1.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
2.
National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
3.
Springfield Township, Fayette County, Pennsylvania
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Springfield Township is a township in Fayette County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 3,043 at the 2010 census, the Connellsville Area School District serves the township. Normalville, Mill Run, Rogers Mill, and Pleasant Hill are unincorporated communities in the township, the township is in northeastern Fayette County, bordered to the east by Somerset County. According to the United States Census Bureau, the township has an area of 59.6 square miles, of which 59.4 square miles is land and 0.2 square miles. The Youghiogheny River forms the southwest boundary of the township, indian Creek is a southwest-flowing stream that crosses the center of the township and enters the Youghiogheny in the western part of the township. Pennsylvania Route 381 crosses the center of the township, leading north to Donegal Township, Pennsylvania Route 653 ends at PA381 in Normalville near the center of the township and leads southeast over Laurel Hill to Rockwood. Pennsylvania Route 711 follows PA381 in the part of the township, then turns west at Normalville. In the late 1800s, a school was built close to the site of the present-day Springfield Elementary School. Following the building of the school, the community was renamed Normalville, as of the census of 2000,3,111 people,1,158 households, and 877 families resided in the township. The population density was 52.0 people per square mile, the 1,283 housing units averaged 21. 4/mi2. The racial makeup of the township was 98. 97% White,0. 23% Native American,0. 03% Asian,0. 03% from other races, hispanics or Latinos of any race were 0. 64% of the population. About 21. 7% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.66 and the average family size was 3.10. In the township, the population was distributed as 26. 0% under the age of 18,7. 9% from 18 to 24,30. 5% from 25 to 44,23. 4% from 45 to 64, the median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.1 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.4 males. The median income for a household in the township was $29,133, males had a median income of $26,644 versus $18,625 for females. The per capita income for the township was $12,608, about 17. 3% of families and 21. 7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 28. 2% of those under age 18 and 11. 0% of those age 65 or over
4.
Pennsylvania
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Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
5.
Uniontown, Pennsylvania
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Uniontown is a city in Fayette County, Pennsylvania, United States,46 miles southeast of Pittsburgh and part of the Pittsburgh Metro Area. The population was 10,372 at the 2010 census, down from 12,422 at the 2000 census and it is the county seat and largest city of Fayette County. Popularly known as Beesontown, the town of Union was founded by Henry Beeson on July 4,1776, the National Road, also known as the Cumberland Road, was routed through Uniontown in the early 19th century, and the town grew along with the road. Uniontowns role in the Underground Railroad in the years is commemorated by a marker on the corner of East Main Street. Residents helped slaves escaping from the South to freedom, in the late nineteenth century, the town grew based on the development of coal mines and the steel industry. Uniontown was the site of violent clashes between striking miners and guards at the local coke works during the bituminous coal miners strike of 1894. Fifteen guards armed with carbines and machine guns held off an attack by 1,500 strikers, killing five, the Columbia Rolling Mill, an iron and steel works, was located in Uniontown from 1887 to 1895. The mill was the top industry at that time. During the Coal Boom of the part of the 20th century, Uniontown was home to at least 13 millionaires. Coal barons and Carl Laemmle, the president of Universal Films and it was a mile and a quarter raceway. This decline continued into the 21st century, and the population is half its peak of 1940. The USS Uniontown, a Tacoma-class frigate, was named for the city by the United States Navy on August 16,1944, in 1967 Uniontown was the birthplace of the McDonalds Big Mac sandwich. In 2007 the Big Mac Museum was opened in North Huntingdon Township in Westmoreland County, according to a McDonalds spokesperson, the decision was based on logistics and access, but Uniontown residents complained in an article that was published in the Herald-Standard. The Uniontown Downtown Historic District, Gallatin School, John S. Douglas House, John P. Conn House, Uniontown is located slightly west of the center of Fayette County at 39°540 North, 79°4328 West. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 2.04 square miles. The city is 999 feet above sea level and rests at the base of Chestnut Ridge, the National Pike or Cumberland Road crossed over the mountains and passed through the area which became the center of Uniontown. The route is now Business Route 40, as the mainline of US40 bypasses the city center to the south, as of the census of 2010, there were 10,372 people,5,423 households, and 3,031 families residing in the city. The population density was 5136 people per square mile, there were 6,320 housing units at an average density of 3,103.0 per square mile
6.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
7.
Frank Lloyd Wright
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Frank Lloyd Wright was an American architect, interior designer, writer, and educator, who designed more than 1,000 structures,532 of which were completed. Wright believed in designing structures that were in harmony with humanity and its environment and this philosophy was best exemplified by Fallingwater, which has been called the best all-time work of American architecture. Wright was a leader of the Prairie School movement of architecture and developed the concept of the Usonian home and his creative period spanned more than 70 years. In addition to his houses, Wright designed original and innovative offices, churches, schools, skyscrapers, hotels, museums and he often designed interior elements for these buildings as well, including furniture and stained glass. Wright wrote 20 books and many articles and was a lecturer in the United States. His colorful personal life made headlines, most notably for the 1914 fire. Wright was recognized in 1991 by the American Institute of Architects as the greatest American architect of all time, Frank Lloyd Wright was born Frank Lincoln Wright in the farming town of Richland Center, Wisconsin, United States, in 1867. His father, William Carey Wright, was an orator, music teacher, occasional lawyer, William Wright met and married Anna Lloyd Jones, a county school teacher, the previous year when he was employed as the superintendent of schools for Richland County. Originally from Massachusetts, William Wright had been a Baptist minister, Anna was a member of the large, prosperous and well-known Lloyd Jones family of Unitarians, who had emigrated from Wales to Spring Green, Wisconsin. One of Annas brothers was Jenkin Lloyd Jones, who would become an important figure in the spread of the Unitarian faith in the Western United States, both of Wrights parents were strong-willed individuals with idiosyncratic interests that they passed on to him. According to his biography, his mother declared when she was expecting that her first child would grow up to build beautiful buildings and she decorated his nursery with engravings of English cathedrals torn from a periodical to encourage the infants ambition. In 1870 the family moved to Weymouth, Massachusetts, where William ministered to a small congregation, in 1876, Anna visited the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia where she saw an exhibit of educational blocks created by Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel. The blocks, known as Froebel Gifts, were the foundation of his innovative kindergarten curriculum, Anna, a trained teacher, was excited by the program and bought a set with which young Wright spent much time playing. The blocks in the set were geometrically shaped and could be assembled in various combinations to form three-dimensional compositions, the Wright family struggled financially in Weymouth and returned to Spring Green, Wisconsin, where the supportive Lloyd Jones clan could help William find employment. They settled in Madison, where William taught music lessons and served as the secretary to the newly formed Unitarian society, although William was a distant parent, he shared his love of music, especially the works of Johann Sebastian Bach, with his children. Soon after Wright turned 14, his parents separated, Anna had been unhappy for some time with Williams inability to provide for his family and asked him to leave. The divorce was finalized in 1885 after William sued Anna for lack of physical affection, William left Wisconsin after the divorce and Wright claimed he never saw his father again. At this time he changed his name from Lincoln to Lloyd in honor of his mothers family
8.
Modern architecture
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Modern architecture or modernist architecture is a term applied to a group of styles of architecture which emerged in the first half of the 20th century and became dominant after World War II. The revolution in materials came first, with the use of cast iron, plate glass, the cast plate glass process was invented in 1848, allowing the manufacture of very large windows. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an example of iron and plate glass construction, followed in 1864 by the first glass. These developments together led to the first steel-framed skyscraper, the ten-story Home Insurance Building in Chicago, the iron frame construction of the Eiffel Tower, then the tallest structure in the world, captured the imagination of millions of visitors to the 1889 Paris Universal Exposition. French industrialist François Coignet was the first to use iron-reinforced concrete, in 1853 Coignet built the first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four story house in the suburbs of Paris. Another important technology for the new architecture was electric light, which reduced the inherent danger of fires caused by gas in the 19th century. This break with the past was particularly urged by the architectural theorist, for each function its material, for each material its form and its ornament. This book influenced a generation of architects, including Louis Sullivan, Victor Horta, Hector Guimard, at the end of the 19th century, a few architects began to challenge the traditional Beaux Arts and Neoclassical styles that dominated architecture in Europe and the United States. The Glasgow School of Art 1896-99) designed by Charles Rennie MacIntosh, had a facade dominated by large bays of windows. The Art Nouveau style was launched in the 1890s by Victor Horta in Belgium and Hector Guimard in France, it introduced new styles of decoration, based on vegetal and floral forms. In 1903-1904 in Paris Auguste Perret and Henri Sauvage began to use reinforced concrete, previously used for industrial structures. Between 1910 and 1913, Auguste Perret built the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, because of the concrete construction, no columns blocked the spectators view of the stage. Otto Wagner, in Vienna, was another pioneer of the new style, in his book Moderne Arkchtekture he had called for a more rationalist style of architecture, based on modern life. Wagner declared his intention to express the function of the building in its exterior, the reinforced concrete exterior was covered with plaques of marble attached with bolts of polished aluminum. The interior was purely functional and spare, an open space of steel, glass. The Viennese architect Adolf Loos also began removing any ornament from his buildings and his Steiner House, in Vienna, was an example of what he called rationalist architecture, it had a simple stucco rectangual facade with square windows and no ornament. The fame of the new movement, which known as the Vienna Secession spread beyond Austria. Josef Hoffmann, a student of Wagner, constructed a landmark of early modernist architecture and this residence, built of brick covered with Norwegian marble, was composed of geometric blocks, wings and a tower
9.
Pittsburgh metropolitan area
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The Pittsburgh metropolitan area is the largest population center in both the Ohio River Valley and Appalachia. The metropolitan area consists of the City of Pittsburgh in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, by many definitions the area extends into the U. S. states of West Virginia and Ohio. The larger tri-state region is defined by the U. S. Census as the statistical area while definitions of the metropolitan statistical area are within Pennsylvania. The area is renowned for its industries including steel, glass and oil, its economy also thrives on healthcare, education, technology, robotics, financial services, the region is an emergent area for oil and natural gas companies Marcellus shale production. The city is headquarters to major financial institutions including PNC Financial Services, Federated Investors. The region is also the 21st largest port in the United States with almost 34 million short tons of cargo for 2011. The MSA definition includes the city proper and the Pennsylvania counties of Allegheny, Armstrong, Beaver, Butler, Fayette, Washington, the CSA definition also adds the two Western Pennsylvania counties of Lawrence and Indiana, West Virginias Brooke and Hancock as well as Ohios Jefferson. The MSA had a 2012 population of 2,360,733 and has an area of 5,343 sq. miles. It is classified as Northeast by the U. S. Census with the West Virginia and Ohio components of the CSA being classified as South, the entire MSA and CSA are within the Congressional Appalachian Regional Commissions definition of Appalachia. The areas media market extends to 15 counties in Pennsylvania, Maryland, population Since the U. S. Census officially began metropolitan definitions in 1950, the original counties included were, Allegheny, Westmoreland, Washington and Beaver. In 1983 Fayette County was added, in 1993 Butler County was added,2013 saw the combined area grow as both Indiana County, Pennsylvania was added and the counties of Jefferson in Ohio and Brooke and Hancock in West Virginia were added. The Regional Industrial Development agency has worked across county lines as early as 1967, foreign Trade Zones #33 and #254 cover the area. With the RIDC managing the centrally located FTZ #33, note, All census-designated places are unincorporated. The racial makeup of the MSA was 89. 8% White,7. 9% African American,0. 1% Native American,1. 1% Asian, <0. 1% Pacific Islander,0. 3% from other races, and 0. 9% from two or more races. 0. 7% were Hispanic or Latino of any race, the median income for a household in the MSA was $35,908, and the median income for a family was $44,709. Males had an income of $35,670 versus $23,993 for females. The per capita income for the MSA was $18,897, as of the census of 2000, there were 2,525,730 people,1,032,596 households, and 678,085 families residing within the CSA. The racial makeup of the CSA was 90. 0% White,7. 7% African American,0. 1% Native American,1. 1% Asian, <0. 1% Pacific Islander,0. 3% from other races, and 0. 9% from two or more races
10.
