Motorenbau GmbH. 1969, Maybach Mercedes-Benz Motorenbau GmbH is renamed Motoren und Turbinen-Union Friedrichshafen GmbH, the company is a subsidiary of MTU München GmbH which is owned at equal shares by Daimler-Benz AG and MAN AG until 1985. 1989, Incorporation of MTU Friedrichshafen in Deutsche Aero-space AG, a company of the Daimler-Benz Group,2001, MTU Motoren- und Turbinen-Union Friedrichshafen GmbH is renamed MTU Friedrichshafen GmbH. 2006, The business is transferred into the new holding company Tognum,2009, MTU Friedrichshafen celebrates its centenary. In the same introduction of the new Series 1600, rounding off the performance range at the lower end of the product portfolio. PPGs engineers worked closely with the builders to develop a system that meets weight goals and provides easy installation, city of Portland Fire boats - Pacific Power Group provided a complete propulsion power solution. Pacific designed and engineered the solution which included the main engines, transmissions, the vessels are powered by MTU 8V2000 M84 engines and Rolls-Royce FF450S waterjets. This allows significantly faster response times in the city’s large emergency response area, National Geographic Expedition Vessels - Two 12-cylinder Series 4000 M54 engines, each producing 1,600 hp at 1,800 rpm, will provide propulsion
MTU Friedrichshafen
–
MTU / Detroit Diesel exhibition at a trade fair
MTU Friedrichshafen
–
MTU 20V4000M93 engine
MTU Friedrichshafen
–
MTU marine engine
15.
Isotta Fraschini
–
Isotta Fraschini is an Italian motors brand historically known for the production of cars as well as trucks, and engines for marine and aviation use. The company went bankrupt in 1999, in 2000, a new company was founded, under the name of Isotta Fraschini Milano. Isotta Fraschini currently has offices in Milan and Bari, the firm was named for its founders, Cesare Isotta and Vincenzo Fraschini, as Società Milanese Automobili Isotta, Fraschini & C. on 27 January 1900. The motto was Import, sell, repair cars, prior to establishing their own company in 1904, Isotta and Fraschini assembled Renaults. The first automobile bearing this marque featured an engine with an output of 24 horsepower. The car, driven by Vincenzo Fraschini, appeared in several races, in 1905, Isotta Fraschini gained notoriety in the Coppa Florio, where they entered a Tipo D with a 17. 2-litre 100 horsepower engine. For a short time in 1907, Isotta Fraschini merged with French automobile company Lorraine-Dietrich, the firm started making race cars using this same 100 horsepower engine, establishing the companys reputation and giving its name considerable cachet. It was also one of the first cars with four-wheel brakes and they were also among the early pioneers of overhead cam, with an engine designed by Giustino Cattaneo. Isotta Fraschini introduced their Tipo 8, the first production automobile to be powered by an engine, at the Paris Salon in 1919. With the growth of the middle class in North America in the 1920s. Early film stars Clara Bow and Rudolph Valentino drove Isotta Fraschinis, a 1929 Tipo 8A Castagna Transformable is featured in the 1950 film Sunset Boulevard and another appears in the 1934 film Death Takes a Holiday with Fredric March. An Isotta also makes a appearance in the 1946 film Without Reservations with John Wayne. Also, an Isotta Fraschini was gigolo Lindsay Marriotts car in Raymond Chandlers classic Farewell, My Lovely that was made into a motion picture starring Dick Powell and Claire Trevor. The grille of the Isotta with the lightning bolt insignia is seen parked in a ravine, an oversized Isotta is also the vehicle of choice for Dick and Nicole Diver in F. Scott Fitzgeralds 1933 novel Tender is the Night. Seriously affected by the crisis of the 1930s and by the disruptions of World War II. Only five of the last model, the Monterosa, were produced, the plants were converted to produce marine engines. The company was left on the register and in 1955 it was merged with engine manufacturer Breda Motori. The company started to produce buses again and in 1960s built a new diesel engine factory in Bari
Isotta Fraschini
–
Isotta Fraschini
Isotta Fraschini
–
Vincenzo Trucco won the 1908
Targa Florio with Isotta Fraschini type I.
Isotta Fraschini
–
Isotta-Fraschini AN 20/30 (1909)
Isotta Fraschini
–
Isotta-Fraschini Tipo 8
Sala Phaeton
16.
