1.
History of Australia
–
The history of Australia refers to the history of the area and people of the Commonwealth of Australia and its preceding Indigenous and colonial societies. Aboriginal Australians are believed to have first arrived on the Australian mainland by sea from Maritime Southeast Asia between 40,000 and 70,000 years ago, the artistic, musical and spiritual traditions they established are among the longest surviving such traditions in human history. The first known landing in Australia by Europeans was by Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon in 1606, twenty-nine other Dutch navigators explored the western and southern coasts in the 17th century, and dubbed the continent New Holland. Macassan trepangers visited Australias northern coasts after 1720, possibly earlier, a First Fleet of British ships arrived at Botany Bay in January 1788 to establish a penal colony. In the century that followed, the British established other colonies on the continent, Indigenous Australians were greatly weakened and their numbers diminished by introduced diseases and conflict with the colonists during this period. Gold rushes and agricultural industries brought prosperity, autonomous Parliamentary democracies began to be established throughout the six British colonies from the mid-19th century. The colonies voted by referendum to unite in a federation in 1901, Australia fought on the side of Britain in the two world wars and became a long-standing ally of the United States when threatened by Imperial Japan during World War II. Trade with Asia increased and an immigration program received more than 6.5 million migrants from every continent. The ancestors of Indigenous Australians are believed to have arrived in Australia 40,000 to 60,000 years ago and they developed a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, established enduring spiritual and artistic traditions and used stone technologies. There is considerable discussion as to the route taken by the first colonisers. People appear to have arrived by sea during a period of glaciation, the journey still required sea travel however, making them amongst the worlds earlier mariners. Given that the likely landfall regions have been under around 50 metres of water for the last 15,000 years, the earliest known human remains were found at Lake Mungo, a dry lake in the southwest of New South Wales. Remains found at Mungo suggest one of the worlds oldest known cremations, According to Australian Aboriginal mythology and the animist framework developed in Aboriginal Australia, the Dreaming is a sacred era in which ancestral totemic spirit beings formed The Creation. The Dreaming established the laws and structures of society and the ceremonies performed to ensure continuity of life and it remains a prominent feature of Australian Aboriginal art. Aboriginal art is believed to be the oldest continuing tradition of art in the world, evidence of Aboriginal art can be traced back at least 30,000 years and is found throughout Australia. In terms of age and abundance, cave art in Australia is comparable to that of Lascaux, manning Clark wrote that the ancestors of the Aborigines were slow to reach Tasmania, probably owing to an ice barrier existing across the South East of the continent. The Aborigines, he noted, did not develop agriculture, probably owing to a lack of seed bearing plants, but trepang fisherman did reach the north coast, which they called Marege or land of the trepang. For centuries, Makassan trade flourished with Aborigines on Australias north coast, the greatest population density for Aborigines developed in the southern and eastern regions, the River Murray valley in particular
History of Australia
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Rock painting at Ubirr in
Kakadu National Park. Evidence of
Aboriginal art in Australia can be traced back some 30,000 years.
History of Australia
History of Australia
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Kolaia man wearing a headdress worn in a fire ceremony, Forrest River, Western Australia.
Aboriginal Australian religious practices associated with the
Dreamtime have been practised for tens of thousands of years.
History of Australia
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A Luritja man demonstrating method of attack with
boomerang under cover of shield (1920).
2.
