1.
Consumer
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A consumer is a person or organization that uses economic services or commodities. In economic systems consumers are utilities expressed in the decision to trade or not, the consumer is the one who pays to consume goods and services produced. As such, consumers play a role in the economic system of a nation. Without consumer demand, producers would lack one of the key motivations to produce, the consumer also forms part of the chain of distribution. The law primarily uses the notion of the consumer in relation to protection laws. As of all voters are also consumers, consumer protection takes on a clear political significance. Concern over the interests of consumers has also spawned activism, as well as incorporation of consumer education into school curricula, there are also various non-profit publications, such as Which. Consumer Reports and Choice Magazine, dedicated to assist in education and decision making. In India, the Consumer Protection Act 1986 differentiates the consummation of a commodity or service for use or to earn a livelihood. Only consumers are protected per this act and any person, entity or organization purchasing a commodity for commercial reasons are exempted from any benefits of this act, U. S. Government National Consumer Protection Week
2.
Health
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Health is the level of functional and metabolic efficiency of a living organism. In humans it is the ability of individuals or communities to adapt, other definitions have been proposed, among which a recent definition that correlates health and personal satisfaction. The definition of health has evolved over time, although this definition was welcomed by some as being innovative, it was also criticized as being vague, excessively broad, and was not construed as measurable. For a long time it was set aside as an impractical ideal, just as there was a shift from viewing disease as a state to thinking of it as a process, the same shift happened in definitions of health. Again, the WHO played a role when it fostered the development of the health promotion movement in the 1980s. This brought in a new conception of health, not as a state, the 1984 WHO revised definition of health defined it as the extent to which an individual or group is able to realize aspirations and satisfy needs, and to change or cope with the environment. Health is a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living, it is a concept, emphasizing social and personal resources. Thus, health referred to the ability to maintain homeostasis and recover from insults, since the late 1970s, the federal Healthy People Initiative has been a visible component of the United States’ approach to improving population health. Progress has been limited for many objectives, leading to concerns about the effectiveness of Healthy People in shaping outcomes in the context of a decentralized and uncoordinated US health system. Healthy People 2020 gives more prominence to health promotion and preventive approaches, a new expanded digital interface facilitates use and dissemination rather than bulky printed books as produced in the past. The impact of changes to Healthy People will be determined in the coming years. Systematic activities to prevent or cure health problems and promote health in humans are undertaken by health care providers. Applications with regard to animal health are covered by the veterinary sciences, studies have shown that high levels of stress can affect human health. Generally, the context in which an individual lives is of importance for both his health status and quality of their life. The concept of the field, as distinct from medical care. The report identified three interdependent fields as key determinants of an individuals health, the maintenance and promotion of health is achieved through different combination of physical, mental, and social well-being, together sometimes referred to as the health triangle. The WHOs 1986 Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion further stated that health is not just a state, Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities. Health and illness can co-exist, as people with multiple chronic diseases or terminal illnesses can consider themselves healthy
3.
Advertisement film
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A television advertisement is a span of television programming produced and paid for by an organization, which conveys a message, typically to market a product or service. Advertisers and marketeers may refer to television commercials as TVCs, Advertising revenue provides a significant portion of the funding for most privately-owned television networks. As of 2016 the vast majority of television advertisements consist of advertising spots. Advertisements of this sort have promoted a variety of goods, services. The effects of television advertising upon the public have been the subject of philosophical discourse by such luminaries as Marshall McLuhan. In many countries, including the United States, television advertisements are considered indispensable for a political campaign. In other countries, such as France, political advertising on television is heavily restricted, while some countries, such as Norway, completely ban political advertisements. The announcement for Bulova watches, for which the company paid anywhere from $4.00 to $9.00, displayed a WNBT test pattern modified to look like a clock with the hands showing the time. The Bulova logo, with the phrase Bulova Watch Time, appeared in the lower quadrant of the test pattern while the second hand swept around the dial for one minute. The first TV ad broadcast in the UK went to air on ITV on September 22,1955, the first TV ad broadcast in Asia appeared on Nippon Television in Tokyo on August 28,1953, advertising Seikosha, it also displayed a clock with the current time. To accomplish the first step means different things in different parts of the world depending on the regulation in place, in the UK for example, clearance must be given by the body Clearcast. Another example is Venezuela where clearance is governed by a body called CNAC, the clearance provides guarantee to the broadcasters that the content of the advertisement meets legal guidelines. Because of this, special extended clearance sometimes applies to food, after the advent of cheap video software and consumer cameras, numerous individuals have offered video production services on the internet. Some of these ad jingles or catch-phrases may take on lives of their own, spawning gags that appear in films, television shows, magazines, comics, or literature. These long-lasting advertising elements may be said to have taken a place in the pop culture history of the demographic to whom they appeared. An example is the phrase, Winston tastes good like a cigarette should. Variations of this dialogue and direct references to it appeared as long as two decades after the advertising campaign expired, another example is Wheres the Beef. which grew so popular it was used in the 1984 presidential election by Walter Mondale. Another popular catch-phrase is Ive fallen and I cant get up, Advertising agencies often use humor as a tool in their creative marketing campaigns
4.
PubMed Identifier
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PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby
5.
International Chamber of Commerce
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The International Chamber of Commerce is the largest, most representative business organization in the world. Its hundreds of thousands of companies in over 130 countries have interests spanning every sector of private enterprise. ICC has three activities, rule setting, dispute resolution, and policy advocacy. Because its member companies and associations are engaged in international business. Although these rules are voluntary, they are observed in countless thousands of transactions every day and have part of international trade. A world network of committees in over 90 countries advocates business priorities at national and regional level. More than 3,000 experts drawn from ICC’s member companies feed their knowledge, ICC lobbies the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, and many other intergovernmental bodies, both international and regional, on behalf of international business. ICC was the first organization granted general consultative status with the United Nations Economic, the International Chamber of Commerce was founded in 1919 to serve world business by promoting trade and investment, open markets for goods and services, and the free flow of capital. The organizations international secretariat was established in Paris and the ICCs International Court of Arbitration was created in 1923, ICCs first chairman was 20th-century French Minister of Finance Etienne Clémentel. ICCs current chairman is Sunil Bharti Mittal, in June 2014, John Danilovich was elected Secretary General of ICC by the ICC World Council. There are two ways to become a member of ICC,1, through affiliation with an ICC national committee or group. By direct membership with the ICC International Secretariat when a national committee/group has not yet established in the country/territory. ICCs supreme governing body is the World Council, consisting of representatives of national committees, the World Council elects ICC’s highest officers, including the Chairman and the Vice-Chairman, each of whom serves a two-year term. The Chairman, Vice-Chairman and the Honorary Chairman provide the organization with high-level world leadership. They play an important role in ICC section, strategic direction for ICC is provided by its Executive Board, consisting of up to 30 business leaders and ex-officio members. It is elected by the World Council on the recommendation of the Chairmanship, meeting three times a year, the Executive Board oversees the establishment of ICC’s strategic priorities and the implementation of its policies. The ICC International Secretariat, based in Paris, is the arm of ICC. It develops and carries out ICC’s work programme, feeding business views into intergovernmental organizations on issues directly affect business operations. The International Secretariat is led by the Secretary General, who is appointed by the World Council, in 92 of the world’s nations, members have established formal ICC structures called national committees
6.
Brine
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Brine is a solution of salt in water. In different contexts, brine may refer to salt solutions ranging from about 3. 5% up to about 26%, fahrenheit could reliably reproduce by freezing brine. By reference, seawater usually freezes at −2 °C, at 100 °C, saturated sodium chloride brine is about 28% salt by weight. At 0 °C, brine can only hold about 26% salt, the thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C. The majority of hydrogen produced through electrolysis is a side product in the production of chlorine. 2 NaCl +2 H2O →2 NaOH + H2 + Cl2 Brine is a fluid used in large refrigeration installations for the transport of thermal energy from place to place. The lowest freezing point obtainable for NaCl brine is −21.1 °C at 23. 3wt% NaCl and this is called the eutectic point. In lower temperatures, a solution can be used to de-ice or reduce freezing temperatures on roads. In cooking, brine is used for food brining and salting, in hydrology, brine is a form of salt water, namely, water with relatively high concentration of salt. Brine mining Saline water Brackish water
7.