Propeller shaft
–
As torque carriers, drive shafts are subject to torsion and shear stress, equivalent to the difference between the input torque and the load. They must therefore be enough to bear the stress, whilst avoiding too much additional weight as that would in turn increase their inertia. The term drive shaft first appeared during the mid 19th century, in Stovers 1861 patent reissue for a planing and matching machine, the term is used to refer to the belt-driven shaft by which the machine is driven. The term is not used in his original patent, another early use of the term occurs in the 1861 patent reissue for the Watkins and Bryson horse-drawn mowing machine. Here, the term refers to the transmitting power from the machines wheels to the gear train that works the cutting mechanism. In the 1890s, the term began to be used in a closer to the modern sense. In 1899, Bukey used the term to describe the shaft transmitting power from the wheel to the machinery by a universal joint in his Horse-Power. In the same year, Clark described his Marine Velocipede using the term to refer to the shaft transmitting power through a universal joint to the propeller shaft. Crompton used the term to refer to the shaft between the transmission of his steam-powered Motor Vehicle of 1903 and the driven axle, an automobile may use a longitudinal shaft to deliver power from an engine/transmission to the other end of the vehicle before it goes to the wheels. A pair of short drive shafts is commonly used to power from a central differential, transmission. In front-engined, rear-drive vehicles, a drive shaft is also required to send power the length of the vehicle. Two forms dominate, The torque tube with a universal joint. This system became known as Système Panhard after the automobile company Panhard et Levassor patented it, most of these vehicles have a clutch and gearbox mounted directly on the engine, with a drive shaft leading to a final drive in the rear axle. When the vehicle is stationary, the drive shaft does not rotate, some vehicles, seeking improved weight balance between front and rear, use a rear-mounted transaxle. This places the clutch and transmission at the rear of the car, in this case the drive shaft rotates continuously with the engine, even when the car is stationary and out of gear. A drive shaft connecting a rear differential to a wheel may be called a half-shaft. The name derives from the fact that two such shafts are required to one rear axle. Early automobiles often used chain drive or belt drive mechanisms rather than a drive shaft, some used electrical generators and motors to transmit power to the wheels
Propeller shaft
–
Drive shaft with
universal joints at each end and a
spline in the centre
Propeller shaft
Propeller shaft
–
A truck double propeller shaft
Propeller shaft
–
The exposed drive shaft on BMW's first motorcycle, the
R32
17.
Controllable pitch propeller
–
A controllable-pitch propeller or variable-pitch propeller is a type of propeller with blades that can be rotated around their long axis to change the blade pitch. Reversible propellers—those where the pitch can be set to negative values—can also create reverse thrust for braking or going backwards without the need to change the direction of shaft revolution. Propellers whose blade pitch could be adjusted while the aircraft was on the ground were used by a number of aviation pioneers. In 1919 L. E. Baynes AFRAeS patented the first automatic variable-pitch airscrew, dr Henry Selby Hele-Shaw and T. E. The first practical controllable-pitch propeller for aircraft was introduced in 1932, French firm Ratier pioneered variable-pitch propellers of various designs from 1928 onwards, relying on a special ball bearing helicoïdal ramp at the root of the blades for easy operation. Use of these pneumatic propellers required presetting the propeller to fine pitch prior to take-off and this was done by pressurizing the bladder with a bicycle pump, hence the whimsical nickname Gonfleurs dhélices given to the aircraft ground mechanics in France up to this day. Especially for cruising, the engine can operate in its most economical range of rotational speeds, with the exception of going into reverse for braking after touch-down, the pitch is usually controlled automatically without the pilots intervention. A propeller with a controller that adjusts the blade pitch so that the rotational speed always stays the same is called a constant-speed propeller, a propeller with controllable pitch can have a nearly constant efficiency over a range of airspeeds. A common type of propeller is hydraulically actuated, it was originally developed by Frank W. Caldwell of the Hamilton Standard Division of the United Aircraft Company. The French company of Pierre Levasseur and Smith Engineering Co. in the United States also developed controllable-pitch propellers, Smith propellers were used by Wiley Post on some of his flights. Another common type was developed by Wallace R. Turnbull. This electrically-operated mechanism was first tested in on June 6,1927 at Camp Borden, Ontario, Canada and it was favoured by some pilots in World War II, because even when the engine was no longer running the propeller could be feathered. On hydraulically-operated propellers the feathering had to happen before the loss of pressure in the engine. Hydraulic operation is too expensive and bulky, and instead light aircraft use propellers that are activated mechanically or electrically, the Silence Twister prototype kitplane was fitted with the V-Prop, an automatic self-energising and electronically self-adjusting VP propeller. When fully loaded, a vessel obviously needs more power than when empty. By varying the propeller blades to the pitch, higher efficiency can be obtained. A vessel with a VPP can accelerate faster from a standstill, a VPP can also improve vessel maneuverability by directing a stronger flow of water onto the rudder. However, a propeller is both cheaper and more robust than a VPP
Controllable pitch propeller
–
One of a
C-130J Super Hercules ' 6 bladed
Dowty Rotol R391 composite controllable- and reversible-pitch propellers.