Prehistory of Australia
–
This period is estimated to have lasted between 40,000 and 60,000 years. This era is referred as prehistory rather than history because there are no remaining records of human events before 1788. There is considerable discussion among archeologists as to the route taken by the first migrants to Australia, migration took place during the closing stages of the Pleistocene, when sea levels were much lower than they are today. Repeated episodes of extended glaciation during the Pleistocene epoch resulted in decreases of sea levels by more than 100 metres in Australasia, people appear to have arrived by sea during a period of glaciation, when New Guinea and Tasmania were joined to the continent of Australia. Nevertheless, the sea presented a major obstacle so it is theorised that these ancestral people reached Australia by island hopping. One follows a chain between Sulawesi and New Guinea and the other reaches North Western Australia via Timor. Rupert Gerritsen has suggested a theory, involving accidental colonization as a result of tsunamis. The journey still required sea travel however, making them amongst the worlds earlier mariners, given that the likely landfall regions have been under around 50 metres of water for the last 15,000 years, it is unlikely that the timing will ever be established with certainty. The minimum widely accepted timeframe for the arrival of humans in Australia is placed at least 40,000 years ago, many sites dating from this time period have been excavated. In Arnhem Land the Malakunanja II rock shelter has been dated to around 55,000 years old, radiocarbon dating suggests that they lived in and around Sydney for at least 30,000 years. In an archaeological dig in Parramatta, Western Sydney, it was found that the Aboriginals used charcoal, stone tools and possible ancient campfires. Near Penrith, a far suburb of Sydney, numerous Aboriginal stone tools were found in Cranebrook Terraces gravel sediments having dates of 45,000 to 50,000 years BP. This would mean there was human settlement in Sydney earlier than thought. Archaeological evidence indicates human habitation at the upper Swan River, Western Australia by about 40,000 years ago, Tasmania, which was connected to the continent by a land bridge, was inhabited at least 30,000 years ago. Others have claimed that some sites are up to 60,000 years old, palynological evidence from South Eastern Australia suggests an increase in fire activity dating from around 120,000 years ago. This has been interpreted as representing human activity, but the dating of the evidence has been strongly challenged, charles Dortch has identified chert and calcrete flake stone tools, found at Rottnest Island in Western Australia, as possibly dating to at least 50,000 years ago. The sea level stabilised to near its present levels about 6000 years ago and it is unknown how many populations settled in Australia prior to European colonisation. Both trihybrid and single-origin hypotheses have received extensive discussion, human genomic differences are being studied to find possible answers, but there is still insufficient evidence to distinguish a wave invasion model from a single settlement one
Prehistory of Australia
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The map shows the probable extent of land and water at the time of the last glacial maximum and when the sea level was probably more than 150m lower than today; it illustrates the formidable sea obstacle that migrants would have faced.
Prehistory of Australia
Prehistory of Australia
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The shoreline of Tasmania and Victoria about 14,000 years ago, as sea levels were rising, showing some of the human archaeological sites
3.
European exploration of Australia
–
The European exploration of Australia was the exploration of Australia by Europeans or white explorers, encompassing several waves of seafarers and land explorers. While Australias territory never became an actual Dutch settlement or colony, Dutch navigators were the first to undisputedly explore, in the 17th century, the Dutch East India Companys navigators and explorers charted almost three-quarters of Australias coastline, except its east coast. The Dutch ship, Duyfken, led by Willem Janszoon, made the first documented European landing in Australia in 1606, explorers by land and sea continued to survey the continent for some years after settlement. Some writers have advanced the theory that the Portuguese were the first Europeans to sight Australia in the 1520s, a number of relics and remains have been interpreted as evidence that the Portuguese reached Australia. However, most historians do not accept this theory, and the interpretation of the Dieppe maps is highly contentious. The French navigator Binot Paulmier de Gonneville claimed to have landed at a land he described as east of the Cape of Good Hope in 1504, for some time it had been thought he discovered Australia, but the place he landed has now been shown to be Brazil. The Dutch East India Company was set up in 1602 and traded extensively with the islands now form parts of Indonesia. The first documented and undisputed European sighting of and landing on Australia was in late February or early March 1606, Janszoon charted the Australian coast and met with Aboriginal people. On 26 February 1606, Janszoon and his party made landfall near the town of Weipa and the Pennefather River. Janszoon proceeded down the coast for some 350 km and he stopped in some places, but was met by hostile natives and some of his men were killed. These events were recorded in Aboriginal oral history that has come down to the present day, here Janszoon decided to turn back, the place later being called Cape Keerweer, Dutch for turnabout. Later that year, De Quiros deputy Luís Vaez de Torres sailed to the north of Australia through Torres Strait, charting New Guineas southern coast, and possibly sighting Cape York in October 1606. In 1611 Hendrik Brouwer, working for VOC, discovered that sailing from Europe to Batavia was much quicker if the Roaring Forties were used. Up to that point, the Dutch had followed a route copied from Arab and Portuguese sailors who followed the coasts of Africa, Mauritius and Ceylon. The Brouwer Route involved sailing south from the Cape of Good Hope into the Roaring Forties then sailing east before turning north to Java using the South Indian Ocean Current, the Brouwer Route became compulsory for Dutch vessels in 1617. Most of these landfalls were unplanned, the first such landfall was in 1616, when Dirk Hartog, employed by VOC, reached land at Shark Bay off the coast of Western Australia. Finding nothing of interest, Hartog continued sailing northwards along this previously undiscovered coastline of Western Australia and he then left the coast and continued on to Batavia. He called Australia T Landt van dEendracht, after his ship, in 1619 Frederik de Houtman, in the VOC ship Dordrecht, and Jacob dEdel, in another VOC ship Amsterdam, sighted land on the Australian coast near present-day Perth which they called dEdelsland
European exploration of Australia
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Map of
William Dampier 's voyage.