TV dinner
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A TV dinner is a pre-packaged frozen or chilled meal that usually comes as an individual portion. It requires very little preparation and contains all the elements for a single-serving meal, the entrée could also be pasta or a common type of fish, such as Atlantic cod. Rice is a side item. In Europe, items such as Indian or Chinese meals are common, the term TV dinner is a genericized trademark originally used for a brand of packaged meal developed in 1953 by C. A. The original TV Dinner came in a tray and was heated in an oven. In the United States the term is synonymous with any prepackaged dinner purchased frozen in a supermarket, most frozen food trays are now made of microwaveable material, usually plastic. Several smaller companies had conceived of frozen dinners earlier, but the first to achieve success was Swanson, each item was placed in its own compartment. The product was cooked for 25 minutes at 425 °F and fit nicely on a TV tray table, the original TV Dinner sold for 98 cents, and had a production estimate of 5,000 dinners for the first year. The name TV dinner supposedly came from the shape of the tray it was served on, the main entrée was in a bigger compartment on one side of the tray and the vegetables lined up in smaller compartments on the other side. The arrangement was similar to that of the front panels of a 1950s television set, there were other theories about the name of the TV dinner. One reason was that early packaging featured the image of a TV set, another was that it was marketed a quick alternative to traditional cooking and could be consumed by families at dinnertime while watching TV, a popular pastime in the fifties. Much has changed since the first TV Dinners were marketed, for instance, a wider variety of main courses – such as fried chicken, spaghetti, Salisbury steak and Mexican combinations – have been introduced. Competitors such as Banquet and Morton began offering prepackaged frozen dinners at a lower price than Swanson, other changes include,1960 – Swanson added desserts to a new four-compartment tray. 1964 – Night Hawk name originated from the Night Hawk steak houses that operated in Austin, the original diners were open all night catering to the late-night crowd. The restaurants produced the first frozen Night Hawk TV dinner in 1964,1969 – The first TV breakfasts were marketed. Great Starts Breakfasts and breakfast sandwiches followed later,1973 – The first Swanson Hungry-Man dinners were marketed, these contained larger portions of its regular dinners. The American football player Mean Joe Greene was the Hungry-Man spokesman,1986 – The first microwave oven-safe trays were marketed. Modern-day frozen dinners tend to come in microwave-safe containers, product lines also tend to offer a larger variety of dinner types
8.
Malt
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Malt is germinated cereal grains that have been dried in a process known as malting. The grains are made to germinate by soaking in water, and are then halted from germinating further by drying with hot air and it also develops other enzymes, such as proteases, which break down the proteins in the grain into forms that can be used by yeast. Depending on when the process is stopped one gets a preferred starch enzyme ratio. Malt also contains amounts of other sugars, such as sucrose and fructose. Further conversion to fermentable sugars is achieved during the mashing process, Malted grain that has been ground into a coarse meal is known as sweet meal. Various cereals are malted, though barley is the most common, a high-protein form of malted barley is often a label-listed ingredient in blended flours typically used in the manufacture of yeast breads and other baked goods. Malted grains have probably been used as an ingredient of beer since ancient times, for example in Egypt, Sumeria and China. In Persian countries a sweet paste made entirely from germinated wheat is called Samanū in Iran, Samanak, or Sümölök, a plate or bowl of Samanu is a traditional component of the Haft sin table symbolising affluence. Traditionally, women take a party for it during the night. In Tajikistan and Afghanistan they sing, Samanak dar Jūsh u mā Kafcha zanēm - Dīgarān dar Khwāb u mā Dafcha zanēm, in modern times, making samanu can be a family gathering. It originally comes from the Great Persian Empire, Mämmi, or Easter Porridge, is a traditional Finnish Lenten food. Cooked from rye malt and -flour, mämmi has a resemblance to Samanū. Today, this product is available in shops from February until Easter, a survey in 2013 showed that almost no one cooks mämmi at home in modern-day Finland. The cereal is spread out on the floor in a layer of 8 to 12 cm depth. The malting process starts with drying the grains to a content below 14%. When ready, the grain is immersed or steeped in water two or three times two or three days to allow the grain to absorb moisture and to start to sprout. When the grain has a content of around 46%, it is transferred to the malting or germination floor. The grain at this point is called green malt, the green malt is then dried and pre-toasted in an oven to the desired colour and specification
9.
Ham
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Ham is pork that has been preserved through salting, smoking, or wet curing. It was traditionally made only from the leg of swine. Ham is made around the world, including a number of highly coveted regional specialties, such as Westphalian ham, technically a processed meat, ham may refer to a product which has been through mechanical re-forming. The precise nature of meat termed ham is controlled in a number of areas, often by statute, including the United States and European Union. In addition, numerous ham products have specific geographical naming protection, such as Prosciutto di Parma and Prosciutto Toscano PDO in Europe, and Smithfield ham in the US. The preserving of pork leg as ham has a long history, there are claims that the Chinese were the first people to mention the production of cured ham. Larousse Gastronomique claims an origin from Gaul and it was certainly well established by the Roman period, as evidenced by an import trade from Gaul mentioned by Marcus Terentius Varro in his writings. The modern word ham is derived from the Old English ham or hom meaning the hollow or bend of the knee and it began to refer to the cut of pork derived from the hind leg of a swine around the 15th century. Preservation methods include curing, smoking, and salting, in many countries the term is now protected by statute, with a specific definition. In addition to the categories, some processing choices can affect legal labeling. However, injecting smoke flavor is not legal grounds for claiming the ham was smoked, hams can only be labeled honey-cured if honey was at least 50% of the sweetener used, is at least 3% of the formula, and has a discernible effect on flavor. So-called lean and extra lean hams must adhere to maximum levels of fat, Ham re-formed from smaller pieces into a larger block also has to be labeled in many jurisdictions. Ham is produced by preserving and flavoring raw pork by salting, smoking, besides salt, several ingredients may be used to obtain flavoring and preservation, from black pepper to the precious saffron. Traditional dry cure hams may use only salt as the agent, such as with San Daniele or Parma hams. This process involves cleaning the raw meat, covering it in salt while it is gradually pressed – draining all the blood, in Tuscan Ham different spices and herbs are added to salt during this step. Specific ingredients may be used to flavour and taste during this step. The hams are then washed and hung in a dark, temperature-regulated place until dry and it is then hung to air for another period of time. Some dry cured hams, such as the Jinhua ham, take approximately 8 to 10 months to complete, most modern dry cure hams also use nitrites, which are added along with the salt, although following a similar methodology
10.
Peanut butter
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Peanut butter is a food paste or spread made from ground dry roasted peanuts. It often contains ingredients that modify the taste or texture, such as salt. Peanut butter is popular in many countries, the United States is a leading exporter of peanut butter and itself consumes $800 million of peanut butter annually. Peanut butter is served as a spread on bread, toast or crackers and it is also used in a number of confections and packaged foods, such as Reeses Peanut Butter Cups, candy bars and peanut-flavoured granola bars. Comparable preparations are made by grinding other nuts, a variety of other nut butters are also sold, such as cashew butter and almond butter. The use of peanuts dates to the Aztecs and Incas, marcellus Gilmore Edson of Montreal, Quebec was the first to patent peanut butter in 1884. He mixed sugar into the paste to harden its consistency, kellogg served peanut butter to the patients at his Battle Creek Sanitarium. As the US National Peanut Board confirms, Contrary to popular belief, january 24 is National Peanut Butter Day in the United States. The two main types of butter are crunchy and smooth. In crunchy peanut butter, some coarsely-ground peanut fragments are included to give extra texture, the peanuts in smooth peanut butter are ground uniformly, creating a creamy texture. In the US, no product labelled as peanut butter can contain artificial sweeteners, chemical preservatives, some brands of peanut butter are sold without emulsifiers that bind the peanut oils with the peanut paste, and so require stirring after separation. Most major brands of peanut butter add white sugar, but there are others that use dried cane syrup, in 2012, organic peanut butter was available. Since the market for organic peanut butter is small, there is not enough demand to support manufacturers who produce only organic peanut butter, as a result, most organic peanut butter is produced in factories that also make non-organic peanut butter. A2012 article stated that China and India are the first and second largest producers, respectively, the United States of America. is the third largest producer of peanuts and more than half of the American peanut crop goes into making peanut butter. Peanut butter is an excellent source of protein, dietary fiber, vitamin E, pantothenic acid, also high in content are the dietary minerals manganese, magnesium, phosphorus, zinc and copper. Peanut butter is a source of thiamin, iron and potassium. Both crunchy/chunky and smooth peanut butter are sources of saturated and unsaturated fats, for people with a peanut allergy, peanut butter can cause a variety of possible allergic reactions, including life-threatening anaphylaxis. This potential effect has led to banning peanut butter, among other common foods, Peanut butters flavor combines well with other flavors, such as oatmeal, cheese, cured meats, savory sauces, and various types of breads and crackers
11.