Controllable pitch propeller
–
A Hamilton Standard variable-pitch propeller on a 1943 model
Stinson V77 Reliant
Controllable pitch propeller
–
A ship's variable-pitch propeller
18.
Bow thruster
–
A bow thruster or stern thruster is a transversal propulsion device built into, or mounted to, either the bow or stern, of a ship or boat, to make it more maneuverable. A stern thruster is of the principle, fitted at the stern. Large ships might have multiple bow thrusters and stern thrusters, large vessels usually have one or more tunnel thrusters built into the bow, below the waterline. An impeller in the tunnel can create thrust in either direction which makes the ship turn, most tunnel thrusters are driven by electric motors, but some are hydraulically powered. These bow thrusters, also known as thrusters, may allow the ship to dock without the assistance of tugboats. Ships equipped with tunnel thrusters typically have a sign marked above the waterline over each thruster on both sides, as a big cross in a red circle. Tunnel thrusters increase the resistance to forward motion through the water. Ship operators should take care to prevent fouling of the tunnel, during vessel design, it is important to determine whether tunnel emergence above the water surface is commonplace in heavy seas. Tunnel emergence hurts thruster performance, and may damage the thruster, instead of a tunnel thruster, boats from 30 to 80 feet in length may have an externally mounted bow thruster. Externally mounted bow thrusters have one or more propellers driven by a reversible electric motor which provides thrust in either direction. The added control provided by a bow thruster helps the captain to avoid accidents while docking, a waterjet thruster is a special type of bow thruster that utilizes a pumping device instead of a conventional propeller. The water is discharged through specially designed nozzles which increase the velocity of the exiting jet, waterjets generally have the advantage of smaller hull penetrations for an equivalent size thruster. Additionally, the exit velocity of the discharged water increases the relative efficiency as speeds of advance, or currents, increase. Some waterjet bow thrusters can be configured to forward and aft auxiliary propulsion
Bow thruster
–
A ship equipped with a tunnel thruster, marked by the circled-x symbol " (x) " visible below the "R" of "MARIE".
Bow thruster
–
A bow thruster
19.
Knot (unit)
–
The knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour, approximately 1.151 mph. The ISO Standard symbol for the knot is kn, the same symbol is preferred by the IEEE, kt is also common. The knot is a unit that is accepted for use with the SI. Etymologically, the term derives from counting the number of knots in the line that unspooled from the reel of a log in a specific time. 1 international knot =1 nautical mile per hour,1.852 kilometres per hour,0.514 metres per second,1.151 miles per hour,20.254 inches per second,1852 m is the length of the internationally agreed nautical mile. The US adopted the definition in 1954, having previously used the US nautical mile. The UK adopted the international nautical mile definition in 1970, having used the UK Admiralty nautical mile. The speeds of vessels relative to the fluids in which they travel are measured in knots, for consistency, the speeds of navigational fluids are also measured in knots. Thus, speed over the ground and rate of progress towards a distant point are given in knots. Until the mid-19th century, vessel speed at sea was measured using a chip log, the chip log was cast over the stern of the moving vessel and the line allowed to pay out. Knots placed at a distance of 8 fathoms -47 feet 3 inches from each other, passed through a sailors fingers, the knot count would be reported and used in the sailing masters dead reckoning and navigation. This method gives a value for the knot of 20.25 in/s, the difference from the modern definition is less than 0. 02%. On a chart of the North Atlantic, the scale varies by a factor of two from Florida to Greenland, a single graphic scale, of the sort on many maps, would therefore be useless on such a chart. Recent British Admiralty charts have a latitude scale down the middle to make this even easier, speed is sometimes incorrectly expressed as knots per hour, which is in fact a measure of acceleration. Prior to 1969, airworthiness standards for aircraft in the United States Federal Aviation Regulations specified that distances were to be in statute miles. In 1969, these standards were amended to specify that distances were to be in nautical miles. At 11000 m, an airspeed of 300 kn may correspond to a true airspeed of 500 kn in standard conditions. Beaufort scale Hull speed, which deals with theoretical estimates of maximum speed of displacement hulls Knot count Knotted cord Metre per second Orders of magnitude Rope Kemp
Knot (unit)
–
Graphic scale from a Mercator projection world map, showing the change with latitude
20.