European exploration of Australia
European exploration of Australia
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Voyages of
George Bass
European exploration of Australia
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Voyages of
Phillip Parker King
4.
Land exploration of Australia
–
Land exploration of Australia deals with the opening up of the interior of Australia to European settlement which occurred gradually throughout the colonial period, 1788–1900. A number of these explorers are very well known, such as Burke and Wills who are known for their failed attempt to cross the interior of Australia, as well as Hamilton Hume. The part of the range near Sydney is called the Blue Mountains, after numerous attempts to cross the mountains, Governor Philip Gidley King declared them to be impassable. Despite Kings pronouncement, some continued to try crossing the mountains. Gregory Blaxland was the first to lead an expedition to cross them in 1813, accompanied by William Lawson, William Wentworth. This trip paved the way for numerous small expeditions which were undertaken in the few years. On 13 November 1813 Governor Lachlan Macquarie sent Government Surveyor, George Evans, Evans generally followed Blaxlands route, reaching the end of their route on 26 November 1813 at a point Evans named Mount Blaxland. On 9 December he reached the site of present-day Bathurst, after the explorations that took seven weeks Governor Macquarie awarded Evans ₤100 and 1000 acres of land near Richmond in Van Diemens Land. Evans departed for Tasmania in 1814, in 1814, Governor Lachlan Macquarie approved an offer by William Cox to build a road crossing the Blue Mountains, from Emu Plains, the existing road terminus west of Sydney, to the Bathurst Plains. The first road to cross the Blue Mountains was 12 feet wide by 101 1⁄2 miles long, Governor Macquarie surveyed the finished road in April 1815, and as a reward Cox was awarded 2,000 acres of land near what is now Bathurst. Evans was back in New South Wales by 1815 to continue inland explorations, in 1815, Evans was the first colonial explorer to enter the Lachlan Valley, naming the area the Oxley Plains after his superior the Surveyor-General, John Oxley. He also discovered the Abercrombie and Belubula River Valleys and he was the first explorer through the areas that now include the towns of Boorowa and Cowra. This was the furthest west any Europeans had travelled into the country, on 1 June 1815 he was running short of provisions and returned to Bathurst where he arrived on 12 June. This journey opened the way for later explorations, mainly by John Oxley, Evans took part in some of Oxleys expeditions. In March 1817, Oxley was instructed to take charge of an expedition to explore and he left Sydney on 6 April with Evans, as second-in-command, and Allan Cunningham as botanist. Oxleys party reached Bathurst after a week, where they were detained by bad weather. They reached the Lachlan River on 25 April 1817 and commenced to follow its course, as the exploring party travelled westward the country surrounding the rising river was found to be increasingly inundated. On 12 May, west of the present township of Forbes, after retracing their route for a short distance they then proceeded in a south-westerly direction, intending to travel overland to the southern Australian coastline
Land exploration of Australia
–
Blaxland 's expedition to cross the
Blue Mountains
Land exploration of Australia
Land exploration of Australia
–
1817 and 1818 expeditions of
John Oxley
Land exploration of Australia
–
This 1830 map of Australia depicts a 'Great River' and a 'Supposed Sea' that both proved nonexistent.