Sugar substitute
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A sugar substitute is a food additive that provides a sweet taste like that of sugar while containing significantly less food energy. Some sugar substitutes are produced by nature, and others produced synthetically and those that are not produced by nature are, in general, called artificial sweeteners. An important class of sugar substitutes is known as high-intensity sweeteners and these are compounds with many times the sweetness of sucrose, common table sugar. As a result, much less sweetener is required and energy contribution is often negligible, the sensation of sweetness caused by these compounds is sometimes notably different from sucrose, so they are often used in complex mixtures that achieve the most natural sweet sensation. If the sucrose that is replaced has contributed to the texture of the product, in the United States, seven intensely sweet sugar substitutes have been approved for use. They are stevia, aspartame, sucralose, neotame, acesulfame potassium, saccharin, cyclamates are used outside the U. S. but have been prohibited in the U. S. since 1969. Others, which may or may not be approved depending on jurisdiction, include allulose, the U. S. Food and Drug Administration regulates artificial sweeteners as food additives. Food additives must be approved by the FDA, which publishes a generally recognized as safe list of additives, stevia is exempt under the FDAs GRAS policy due to its being a natural substance in wide use well before 1958, and the FDA has approved it on these grounds. The conclusions about safety are based on a review of a large body of information. The majority of sugar substitutes approved for use are artificially synthesized compounds. However, some bulk natural sugar substitutes are known, including sorbitol and xylitol, which are found in berries, fruit, vegetables and it is not commercially viable to extract these products from fruits and vegetables, so they are produced by catalytic hydrogenation of the appropriate reducing sugar. For example, xylose is converted to xylitol, lactose to lactitol, other natural substitutes are known, but these have yet to gain official approval for food use. Sorbitol and xylitol are examples of sugar alcohols and these are, in general, less sweet than sucrose but have similar bulk properties and can be used in a wide range of food products. Sometimes the sweetness profile is fine-tuned by mixing these with high-intensity sweeteners, as with all food products, the development of a formulation to replace sucrose is a complex proprietary process. This allows them to eat the foods they normally would while allowing them to lose weight. Dental care – Carbohydrates and sugars usually adhere to the tooth enamel, the bacteria convert the sugar to acids that decay the teeth. Sugar substitutes, unlike sugar, do not erode teeth as they are not fermented by the microflora of the dental plaque. A sweetener that can actually benefit dental health is xylitol, which tends to prevent bacteria from adhering to the surface, thus preventing plaque formation
12.
Food marketing
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Food marketing brings together the food producer and the consumer through a chain of marketing activities. The marketing of even a food product can be a complicated process involving many producers. For example, fifty-six companies are involved in making one can of chicken noodle soup and these businesses include not only chicken and vegetable processors but also the companies that transport the ingredients and those who print labels and manufacture cans. The food marketing system is the largest direct and indirect nongovernment employer in the United States, Pomeranz & Adler,2015, define food marketing is defined as a chain of marketing activities that take place within the food system between a food organisation and the consumer. This has the potential to be a procedure, as there are many processes that are used prior to the sale the food product. These include food processing, wholesaling, retailing, food service, due to these many processes, a multitude of organisations have to be involved in the sale of one food product. For example, approximately fifty-six organisations are involved in the making of one can of chicken noodle soup and these organisations not only include the processors who make the ingredients for the product, but also involve the companies who manufacture the cans, print the labels and transport the product. Therefore, on a scale, the food marketing industry is one of the largest direct and indirect employers. This includes all activities occur in between the completion of a product through to the purchasing process of consumers. Food marketing systems differ worldwide due to the level of development in the particular country, there are three historical phases of food marketing, the fragmentation phase, the unification phase, and the segmentation phase. In the fragmentation phase, the United States was divided into numerous geographic fragments because transporting food was expensive, leaving most production, distribution, Advertising in print media and direct marketing through demonstrations at stores and public venues were among the prime marketing tools. The initial Crisco campaign, in 1911, was an example, Distribution via the new national road system strengthened national brands. The four components of food marketing are often called the four Ps of the mix because they relate to product, price, promotion. One reason food manufacturers receive the largest percentage of the food dollar is that they provide the most differentiating. The money that manufacturers invest in developing, pricing, promotion, overall, the marketing mix can add value to a food organisations product. In deciding what type of new food products a consumer would most prefer, for example, a sweet, flavored yogurt drink would be a new product, but milk in a new flavor would be an extension of an existing product. There are three steps to developing and extending, generate ideas, screen ideas for feasibility, and test ideas for appeal. Only after these steps will a food product make it to national market, of one hundred new food product ideas that are considered, only six make it to a supermarket shelf
13.
Nutritional Labeling and Education Act
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The Nutrition Labeling and Education Act is a 1990 United States Federal law. It was signed into law on November 8,1990 by President George H. W. Bush, the act did not require restaurants to comply with the same standards. The regulations became effective for health claims, ingredient declarations,1,2006, the Nutrition Facts Labels on packaged food products are required by the FDA to list how many grams of trans fatty acid are contained within one serving of the product. Senator Orrin Hatch of Utah introduced the Health Freedom Act of 1992 which would have blocked the FDA from using health claims as a reason to regulate dietary supplements as drugs. The senator said he entered the controversy after hearing from constituents in his home state, Hatch stated that the FDA can put anybody out of business if they want to. The Nutritional Health Alliance, a lobby group, claimed credit for getting the Dietary Supplement Act of 1992 passed. Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994 Food Guide Pyramid New York State Restaurant Association v. New York City Board of Health Food Additives & Ingredients, Nutrition Facts Label Programs & Materials. Nutritional Health Alliance v. Shalala,953 F. Supp,526 Challenge, on First Amendment grounds, the NLEA framework requiring advanced FDA authorization for health claims made on vitamin labels
14.
Puffery
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In law, puffery is a promotional statement or claim that expresses subjective rather than objective views, which no reasonable person would take literally. Puffery serves to puff up an image of what is being described and is especially featured in testimonials. The manufacturers had paid for advertising stating that £100 would be paid in such circumstances then failed to follow this promise, part of their defence was that such a statement was mere puff and not meant to be taken seriously. The FTC stated in 1984 that puffery does not warrant enforcement action by the Commission, the Finest Fried Chicken in the World. Puff piece is an idiom for a form of puffery. The financial relationship between the company or entertainment firm and the reviewer is not always as obvious as a cash payment. In some cases, a group of reviewers may be given an exclusive invitation to test-drive a new sports car or see a new film before it is released. A particular use for puff pieces may be in health journalism, recruiting health journalists to write puff pieces may be a lucrative way to build the reputation of a product that has no effect
15.