Pittsburgh
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Pittsburgh is a city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in the United States, and is the county seat of Allegheny County. The city proper has a population of 304,391. The metropolitan population of 2,353,045 is the largest in both the Ohio Valley and Appalachia, the second-largest in Pennsylvania, and the 26th-largest in the U. S. The city features 30 skyscrapers, two inclines, a fortification and the Point State Park at the confluence of the rivers. Aside from steel, Pittsburgh has led in manufacturing of aluminum, glass, shipbuilding, petroleum, foods, sports, transportation, computing, autos, and electronics. For part of the 20th century, Pittsburgh was behind only New York and Chicago in corporate headquarters employment, Americas 1980s deindustrialization laid off area blue-collar workers and thousands of downtown white-collar workers when the longtime Pittsburgh-based world headquarters moved out. The area has served also as the federal agency headquarters for cyber defense, software engineering, robotics, energy research. The area is home to 68 colleges and universities, including research and development leaders Carnegie Mellon University, the region is a hub for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, sustainable energy, and energy extraction. Pittsburgh was named in 1758 by General John Forbes, in honor of British statesman William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. The current pronunciation, which is unusual in English speaking countries, is almost certainly a result of a printing error in some copies of the City Charter of March 18,1816. The error was repeated commonly enough throughout the rest of the 19th century that the pronunciation was lost. After a public campaign the original spelling was restored by the United States Board on Geographic Names in 1911. The area of the Ohio headwaters was long inhabited by the Shawnee, the first known European to enter the region was the French explorer/trader Robert de La Salle from Quebec during his 1669 expedition down the Ohio River. European pioneers, primarily Dutch, followed in the early 18th century, Michael Bezallion was the first to describe the forks of the Ohio in a 1717 manuscript, and later that year European fur traders established area posts and settlements. In 1749, French soldiers from Quebec launched an expedition to the forks to unite Canada with French Louisiana via the rivers, during 1753–54, the British hastily built Fort Prince George before a larger French force drove them off. The French built Fort Duquesne based on LaSalles 1669 claims, the French and Indian War, the North American front of the Seven Years War, began with the future Pittsburgh as its center. British General Edward Braddock was dispatched with Major George Washington as his aide to take Fort Duquesne, the British and colonial force were defeated at Braddocks Field. General John Forbes finally took the forks in 1758, Forbes began construction on Fort Pitt, named after William Pitt the Elder while the settlement was named Pittsborough
11.
Bear Run
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Bear Run is a 5. 0-mile-long tributary of the Youghiogheny River in Fayette County, Pennsylvania, in the United States. Bear Run is in the Appalachian Mountains and part of the Pittsburgh metropolitan area, the Fallingwater house, designed by architect Frank Lloyd Wright, is located on this stream at the locality known as Mill Run. Bear Run is inside the Bear Run Nature Reserve, protected by the Western Pennsylvania Conservancy, Bear Run is a designated Pennsylvania Scenic River. The nearest incorporated town is Ohiopyle, once a town for affluent Pittsburghers
12.
Stewart Township, Fayette County, Pennsylvania
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Stewart Township is a township in Fayette County, Pennsylvania, United States. It is part of the Pittsburgh Metro Area, the population was 731 at the 2010 census. Stonerville and Kaufmann are the villages in this very rural township. Two U. S. National Historic Landmarks are in Stewart Township and they are Fallingwater and Kentuck Knob. Both were designed by Frank Lloyd Wright and are available for touring, Stewart Township is on the eastern side of Fayette County, bordered to the east by Somerset County. The borough of Ohiopyle is at the center of the township but is a separate municipality, the Youghiogheny River flows through the township from southeast to north. According to the United States Census Bureau, the township has an area of 50.9 square miles, of which 50.4 square miles is land and 0.46 square miles. Pennsylvania Route 381 crosses the township, passing through Ohiopyle and leading northeast to Normalville, two homes designed by Frank Lloyd Wright are located in Stewart Township and are on the National Register of Historic Places. The first is the internationally renowned Fallingwater house, perched over Bear Run waterfalls north of Ohiopyle, public tours are offered, which allow enjoying Bear Run also. The second Wright house is the Kentuck Knob residence, grounds, as of the census of 2000, there were 743 people,275 households, and 215 families residing in the township. The population density was 14.7 people per square mile, there were 338 housing units at an average density of 6. 7/sq mi. The racial makeup of the township was 99. 46% White,0. 13% African American, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 40% of the population. 18. 2% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.70 and the average family size was 3.07. In the township the population was out, with 25. 2% under the age of 18,7. 0% from 18 to 24,28. 4% from 25 to 44,25. 2% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38 years, for every 100 females there were 108.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 103.7 males, the median income for a household in the township was $32,917, and the median income for a family was $35,060. Males had an income of $26,786 versus $16,563 for females. The per capita income for the township was $15,754, about 5. 9% of families and 11. 0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11. 8% of those under age 18 and 14. 5% of those age 65 or over
13.
Fayette County, Pennsylvania
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Fayette County is a county located in the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. Fayette County is located in southwestern Pennsylvania, adjacent to Maryland, as of the 2010 census, the population was 136,606. The county was created on September 26,1783, from part of Westmoreland County, Fayette County is part of the Pittsburgh, PA Metropolitan Statistical Area. The first Europeans in Fayette County were explorers, who had used an ancient American Indian trail that bisected the county on their journey across the Appalachian Mountains. In 1754, when control of the area was still in dispute between France and Great Britain, 22-year-old George Washington fought against the French at Jumonville Glen and Fort Necessity. British forces under Washington and General Edward Braddock improved roads throughout the region, during the American Revolution, Fayette County was plagued by attacks from British-allied Indians and remained isolated as a frontier region. Also retarding settlement was a dispute with Virginia, Virginias District of West Augusta. In 1780 the dispute was settled by the government in favor of Pennsylvania. President George Washington called out the militias to restore order, Fayette County continued to be important to travelers in the early 1800s. The National Road provided a route through the mountains of the county for settlers heading west, the shipyards in Brownsville on the Monongahela River built ships for both the domestic and international trade. As Pittsburgh developed its industries in the century, Fayette County become a center of coal mining. From the 1880s to the early 1900s, the great expansion in steel production became nationally important. Both new European immigrants and African Americans in the Great Migration from the rural South were attracted to the Pittsburgh area for industrial jobs, the historic Scottish and German farming communities established in the earlier 19th century were soon overshadowed by the wave of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe. By World War II, Fayette County had a new unionized working class that enjoyed increased prosperity, in the 1950s, however, the coal industry fell into decline. In the 1970s, the restructuring and collapse of American steel resulted in a loss of industrial jobs. The population has declined since the peak in 1940, as residents have had to move elsewhere for work, the loss of union jobs caused many working families to drop out of the middle class. Only a few mines are being worked in the 21st century, the region is slowly transitioning toward the service sector, with an increase in jobs in fields such as telemarketing. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 798 square miles
14.
Laurel Highlands
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The Laurel Highlands is a region in southwestern Pennsylvania made up of Cambria County, Fayette County, Somerset County and Westmoreland County. It has a population of about 600,000 people, the region is approximately fifty-five miles southeast of Pittsburgh, the Laurel Highlands center on Laurel Hill and Chestnut Ridge of the Allegheny Mountains. The mountains making up the Laurel Highlands are the highest in Pennsylvania, because of the elevation, weather in the Laurel Highlands are generally cooler and wetter than in most other parts of the state. The Laurel Highlands are an area for hiking, mountain biking, hunting, trout fishing, wildlife viewing
15.
Allegheny Mountains
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The Alleghenies comprise the rugged western-central portion of the Appalachians. They rise to approximately 4,862 feet in northeastern West Virginia, in the east, they are dominated by a high, steep escarpment known as the Allegheny Front. In the west, they slope down into the closely associated Allegheny Plateau which extends into Ohio, the principal settlements of the Alleghenies are Altoona, State College, and Johnstown, Pennsylvania, and Cumberland, Maryland. The name is derived from the Allegheny River, which only a small portion of the Alleghenies in west-central Pennsylvania. The meaning of the word, which comes from the Lenape Indians, is not definitively known but is translated as fine river. A Lenape legend tells of an ancient tribe called the Allegewi who lived on the river and were defeated by the Lenape, Allegheny is the early French spelling, and Allegany is closer to the early English spelling. The word Allegheny was once used to refer to the whole of what are now called the Appalachian Mountains. John Norton used it around 1810 to refer to the mountains in Tennessee, around the same time, Washington Irving proposed renaming the United States either Appalachia or Alleghania. In 1861, Arnold Henry Guyot published the first systematic study of the whole mountain range. His map labeled the range as the Alleghanies, but his book was titled On the Appalachian Mountain System, as late as 1867, John Muir—in his book A Thousand Mile Walk to the Gulf—used the word Alleghanies in referring to the southern Appalachians. There was no agreement about the Appalachians versus the Alleghanies until the late 19th century. From northeast to southwest, the Allegheny Mountains run about 400 miles, from west to east, at their widest, they are about 100 miles. To the west, the Alleghenies grade down into the dissected Allegheny Plateau, the westernmost ridges are considered to be the Laurel and Chestnut Ridges in Pennsylvania and Laurel and Rich Mountains in West Virginia. The mountains to the south of the Alleghenies—the Appalachians in westernmost Virginia, eastern Kentucky, the Alleghenies and the Cumberlands both constitute part of the Ridge and Valley Province of the Appalachians. The eastern edge of the Alleghenies is marked by the Allegheny Front and this great escarpment roughly follows a portion of the Eastern Continental Divide in this area. A number of gorges and valleys drain the Alleghenies, to the east, Smoke Hole Canyon, and to the west the New River Gorge. Thus, about half the precipitation falling on the Alleghenies makes its way west to the Mississippi and half goes east to Chesapeake Bay, the highest ridges of the Alleghenies are just west of the Front, which has an east/west elevational change of up to 3,000 feet. Absolute elevations of the Allegheny Highlands reach nearly 5,000 feet, the highest point in the Allegheny Mountains is Spruce Knob, on Spruce Mountain in West Virginia
16.