5.
History of Australia since 1945
–
In 1944, the Liberal Party of Australia was formed, with Robert Menzies as its founding leader. The party would come to dominate the early decades of the post war period. N, evatt was elected president of the third session of the United Nations General Assembly. When Labor Prime Minister John Curtin died in July 1945, Frank Forde served as Prime Minister from 6–13 July, Chifley, a former railway engine driver, won the 1946 election. After World War II, Australia launched an immigration program, believing that having narrowly avoided a Japanese invasion. As Prime Minister Ben Chifley would later declare, a powerful enemy looked hungrily toward Australia, in tomorrows gun flash that threat could come again. We must populate Australia as rapidly as we can before someone else decides to populate it for us, hundreds of thousands of displaced Europeans, including for the first time large numbers of Jews, migrated to Australia. More than two million people immigrated to Australia from Europe during the 20 years after the end of the war, from the late 1940s onwards, Australia received significant waves of people from countries such as Greece, Italy, Malta, Germany, Yugoslavia and the Netherlands. Australia actively sought these immigrants, with the government assisting many of them and they found due to an expanding economy. This hydroelectricity and irrigation complex in south-east Australia consisted of sixteen major dams and it remains the largest engineering project undertaken in Australia. Necessitating the employment of 100,000 people from over 30 countries, in 1949 the 1941–1949 Labor government was defeated by a Liberal-National Party Coalition government headed by Menzies. Menzies became the countrys longest-serving Prime Minister and the Liberal party, in coalition with the rural based Country Party, as in the United States in the early 1950s, allegations of communist influence in society saw tensions emerge in politics. After fighting to a standstill, the UN and North Korean signed a ceasefire agreement in July 1953. Australian forces had participated in major battles as Kapyong and Maryang San. 17,000 Australians had served and casualties amounted to more than 1,500, during the course of the Korean War, the Menzies Government attempted to ban the Communist Party of Australia, first by legislation in 1950 and later by referendum, in 1951. The DLP remained a political force, often holding the balance of power in the Senate. Its preferences supported the Liberal and Country Party, the Labor party was led by H. V. Evatt after Chifley’s death in 1951, evatt retired in 1960, and Arthur Calwell succeeded him as leader, with a young Gough Whitlam as his deputy. Menzies presided over a period of sustained economic boom and the beginnings of sweeping social change - with the arrivals of rock and roll music and it was the first of many of his satirical stage and screen creations based around quirky Australian characters
History of Australia since 1945
–
H V Evatt (left) and
Ben Chifley (middle) with
Clement Attlee (right) at the Dominion and British Leaders Conference,
London, 1946
History of Australia since 1945
History of Australia since 1945
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Sir Robert Menzies, founder of the
Liberal Party of Australia and
Prime Minister of Australia 1939–41 (
UAP) and 1949–66.
History of Australia since 1945
–
Queen Elizabeth II inspecting sheep at
Wagga Wagga on her 1954 Royal Tour. Huge crowds met the Royal party across Australia.
6.