Listerine
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Listerine is a brand of antiseptic mouthwash product. It is promoted with the slogan Kills germs that cause bad breath, named after Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister, a pioneer of antiseptic surgery, Listerine was developed in 1879 by Joseph Lawrence, a chemist in St. Louis, Missouri. The Listerine brand name is used in toothpaste, Listerine Whitening rinse, Listerine Fluoride rinse, Listerine SmartRinse, PocketPaks. In September 2007, Listerine began selling its own brand of self-dissolving teeth-whitening strips, listers work in turn inspired St. Louis-based doctor Joseph Lawrence to develop an alcohol-based formula for a surgical antiseptic which included eucalyptol, menthol, methyl salicylate, and thymol. Lawrence named his antiseptic Listerine in honor of Lister, Lawrence hoped to promote Listerines use as a general germicide as well as a surgical antiseptic, and licensed his formula to a local pharmacist named Jordan Wheat Lambert in 1881. Lambert subsequently started the Lambert Pharmacal Company, marketing Listerine, Listerine was promoted to dentists for oral care in 1895 and was the first over-the-counter mouthwash sold in the United States, in 1914. It became widely known and entered common use after Jordan Wheat Lamberts son Gerard Lambert joined the company. According to Steven D. Levitt and Stephen J. Dubners book Freakonomics, Listerine and it was later sold, in distilled form, as both a floor cleaner and a cure for gonorrhea. But it wasnt a success until the 1920s, when it was pitched as a solution for chronic halitosis— a then obscure medical term for bad breath. Listerines new ads featured forlorn young women and men, eager for marriage, can I be happy with him in spite of that. Until that time, bad breath was not conventionally considered such a catastrophe, as the advertising scholar James B. Twitchell writes, Listerine did not make mouthwash as much as it made halitosis, in just seven years, the companys revenues rose from $115,000 to more than $8 million. Among Lamberts assets was the land for Lambert-St. From 1921 until the mid-1970s, Listerine was also marketed as preventive and remedy for colds, in 1976, the Federal Trade Commission ruled that these claims were misleading, and that Listerine had no efficacy at either preventing or alleviating the symptoms of sore throats and colds. The advertisement run by Listerine added the preamble contrary to prior advertising, for a short time, beginning in 1927, the Lambert Pharmaceutical Company marketed Listerine Cigarettes. From the 1930s into the 1950s, advertisements claimed that applying Listerine to the scalp could prevent infectious dandruff, in 1995, FreshBurst was added, then in 2003 Natural Citrus. In 2006 a new addition to the intense variety, Vanilla Mint, was released. The active ingredients listed on Listerine bottles are essential oils which are menthol 0. 042%, thymol 0. 064%, methyl salicylate 0. 06%, in combination all have an antiseptic effect and there is some thought that methyl salicylate may have an anti inflammatory effect as well
16.
Organic food
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Organic food is food produced by methods that comply with the standards of organic farming. Standards vary worldwide, but organic farming in general features practices that strive to cycle resources, promote ecological balance, organizations regulating organic products may restrict the use of certain pesticides and fertilizers in farming. In general, organic foods are usually not processed using irradiation. In the context of regulations, organic food is produced in a way that complies with organic standards set by regional organizations, national governments. There is not sufficient evidence in literature to support claims that organic food is safer or healthier than conventionally grown food. Claims that organic food tastes better are generally not supported by evidence, the organic farming movement arose in the 1940s in response to the industrialization of agriculture. Their respective use affects humus content of soil and this is different from the scientific use of the term organic in chemistry, which refers to a class of molecules that contain carbon, especially those involved in the chemistry of life. Properly used in agricultural science context, organic refers to the methods grown and processed. Early consumers interested in food would look for non-chemically treated, non-use of unapproved pesticides. They mostly had to buy directly from growers, later, Know your farmer, know your food became the motto of a new initiative instituted by the USDA in September 2009. Personal definitions of what constituted organic were developed through experience, by talking to farmers, seeing farm conditions. Small farms grew vegetables using organic farming practices, with or without certification, small specialty health food stores and co-operatives were instrumental to bringing organic food to a wider audience. As demand for organic foods continued to increase, high volume sales through mass outlets such as supermarkets rapidly replaced the direct farmer connection, today, many large corporate farms have an organic division. However, for consumers, food production is not easily observable. Government regulations and third-party inspectors are looked to for assurance, Organic food production is a self-regulated industry with government oversight in some countries, distinct from private gardening. If livestock are involved, the livestock must be reared with regular access to pasture, processed organic food usually contains only organic ingredients. If non-organic ingredients are present, at least a certain percentage of the total plant. Pesticides are allowed as long as they are not synthetic, several groups have called for organic standards to prohibit nanotechnology on the basis of the precautionary principle in light of unknown risks of nanotechnology
17.
Sugar
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Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. There are various types of derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose, the table sugar or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar is used in prepared foods and it is added to some foods, in the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain, and lactose from milk, longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste, low-calorie food substitutes for sugar, described as artificial sweeteners, include aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial extraction in sugarcane, the world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms of sugar each year, equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word sugar ultimately originates from the Sanskrit शर्करा, via Arabic سكر as granular or candied sugar, the contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcar, respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre and the contemporary French, sucre, the earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις. The English word jaggery, a brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin – Portuguese jagara from the Sanskrit शर्करा. Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and it was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness, sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule, one of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine and it is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut, sugar is used only for medical purposes. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store, crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD
18.
Carbohydrate
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A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2,1, in other words, with the empirical formula Cmn. This formula holds true for monosaccharides, some exceptions exist, for example, deoxyribose, a sugar component of DNA, has the empirical formula C5H10O4. Carbohydrates are technically hydrates of carbon, structurally it is accurate to view them as polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones. The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of saccharide, a group that includes sugars, starch, the saccharides are divided into four chemical groups, monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides and disaccharides, the smallest carbohydrates, are referred to as sugars. The word saccharide comes from the Greek word σάκχαρον, meaning sugar, while the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix -ose. For example, grape sugar is the glucose, cane sugar is the disaccharide sucrose. Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms, polysaccharides serve for the storage of energy and as structural components. The 5-carbon monosaccharide ribose is an important component of coenzymes and the backbone of the genetic molecule known as RNA, the related deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Saccharides and their derivatives include many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the system, fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting. In food science and in informal contexts, the term carbohydrate often means any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate starch or simple carbohydrates. Often in lists of information, such as the USDA National Nutrient Database, the term carbohydrate is used for everything other than water, protein, fat, ash. This will include chemical compounds such as acetic or lactic acid, carbohydrates are found in wide variety of foods. The important sources are cereals, potatoes, sugarcane, fruits, table sugar, bread, milk, starch and sugar are the important carbohydrates in our diet. Starch is abundant in potatoes, maize, rice and other cereals, sugar appears in our diet mainly as sucrose which is added to drinks and many prepared foods such as jam, biscuits and cakes. Glucose and fructose are found naturally in fruits and some vegetables. Glycogen is carbohydrate found in the liver and muscles, cellulose in the cell wall of all plant tissue is a carbohydrate. It is important in our diet as fibre which helps to maintain a healthy digestive system, formerly the name carbohydrate was used in chemistry for any compound with the formula Cm n
19.
Salt
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Salt is present in vast quantities in seawater, where it is the main mineral constituent. The open ocean has about 35 grams of solids per litre, Salt is essential for life in general, and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes. The tissues of animals contain larger quantities of salt than do plant tissues, Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous food seasonings, and salting is an important method of food preservation. Salt was also prized by the ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Hittites, Egyptians, and the Indians. Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across the Mediterranean Sea, along specially built salt roads, the scarcity and universal need for salt has led nations to go to war over it and use it to raise tax revenues. Salt is used in ceremonies and has other cultural significance. Salt is processed from salt mines, or by the evaporation of seawater or mineral-rich spring water in shallow pools. Its major industrial products are caustic soda and chlorine, and is used in industrial processes including the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride, plastics, paper pulp. Of the annual production of around two hundred million tonnes of salt, only about 6% is used for human consumption. Other uses include water conditioning processes, de-icing highways, and agricultural use, edible salt is sold in forms such as sea salt and table salt which usually contains an anti-caking agent and may be iodised to prevent iodine deficiency. As well as its use in cooking and at the table, sodium is an essential nutrient for human health via its role as an electrolyte and osmotic solute. Excessive salt consumption can increase the risk of diseases, such as hypertension, in children. Such health effects of salt have long been studied, accordingly, numerous world health associations and experts in developed countries recommend reducing consumption of popular salty foods. The World Health Organization recommends that adults should consume less than 2,000 mg of sodium, humans have always tended to build communities either around sources of salt, or where they can trade for it. All through history the availability of salt has been pivotal to civilization, the word salary comes from the Latin word for salt because the Roman Legions were sometimes paid in salt. The Natron Valley was a key region that supported the Egyptian Empire to its north, because it supplied it with a kind of salt that came to be called by its name, natron. Even before this, what is now thought to have been the first city in Europe is Solnitsata, in Bulgaria, even the name Solnisata means salt works. A very ancient salt-works operation has been discovered at the Poiana Slatinei archaeological site next to a spring in Lunca, Neamț County
20.