Nautical mile
–
A nautical mile is a unit of measurement defined as exactly 1852 meters. Historically, it was defined as one minute of latitude, which is equivalent to one sixtieth of a degree of latitude. Today it is an SI derived unit, being rounded to a number of meters. The derived unit of speed is the knot, defined as one mile per hour. The geographical mile is the length of one minute of longitude along the Equator, there is no internationally agreed symbol. M is used as the abbreviation for the mile by the International Hydrographic Organization and by the International Bureau of Weights. NM is used by the International Civil Aviation Organization, nm is used by the U. S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Nmi is used by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the word mile is from the Latin word for a thousand paces, mīlia. In 1617 the Dutch scientist Snell assessed the circumference of the Earth at 24,630 Roman miles, around that time British mathematician Edmund Gunter improved navigational tools including a new quadrant to determine latitude at sea. He reasoned that the lines of latitude could be used as the basis for a unit of measurement for distance, as one degree is 1/360 of a circle, one minute of arc is 1/21600 of a circle. These sexagesimal units originated in Babylonian astronomy, Gunter used Snells circumference to define a nautical mile as 6,080 feet, the length of one minute of arc at 48 degrees latitude.3 metres. Other countries measure the minute of arc at 45 degrees latitude, in 1929, the international nautical mile was defined by the First International Extraordinary Hydrographic Conference in Monaco as 1,852 meters. Imperial units and United States customary units used a definition of the nautical mile based on the Clarke Spheroid, the United States nautical mile was defined as 6,080.20 feet based in the Mendenhall Order foot of 1893. It was abandoned in favour of the nautical mile in 1954.181 meters. It was abandoned in 1970 and, legally, references to the unit are now converted to 1,853 meters. Conversion of units Orders of magnitude
Nautical mile
–
Historical definition – 1 nautical mile
21.
Passive electronically scanned array
–
This contrasts with an active electronically scanned array antenna, which has a separate transmitter and/or receiver unit for each antenna element, all controlled by a computer. AESA is an advanced, sophisticated versatile second-generation version of the original PESA phased array technology. The largest use of phased arrays is in radars, most phased array radars in the world are PESA. The civilian Microwave landing system uses PESA transmit-only arrays, radar systems generally work by connecting an antenna to a powerful radio transmitter to emit a short pulse of signal. The transmitter is disconnected and the antenna is connected to a sensitive receiver which amplifies any echos from target objects. By measuring the time it takes for the signal to return, the receiver then sends the resulting output to a display of some sort. The transmitter elements were typically klystron tubes or magnetrons, which are suitable for amplifying or generating a range of frequencies to high power levels. To scan a portion of the sky, the antenna must be physically moved to point in different directions. Starting in the 1960s new solid-state devices capable of delaying the signal in a controlled way were introduced. That led to the first practical large-scale passive electronically scanned array, pESAs took a signal from a single source, split it into hundreds of paths, selectively delayed some of them, and sent them to individual antennas. The delays could be controlled electronically, allowing the beam to be steered very quickly without moving the antenna. A PESA can scan a volume of space much quicker than a mechanical system. PESAs quickly became widespread on ships and large fixed emplacements in the 1960s, followed by airborne sensors as the electronics shrank
Passive electronically scanned array
–
Zaslon Passive electronically scanned array on
Mikoyan MiG-31
22.