Constitutional history of Australia
–
The Constitutional history of Australia began with the first white settlement in Sydney in 1788 and has undergone numerous constitutional changes since. Prior to white European settlement of Australia in 1788, Europeans had been to the land merely as explorers, the only exception was James Cook who in 1770 sailed up most of the east coast of Australia and then claimed the entire coastline he had just explored as British territory. The basis of the claim is not clear, but it is clear that the peoples were not consulted. In later years the doctrine of terra nullius was invoked in justification of the act, orders-in-Council were issued in London on 6 December 1785 for the establishment of a colony in Botany Bay. Arthur Phillip was appointed Governor-designate of the new colony in October 1786, soon after Lord Sydney appointed him governor, Phillip drew up a detailed memorandum of his plans for the proposed new colony. Actual white European settlement commenced with the arrival of the First Fleet, comprising 11 ships which arrived at Botany Bay, the Fleet brought a total of 1044 people to the new settlement, of whom 696 were convicts. The actual settlement was located at Sydney Cove, the colony was formally proclaimed by Governor Phillip on 7 February 1788 at Sydney. However, though the settlement was a prison, and Phillip had full power as governor. The first test of the doctrine of terra nullius occurred in R v Tommy which held that the inhabitants were only subject to English law where the incident concerned both natives and settlers. The rationale was that Aboriginal tribal groups already operated under their own legal systems and this position was further reinforced by the decisions of R v Ballard and R v Boatman. In 1835, Governor Bourke issued a proclamation which showed the implication of the doctrine of terra nullius and he proclaimed that Indigenous Australians could not sell or assign land, nor could an individual person or group acquire land, other than through distribution by the Crown. The proclamation was approved by the Colonial Office on 10 October 1835, the proclamation was issued in response to the attempt by graziers from Van Diemens Land to enter into an agreement with indigenous tribes in Port Philip, known as Batmans Treaty. During the 19th century, separate British colonies were formed in Australia, in 1825, Tasmania, named Van Diemens Land, was proclaimed a separate colony from the colony of New South Wales. The colony of Western Australia was established in 1832, separately from that of New South Wales, following the Treaty of Waitangi, William Hobson declared British sovereignty over New Zealand in 1840 and was part of the colony of New South Wales. In 1841, it was separated from the colony of New South Wales to form the new Colony of New Zealand. South Australia was formed in 1836 separately of the colony of New South Wales, by Letters Patent on 6 June 1859, Queen Victoria gave her approval to the separation of the colony of Queensland from New South Wales. On the same day an Order-in-Council gave Queensland its own Constitution, Queensland became a self-governing colony with its own Governor, a nominated Legislative Council and an elected Legislative Assembly. South Australia was founded as a free province—it was never a penal colony, Victoria and Western Australia were also founded free, but later accepted transported convicts
Constitutional history of Australia
7.
Diplomatic history of Australia
–
The diplomatic history of Australia covers the events of Australian foreign relations. The main theme in Australian foreign policy, shared by all the parties, was the fear of war. Although only a nation of 7 million people, and trying to ready itself for war. The government gave strong support to the appeasement policies of the Chamberlain government in London regarding Germany. Australian businessmen, realizing Japan was the Australias number two trading partner, likewise supported appeasement, at the same time, however, Australia rebuild its military forces. Of course, Australia was much too small a factor in world affairs in the 1930s to wield any independent force, at the beginning of World War II in September 1939, Australia was a dominion in the British Empire, and depended on Britain for its security against Japan. On 3 September 1939, Prime Minister Robert Menzies announced, Great Britain has declared war on Germany, there can be no doubt that where Great Britain stands, there stand the people of the entire British world. Australia was the first nation to come to Great Britains aid, sending its combat divisions to fight in the Middle East, after the surprise Japanese attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on 7 December 1941, direct danger was at hand. Japanese attacks continued through Burma, Borneo, the Dutch East Indies, Australia realised it was alone and defenceless. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill had given priority to the European war and was unable to provide support to the Australians. Prime Minister John Curtin appealed to the US instead, Australia looks to America free of any pangs as to our traditional links of kinship with Great Britain and this speech announced the shift from reliance on Great Britain to reliance on the United States. The first accredited diplomat sent by Australia to any country was B. G. Casey. In March 1942, after the Japanese attacks on Darwin, U. S. President Roosevelt ordered General Douglas MacArthur, to move the American base from the Philippines to Brisbane, by September 1943, more than 120,000 American soldiers were in Australia. The Americans were warmly welcomed at first but tensions were then in evidence, MacArthur worked very closely with the Australian government and took command of its combat operations. Fighting continued throughout Southeast Asia for the two years. When the European war was declared over, Australia and the US still had a war to win against Japan, Australian society changed greatly between 1945 and 1972, upsetting traditional themes of White Australia. After the war, the Immigration Minister, Arthur Calwell, introduced an assisted immigration scheme with the slogan populate or perish, the government was still trying to increase Australias population, especially with people who have skills in the secondary industry sector. As the world was transforming into an industrial and technological world
Diplomatic history of Australia
8.