Mouthfeel
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Mouthfeel is a products physical and chemical interaction in the mouth, an aspect of food rheology. It is used in areas related to the testing and evaluating of foodstuffs, such as wine-tasting. It is evaluated from initial perception on the palate, to first bite, through mastication to swallowing, in wine-tasting, for example, mouthfeel is usually used with a modifier to the general sensation of the wine in the mouth. Some people, however, use the traditional term texture, mouthfeel is often related to a products water activity, hard or crisp products having lower water activities and soft products having intermediate to high water activities. Cohesiveness, Degree to which the sample deforms before rupturing when biting with molars, density, Compactness of cross section of the sample after biting completely through with the molars. Dryness, Degree to which the sample feels dry in the mouth, fracturability, Force with which the sample crumbles, cracks or shatters. Fracturability encompasses crumbliness, crispiness, crunchiness and brittleness, graininess, Degree to which a sample contains small grainy particles. Gumminess, Energy required to disintegrate a semi-solid food to a ready for swallowing. Hardness, Force required to deform the product to given distance, heaviness, Weight of product perceived when first placed on tongue. Moisture absorption, Amount of saliva absorbed by product, moisture release, Amount of wetness/juiciness released from sample. Mouthcoating, Type and degree of coating in the mouth after mastication, roughness, Degree of abrasiveness of products surface perceived by the tongue. Slipperiness, Degree to which the product slides over the tongue, smoothness, Absence of any particles, lumps, bumps, etc. in the product. Uniformity, Degree to which the sample is even throughout, homogeneity, uniformity of Bite, Evenness of force through bite. Uniformity of Chew, Degree to which the characteristics of the product are even throughout mastication. Viscosity, Force required to draw a liquid from a spoon over the tongue, wetness, Amount of moisture perceived on products surface. Food Texture Umami Wine tasting Dollase, Jürgen, Geschmacksschule,2005 Tre Tori, Wiesbaden, german-language textbook by a renowned food critic covering some, but not all of the above mentionend properties/mouthfeelings. Effect of water activity on the sensory crispness and mechanical deformation of snack food products,46, 403–409 Snack Foods and Water Activity
21.
Viscosity
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The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by shear stress or tensile stress. For liquids, it corresponds to the concept of thickness, for example. Viscosity is a property of the fluid which opposes the motion between the two surfaces of the fluid in a fluid that are moving at different velocities. For a given velocity pattern, the stress required is proportional to the fluids viscosity, a fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal or inviscid fluid. Zero viscosity is observed only at low temperatures in superfluids. Otherwise, all fluids have positive viscosity, and are said to be viscous or viscid. A fluid with a high viscosity, such as pitch. The word viscosity is derived from the Latin viscum, meaning mistletoe, the dynamic viscosity of a fluid expresses its resistance to shearing flows, where adjacent layers move parallel to each other with different speeds. It can be defined through the situation known as a Couette flow. This fluid has to be homogeneous in the layer and at different shear stresses, if the speed of the top plate is small enough, the fluid particles will move parallel to it, and their speed will vary linearly from zero at the bottom to u at the top. Each layer of fluid will move faster than the one just below it, in particular, the fluid will apply on the top plate a force in the direction opposite to its motion, and an equal but opposite one to the bottom plate. An external force is required in order to keep the top plate moving at constant speed. The magnitude F of this force is found to be proportional to the u and the area A of each plate. The proportionality factor μ in this formula is the viscosity of the fluid, the ratio u/y is called the rate of shear deformation or shear velocity, and is the derivative of the fluid speed in the direction perpendicular to the plates. Isaac Newton expressed the forces by the differential equation τ = μ ∂ u ∂ y, where τ = F/A. This formula assumes that the flow is moving along parallel lines and this equation can be used where the velocity does not vary linearly with y, such as in fluid flowing through a pipe. Use of the Greek letter mu for the dynamic viscosity is common among mechanical and chemical engineers. However, the Greek letter eta is used by chemists, physicists
22.
Health effects of tobacco
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Health effects of tobacco are the effects that use of tobacco has on human health, and concern about health effects of tobacco has a long history. Research has focused primarily on cigarette tobacco smoking, in 1950, Richard Doll published research in the British Medical Journal showing a close link between smoking and lung cancer. Tobacco use is the single greatest cause of death globally. As many as half of people who use tobacco die from the results of this use, the World Health Organization estimates that each year tobacco causes about 6 million deaths with 600,000 of these occurring in non smokers due to second hand smoke. In the 20th century tobacco is estimated to have caused 100 million deaths, Tobacco use leads most commonly to diseases affecting the heart, liver and lungs. Smoking is a risk factor for heart attacks, strokes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. It also causes peripheral vascular disease and hypertension, the effects depend on the number of years that a person smokes and on how much the person smokes. Starting smoking earlier in life and smoking cigarettes higher in tar increases the risk of these diseases. Also, environmental tobacco smoke, or secondhand smoke, has shown to cause adverse health effects in people of all ages.4 to 3 times the chance of sudden infant death syndrome. Incidence of erectile dysfunction is approximately 85 percent higher in smokers compared to non-smokers. Several countries have taken measures to control the consumption of tobacco with usage, additionally smoke free laws are useful, do not have negative economic effects for restaurants or bars and help people who smoke to quit. Taxing tobacco products in an effort to increase the price is also effective, Tobacco smoke contains more than fifty chemicals that cause cancer. Tobacco also contains nicotine, which is an addictive psychoactive drug. When tobacco is smoked, nicotine causes physical and psychological dependency, overall life expectancy is also reduced in long term smokers, with estimates ranging from 10 to 17.9. About one half of long term male smokers will die of illness due to smoking, the association of smoking with lung cancer is strongest, both in the public perception and etiologically. Among male smokers, the risk of developing lung cancer is 17. 2%, among female smokers. This risk is lower in nonsmokers,1. 3% in men and 1. 4% in women. Historically, lung cancer was considered to be a rare disease prior to World War I and was perceived as something most physicians would never see during their career, with the postwar rise in popularity of cigarette smoking came a virtual epidemic of lung cancer
23.
Egg carton
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An egg carton is a carton designed for carrying and transporting whole eggs. These cartons have a form in which each dimple accommodates an individual egg. This structure helps protect eggs against stresses exerted during transportation and storage by absorbing a lot of shock, an egg crate mattress, while following a similar form, is not used for egg transport. It is a light weight camping mattress which makes use of the structure to distribute. This foam structure is also used in packaging to dampen impact of sensitive material during travel. Egg crate foam is used in shipping boxes and carrying cases to protect transported items, similarly, acoustic foam tiles which help in sound proofing and the limitation of acoustic resonance have a similar form to egg crates. Egg crate mattresses are used as an inexpensive but poor substitute to acoustic foam which must meet noise reduction. Before its invention, eggs were carried in egg baskets, a predecessor to the modern egg box was invented by Thomas Peter Bethell of Liverpool in 1906 and marketed as the Raylite Egg Box. He created frames of interlocking strips of cardboard and these frames were themselves packed in cardboard or wooden boxes for transport by road or rail. A version of the egg carton was patented in 1921 by Morris Koppelman, the egg carton was patented in 1969 by United Industrial Syndicate in Maine. UIS was a division of The Portland Company, the three inventors listed on the filing are Walter H. Howarth, Gerald A. Snow, and Harold A. Doughty. Unlike many products, trademarks and advertisements for egg brands are usually printed on the container itself rather than on a separate container. This single-layer, distinctive packaging distinguishes egg cartons from different producers or quality on the retail shelf. Standard egg cartons have room for 12 eggs, but they can come in a variety of sizes, plastic egg trays are also used by egg processors to wash and sanitize eggs. A cardboard sleeve or additional trays are used to protect eggs when using a tray format,2030 Hiway 16 Magazine about the invention of the egg carton at the Wayback Machine Canada Patent Page
24.