Active electronically scanned array
–
AESAs main use is in radar, and these are known as active phased array radar. The AESA is an advanced, sophisticated, second-generation of the original PESA phased array technology. PESAs can only emit a beam of radio waves at a single frequency at a time. The AESA can radiate multiple beams of radio waves at multiple frequencies simultaneously, most of the radar systems used in modern combat aircraft are AESA systems. Bell Labs proposed replacing the Nike Zeus radars with a phased array system in 1960, the result was the Zeus Multi-function Array Radar, an early example of an active electronically steered array radar system. MAR was made of a number of small antennas, each one connected to a separate computer-controlled transmitter or receiver. MAR allowed the battle over a wide space to be controlled from a single site. Each MAR, and its associated battle center, would process tracks for hundreds of targets, the system would then select the most appropriate battery for each one, and hand off particular targets for them to attack. One battery would normally be associated with the MAR, while others would be distributed around it, remote batteries were equipped with a much simpler radar whose primary purpose was to track the outgoing Sprint missiles before they became visible to the potentially distant MAR. These smaller Missile Site Radars were passively scanned, forming only a single instead of the MARs multiple beams. First Soviet APA radar was developed in 1963-1965 as a part of S-225 ABM system, after some modifications in the system concept in 1967 it was built at Sary Shagan Test Range in 1970-1971 and nicknamed Flat Twin in the West. Four years later another radar of this design was built on Kura Test Range, the first military ground-based AESA was the J/FPS-3 which became fully operational with the 45th Aircraft Control and Warning Group of the Japan Self-Defense Forces in 1995. The first series production ship-based AESA was the OPS-24 Fire-control radar introduced on the Asagiri-class destroyer DD-155 Hamagiri launched in 1988, the first airborne series production AESA was the EL/M-2075 Phalcon on a Chilean Air Force Boeing 707 that entered service in 1994. The first AESA on an aircraft was the J/APG-1 introduced on the Mitsubishi F-2 in 1995. The first AESA on a missile is the head for the AAM-4B air-to-air missile. US based manufacturers of the AESA radars used in the F-22 and Super Hornet include Northrop Grumman and these companies also design, develop and manufacture the transmit/receive modules which comprise the building blocks of an AESA radar. The requisite electronics technology was developed in-house via Department of Defense research programs such as MMIC Program, Radar systems generally work by connecting an antenna to a powerful radio transmitter to emit a short pulse of signal. The transmitter is disconnected and the antenna is connected to a sensitive receiver which amplifies any echos from target objects
Active electronically scanned array
–
A
Euroradar CAPTOR AESA radar on board a
Eurofighter Typhoon
Active electronically scanned array
–
Close up of the Euroradar CAPTOR on board a Eurofighter Typhoon
Active electronically scanned array
–
Type 997 Artisan 3D on the
Type 23 frigate
Active electronically scanned array
–
SAMPSON AESA on board the
Type 45 destroyer
23.
MBDA
–
MBDA is a European developer and manufacturer of missiles. It was formed by a merger of French Aérospatiale-Matra Missiles, Italian Alenia Marconi Systems, in 2015 the company had 10,000 employees. In 2015, MBDA recorded orders for €5. 2bn and a book of €15.1 bn. MBDA works with over 90 armed forces worldwide, the consolidation of Europes missile companies began in 1996, when parts of Matra Defense and BAe Dynamics merged their missile activities to form Matra BAe Dynamics. Matra BAe Dynamics represented half of Matra Hautes Technologies missile business, then, Matra group merged with Aérospatiale in 1999. In 2000, Aérospatiale-Matra became part of EADS, in 1998, GEC-Marconi Radar and Defence Systems and Alenia Difesa combined their missile and radar activities to form Alenia Marconi Systems. In 1999 GEC-Marconi was sold to British Aerospace and became part of the merged company, in December 2001, MBD and the Missile and Missile Systems activities of AMS merged, creating MBDA. In June 2005, LFK, a unit of EADS Defence and Security Systems, on 1 March 2006, LFK became MBDA Germany. ON9 May 2012, the LFK-Lenkflugkörpersysteme GmbH became MBDA Deutschland GmbH, since February 2002, MBDA owns 40% of Inmize Sistemas S. L. A Spanish company which was formed to integrate the experience and technology of the major Spanish defense companies in the guided weapons sector, in December 2011, MBDA Inc acquired the Viper Strike activity of Northrop Grumman in Huntsville, Alabama. Overall, the group has 45 products in service and 15 more in development. com
MBDA
–
MBDA
24.
Sylver Vertical Launching System
–
The Sylver is a vertical launching system designed by DCNS. The launcher comes in variants, each distinguished by their height. The launchers come in eight-cell modules, except A-35 available in four-cell modules, inner size cell is 60 cm long and 56 cm wide, and each cell has its own exhaust vent. Crotale NG missiles can be quad-packed in one cell, the primary application of the launcher has been the Aster. The Sylver, together with the Aster, is the component of the PAAMS naval anti-air warfare system. Using PAAMS, up to eight missiles can be launched in 10 seconds, the French Navy has initiated studies to convert the SCALP EG missile to be capable of launch from the Sylver. This missile, the SCALP Naval, would give France a land attack capability in the mould of the U. S. Tomahawk
Sylver Vertical Launching System
–
Aster 15 Sylver launchers on the
Charles de Gaulle
25.