Kaufmann's
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Kaufmanns was a department store that originated in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It was owned in the early 20th century by Edgar J. Kaufmann, in the post-war years, the store became a regional chain in the eastern United States, and was last owned by Federated Department Stores. At the height of its existence, it had some 59 stores in 5 states, formerly part of May Department Stores prior to that companys acquisition by Federated on August 30,2005, Kaufmanns operated as part of the Filenes organization in Boston, Massachusetts. On February 1,2006, the Filenes/Kaufmanns organization was dissolved and the management of its stores was assumed by Macys East, on September 9,2006, Macys retired the Kaufmanns name as Federated Department Stores converted the former May Company brands to its masthead. In 2015, Macys closed and sold the iconic Pittsburgh store for redevelopment as part of the ongoing reorganization of its owned properties. Core Reality of Philadelphia, the new owners of the building, have named the proposed mixed use property Kaufmanns Grand on Fifth in honor of the historic property, Kaufmanns was founded in Pittsburgh in 1871 by Jacob and Isaac Kaufmann as a small South Side mens store. In 1877, the brothers moved downtown to a location that became known as The Big Store, in the first half of the 20th century, the store was owned by Edgar J. Kaufmann. With Edgar J. Kaufmann remaining as president, the Kaufmanns chain was acquired by the California-based May Company Department Stores in 1946, the Kaufmanns division operated stores in Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio and West Virginia. Ironically, Gimbel Brothers history in Pittsburgh had originated with its purchase of the Kaufmann & Baer department store in 1926, in 1970, the tobacco comglomerate BATUS purchased the entire Gimbels chain. In 1986, after years of declining sales, BATUS announced that Gimbels was for sale, in October 1986, May Company acquired Joseph Horne Co. as part of its merger with Associated Dry Goods. Due to anti-trust concerns and legal action by the City of Pittsburgh, Federated eventually merged all its divisions into the Macys stores division. In 2002, the Kaufmanns stores Pittsburgh business headquarters closed, the flagship store in downtown Pittsburgh was built in 1887 at the corner of Fifth Avenue and Smithfield Street and became known as The Big Store. It has undergone expansions and renovations since. Architect Charles Bickel designed the H. and I Kaufman and I. Kaufman stores in 1898, in the late 1920s, Edgar G. Kaufmann commissioned a redesign of the main floor of the department store. Local architect Benno Janssen and his partner William Cocken rose to the challenge and it is remembered for its striking black Carrara glass columns, bronze metalwork, terrazzo floors, and a million dollars worth of new elevators. The office interior was saved and reinstalled in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London and he also commissioned renowned architect Richard Neutra to design the iconic desert Kaufmann House in Palm Springs, California. Kaufmanns started several traditions that were carried on after it was taken over such as animated Christmas windows. Although Macys has taken over the building, it continued its policy of leaving the brass plaques of flagship department stores on their buildings
17.
Time (magazine)
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Time is an American weekly news magazine published in New York City. It was founded in 1923 and for decades was dominated by Henry Luce, a European edition is published in London and also covers the Middle East, Africa and, since 2003, Latin America. An Asian edition is based in Hong Kong, the South Pacific edition, which covers Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands, is based in Sydney, Australia. In December 2008, Time discontinued publishing a Canadian advertiser edition, Time has the worlds largest circulation for a weekly news magazine, and has a readership of 26 million,20 million of which are based in the United States. As of 2012, it had a circulation of 3.3 million making it the eleventh most circulated magazine in the United States reception room circuit, as of 2015, its circulation was 3,036,602. Richard Stengel was the editor from May 2006 to October 2013. Nancy Gibbs has been the editor since October 2013. Time magazine was created in 1923 by Briton Hadden and Henry Luce, the two had previously worked together as chairman and managing editor respectively of the Yale Daily News. They first called the proposed magazine Facts and they wanted to emphasize brevity, so that a busy man could read it in an hour. They changed the name to Time and used the slogan Take Time–Its Brief and it set out to tell the news through people, and for many decades the magazines cover depicted a single person. More recently, Time has incorporated People of the Year issues which grew in popularity over the years, notable mentions of them were Barack Obama, Steve Jobs, Matej Turk, etc. The first issue of Time was published on March 3,1923, featuring Joseph G. Cannon, the retired Speaker of the House of Representatives, on its cover, a facsimile reprint of Issue No. 1, including all of the articles and advertisements contained in the original, was included with copies of the February 28,1938 issue as a commemoration of the magazines 15th anniversary. The cover price was 15¢ On Haddens death in 1929, Luce became the dominant man at Time, the Intimate History of a Publishing Enterprise 1923–1941. In 1929, Roy Larsen was also named a Time Inc. director, J. P. Morgan retained a certain control through two directorates and a share of stocks, both over Time and Fortune. Other shareholders were Brown Brothers W. A. Harriman & Co. the Intimate History of a Changing Enterprise 1957–1983. According to the September 10,1979 issue of The New York Times, after Time magazine began publishing its weekly issues in March 1923, Roy Larsen was able to increase its circulation by utilizing U. S. radio and movie theaters around the world. It often promoted both Time magazine and U. S. political and corporate interests, Larsen next arranged for a 30-minute radio program, The March of Time, to be broadcast over CBS, beginning on March 6,1931
18.
Smithsonian (magazine)
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Smithsonian is the official journal published by the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D. C. The first issue was published in 1970, Thompson would later recall that his philosophy for the new magazine was that it would stir curiosity in already receptive minds. It would deal with history as it is relevant to the present and it would present art, since true art is never dated, in the richest possible reproduction. It would peer into the future via coverage of social progress and of science, technical matters would be digested and made intelligible by skilled writers who would stimulate readers to reach upward while not turning them off with jargon. We would find the best writers and the best photographers—not unlike the best of the old Life, in 1973, the magazine turned a profit for the first time. By 1974, circulation had nearly quadrupled, to 635,000, in 1980, Thompson was replaced by Don Moser, who had also worked at Life, and circulation reached upwards of two million, in turn, by Carey Winfrey upon his retirement in 2001. Smithsonian magazine provides in-depth analysis of varied topics within a range of scientific areas. Every year since 2012, the Magazine has sponsored the American Ingenuity Awards, winners have included Elon Musk, Lin-Manuel Miranda, OK Go, Dave Eggers, Aziz Ansari, Rosanne Cash, Jeff Bezos, Fred Armisen, Bill Hader and David Lynch. Presenters have included Stephen Hawking, Stephen Colbert, David Byrne, Herbie Hancock, Erin Brockovich, Ruben Blades, Bill Nye, Art Spiegelman, the American Ingenuity Award itself was created by the artist Jeff Koons. Notable past and current contributors to Smithsonian have included, Official website
19.
American Institute of Architects
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The American Institute of Architects is a professional organization for architects in the United States. The AIA also works with members of the design and construction team to help coordinate the building industry. The AIA is currently headed by Robert Ivy, FAIA as EVP/Chief Executive Officer and Thomas V. Vonier, wells, with Richard Upjohn serving as the first president. They met on February 23,1857 and decided to invite 16 other prominent architects to join them, including Alexander Jackson Davis, Thomas U. Prior to their establishment of the AIA, anyone could claim to be an architect and they drafted a constitution and bylaws by March 10,1857, under the name New York Society of Architects. Walter, of Philadelphia, later suggested the name be changed to American Institute of Architects, the members signed the new constitution on April 15,1857, having filed a certificate of incorporation two days earlier. As of 2008, AIA has more than 300 chapters, the AIA is headquartered at 1735 New York Avenue, NW in Washington, D. C. A design competition was held in the mid-1960s to select an architect for a new AIA headquarters in Washington, mitchell/Giurgola won the design competition but failed to get approval of the design concept from the United States Commission of Fine Arts. The firm resigned the commission and helped select The Architects Collaborative to redesign the building, the design, led by TAC principals Norman Fletcher and Howard Elkus, was ultimately approved in 1970 and completed in 1973. More than 90,000 licensed architects and associated professionals are members, AIA members adhere to a code of ethics and professional conduct intended to assure clients, the public, and colleagues of an architects dedication to the highest standards in professional practice. There are five levels of membership in the AIA, Architect members are licensed to practice architecture in the United States, international associate members hold an architecture license or the equivalent from a licensing authority outside the United States. Emeritus members have been AIA members for 15 successive years and are at least 65 years of age or are incapacitated, allied membership is a partnership with the AIA and the American Architectural Foundation. The AIA’s most prestigious honor is the designation of a member as a Fellow of the American Institute of Architects and this membership is awarded to members who have made contributions of national significance to the profession. Slightly more than 2,600, or 2% of all members, have elevated to the AIA College of Fellows. Foreign architects of prominence may be elected to the College as Honorary Fellows of the AIA, the AIA is governed by a Board of Directors and has a staff of over 200 full-time employees. Although the AIA functions as an organization, at its heart are some 300 local. The components are spread throughout the United States, United Kingdom, Europe, Japan, by speaking with a united voice, AIA architects influence government practices that affect the practice of the profession and the quality of American life. The AIA monitors legislative and regulatory actions and uses the power of its membership to participate in decisionmaking by federal, state
20.
America's Favorite Architecture
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Americas Favorite Architecture is a list of buildings and other structures identified as the most popular works of architecture in the United States. In 2006 and 2007, the American Institute of Architects sponsored research to identify the most popular works of architecture in the United States, harris Interactive conducted the study by first polling a sample of the AIA membership and later polling a sample of the public. In the first phase of the study,2,448 AIA members were interviewed and asked to identify their favorite structures, each was asked to name up to 20 structures in each of 15 defined categories. The 248 structures that were named by at least six of the AIA members were included in a list of structures to be included in the next phase. The publics preferences were ranked using a likeability scale developed for the study, as part of the commemoration of the organizations 150th anniversary in 2007, the AIA announced the list of the 150 highest-ranked structures as Americas Favorite Architecture. New York City is the location of 32 structures on the list, of the 10 top-ranked structures,6 are in Washington, DC, which is the location of 17 of the 150 structures on the complete list. Chicago has 16 structures on the list, the 150 top-ranked structures are listed below. When it was released, critics observed that the list of favorites did not reflect the judgments of architectural experts, upon the lists release, AIA president R. K. Stewart acknowledged that the rankings did not represent architects professional judgments, john King of the San Francisco Chronicle pointed out that in 1991 the AIA had named Eero Saarinens design for Dulles Airport as one of ten all-time works of American architects. King noted that the ratings were based on seeing just one photo of each building
21.