Better Business Bureau
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The BBB serves as an intermediary between consumers and businesses, handling over 885,000 consumer disputes against businesses in 2013, of which close to 78% were settled. Nearly 400,000 local businesses in North America support the BBB, the BBB prospects successfully vetted businesses to become dues-paying Accredited Businesses that pledge and continue to adhere to the BBB Code of Business Practices. In return, the BBB allows Accredited Businesses in good standing to use its logo in marketing materials. The Better Business Bureau is not affiliated with any governmental agency, Businesses that affiliate with the BBB and adhere to its standards do so through industry self-regulation. To avoid bias, the BBBs policy is to refrain from recommending or endorsing any specific business, the organization has been the subject of controversy, particularly related to its alleged practice of giving higher ratings to businesses that pay a membership fee. The BBB disputes the claim that payment from businesses is required for them to receive an A rating, the 112 BBBs are independently governed by their own boards of directors and must meet international BBB standards, which are monitored by the CBBB. The CBBB is governed by leaders of local BBBs, as well as by senior executives from major corporations, each BBB is run separately and is chiefly funded by its Accredited Businesses, who often serve on its board. A study by a school dean at Marquette University found that ninety percent of BBB board members are from business. Businesses that move from one BBB jurisdiction to another may need to apply for BBB Accreditation in the new BBB location unless they have a system-wide accreditation, CBBB receives membership dues from BBBs, which amounted to $4,884,226.00 in 2009. The organizations dispute resolution procedures are established by the Council of the Better Business Bureaus, usually, disputes can be resolved through mediation, when appropriate, low- or no‑cost arbitration may also be offered and provided through the BBB. The BBB acts as a party when providing dispute resolution services. Complaints about the practice of professions like medicine and law are not handled by the BBB and are referred to associations regulating those professions. The BBB does not handle complaints that have gone to court or are in the process of going to court as the complaint is already being handled by an alternative entity. If a BBB receives a consumer dispute, the BBB contacts the business in question, a business does not need to be a member of the BBB to use its mediation services. BBB Accreditation, or membership, is optional for a business to accept. Past complaints allege that the BBB compiles scores based upon their ability to collect their money from businesses, the National Advertising Division of the Council of Better Business Bureaus in the United States and Canada reviews factual claims made in national advertisements. They offer alternative dispute resolution services for advertisers, typically reaching a conclusion within 90 days of a filing, until 2008, the BBB rated companies satisfactory or unsatisfactory. On January 1,2009, the BBB moved to a new system based on a school-style A+– F rating system, the 16 factors have been posted on each business review since the programs inception and the details on the points awarded as well
25.
Animal husbandry
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Animal husbandry is the management and care of farm animals by human beings, in which genetic qualities and behavior, considered to be advantageous to humans, are further developed. The term can refer to the practice of breeding and raising livestock to promote desirable traits in animals for utility, sport, pleasure. Animal husbandry has been practiced for thousands of years since the first domestication of animals, selective breeding for desired traits was first established as a scientific practice by Robert Bakewell during the British Agricultural Revolution in the 18th century. One of his most important breeding programs was with sheep, using native stock, he was able to quickly select for large, yet fine-boned sheep, with long, lustrous wool. The Lincoln Longwool was improved by Bakewell and in turn the Lincoln was used to develop the subsequent breed, named the New Leicester and it was hornless and had a square, meaty body with straight top lines. These sheep were exported widely and have contributed to modern breeds. Under his influence, English farmers began to breed cattle for use primarily as beef for consumption -, long-horned heifers were crossed with the Westmoreland bull to eventually create the Dishley Longhorn. Over the following decades, farm animals increased dramatically in size, in 1700, the average weight of a bull sold for slaughter was 370 pounds. By 1786, that weight had more than doubled to 840 pounds, in more modern times herds are tended on horses, all-terrain vehicles, motorbikes, four-wheel drive vehicles, and helicopters, depending on the terrain and livestock concerned. Today, herd managers often oversee thousands of animals and many staff, farms, stations and ranches may employ breeders, herd health specialists, feeders, and milkers to help care for the animals. Techniques such as artificial insemination and embryo transfer are used today, not only as methods to guarantee that females breed regularly. This may be done by transplanting embryos from high-quality females into lower-quality surrogate mothers - freeing up the higher-quality mother to be reimpregnated and this practice vastly increases the number of offspring which may be produced by a small selection of the best quality parent animals. On one hand, this improves the ability of the animals to feed to meat, milk, or fiber more efficiently. On the other, it decreases genetic diversity, increasing the severity of disease outbreaks among other risks. The semi-natural, unfertilized pastures formed by traditional methods in Europe, were managed and maintained by the grazing and mowing of livestock. Animal agriculture is responsible for 20%-33% of all fresh water consumption in the world today, livestock or livestock feed occupies 1/3 of the earth’s ice-free land. Animal agriculture is the cause of species extinction, ocean dead zones, water pollution. Animal agriculture contributes to species extinction in many ways, the widespread use of pesticides, herbicides and chemical fertilizers used in the production of feed crops often interferes with the reproductive systems of animals and poison waterways
26.
Rice Krispies
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Rice Krispies is a breakfast cereal marketed by Kelloggs in 1927 and released to the public in 1928. Rice Krispies are made of crisped rice, and expand forming very thin and hollowed out walls that are crunchy, when milk is added to the cereal the walls tend to collapse, creating the famous Snap, crackle and pop sounds. Rice Krispies cereal is known and popular with a long advertising history, with the elfin cartoon characters Snap, Crackle. In 1963, The Rolling Stones recorded a song for a Rice Krispies television advertisement. According to Kelloggs, the used in the US version of the cereal is grown in the states of Louisiana. Kellogg Company was found by the Federal Trade Commission to be making unsubstantiated, claims made by the company included now helps support your childs immunity and has been improved to include antioxidants and nutrients that your family needs to help them stay healthy. The FTC had previously found fault with Kelloggs claims that Frosted Mini-Wheats cereal improved kids attentiveness by nearly 20%, the names of other products within the Rice Krispies family vary depending on where they are sold, Cocoa Krispies, a chocolate flavored version. Frosted Rice Krispies, Rice Krispies with Vanilla Flavor, sold in Canada Chocolate and Vanilla Rice Krispies, introduced in 2007, Rice Krispies Treats Cereal, first introduced in 1993, contains bunches of krispies fused together by a marshmallow coating. Strawberry Pops, sold in South Africa, many generic versions of Rice Krispies have been produced by other manufacturers under many different names. Rice Krispies with dehydrated miniature marshmallows were sold briefly in the U. S. despite surviving longer in Canada than the U. S. they were finally discontinued altogether during the late 1990s. Rice Krispies with strawberry flavor included 1983s Strawberry Krispies and 1997s Strawberry Rice Krispies, banana-flavored Rice Krispies, including Banana Bubbles and Banana Krispies, have also been sold in the past. An extremely sweet, artificially-colored cereal known as Razzle Dazzle Rice Krispies was sold from late 1997-1999, a cereal flavored with apple and cinnamon was sold in the early 1990s. Also discontinued are Rice Krispies with berry flavors, including Berry Krispies, in the late 1990s, Rice Krispies with honey, Honey Rice Krispies, was sold in the UK and Canada for a short period of time. In the late 1990s, Kelloggs sold Halloween versions of their regular cereal and this included Halloween Rice Krispies which featured a variety of orange krispies. In 1939, Kelloggs employee Mildred Day concocted and published a recipe for a Camp Fire Girls bake sale consisting of Rice Krispies, melted marshmallows and it has remained a very popular snack dubbed Rice Krispies Treats. S. In Australia, Rice Bubbles are found in a well-known homemade sweet and this is often found at fetes and consists of Rice Bubbles, copha and cocoa, amongst other things. In the UK, a treat is made of Rice Krispies. White Christmas is another Australian sweet made with rice bubbles, milk powder, copha, in addition to the products above, the Rice Krispies branding has also been associated with other products containing Rice Krispies
27.
Serving suggestion
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Serving suggestion is a disclaimer used on food packaging. The phrase is used as legal fine print with a picture of the product, the picture attempts to portray the manufacturers food in the most favorable or appetizing way possible, sometimes including other foods that the package does not contain. The serving suggestion may portray the serving size of the food used, as a disclaimer a serving suggestion also serves to remove any legal obligation on the part of the manufacturer to provide the other items pictured with their product. In Ireland this is an illegal practice, when used with a cooking recipe, it is a recommendation from the author as a way to serve the dish
28.