Aster (missile family)
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The Aster missile series, primarily comprising the Aster 15 and Aster 30 are a family of vertically launched surface-to-air missiles. The name Aster originates from the mythical Greek archer named Asterion, Asterion likewise receiving his name from the ancient Greek word aster, Aster is manufactured by Eurosam, a European consortium consisting of MBDA France, MBDA Italy and the Thales Group. The missile is designed to intercept and destroy a range of air threats, such as supersonic anti-ship cruise missiles at very low altitude and fast flying. Aster is primarily operated by France, Italy, and the United Kingdom and is a component of the PAAMS air-defence missile system. As the principal weapon of the PAAMS system, Aster equips the Type 45 destroyers, Aster also equips the French and Italian FREMM multipurpose frigates, though they will not be operating as part of a PAAMS air-defence suite. During the 1980s, the predominant missiles in Franco-Italian service were short-range systems such as the French Crotale, Italian Aspide or American Sea Sparrow, some vessels were also equipped with the American medium/long range Standard. Thought was given in particular to the new ability to intercept next-generation supersonic anti-ship missiles. This allowed the actual systems to have the characteristic of being specialised either in short-to-medium range point defence, in May 1989, a Memorandum of understanding was signed between France and Italy for the development of a family of future surface-to air-missiles. By July 1995 development had taken shape in the form of the Aster missile, the missile successfully intercepted a target at an altitude of 15,000 m and at speeds of 1000 km/h. A Phase 2 contract was awarded in 1997 at US$1 billion for pre-production and development of the French-Italian land, during development trials between 1993 and 1994 all flight sequences, altitudes and ranges, were validated. This was also the period during which the sequence of Aster 30 was validated. In May 1996, trials of the Aster 15 active electromagnetical final guidance system against live targets began, again during 1997 Aster was extensively tested, this time being pitted against targets such as the C22 target and first generation Exocet anti-ship missiles. In numerous engagements Aster scored direct impacts on its targets, the target was recovered bearing two strong cuts due to the fins of the Aster missile. In May 2001 Aster had again successfully completed the manufacturers validation firing test and was deployed for the first time on the French nuclear-powered aircraft carriers Charles de Gaulle. Again on the 29 June 2001 achieved a successful interception of a Arabel missile at low altitude in less than five seconds, during the same year a target simulating an aircraft flying at speeds of Mach 1 and at an altitude of 100 meters was intercepted by an Aster 15. The first ever operational firing of the Aster missile took place during October 2002 on board Charles de Gaulle. Finally in November 2003 Eurosam was awarded the 3 billion euro Phase 3 production contract which saw full production commence and exports to France, Italy, Saudi Arabia and the United Kingdom. The resulting Aster surface-to-air missile meets inter-service and international requirements, addressing the needs of the land, air and naval forces of France, Italy and the United Kingdom
Aster (missile family)
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MBDA Aster 30 on display showing attached booster.
Aster (missile family)
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A
Sylver A-43 VLS on the French aircraft carrier
Charles de Gaulle (R91), equipped with Aster 15 missiles.
Aster (missile family)
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Sylver A-50 VLS on the Italian Horizon-class frigate
Caio Duilio (D 554), equipped with Aster 15 and 30 missiles.
Aster (missile family)
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HMS Diamond firing an Aster missile for the first time in 2012.
26.