Johnson Wax Headquarters
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Johnson Wax Headquarters is the world headquarters and administration building of S. C. Johnson & Son in Racine, Wisconsin. Designed by American architect Frank Lloyd Wright for the president, Herbert F. Hib Johnson. The Johnson Wax Headquarters were set in a zone and Wright decided to create a sealed environment lit from above. The building features Wrights interpretation of the streamlined Art Moderne style popular in the 1930s, the mortar between the bricks is raked in traditional Wright-style to accentuate the horizontality of the building. The warm, reddish hue of the bricks was used in the concrete floor slab as well. All of the furniture, manufactured by Steelcase, was designed for the building by Wright, the entrance is within the structure, penetrating the building on one side with a covered carport on the other. The carport is supported by versions of the steel-reinforced dendriform concrete columns that appear in the Great Workroom. The low carport ceiling creates a compression of space that later expands when entering the building where the dendriform columns rise over two stories tall. This rise in height as one enters the building creates a release of spatial compression making the space seem much larger than it is. At the corners, where the walls meet the ceiling. The Great Workroom is the largest expanse of space in the Johnson Wax Building and it was originally intended for the secretaries of the Johnson Wax company, while a mezzanine holds the administrators. The construction of the Johnson Wax building created controversies for the architect, in the Great Workroom, the dendriform columns are 9 inches in diameter at the bottom and 18 feet in diameter at the top, on a wide, round platform that Wright termed the lily pad. This difference in diameter between the bottom and top of the column did not accord with building codes at the time, Building inspectors required that a test column be built and loaded with twelve tons of material. The test column, once it was built, was enough that it was able to be loaded fivefold with sixty tons of materials before the calyx. After this demonstration, Wright was given his building permit, additionally, it was very difficult to properly seal the glass tubing of the clerestories and roof, thus causing leaks. And finally, Wrights chair design for Johnson Wax originally had three legs, supposedly to encourage better posture. However, the design proved too unstable, tipping very easily. Despite these problems, Johnson was pleased with the design and later commissioned the Research Tower
22.
Herbert and Katherine Jacobs First House
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Herbert and Katherine Jacobs First House, commonly referred to as Jacobs I, is a single family home located at 441 Toepfer Avenue in Madison, Wisconsin. Designed by noted American architect Frank Lloyd Wright, it was constructed in 1937 and is considered by most to be the first Usonian home and it was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2003. The Jacobs House is located in an area southwest of downtown Madison, on the east side of Toepfer Avenue between Birch and Euclid Avenues. It is a modest single-story structure, its finished in a combination of brick, vertical boarding, and glass doors. It is covered by a roof and rests on a concrete pad foundation. Its interior space is just 1,500 square feet, and has two bedrooms, the houses original heating system consisted of steam heating pipes laid in the sand base that underlies the main concrete pad. The furnace that provided the heat was located in a small basement space under the kitchen. Madison newspaperman Herbert Jacobs, a Wright acquaintance, challenged the architect to design, Wright designed an L-shaped structure with an open floor plan and two bedrooms. To economize construction costs Wright developed a 2 1⁄4-inch-thick plywood sandwich wall for use on this house, rumor maintains that redirected bricks from the Johnson Wax Building ultimately helped keep final construction costs at $5,500. The Jacobs family moved into the house after construction but quickly outgrew the two-bedroom ranch, Herbert Jacobs commissioned Wright to build a second home, Jacobs II. The family moved there in the late 1940s, over the following decades the house passed ownership and was exposed to modifications and maintenance techniques of variable historical value. A multi-year restoration project began in 1983, restoring the house to its 1937 appearance and updating worn, the current owner has the home available for monthly rent and opens the house for tours through the Frank Lloyd Wright Wisconsin Heritage Tourism Program, Inc. The house was declared a National Historic Landmark in 2003, Herbert and Katherine Jacobs Second House Official site YouTube,1992 video tour featuring Katherine Jacobs Wright in Wisconsin
23.
Taliesin (studio)
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Taliesin /ˌtæliˈɛsᵻn/, sometimes known as Taliesin East, Taliesin Spring Green, or Taliesin North after 1937, was the estate of American architect Frank Lloyd Wright. Located 2.5 miles south of the village of Spring Green in Iowa County, Wisconsin, United States, Wright designed the Taliesin structure two years after leaving his first wife and home in Oak Park, Illinois with a mistress, Mamah Borthwick. The structure was completed in 1911, Wright rebuilt the Taliesin residential wing in 1914 after a disgruntled employee set fire to the living quarters and murdered Borthwick and six others. This second version was used sparingly by Wright as he worked on projects abroad. He returned to the house in 1922 following completion of the Imperial Hotel in Tokyo, a fire caused by electrical problems destroyed the living quarters in April 1925. The third version of the quarters was constructed by Wright by late 1925. In 1927, financial problems caused a foreclosure on the building by the Bank of Wisconsin, Wright was able to reacquire the building with the financial help of friends and was able to reoccupy it as of November,1928. Taliesin III was Wrights home for the rest of his life, although he began to winter at Taliesin West in Scottsdale, many of Wrights acclaimed buildings were designed here, including Fallingwater, Jacobs I, the Johnson Wax Headquarters, and the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. Wright was also a collector of Asian art and used Taliesin as a storehouse. Wright left Taliesin and the 600-acre Taliesin Estate to the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation upon his death in 1959. Taliesin mostly operates as a museum, however it is occupied by former students of Wrights in addition to students at the Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture on a seasonal basis. The property was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976 and is being considered as part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site, jones Valley, the Wisconsin River valley in which Taliesin sits, was formed during Pre-Illinoian glaciation. This region of North America, known as the Driftless Area, was surrounded by ice during Wisconsin glaciation. The result is a hilly landscape with deeply carved river valleys. By the 1870s, Richards sons had taken over operation of the farm, Wrights aunts Jennie and Nell began a co-educational school, Hillside Home School, in the family valley in 1887 and let Wright design the building, this was Wrights first independent commission. In 1896, Wrights aunts again commissioned Wright, this time to build a windmill, the resulting Romeo and Juliet Windmill was unorthodox but stable. In the winter of 1900, Wright compiled a portfolio of photographs he took of the area for a promotional brochure for the Hillside School. Unsatisfied with his design for the Hillside School, Wright replaced the school in 1902 with a Prairie School design
24.
Fox Chapel, Pennsylvania
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Fox Chapel is a borough in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, USA, and is a suburb of Pittsburgh located 6 miles northeast of downtown. The population was 5,388 as of the 2010 census, in the 1750s, the Seneca Indians lived in the region. Until the late 18th century, American Indian tribes hunted and fished in the general Fox Chapel area, virginia and Pennsylvania both claimed the territory. The dispute was not resolved until after the Revolutionary War, today, less than 1% of its population is Native American. For the next 10 years, all the land at the forks of the Ohio River was the subject of contention between French and British, Indian allies of both empires fought settlers for control of the region. French soldiers built Fort Duquesne on the site of a former British outpost at the forks of the Ohio in 1754, the Revolutionary War, too, produced further military activity. Through this warlike panorama moved the Seneca chief, Guyasuta, closely associated with the district, involved in every clash, sometimes aiding the British and he first appeared as George Washingtons guide during his journey from Logstown to Fort Le Boeuf in 1753. Guyasuta led the Indians against General Grant in 1758 and he was probably the leader of the Seneca band that destroyed Fort Venango in 1763, butchering the entire garrison. He was in a band of warriors that burned the village of Hannastown. He was also at the Battle of Bushy Run, where the Indians were defeated by Colonel Bouquet, despite Chief Guyasutas violent history, General OHara furnished a cabin for him on OHaras estate north of the Allegheny River, and provided necessities during the declining years of his life. The first white settler in the area was James Powers, who arrived around 1790, the first schoolhouse was on Squaw Run, where it stood in 1806. A church was organized in 1818 on Kittanning Road, on a branch of Pine Creek, among the early landowners was James OHara, a Revolutionary Army general and prominent Pittsburgh businessman. During the depression of 1818, he was saved from ruin by the counsel of James Ross. The Pittsburgh Field Club opened in 1882, and the Fox Chapel Golf Club opened in 1919, Shady Side Academy opened its senior school on property that was formerly two large farms, a gift from prominent Pittsburgh industrialist Wallace H. Rowe, in 1922. A nearby private estate, built in 1928 by steel industrialist James E. Lewis, Fox Chapel was originally part of OHara and Indiana townships. In 1928, approximately 40 landowners assembled at Shady Side Academy, the matters of immediate concern that they addressed were fire and police protection. As time went on, the District Association named roads and handled development, however, by 1933 the District Association had grown concerned that its interests were at variance with those of both townships, and a petition was filed to allow the formation of a new borough. Over the years, other residents adjacent to the borough petitioned the council for annexation and its wooded hills and uncrowded residential developments are a regional asset
25.
Benno Janssen
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Benno Janssen was an American architect. Benno Janssen was born in St. Louis, Missouri, the son of Oscar Janssen, Janssen studied at the University of Kansas. In 1899, he working in architecture in Boston, Massachusetts. He also continued his studies at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in 1902, Janssen headed for Paris, France, and further studied at the École des Beaux-Arts. In 1905, he returned to the United States to work in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Janssen left that firm, along with Franklin Abbott, to form their own partnership in 1906, Janssen & Abbott, which remained active until Abbotts retirement in 1918. Janssen next joined with William York Cocken in 1922, and together started the architectural firm Janssen & Cocken. W. Phillips Gas & Oil Company, the Keystone Athletic Club, Janssen received many Kaufmann commissions over the years. The prevailing architectural motif of these Benno Janssen homes was an irregular configuration of buildings rambling around a central courtyard. Many of Janssens buildings also boast museum-quality wrought-iron by noted Philadelphia artisan Samuel Yellin, Janssen collaborated with Yellin for 25 years, resulting in gracious iron details in his most important projects. The Janssens were the parents of Mary Patton Janssen, Benno Janssen, Jr. Janssen retired in 1939 and died in Charlottesville, Virginia, October 14,1964. Family information courtesy of AnGenealogy by Angelynn Jane Rainbow on rootsweb. com
26.