Hamburger
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A hamburger or burger is a sandwich consisting of one or more cooked patties of ground meat, usually beef, placed inside a sliced bread roll or bun. The patty may be pan fried, barbecued, or flame broiled, a hamburger topped with a slice of cheese is called cheeseburger. The term burger can also be applied to the meat patty on its own, especially in the UK where the term patty is rarely used, or the term can even refer simply to ground beef. The term may be prefixed with the type of meat or meat substitute used, as in turkey burger, bison burger, Hamburgers are sold at fast-food restaurants, diners, and specialty and high-end restaurants. There are many international and regional variations of the hamburger, the term hamburger originally derives from Hamburg, Germanys second-largest city. In German, Burg means castle, fortified settlement or fortified refuge and is a component of place names. The first element of the name is perhaps from Old High German hamma, referring to a bend in a river, or Middle High German hamme, referring to an enclosed area of pastureland. Hamburger in German is the demonym of Hamburg, similar to frankfurter and wiener, names for other meat-based foods and demonyms of the cities of Frankfurt and Vienna, there have been many claims about the origin of the hamburger, but the origins remain unclear. The popular book The Art of Cookery made Plain and Easy by Hannah Glasse included a recipe in 1758 as Hamburgh sausage, Hamburg steak is reported to have been served between two pieces of bread on the Hamburg America Line, which began operations in 1847. Each of these may mark the invention of the Hamburger, there is a reference to a Hamburg steak as early as 1884 in the Boston Journal. There have been claims by Charlie Nagreen, Frank and Charles Menches, Oscar Weber Bilby. White Castle traces the origin of the hamburger to Hamburg, Germany with its invention by Otto Kuase. However, it gained recognition at the 1904 St. Louis Worlds Fair when the New York Tribune referred to the hamburger as the innovation of a food vendor on the pike. No conclusive argument has ever ended the dispute over invention, an article from ABC News sums up, One problem is that there is little written history. Another issue is that the spread of the burger happened largely at the Worlds Fair, from vendors that came. And it is possible that more than one person came up with the idea at the same time in different parts of the country. Louis Lassen of Louis Lunch, a lunch wagon in New Haven, Connecticut, is said to have sold the first hamburger. A customer ordered a hot meal and Louis was out of steaks
29.
Food coloring
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Food coloring, or color additive, is any dye, pigment or substance that imparts color when it is added to food or drink. They come in many forms consisting of liquids, powders, gels, Food coloring is used both in commercial food production and in domestic cooking. Food colorants are used in a variety of non-food applications including cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, home craft projects. People associate certain colors with certain flavors, and the color of food can influence the flavor in anything from candy to wine. During the Middle Ages, the economy in the European countries was based on agriculture, under feudalism, aesthetic aspects were not considered, at least not by the vast majority of the generally very poor population. This situation changed with urbanization at the beginning of the Modern Age, one of the very first food laws, created in Augsburg, Germany, in 1531, concerned spices or colorants and required saffron counterfeiters to be burned. With the onset of the revolution, people became dependent on foods produced by others. These new urban dwellers demanded food at low cost, analytical chemistry was still primitive and regulations few. Copper arsenite was used to recolor used tea leaves for resale and it also caused two deaths when used to color a dessert in 1860. Again his tea if mixed or green, he would not escape without the administration of a little Prussian blue. Many color additives had never tested for toxicity or other adverse effects. Historical records show that injuries, even deaths, resulted from tainted colorants, in 1851, about 200 people were poisoned in England,17 of them fatally, directly as a result of eating adulterated lozenges. Originally, these were dubbed coal-tar colors because the materials were obtained from bituminous coal. Many synthesized dyes were easier and less costly to produce and were superior in coloring properties when compared to naturally derived alternatives, some synthetic food colorants are diazo dyes. Diazo dyes are prepared by coupling of a compound with a second aromatic hydrocarbons. The resulting compounds contain conjugated systems that absorb light in the visible parts of the spectrum. The attractiveness of the synthetic dyes is that their color, lipophilicity, the color of the dyes can be controlled by selecting the number of azo-groups and various substituents. Yellow shades are often achieved by using acetoacetanilide, Red colors are often azo compounds
30.
Antioxidant
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An antioxidant is a molecule that inhibits the oxidation of other molecules. Oxidation is a reaction that can produce free radicals, leading to chain reactions that may damage cells. Antioxidants such as thiols or ascorbic acid terminate these chain reactions, supplementation with selenium or vitamin E does not reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Oxidative stress can be considered as either a cause or consequence of some diseases, industrial antioxidants have diverse uses, such as food and cosmetics preservatives and inhibitors of rubber or gasoline deterioration. Although certain levels of antioxidant vitamins in the diet are required for good health, moreover, if they are actually beneficial, it is unknown which antioxidant are needed from the diet and in what amounts beyond typical dietary intake. Some authors dispute the hypothesis that antioxidant vitamins could prevent chronic diseases, polyphenols, which often have antioxidant properties in vitro, are not necessarily antioxidants in vivo due to extensive metabolism. In many polyphenols, the group acts as electron acceptor and is therefore responsible for the antioxidant activity. However, this catechol group undergoes extensive metabolism upon uptake in the body, for example by catechol-O-methyl transferase. Many polyphenols may have non-antioxidant roles in minute concentrations that affect cell-to-cell signaling, receptor sensitivity, tirilazad is an antioxidant steroid derivative that inhibits the lipid peroxidation that is believed to play a key role in neuronal death in stroke and head injury. It demonstrated activity in animal models of stroke, but human trials demonstrated no effect on mortality or other outcomes in subarachnoid haemorrhage, similarly, the designed antioxidant NXY-059 exhibited efficacy in animal models, but failed to improve stroke outcomes in a clinical trial. As of November 2014, other antioxidants are being studied as potential neuroprotectants, common pharmaceuticals with antioxidant properties may interfere with the efficacy of certain anticancer medication and radiation. During exercise, oxygen consumption can increase by a factor of more than 10, however, no benefits for physical performance to athletes are seen with vitamin E supplementation and 6 weeks of vitamin E supplementation had no effect on muscle damage in ultramarathon runners. Some research suggests that supplementation with amounts as high as 1000 mg of vitamin C inhibits recovery, other studies indicated that antioxidant supplementation may attenuate the cardiovascular benefits of exercise. Relatively strong reducing acids can have antinutrient effects by binding to dietary minerals such as iron and zinc in the gastrointestinal tract, notable examples are oxalic acid, tannins and phytic acid, which are high in plant-based diets. Calcium and iron deficiencies are not uncommon in diets in developing countries where meat is eaten and there is high consumption of phytic acid from beans. Nonpolar antioxidants such as major component of oil of cloves—have toxicity limits that can be exceeded with the misuse of undiluted essential oils. Toxicity associated with high doses of water-soluble antioxidants such as ascorbic acid are less of a concern, more seriously, very high doses of some antioxidants may have harmful long-term effects. The beta-carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial study of cancer patients found that smokers given supplements containing beta-carotene
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Phytochemical
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Phytochemicals are chemical compounds produced by plants, generally to help them thrive or thwart competitors, predators, or pathogens. The name comes from the Greek word phyto, meaning plant, some phytochemicals have been used as poisons and others as traditional medicine. As a term, phytochemicals is generally used to describe plant compounds that are under research with unestablished effects on health and are not scientifically defined as essential nutrients, plants are composed entirely of chemicals of various kinds. Phytochemicals are chemicals produced by plants through primary or secondary metabolism and they generally have biological activity in the plant host and play a role in plant growth or defense against competitors, pathogens, or predators. Phytochemicals generally are regarded as research compounds rather than essential nutrients because proof of their health effects has not been established yet. Phytochemicals under research can be classified into categories, such as carotenoids and polyphenols, which include phenolic acids, flavonoids. Flavonoids can be divided into groups based on their similar chemical structure, such as anthocyanins, flavones, flavanones, and isoflavones. Flavanols further are classified as catechins, epicatechins, and proanthocyanidins, without specific knowledge of their cellular actions or mechanisms, phytochemicals have been used as poison and in traditional medicine. The tropane alkaloids of A. belladonna were used as poisons, as of 2017, the biological activities for most phytochemicals are unknown or poorly understood, in isolation or as part of foods. Phytochemicals with established roles in the body are classified as essential nutrients, some phytochemicals are known phytotoxins that are toxic to humans, for example aristolochic acid is carcinogenic at low doses. Some phytochemicals are antinutrients that interfere with the absorption of nutrients, others, such as some polyphenols and flavonoids, may be pro-oxidants in high ingested amounts. Phytochemical supplements are recommended by health authorities for improving health nor approved by regulatory agencies for health claims on product labels. For example, systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses indicate weak or no evidence for phytochemicals from plant food consumption having an effect on breast, lung, Phytochemicals in freshly harvested plant foods may be degraded by processing techniques, including cooking. The main cause of loss from cooking is thermal decomposition. Food processing techniques like mechanical processing can also free carotenoids and other phytochemicals from the food matrix, an Evidence – Based Approach to Dietary Phytochemicals. Rosa, L. A. de la / Alvarez-Parrilla, E. / González-Aguilar, fruit and Vegetable Phytochemicals, Chemistry, Nutritional Value and Stability. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases – United States Department of Agriculture