OTO Melara 76 mm
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The OTO Melara 76 mm gun is a naval artillery piece built and designed by the Italian defence company Oto Melara. It is based on the Oto Melara 76/62C and evolved toward 76/62 SR, the Oto Melara 76 mm Compatto cannon system is compact enough to be installed on relatively small warships, such as corvettes, avisos, and patrol boats. Specialised ammunition includes armour-piercing, incendiary, directed fragmentation effects, a stealth cupola is now offered. The OTO Melara 76 mm has been exported, currently in use internationally by 60 navies. It has recently been favoured over the French 100mm naval gun for the joint French/Italian Horizon-class frigate project, on 27 September 2006 Iran announced it has started mass production of a marine artillery gun, named the Fajr-27, which is a reverse-engineered Oto Melara 76 mm gun. The Super Rapids higher rate of fire was achieved by designing a faster feed system, DART 76m had a longer range than other CIWS, but the Italian navy wanted an even longer range weapon. The Durand de la Penne class was planned to carry four 40 mm Fast Forty dual turrets. The longer range means one single gun can engage more than one missile in a single engagement, the 76 mm was also capable of being used versus surface targets, being a medium caliber gun with relatively long range. The early versions utilised radars such the RTN-10X Orion, From the early 1980s there was a powerful and flexible system, the RTN-30X. The 76/62 has also used with countless other fire control systems. There have been developments in the fuses, essential to shoot down low-flying missiles. The best fuse developed for the 76/62 guns is arguably the 3A-Plus programmable multi-role fuse, manufactured by Oto Melara and Simmel Difesa and this fuse requires the installation of a fuse programmer in the mount. The system includes a DSP which rejects ground/sea clutter and makes the fuse capable of detecting a missile flying as low as two meters above sea level and it has the capability to recognise a target at a 10-meter stand-off. In all, the fuse greatly increases the effectiveness of the gun when engaging anti-ship missiles, since the 1980s efforts were made for development of guided 76 mm ammunition, but this was not achieved until recently. The first such ammunition was the CCS, also known as CORRETTO, the projectile had several small rockets in order to deviate the trajectory. Radio commands were sent from the ship FCS, the FCS did not know the exact position of the projectile, only that of the target. This system was too complex and unreliable, so OTO studied another development in order to obtain a real guided ammunition. The result of development is a system which was called DAVIDE just for the Italian market
OTO Melara 76 mm
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The OTO Melara 76mm Super Rapid as mounted in a stealth cupola (to reduce
Radar cross-section) onboard the Norwegian Fridtjof Nansen.
OTO Melara 76 mm
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JMSDF's Asagiri-class destroyer - JS Setogiri (DD-156) showing off her main gun at maximum elevation of +85°.
OTO Melara 76 mm
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Shells of the OTO Melara 76mm gun in Japanese service.
OTO Melara 76 mm
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The OTO Melara 76mm Super Rapid gun mounted on the Victory -class corvette - RSS Valour (89)
27.
Otobreda 127/64
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The compactness of the gun feeding system makes possible the installation on narrow section crafts. The gun can fire all standard 127 mm ammunition including the new Vulcano long range guided ammunition, modular automatic feeding magazines allow the firing of up to four different and immediately selectable types of ammunition, the magazines can be reloaded while the mount is in operation. An ammunition manipulator system is available to transport projectiles and propelling charges from the ammunition store to the feeding magazines. Rounds can be unloaded from the gun. Digital and Analog interfaces are available for any Combat Management System, also according to COBRA protocol
Otobreda 127/64
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Map with 127/64 operators in blue
28.
Nexter
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Nexter Systems is a French government-owned weapons manufacturer, based in Roanne, Loire. The Nexter group is divided in smaller entities, with the main one being Nexter Systems. The company was nationalized in 1991, on 22 September 2006 GIAT became the core of the new company Nexter. For many years GIAT struggled to turn a profit, the company was operated at a loss. A2001 report by the Cour des Comptes and a 2002 report by the National Assembly described the situation as critical, not until April 2004 did the board of directors present the public with a financial statement showing a profit of several hundred million Euros. This was mainly due to increased sales, and the modernization of the Leclerc Main Battle Tank. In 2006, the THL-20 gun turret was selected by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited for use on the HAL Light Combat Helicopter, Nexter has a Joint Venture CTA International with BAE Systems to develop and manufacture case telescoped weapon systems and ammunition of 40 mm calibre. Nexter continues to produce several former GIAT small arms, cannon, one such weapon is the Wasp 58, a low cost, one man antiarmour/assault weapon system. In 2015, Nexter and Krauss-Maffei merged under a single structure, the new KNDS – KMW + Nexter Defense Systems -- will be the European leader of terrestrial defense with more than 6,000 employees. The supervisory board appointed the new CEO of Nexter Systems, Stéphane Mayer, and the chairman of the executive board of KMW, Frank Haun, as CEOs of the holding company
Nexter
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Nexter exhibit
Nexter
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Leclerc main battle tank
Nexter
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VBCI
Nexter
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Aravis
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French Navy
Royal Moroccan Navy
Egyptian Navy
Marina Militare