Surveying
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Surveying or land surveying is the technique, profession, and science of determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional position of points and the distances and angles between them. A land surveying professional is called a land surveyor, Surveyors work with elements of geometry, trigonometry, regression analysis, physics, engineering, metrology, programming languages and the law. Surveying has been an element in the development of the environment since the beginning of recorded history. The planning and execution of most forms of construction require it and it is also used in transport, communications, mapping, and the definition of legal boundaries for land ownership. It is an important tool for research in other scientific disciplines. Basic surveyance has occurred since humans built the first large structures, the prehistoric monument at Stonehenge was set out by prehistoric surveyors using peg and rope geometry. In ancient Egypt, a rope stretcher would use simple geometry to re-establish boundaries after the floods of the Nile River. The almost perfect squareness and north-south orientation of the Great Pyramid of Giza, built c.2700 BC, the Groma instrument originated in Mesopotamia. The mathematician Liu Hui described ways of measuring distant objects in his work Haidao Suanjing or The Sea Island Mathematical Manual, the Romans recognized land surveyors as a profession. They established the basic measurements under which the Roman Empire was divided, Roman surveyors were known as Gromatici. In medieval Europe, beating the bounds maintained the boundaries of a village or parish and this was the practice of gathering a group of residents and walking around the parish or village to establish a communal memory of the boundaries. Young boys were included to ensure the memory lasted as long as possible, in England, William the Conqueror commissioned the Domesday Book in 1086. It recorded the names of all the owners, the area of land they owned, the quality of the land. It did not include maps showing exact locations, abel Foullon described a plane table in 1551, but it is thought that the instrument was in use earlier as his description is of a developed instrument. Gunters chain was introduced in 1620 by English mathematician Edmund Gunter and it enabled plots of land to be accurately surveyed and plotted for legal and commercial purposes. Leonard Digges described a Theodolite that measured horizontal angles in his book A geometric practice named Pantometria, joshua Habermel created a theodolite with a compass and tripod in 1576. Johnathon Sission was the first to incorporate a telescope on a theodolite in 1725, in the 18th century, modern techniques and instruments for surveying began to be used. Jesse Ramsden introduced the first precision theodolite in 1787 and it was an instrument for measuring angles in the horizontal and vertical planes
27.
Boulder
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In geology, a boulder is a rock fragment with size greater than 25.6 centimetres in diameter. Smaller pieces are called cobbles and pebbles, while a boulder may be small enough to move or roll manually, others are extremely massive. In common usage, a boulder is too large for a person to move, smaller boulders are usually just called rocks or stones. The word boulder is short for boulder stone, from Middle English bulderston or Swedish bullersten, in places covered by ice sheets during Ice Ages, such as Scandinavia, northern North America, and Siberia, glacial erratics are common. Erratics are boulders picked up by ice sheets during their advance and they are called erratic because they typically are of a different rock type than the bedrock on which they are deposited. One of them is used as the pedestal of the Bronze Horseman in Saint Petersburg, boulder sized clasts are found in some sedimentary rocks, such as coarse conglomerate and boulder clay. The climbing of large boulders is called bouldering, road debris Monolith Media related to Boulders at Wikimedia Commons
28.
Cantilever
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A cantilever is a rigid structural element, such as a beam or a plate, anchored at only one end to a support from which it is protruding. Cantilevers can also be constructed with trusses or slabs, when subjected to a structural load, the cantilever carries the load to the support where it is forced against by a moment and shear stress. Cantilevers are widely found in construction, notably in cantilever bridges and balconies, in cantilever bridges the cantilevers are usually built as pairs, with each cantilever used to support one end of a central section. The Forth Bridge in Scotland is an example of a truss bridge. A cantilever in a timber framed building is called a jetty or forebay. In the southern United States a historic barn type is the barn of log construction. Temporary cantilevers are used in construction. The partially constructed structure creates a cantilever, but the structure does not act as a cantilever. This is very helpful when temporary supports, or falsework, cannot be used to support the structure while it is being built. So some truss arch bridges are built each side as cantilevers until the spans reach each other and are then jacked apart to stress them in compression before final joining. Nearly all cable-stayed bridges are built using cantilevers as this is one of their chief advantages, many box girder bridges are built segmentally, or in short pieces. This type of construction lends itself well to balanced cantilever construction where the bridge is built in both directions from a single support and these structures are highly based on torque and rotational equilibrium. In an architectural application, Frank Lloyd Wrights Fallingwater used cantilevers to project large balconies, the East Stand at Elland Road Stadium in Leeds was, when completed, the largest cantilever stand in the world holding 17,000 spectators. The roof built over the stands at Old Trafford Football Ground uses a cantilever so that no supports will block views of the field, the old, now demolished Miami Stadium had a similar roof over the spectator area. The largest cantilever in Europe is located at St James Park in Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, less obvious examples of cantilevers are free-standing radio towers without guy-wires, and chimneys, which resist being blown over by the wind through cantilever action at their base. Another use of the cantilever is in fixed-wing aircraft design, pioneered by Hugo Junkers in 1915, early aircraft wings typically bore their loads by using two wings in a biplane configuration braced with wires and struts. They were similar to bridges, having been developed by Octave Chanute. The wings were braced with crossed wires so they would stay parallel, the cables and struts generated considerable drag, and there was constant experimentation for ways to eliminate them
29.
Reinforced concrete
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The reinforcement is usually, though not necessarily, steel reinforcing bars and is usually embedded passively in the concrete before the concrete sets. Reinforcing schemes are designed to resist tensile stresses in particular regions of the concrete that might cause unacceptable cracking and/or structural failure. Modern reinforced concrete can contain varied reinforcing materials made of steel, Reinforced concrete may also be permanently stressed, so as to improve the behaviour of the final structure under working loads. In the United States, the most common methods of doing this are known as pre-tensioning and post-tensioning, durability in the concrete environment, irrespective of corrosion or sustained stress for example. François Coignet was a French industrialist of the century, a pioneer in the development of structural. Coignet was the first to use iron-reinforced concrete as a technique for constructing building structures, in 1853 Coignet built the first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four story house at 72 rue Charles Michels in the suburbs of Paris. Coignets descriptions of reinforcing concrete suggests that he did not do it for means of adding strength to the concrete, in 1854, English builder William B. Wilkinson reinforced the concrete roof and floors in the two-storey house he was constructing. His positioning of the reinforcement demonstrated that, unlike his predecessors, in 1877, Monier was granted another patent for a more advanced technique of reinforcing concrete columns and girders with iron rods placed in a grid pattern. Though Monier undoubtedly knew reinforcing concrete would improve its inner cohesion, before 1877 the use of concrete construction, though dating back to the Roman Empire and reintroduced in the mid to late 1800s, was not yet a proven scientific technology. His work played a role in the evolution of concrete construction as a proven. Without Hyatts work, more dangerous trial and error methods would have largely depended on for the advancement in the technology. G. A. Wayss was a German civil engineer and a pioneer of the iron, in 1879 Wayss bought the German rights to Moniers patents and in 1884 started the first commercial use for reinforced concrete in his firm Wayss & Freytag. Up until the 1890s Wayss and his firm greatly contributed to the advancement of Moniers system of reinforcing, ernest L. Ransome was an English-born engineer and early innovator of the reinforced concrete techniques in the end of the 19th century. With the knowledge of reinforced concrete developed during the previous 50 years, ransomes key innovation was to twist the reinforcing steel bar improving bonding with the concrete. Gaining increasing fame from his concrete constructed buildings Ransome was able to build two of the first reinforced concrete bridges in North America, one of the first concrete buildings constructed in the United States, was a private home, designed by William Ward in 1871. The home was designed to be fireproof for his wife, one of the first skyscrapers made with reinforced concrete was the 16-storey Ingalls Building in Cincinnati, constructed in 1904. Many different types of structures and components of structures can be built using reinforced concrete including slabs, walls, beams, columns, foundations, frames, Reinforced concrete can be classified as precast or cast-in-place concrete. Designing and implementing the most efficient floor system is key to creating optimal building structures, small changes in the design of a floor system can have significant impact on material costs, construction schedule, ultimate strength, operating costs, occupancy levels and end use of a building
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Rebar
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Rebars surface is often patterned to form a better bond with the concrete. Rebar has been used in construction since at least the 15th century, more recently, during the 18th century, rebar was used to form the carcass of the Leaning Tower of Nevyansk in Russia, built on the orders of the industrialist Akinfiy Demidov. The cast iron used for the rebar was of high quality, the carcass of the tower was connected to its cast iron tented roof, crowned with one of the first known lightning rods. More recently these techniques have been refined by embedding the steel bars in the concrete, concrete is a material that is very strong in compression, but relatively weak in tension. To compensate for this imbalance in concretes behavior, rebar is cast into it to carry the tensile loads, rebar is also employed to confer resistance to concentrated loads by providing enough localized resistance and stiffness for a load to spread through a wider area. Rebar may also be used to other steel bars in the correct position to accommodate their loads. External steel tie bars can constrain and reinforce masonry structures, as illustrated by the Nevyansk Tower or ancient structures in Rome, masonry structures and the mortar holding them together have similar properties to concrete and also have a limited ability to carry tensile loads. Some standard masonry units like blocks and bricks are made with voids to accommodate rebar and this combination is known as reinforced masonry. Steel has a thermal expansion coefficient nearly equal to that of modern concrete, if this were not so, it would cause problems through additional longitudinal and perpendicular stresses at temperatures different from the temperature of the setting. To prevent such a failure, rebar is either deeply embedded into adjacent structural members, or bent and hooked at the ends to lock it around the concrete and other rebar. This first approach increases the friction locking the bar into place, common rebar is made of unfinished tempered steel, making it susceptible to rusting. Normally the concrete cover is able to provide a pH value higher than 12 avoiding the corrosion reaction, too little concrete cover can compromise this guard through carbonation from the surface, and salt penetration. Too much concrete cover can cause bigger crack widths which also compromises the local guard and this phenomenon is known as oxide jacking. This is a problem where the concrete is exposed to salt water, as in bridges where salt is applied to roadways in winter. Even damaged bars have shown better performance than uncoated reinforcing bars, though issues from debonding of the coating from the bars. These bars are used in over 70,000 bridge decks in the USA, fiber-reinforced polymer rebar is also used in high-corrosion environments. It is available in forms, such as spirals for reinforcing columns, common rods. Most commercially available rebar is made from glass fibre reinforced thermoset resins
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Formwork
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Formwork is the term given to either temporary or permanent molds into which concrete or similar materials are poured. In the context of concrete construction, the falsework supports the shuttering molds, Formwork comes in several types, Traditional timber formwork. The formwork is built on site out of timber and plywood or moisture-resistant particleboard and it is easy to produce but time-consuming for larger structures, and the plywood facing has a relatively short lifespan. It is still used extensively where the costs are lower than the costs for procuring reusable formwork. It is also the most flexible type of formwork, so even where other systems are in use and this formwork is built out of prefabricated modules with a metal frame and covered on the application side with material having the wanted surface structure. The two major advantages of formwork systems, compared to traditional timber formwork, are speed of construction and these interlocking and modular systems are used to build widely variable, but relatively simple, concrete structures. The panels are lightweight and very robust and they are especially suited for similar structure projects and low-cost, mass housing schemes. This formwork is assembled on site, usually out of insulating concrete forms, ″Coffor″ is a structural stay-in-place formwork system to build constructions in concrete. It is composed of two filtering grids reinforced by vertical stiffeners and linked by articulated connectors that can be folded for transport. A standard panel 1.10 m x 2.70 m weighs 32.7 kg, after Coffor is placed, concrete is poured between the grids, excess water of concrete is eliminated by gravity and air is also eliminated. Coffor remains in the construction after concrete is poured and acts as reinforcement, any type of construction can be built with Coffor, individual houses, multi-story buildings including high-rise buildings, industrial, commercial or administrative buildings. Several types of works can be done with Coffor. Coffor is delivered completely assembled from the factory, no assembly is necessary on the construction site. This formwork is assembled on site, usually out of prefabricated fiber-reinforced plastic forms and these are in the shape of hollow tubes, and are usually used for columns and piers. Some of the earliest examples of concrete slabs were built by Roman engineers, because concrete is quite strong in resisting compressive loads, but has relatively poor tensile or torsional strength, these early structures consisted of arches, vaults and domes. The most notable concrete structure from this period is the Pantheon in Rome, to mould this structure, temporary scaffolding and formwork or falsework was built in the future shape of the structure. These building techniques were not isolated to pouring concrete, but were and are used in masonry. Similar to the method, but stringers and joist are replaced with engineered wood beams
32.