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Radioactive decay
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A material containing such unstable nuclei is considered radioactive. Certain highly excited short-lived nuclear states can decay through neutron emission, or more rarely, however, for a collection of atoms, the collections expected decay rate is characterized in terms of their measured decay constants or half-lives. This is the basis of radiometric dating, the half-lives of radioactive atoms have no known upper limit, spanning a time range of over 55 orders of magnitude, from nearly instantaneous to far longer than the age of the universe. A radioactive nucleus with spin can have no defined orientation. If there are multiple particles produced during a single decay, as in decay, their relative angular distribution. Such a parent process could be a previous decay, or a nuclear reaction, the decaying nucleus is called the parent radionuclide, and the process produces at least one daughter nuclide. Except for gamma decay or internal conversion from an excited state. When the number of changes, an atom of a different chemical element is created. The first decay processes to be discovered were alpha decay, beta decay, alpha decay occurs when the nucleus ejects an alpha particle. This is the most common process of emitting nucleons, but highly excited nuclei can eject single nucleons, or in the case of cluster decay, specific light nuclei of other elements. Beta decay occurs when the nucleus emits an electron or positron, the nucleus may capture an orbiting electron, causing a proton to convert into a neutron in a process called electron capture. All of these result in a well-defined nuclear transmutation. By contrast, there are radioactive decay processes that do not result in a nuclear transmutation, another type of radioactive decay results in products that vary, appearing as two or more fragments of the original nucleus with a range of possible masses. For a summary table showing the number of stable and radioactive nuclides in each category, there are 29 naturally occurring chemical elements on Earth that are radioactive. They are those that contain 34 radionuclides that date before the time of formation of the solar system, well-known examples are uranium and thorium, but also included are naturally occurring long-lived radioisotopes, such as potassium-40. Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by the French scientist Henri Becquerel and these materials glow in the dark after exposure to light, and he suspected that the glow produced in cathode ray tubes by X-rays might be associated with phosphorescence. He wrapped a photographic plate in black paper and placed various phosphorescent salts on it, all results were negative until he used uranium salts. The uranium salts caused a blackening of the plate in spite of the plate being wrapped in black paper and these radiations were given the name Becquerel Rays
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Solar wind
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The solar wind is a stream of charged particles released from the upper atmosphere of the Sun. This plasma consists of electrons, protons and alpha particles with thermal energies between 1.5 and 10 keV. Embedded within the plasma is the interplanetary magnetic field. The solar wind varies in density, temperature and speed over time and its particles can escape the Suns gravity because of their high energy resulting from the high temperature of the corona, which in turn is a result of the coronal magnetic field. At a distance of more than a few radii from the sun. The flow of the wind is no longer supersonic at the termination shock. The Voyager 2 spacecraft crossed the shock more than five times between 30 August and 10 December 2007, Voyager 2 crossed the shock about a billion kilometers closer to the Sun than the 13.5 billion kilometer distance where Voyager 1 came upon the termination shock. The spacecraft moved outward through the shock into the heliosheath. Other related phenomena include the aurora, the tails of comets that always point away from the Sun. The existence of flowing outward from the Sun to the Earth was first suggested by British astronomer Richard C. In 1859, Carrington and Richard Hodgson independently made the first observation of what would later be called a solar flare, george FitzGerald later suggested that matter was being regularly accelerated away from the Sun and was reaching the Earth after several days. In 1910 British astrophysicist Arthur Eddington essentially suggested the existence of the wind, without naming it. The idea never caught on even though Eddington had also made a similar suggestion at a Royal Institution address the previous year. In the latter case, he postulated that the material consisted of electrons while in his study of Comet Morehouse he supposed them to be ions. The first person to suggest that the material consisted of both ions and electrons was Kristian Birkeland. His geomagnetic surveys showed that activity was nearly uninterrupted. In 1916, Birkeland proposed that, From a physical point of view it is most probable that solar rays are neither exclusively negative nor positive rays, in other words, the solar wind consists of both negative electrons and positive ions. Three years later in 1919, Frederick Lindemann also suggested that particles of both polarities, protons as well as electrons, come from the Sun
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Chemical substance
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A chemical substance is a form of matter that has constant chemical composition and characteristic properties. It cannot be separated into components by physical methods, i. e. without breaking chemical bonds. Chemical substances can be chemical elements, chemical compounds, ions or alloys, Chemical substances are often called pure to set them apart from mixtures. A common example of a substance is pure water, it has the same properties. Other chemical substances commonly encountered in pure form are diamond, gold, table salt, however, in practice, no substance is entirely pure, and chemical purity is specified according to the intended use of the chemical. Chemical substances exist as solids, liquids, gases, or plasma, Chemical substances may be combined or converted to others by means of chemical reactions. Forms of energy, such as light and heat, are not matter, a chemical substance may well be defined as any material with a definite chemical composition in an introductory general chemistry textbook. According to this definition a chemical substance can either be a chemical element or a pure chemical compound. But, there are exceptions to this definition, a substance can also be defined as a form of matter that has both definite composition and distinct properties. The chemical substance index published by CAS also includes several alloys of uncertain composition, in geology, substances of uniform composition are called minerals, while physical mixtures of several minerals are defined as rocks. Many minerals, however, mutually dissolve into solid solutions, such that a rock is a uniform substance despite being a mixture in stoichiometric terms. Feldspars are an example, anorthoclase is an alkali aluminium silicate. In law, chemical substances may include both pure substances and mixtures with a composition or manufacturing process. For example, the EU regulation REACH defines monoconstituent substances, multiconstituent substances and substances of unknown or variable composition, the latter two consist of multiple chemical substances, however, their identity can be established either by direct chemical analysis or reference to a single manufacturing process. For example, charcoal is a complex, partially polymeric mixture that can be defined by its manufacturing process. Therefore, although the chemical identity is unknown, identification can be made to a sufficient accuracy. The CAS index also includes mixtures, polymers almost always appear as mixtures of molecules of multiple molar masses, each of which could be considered a separate chemical substance. However, the polymer may be defined by a precursor or reaction
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Contract
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A contract is a voluntary arrangement between two or more parties that is enforceable by law as a binding legal agreement. Contract is a branch of the law of obligations in jurisdictions of the civil law tradition, Contract law concerns the rights and duties that arise from agreements. A contract arises when the parties agree that there is an agreement, formation of a contract generally requires an offer, acceptance, consideration, and a mutual intent to be bound. Each party to a contract must have capacity to enter the agreement, minors, intoxicated persons, and those under a mental affliction may have insufficient capacity to enter a contract. Some types of contracts may require formalities, such as a memorialization in writing, at common law, the elements of a contract are offer, acceptance, intention to create legal relations, and consideration. Not all agreements are necessarily contractual, as the parties generally must be deemed to have an intention to be legally bound, a so-called gentlemens agreement is one which is not intended to be legally enforceable, and which is binding in honour only. In order for a contract to be formed, the parties must reach mutual assent and this is typically reached through offer and an acceptance which does not vary the offers terms, which is known as the mirror image rule. An offer is a statement of the offerors willingness to be bound should certain conditions be met. If a purported acceptance does vary the terms of an offer, it is not an acceptance but a counteroffer and, therefore, the Uniform Commercial Code disposes of the mirror image rule in §2-207, although the UCC only governs transactions in goods in the USA. As a court cannot read minds, the intent of the parties is interpreted objectively from the perspective of a reasonable person and it is important to note that where an offer specifies a particular mode of acceptance, only an acceptance communicated via that method will be valid. Contracts may be bilateral or unilateral, a bilateral contract is an agreement in which each of the parties to the contract makes a promise or set of promises to each other. For example, in a contract for the sale of a home, less common are unilateral contracts in which one party makes a promise, but the other side does not promise anything. In these cases, those accepting the offer are not required to communicate their acceptance to the offeror, in a reward contract, for example, a person who has lost a dog could promise a reward if the dog is found, through publication or orally. The payment could be conditioned on the dog being returned alive. Those who learn of the reward are not required to search for the dog, but if someone finds the dog and delivers it, the High Court of Australia stated that the term unilateral contract is unscientific and misleading. In certain circumstances, a contract may be created. A contract is implied in fact if the circumstances imply that parties have reached an agreement even though they have not done so expressly, quantum meruit claims are an example. Carbolic, a firm, advertised a smoke ball marketed as a wonder drug that would, according to the instructions