Deflection (engineering)
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In engineering, deflection is the degree to which a structural element is displaced under a load. It may refer to an angle or a distance, Deflection can be calculated by standard formula, or by methods such as virtual work, direct integration, Castiglianos method, Macaulays method or the direct stiffness method, amongst others. The deflection of beam elements is calculated on the basis of the Euler–Bernoulli beam equation while that of a plate or shell element is calculated using plate or shell theory. An example of the use of deflection in this context is in building construction, architects and engineers select materials for various applications. The beams used for work are selected on the basis of deflection. Beams can vary greatly in their geometry and composition, for instance, a beam may be straight or curved. It may be of constant cross section, or it may taper and it may be made entirely of the same material, or it may be composed of different materials. Some of these things make analysis difficult, but many engineering applications involve cases that are not so complicated. Analysis is simplified if, -The beam is straight. A number of examples are shown below. The formulas expressed are approximations developed for long, slender, homogeneous, prismatic beams with small deflections, under these restrictions, the approximations should give results within 5% of the actual deflection. Cantilever beams have one end fixed, so that the slope, most calculations will be made in SI or US customary units, although there are many other systems of units. For example, sometimes the kilogram force unit is used to measure loads, in such a case, the modulus of elasticity must be converted to k g f m 2. Building codes determine the deflection, usually as a fraction of the span e. g. 1/400 or 1/600. Either the strength limit state or the serviceability limit state may govern the minimum dimensions of the member required, the deflection must be considered for the purpose of the structure. When designing a frame to hold a glazed panel, one allows only minimal deflection to prevent fracture of the glass. The deflected shape of a beam can be represented by the moment diagram, slope deflection method Deflection & stress of beams Calculators Deflection of beams Online Calculator for Deflection and slope of beams Beam Deflections
33.
Western Pennsylvania Conservancy
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The Western Pennsylvania Conservancy is a private nonprofit conservation organization founded in 1932 and headquartered in Pittsburgh. In 1963, Edgar Kaufmann jr. entrusted Frank Lloyd Wrights masterwork Fallingwater to WPC, the house was called the most important building of the 20th century by the American Institute of Architects and recently voted the most important building of the 20th century. Charity Navigator awarded the Conservancy its highest rating for the seventh consecutive year, of the thousands of charities the independent evaluator has reviewed, only 2 percent have received as many consecutive four-star ratings. Three years into the Great Depression, ten citizens came together to found a nonprofit conservation organization, the organization’s goal was to alleviate widespread unemployment through public works programs that would also create a positive impact on the region’s natural resources. Formerly known as the Greater Pittsburgh Parks Association, WPC began its work landscaping a park along Pittsburghs Bigelow Boulevard, the Conservancy’s work enables protection of important natural resources and creates economic benefits through an area’s tourism, recreation and forestry. WPCs Community Gardens and Greenspaces Program and its more than 12,600 volunteers plant a quarter of a million flowers and 130 community gardens every spring in 20 western Pennsylvania counties. A partnership of WPC, the Grable Foundation and Pittsburgh Public Schools, the project has provided outdoor classrooms, natural play spaces and low-care plantings to provide shade, landscape accents and natural points of interest for children. You can view a list of PNHP’s projects here, the Frank Lloyd Wright-designed Fallingwater house, perched over the Bear Run waterfall at Mill Run, is an internationally renowned architectural landmark. Fallingwater was entrusted to the Conservancy by Edgar Kaufmann jr. in Oct.1963, included with this gift was the 1,543 acres of surrounding land known as Bear Run, now expanded to more than 5,000 acres. The Kaufmanns became acquainted with the Conservancy when they were involved with the acquisition of Ferncliff Peninsula. The donation was received under a deed of trust that requires the Conservancy to preserve, in 2013, more than 160,000 people visited the house and grounds of Fallingwater, and Fallingwater’s total visitation has surpassed five million guests since it opened to the public in 1964
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Organic architecture
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Organic architecture is a philosophy of architecture which promotes harmony between human habitation and the natural world. This is achieved through design approaches that aim to be sympathetic and well-integrated with a site, so buildings, furnishings, organic architecture is also translated into the all inclusive nature of Frank Lloyd Wrights design process. Materials, motifs, and basic ordering principles continue to repeat themselves throughout the building as a whole, geometries throughout Wrights buildings build a central mood and theme. Essentially organic architecture is also the design of every element of a building, From the windows, to the floors. Everything relates to one another, reflecting the symbiotic ordering systems of nature, other modernist architects in the U. S. Europe, and elsewhere held complementary and often competing views of how architecture could best emulate nature. Key figures in the U. S. included Louis Sullivan, Claude Bragdon, following World War II, organic architecture often reflected cybernetic and informatic models of life, as is reflected in the later work of futurist architect Buckminster Fuller. Architect and planner David Pearson proposed a list of rules towards the design of organic architecture and these rules are known as the Gaia Charter for organic architecture and design. It reads, Let the design, be inspired by nature and be sustainable, healthy, conserving, unfold, like an organism, from the seed within. Exist in the present and begin again and follow the flows. Satisfy social, physical, and spiritual needs, grow out of the site and be unique. Celebrate the spirit of youth, play and surprise, express the rhythm of music and the power of dance. A well-known example of architecture is Fallingwater, the residence Frank Lloyd Wright designed for the Kaufmann family in rural Pennsylvania. The horizontal striations of stone masonry with daring cantilevers of colored beige concrete blend with native rock outcroppings, biomorphism Metaphoric architecture Zoomorphic architecture Rudolf Steiner. Ways to a New Style in Architecture, bureau for organic architecture - Udo Heimermann
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Japanese architecture
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Japanese architecture has traditionally been typified by wooden structures, elevated slightly off the ground, with tiled or thatched roofs. Sliding doors were used in place of walls, allowing the configuration of a space to be customized for different occasions. People usually sat on cushions or otherwise on the floor, traditionally, chairs, the earliest Japanese architecture was seen in prehistoric times in simple pit-houses and stores that were not adapted to a hunter-gatherer population. Influence from Han Dynasty China via Korea saw the introduction of more complex grain stores, the introduction of Buddhism in Japan during the sixth century was a catalyst for large-scale temple building using complicated techniques in wood. Influence from the Chinese Tang and Sui Dynasties led to the foundation of the first permanent capital in Nara and its checkerboard street layout used the Chinese capital of Changan as a template for its design. A gradual increase in the size of buildings led to units of measurement as well as refinements in layout. The introduction of the tea ceremony emphasised simplicity and modest design as a counterpoint to the excesses of the aristocracy, during the Meiji Restoration of 1868 the history of Japanese architecture was radically changed by two important events. Second, it was then that Japan underwent a period of intense Westernization in order to compete with developed countries. Initially architects and styles from abroad were imported to Japan but gradually the country taught its own architects, Architects returning from study with western architects introduced the International Style of modernism into Japan. Much in the architecture of Japan is not native, but was imported from China. First of all is the choice of materials, always wood in various forms for almost all structures, unlike both Western and some Chinese architecture, the use of stone is avoided except for certain specific uses, for example temple podia and pagoda foundations. The general structure is almost always the same, posts and lintels support a large and gently curved roof, while the walls are paper-thin, often movable, arches and barrel roofs are completely absent. Gable and eave curves are gentler than in China and columnar entasis limited, the roof is the most visually impressive component, often constituting half the size of the whole edifice. The slightly curved eaves extend far beyond the walls, covering verandas, simpler solutions are adopted in domestic structures. The oversize eaves give the interior a characteristic dimness, which contributes to the buildings atmosphere, the interior of the building normally consists of a single room at the center called moya, from which depart any other less important spaces. Inner space divisions are fluid, and room size can be modified through the use of screens or movable paper walls, the large, single space offered by the main hall can therefore be divided according to the need. For example, some walls can be removed and different rooms joined temporarily to make space for some more guests, the separation between inside and outside is itself in some measure not absolute as entire walls can be removed, opening a residence or temple to visitors. Verandas appear to be part of the building to an outsider, structures are therefore made to a certain extent part of their environment
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Hearth
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In historic and modern usage, a hearth /ˈhɑːrθ/ is a brick- or stone-lined fireplace, with or without an oven, used for heating and originally also used for cooking food. In a medieval hall, the hearth commonly stood in the middle of the hall, later, such hearths were moved to the side of the room and provided with a chimney. In fireplace design, the hearth is the part of the fireplace where the fire burns, usually consisting of masonry at floor level or higher, the word hearth derives from an Indo-European root, *ker-, referring to burning, heat, and fire. In archaeology, a hearth is a firepit or other feature of any period. Hearths are common features of many eras going back to prehistoric campsites and they were used for cooking, heating, and the processing of some stone, wood, faunal, and floral resources. Farming or excavation—deform or disperse hearth features, making difficult to identify without careful study. Lined hearths are easily identified by the presence of fire-cracked rock, often present are fragmented fish and animal bones, carbonized shell, charcoal, ash, and other waste products, all embedded in a sequence of soil that has been deposited atop the hearth. Unlined hearths, which are easily identified, may also include these materials. Because of the nature of most of these items, they can be used to pinpoint the date the hearth was last used via the process of radiocarbon dating. Although carbon dates can be affected if the users of the hearth burned old wood or coal. This was the most common way to cook, and to interior spaces in cool seasons. Kapnikon was a tax raised on households without exceptions for the poor, in England, a tax on hearths was introduced on 19 May 1662. Householders were required to pay a charge of two shillings per annum for each hearth, with half the payment due at Michaelmas and half at Lady Day. Exemptions to the tax were granted, to those in receipt of relief, those whose houses were worth less than 20 shillings a year. Also exempt were charitable institutions such as schools and almshouses, and industrial hearths with the exception of smiths forges, the returns were lodged with the Clerk of the Peace between 1662 and 1688. A revision of the Act in 1664 made the tax payable by all who had more than two chimneys The tax was abolished by William III in 1689 and the last collection was for Lady Day of that year and it was abolished in Scotland in 1690. Hearth tax records are important to historians as they provide an indication of the size of each assessed house at the time. The numbers of hearths are generally proportional to the size of the house, the assessments can be used to indicate the numbers and local distribution of larger and smaller houses
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Spring (hydrology)
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A spring is any natural situation where water flows from an aquifer to the Earths surface. It is a component of the hydrosphere, a spring may be the result of karst topography where surface water has infiltrated the Earths surface, becoming part of the area groundwater. The groundwater then travels through a network of cracks and fissure—openings ranging from intergranular spaces to large caves, the water eventually emerges from below the surface, in the form of a karst spring. The forcing of the spring to the surface can be the result of an aquifer in which the recharge area of the spring water table rests at a higher elevation than that of the outlet. Spring water forced to the surface by elevated sources are artesian wells and this is possible even if the outlet is in the form of a 300-foot-deep cave. In this case the cave is used like a hose by the higher elevated area of groundwater to exit through the lower elevation opening. Non-artesian springs may simply flow from a higher elevation through the earth to a lower elevation, still other springs are the result of pressure from an underground source in the earth, in the form of volcanic activity. The result can be water at elevated temperature such as a hot spring, the action of the groundwater continually dissolves permeable bedrock such as limestone and dolomite, creating vast cave systems. The term seep refers to springs with small flow rates in which the water has filtered through permeable earth. Fracture springs, discharge from faults, joints, or fissures in the earth, tubular springs, in which the water flows from underground caverns. Spring discharge, or resurgence, is determined by the springs recharge basin, factors that affect the recharge include the size of the area in which groundwater is captured, the amount of precipitation, the size of capture points, and the size of the spring outlet. Water may leak into the system from many sources including permeable earth, sinkholes. In some cases entire creeks seemingly disappear as the water sinks into the ground via the stream bed, grand Gulf State Park in Missouri is an example of an entire creek vanishing into the groundwater system. The water emerges 9 miles away, forming some of the discharge of Mammoth Spring in Arkansas, human activity may also affect a springs discharge--withdrawal of groundwater reduces the water pressure in an aquifer, decreasing the volume of flow. Springs are often classified by the volume of the water they discharge, the largest springs are called first-magnitude, defined as springs that discharge water at a rate of at least 2800 liters or 100 cubic feet of water per second. The scale for spring flow is as follows, Minerals become dissolved in the water as it moves through the underground rocks and this may give the water flavor and even carbon dioxide bubbles, depending on the nature of the geology through which it passes. This is why spring water is bottled and sold as mineral water. Springs that contain significant amounts of minerals are sometimes called mineral springs, Springs that contain large amounts of dissolved sodium salts, mostly sodium carbonate, are called soda springs
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Structural engineering
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They can also be involved in the design of machinery, medical equipment, and vehicles where structural integrity affects functioning and safety. Structural engineering theory is based upon applied physical laws and empirical knowledge of the performance of different materials. Structural engineering design utilizes a number of relatively simple structural elements to build complex structural systems, Structural engineers are responsible for making creative and efficient use of funds, structural elements and materials to achieve these goals. Structural engineers are responsible for engineering design and analysis, entry-level structural engineers may design the individual structural elements of a structure, for example the beams, columns, and floors of a building. More experienced engineers may be responsible for the design and integrity of an entire system. Structural engineering has existed since humans first started to construct their own structures and it became a more defined and formalized profession with the emergence of the architecture as distinct profession from the engineering during the industrial revolution in the late 19th century. Until then, the architect and the engineer were usually one. Only with the development of specialized knowledge of theories that emerged during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The role of a structural engineer today involves a significant understanding of both static and dynamic loading, and the structures that are available to resist them. The complexity of modern structures often requires a great deal of creativity from the engineer in order to ensure the structures support and resist the loads they are subjected to. A structural engineer will typically have a four or five year undergraduate degree, Structural engineers are licensed or accredited by different learned societies and regulatory bodies around the world. The aim of that association is to exchange knowledge and to advance the practice of engineering worldwide in the service of the profession. Structural engineering dates back to 2700 B. C. E, when the step pyramid for Pharaoh Djoser was built by Imhotep, the first engineer in history known by name. Pyramids were the most common major structures built by ancient civilizations because the form of a pyramid is inherently stable. The limestone blocks were taken from a quarry near the build site, since the compressive strength of limestone is anywhere from 30 to 250 MPa, the blocks will not fail under compression. Therefore, the strength of the pyramid stems from the material properties of the stones from which it was built rather than the pyramids geometry. Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as masons and carpenters. No theory of structures existed, and understanding of how structures stood up was extremely limited, knowledge was retained by guilds and seldom supplanted by advances
39.
Miniature Railroad & Village
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The Miniature Railroad & Village is one of the largest and most detailed model train layouts in the United States. It depicts Western Pennsylvania from 1880 to 1930, located at the Carnegie Science Center in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the MRRV has been a Pittsburgh tradition for over 50 years. The exhibit dates back to late in the decade of the 20th century. Charles Bowdish of Brookville, Pennsylvania, was a soldier in World War I, when doctors discovered a congenital heart problem, he was honorably discharged from service and sent home, where he began to build models of structures around Brookville, his hometown. Every Christmas, in his home on Creek Street, the buildings were assembled in a display, on Christmas Eve 1920, Charles hosted his brothers wedding and reception, and entertained the guests by running his train display. One of the guests, Alfred Truman, asked if he could bring some friends over to see it—word quickly spread, because of this, Christmas Eve 1920 is considered to be the birth date of the exhibit. Bowdish soon began setting up and exhibiting his railroad yearly at Christmas time in his house, each year there would be a different theme, such as White Christmas or Indian Summer. The railroad spanned the entire floor, and no admission fee was ever charged. Thousands of people saw it over the years, some coming from other countries, a combination of a flood nearly destroying his stored models, and his insurance company refusing to cover the crowds anymore, forced Charles to begin searching for a new home for his work. He originally offered it to Brookville, but the town declined, eventually he offered it to the Buhl Planetarium and Institute of Popular Science in Pittsburgh. The Buhl offered him space, opening there on December 1,1954, during the 31-day period, figures showed that 23,885 visitors viewed the layout. It was originally 14 X14, and was called The Great Christmastown Railroad and it was renamed The Miniature Railroad & Village in 1957. The exhibit was an instant hit, and was and still is one of the major attractions in Pittsburgh. The MRRV was in the basement, and the queue would at times extend out the front door and around the block, eventually the dates it was open would be the first weekend of November to the last weekend of February. It was then torn down and stored until next year because the space had to be used for the science fair. On January 1,1987, the Buhl officially became a part of the Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh, the Buhl staff had been wanting to expand the science center so they could bring in large travelling exhibits, and create more of their own. Joining the Carnegie allowed them to have the resources to do it, Buhl closed on August 31,1991, and Carnegie Science Center opened on October 5,1991. A whole new building allowed the museum to dedicate a room just to the MRRV, the new and expanded Miniature Railroad & Village opened in the Fall of 1992
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Carnegie Science Center
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The Carnegie Science Center is one of the four Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It is located in the Chateau neighborhood and it is located across the street from Heinz Field. The Carnegie Science Center is the most visited museum in Pittsburgh and it has four floors of interactive exhibits. The Roboworld exhibition contains more than 30 interactive displays featuring all things robotic and its predecessor was the Buhl Planetarium and Institute of Popular Science, which opened on October 24,1939. The Buhl Planetarium was the fifth major planetarium in the United States, however, by the 1980s it had begun to show signs of age. An expansion was ruled out, so the Institute was relocated to the Chateau neighborhood, however, it became apparent to the Buhl Institute that the relocation efforts would require more staffing than they were able to provide. At this point, the Carnegie Institute stepped in, showing interest in merging with the Buhl Institute, both parties agreed to the merger in 1987. On October 5,1989, construction began on the $40 million building, the Henry Buhl, Jr. Planetarium and Observatory was reinvented in this new facility. The Center opened in October 1991, the Roboworld area is the second-floor attraction at the Carnegie Science Center. It is touted as the worlds largest permanent robotics exhibition, with more than 30 interactive displays featuring all things robotic, the first robot encounter in Roboworld is Andy Roid, the Robothespian. He is an interactive, animatronic robot that introduces visitors to the concepts of robotic sensing, thinking, the areas other exhibits showcase different types of robots, and videos containing more information about them. The Robot Hall of Fame features famous robots from science fiction films, television, and video games, such as R2-D2, C-3PO, Data, maschinenmensch, Gort, Robby the Robot, Robot B-9, HAL9000, and Huey, Dewey, and Louie from Silent Running. Highmark SportsWorks is one of the major, permanent exhibits of the Carnegie Science Center and it is one of larger science and sports exhibitions in the world, with over 30 interactive experiences in which visitors can participate. SportsWorks features three themed areas, Physics of Sports, LifeWorks, and Sports Challenge, the previous sponsor, UPMC, ended its sponsorship of SportsWorks in 2006. On November 13,2008, the Carnegie Science Center unveiled plans for a new 12, 000-square-foot SportsWorks and it reopened in the Fall of 2009. From October 8,2007 until May 2008, SportsWorks housed the controversial exhibit BODIES, at least one employee of the Carnegie Science Center left her job due to the implementation of this exhibit. The E-motion cone is a white-colored, inverted cone which sits atop the Science Center building, at night, it is lit with different colors, signalling the weather forecast for the coming day. Miniature Railroad & Village Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh List of museums in Pennsylvania Seddon Bennington - director of the museum from 1994 until 2002
41.
Prestressed concrete
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Prestressed concrete is a concrete construction material which is placed under compression prior to it supporting any applied loads. A more technical definition is Structural concrete in which stresses have been introduced to reduce potential tensile stresses in the concrete resulting from loads. This compression is produced by the tensioning of high-strength tendons located within or adjacent to the concrete volume, tendons may consist of single wires, multi-wire strands or threaded bars, and are most commonly made from high-tensile steels, carbon fibre or aramid fibre. This can result in improved structural capacity and/or serviceability compared to reinforced concrete in many situations. Typical applications range through high-rise buildings, residential slabs, foundation systems, bridge and dam structures, silos and tanks, industrial pavements, first used in the late-nineteenth century, prestressed concrete has developed to encompass a wide range of technologies. Tensioning of the tendons may be undertaken either before or after the concrete itself is cast, tendons may be located either within the concrete volume, or wholly outside of it. Whereas pre-tensioned concrete by definition uses tendons directly bonded to the concrete, pre-tensioned concrete is a variant of prestressed concrete where the tendons are tensioned prior to the concrete being cast. Pre-tensioning is a common technique, where the resulting concrete element is manufactured remotely from the final structure location. It requires strong, stable end-anchorage points between which the tendons are stretched and these anchorages form the ends of a casting bed which may be many times the length of the concrete element being fabricated. Higher bond strength in early-age concrete allows more economical fabrication as it speeds production, to promote this, pre-tensioned tendons are usually composed of isolated single wires or strands, as this provides a greater surface area for bond action than bundled strand tendons. Unlike those of post-tensioned concrete, the tendons of pre-tensioned concrete elements generally form straight lines between end-anchorages, where profiled or harped tendons are required, one or more intermediate deviators are located between the ends of the tendon to hold the tendon to the desired non-linear alignment during tensioning. Such deviators usually act against substantial forces, and hence require a robust casting bed foundation system, pre-tensioned concrete is most commonly used for the fabrication of structural beams, floor slabs, hollow-core planks, balconies, lintels, driven piles, water tanks and concrete pipes. Post-tensioned concrete is a variant of prestressed concrete where the tendons are tensioned after the concrete structure has been cast. The tendons are not placed in contact with the concrete. At each end of a tendon is an anchorage assembly firmly fixed to the surrounding concrete, once the concrete has been cast and set, the tendons are tensioned by pulling the tendon ends through the anchorages while pressing against the concrete. The large forces required to tension the tendons result in a significant permanent compression being applied to the once the tendon is locked-off at the anchorage. Casting the tendon ducts/sleeves into the concrete before any tensioning occurs allows them to be profiled to any desired shape including incorporating vertical and/or horizontal curvature. Bonded post-tensioning has prestressing tendons permanently bonded to the concrete by the in situ grouting of their encapsulating ducting following tendon tensioning
42.
Mount Rushmore
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Mount Rushmore National Memorial is a sculpture carved into the granite face of Mount Rushmore, a batholith in the Black Hills in Keystone, South Dakota, United States. The memorial park covers 1,278.45 acres and is 5,725 feet above sea level, robinsons initial idea was to sculpt the Needles, however, Gutzon Borglum rejected the Needles because of the poor quality of the granite and strong opposition from Native American groups. They settled on Mount Rushmore, which also has the advantage of facing southeast for maximum sun exposure. Robinson wanted it to feature American West heroes like Lewis and Clark, Red Cloud, and Buffalo Bill Cody, after securing federal funding through the enthusiastic sponsorship of Mount Rushmores great political patron, U. S. Senator Peter Norbeck, construction on the began in 1927. Upon Gutzon Borglums death in March 1941 his son Lincoln Borglum took over construction, each president was originally to be depicted from head to waist. Lack of funding forced construction to end in late October 1941, Mount Rushmore has become an iconic symbol of the United States, and it has appeared in works of fiction, as well as being discussed or depicted in other popular works. It attracts over two million visitors annually, originally known to the Lakota Sioux as The Six Grandfathers, the mountain was renamed after Charles E. Rushmore, a prominent New York lawyer, during an expedition in 1885. At first, the project of carving Rushmore was undertaken to increase tourism in the Black Hills region of South Dakota, after long negotiations involving a Congressional delegation and President Calvin Coolidge, the project received Congressional approval. The carving started in 1927 and ended in 1941 with no fatalities, as Six Grandfathers, the mountain was part of the route that Lakota leader Black Elk took in a spiritual journey that culminated at Black Elk Peak. Following a series of campaigns from 1876 to 1878, the United States asserted control over the area. Among American settlers, the peak was known variously as Cougar Mountain, Sugarloaf Mountain, Slaughterhouse Mountain and it was named Mount Rushmore during a prospecting expedition by Charles Rushmore, David Swanzey, and Bill Challis. Historian Doane Robinson conceived the idea for Mount Rushmore in 1923 to promote tourism in South Dakota, in 1924, Robinson persuaded sculptor Gutzon Borglum to travel to the Black Hills region to ensure the carving could be accomplished. The original plan was to make the carvings in granite pillars known as the Needles, however, Borglum realized that the eroded Needles were too thin to support sculpting. He chose Mount Rushmore, a location, partly because it faced southeast. Borglum said upon seeing Mount Rushmore, America will march along that skyline, Congress authorized the Mount Rushmore National Memorial Commission on March 3,1925. President Coolidge insisted that, along with Washington, two Republicans and one Democrat be portrayed and these presidents were selected by Borglum because of their role in preserving the Republic and expanding its territory. The carving of Mount Rushmore involved the use of dynamite, followed by the process of honeycombing, in total, about 450,000 short tons of rock were blasted off the mountainside
43.
Alfred Hitchcock
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Sir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock KBE was an English film director and producer, at times referred to as The Master of Suspense. He pioneered many elements of the suspense and psychological thriller genres and he had a successful career in British cinema with both silent films and early talkies and became renowned as Englands best director. Hitchcock moved to Hollywood in 1939, and became a US citizen in 1955 and he also fashioned for himself a recognisable directorial style. Hitchcocks stylistic trademarks include the use of movement that mimics a persons gaze. In addition, he framed shots to maximise anxiety, fear, or empathy and his work often features fugitives on the run alongside icy blonde female characters. Prior to 1980, there had long been talk of Hitchcock being knighted for his contribution to film, Hitchcock later received his knighthood from Queen Elizabeth II in the 1980 New Year Honours. Hitchcock directed more than fifty films in a career spanning six decades and is often regarded as one of the most influential directors in cinematic history. His flair was for narrative, cruelly withholding crucial information and engaging the emotions of the audience like no one else, Hitchcocks first thriller, The Lodger, A Story of the London Fog, helped shape the thriller genre in film. His 1929 film, Blackmail, is cited as the first British sound feature film, while Rear Window, Vertigo, North by Northwest. Alfred Joseph Hitchcock was born on 13 August 1899 in Leytonstone and he was the second son and the youngest of three children of William Hitchcock, a greengrocer and poulterer, and Emma Jane Hitchcock. He was named after his fathers brother, Hitchcock was raised as a Roman Catholic, and sent to Salesian College, Battersea, and the Jesuit grammar school St Ignatius College in Stamford Hill, London. His parents were both of half-English and half-Irish ancestry and he often described a lonely and sheltered childhood that was worsened by his obesity. Around age five, Hitchcock recalled that to him for behaving badly. This incident implanted a lifelong fear of policemen in Hitchcock, and such harsh treatment, sources vary on Hitchcocks performance in school. Gene Adair reports that by most accounts, Alfred was only an average, or slightly above-average, however, McGilligan writes that Hitchcock certainly excelled academically. When Hitchcock was 15, his father died, in that same year, he left St. Ignatius to study at the London County Council School of Engineering and Navigation in Poplar, London. After leaving, he became a draftsman and advertising designer with a company called Henleys. Hitchcock joined a regiment of the Royal Engineers in 1917
44.
North by Northwest
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North by Northwest is a 1959 American thriller directed by Alfred Hitchcock and starring Cary Grant, Eva Marie Saint and James Mason. The screenplay was by Ernest Lehman, who wanted to write the Hitchcock picture to end all Hitchcock pictures and this is one of several Hitchcock films that features a music score by Bernard Herrmann and a memorable opening title sequence by graphic designer Saul Bass. This film is cited as the first to feature extended use of kinetic typography in its opening credits. North by Northwest is now numbered among the essential Hitchcock pictures and is listed as one of the greatest films of all time. It was selected in 1995 for preservation in the National Film Registry by the United States Library of Congress, as being culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant. Two thugs looking for a George Kaplan at a hotel bar see a calling out for him at the same time advertising executive Roger Thornhill summons the waiter. Thornhill, thus, is mistaken for George Kaplan, kidnapped by the thugs, he is brought to the Long Island estate of Lester Townsend, and interrogated by spy Phillip Vandamm. Thornhill vehemently denies he is Kaplan, Vandamm thinks he is lying and Vandamms henchman Leonard tries to arrange Thornhills death, but Thornhill manages to escape a staged drunken driving accident. Thornhill fails to convince his mother and the police that he had been kidnapped, journeying to the scene of the crime with police, a woman at Townsends home, presumed to be Mrs. Townsend, says he showed up drunk at her dinner party. She says Townsend is a United Nations diplomat, while searching Kaplans hotel room with his mother, Thornhill answers a phone call from the thugs who are in the hotel lobby. He escapes and visits the U. N. General Assembly building to meet Townsend and he discovers that Townsend is not the man he met on Long Island, and that Townsend is a widower. As Thornhill questions Townsend, one of the thugs throws a knife, hitting Townsend in the back, Thornhill catches Townsend as he falls and grabs the knife, giving the appearance that he murdered Townsend. Thornhill flees and attempts to find the real Kaplan, meanwhile, a government intelligence agency picks up the news and realizes Thornhill has been mistaken for George Kaplan, a fictional persona created by the agency to thwart Vandamm. However, Thornhill is not rescued for fear of compromising their operation, Thornhill sneaks onto the 20th Century Limited train. He meets Eve Kendall, who protects him from the police, in Chicago, Kendall tells Thornhill she has arranged a meeting with Kaplan at an isolated bus stop. Thornhill waits, but no one comes and he is attacked by a crop duster plane, but steps in front of a speeding tank truck, the airplane crashes into the truck, and Thornhill escapes. When he reaches Kaplans hotel in Chicago, he discovers that Kaplan had checked out, Thornhill goes to her room, but she leaves. He tracks her to an art auction, where he finds Vandamm, Vandamm purchases a Mexican Purépecha statue and departs
45.
Michael Daugherty
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Michael Kevin Daugherty is an American composer, pianist, and teacher. He is influenced by culture, Romanticism, and Postmodernism. Daugherty has been described by The Times as a master icon maker with an imagination, fearless structural sense. Currently, Daugherty is Professor of Composition at the University of Michigan School of Music, Theatre & Dance in Ann Arbor, Michael Daugherty’s music is published by Peermusic Classical, Boosey & Hawkes, and since 2010, Michael Daugherty Music/Bill Holab Music. Michael Daugherty was born into a family on April 28,1954 in Cedar Rapids. His father Willis Daugherty was a jazz and country and western drummer, his mother Evelyn Daugherty was an amateur singer, Daugherty’s four younger brothers are all professional musicians, Pat Daugherty, Tim Daugherty, Matt Daugherty, and Tommy D. Daugherty. The centerpieces of the modest Daugherty home, located at 1547 5th Avenue S. E. in Cedar Rapids, were a piano, television. At the age of 8, Daugherty taught himself how to play piano by pumping the pedals of the player piano, Music was a significant activity in the Daugherty family, especially during the holidays when relatives would participate in jam sessions of popular songs like Misty and Sentimental Journey. The record collection at the Daugherty home consisted mainly of easy listening music of the fifties, during these years, Daugherty was employed as an early morning paper boy for The Des Moines Register and delivered papers across his neighborhood and to Mercy Hospital in Cedar Rapids. Traveling was an important pastime for the Daugherty family and they often took long summer road trips down two-lane highways to tourist locations, including Mount Rushmore, Niagara Falls and Miami Beach. The sixties in America were a time of political unrest. This made an impact on the teenage Daugherty. From 1968-72, Daugherty was the leader, arranger, and organist for his high school rock, soul and this band performed a variety of Motown charts and music by James Brown, Blood Sweat & Tears, and Sly and the Family Stone. Because accessing sheet music was almost impossible, Daugherty learned to hand-transcribe the music by listening to vinyl recordings. With the help of his father, who drove the band across the state, The Soul Company became a popular group that performed at high school proms, dances. Daugherty studied music composition and jazz at the University of North Texas College of Music from 1972-76 and his teachers of composition included Martin Mailman and James Sellars. Daugherty also played piano in the Two OClock Lab Band. It was after hearing the Dallas Symphony Orchestra perform the Piano Concerto by Samuel Barber that Daugherty decided to devote his energies into composing music for the concert stage