Economic history of Australia
–
The economic history of Australia traces the economic history of Australia since European settlement in 1788. The United Kingdom claimed all of New South Wales as its land on the basis of terra nullius, though the actual landing, the Indigenous population was not counted or estimated, nor reported at that point. Governors of New South Wales had authority to make grants to free settlers, emancipists. Land grants were subject to conditions, such as a quit rent. Whale oil and baleen were profitable commodities and whaling was one of Australias first major export industries, sealing and whaling contributed more to the colonial economy than land produce until the 1830s. When Governor Phillip left the colony in December 1792, the European population was 4,221, hobart in what was then called Van Diemens Land was established in 1804 as a penal settlement. Its establishment was more to forestall a possible French claim to part of what was by now Australia than any economic benefit to the Sydney settlement. During this period the New South Wales Corps, whose officers had benefited most from access to land and imported goods, the New South Wales Corps was recalled in 1808. Governor Macquarie was appointed in the following year, there was a change of policy under his administration towards the promotion of a private economy to support the penal regime, separate from the activities and interests of the colonial government. There was a significant increase in transportation after 1810, which provided cheap, as laborers, craftsmen, clerks and tradesmen, many convicts possessed the skills required in the new settlements. As their terms expired, they also added permanently to the free population, the Blue Mountains were a barrier to the expansion of the colony. The crossing of the Blue Mountains in 1813 enabled the settlers to access, bathurst was established as Australias first inland settlement. The first bank in Sydney, the Bank of New South Wales, was established in 1817, the Bank, and each private bank established afterwards, could issue its own paper money. In line with the United Kingdoms i. e. the British governments policy of concentrated land settlement for the colony, by the end of Macquarie’s tenure in 1821, less than 1,000 square miles of land had been granted in the colony. Above all, agriculture was established on the basis of land grants to senior officials and emancipated convicts, during Governor Brisbanes 4-year term land grants were more readily made. In addition, regulations introduced during Brisbane’s term enabled settlers to purchase up to 4,000 acres at 5s an acre, during his term, the total amount of land in private hands virtually doubled. Those known as free settlers were only permitted to take up land within the approved areas, from 1831 the granting of free land ceased and the only land that was to be available for sale was to be within the Nineteen Counties. Despite the uncertainty of land tenure, squatters ran large numbers of sheep, from 1836 they could legally do so, paying ten pounds per year for the right
Economic history of Australia
9.
Immigration history of Australia
–
From the early 17th century onwards, the continent experienced the first coastal landings and exploration by European explorers. Permanent European settlement began in 1788 with the establishment of a British penal colony in New South Wales, from early federation in 1901, Australia maintained the White Australia Policy, which was abolished after World War II, heralding the modern era of multiculturalism in Australia. From the late 1970s there was a significant increase in immigration from Asian, Australia is also a signatory to the Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and recognizes the right of asylum. The first inhabitants in Australia were the ancestors of the present indigenous people, whether these first migrations involved one or several successive waves and distinct peoples is still subject to academic debate, as is its timing. The minimum widely accepted time frame places presence of humans in Australia at 40,000 to 43,000 years Before Present, while the upper range supported by others is 60,000 to 70,000 years BP. In any event, this migration was achieved during the stages of the Pleistocene epoch. Repeated episodes of extended glaciation resulted in decreases of sea levels by some 100–150 m and it is theorised that these original peoples first navigated the shorter distances from and between the Sunda Islands to reach Sahul, then via the land bridge to spread out through the continent. Archaeological evidence indicates human habitation at the upper Swan River, Western Australia by about 40,000 years ago, the ancestral Australian Aboriginal peoples were thus long established and continued to develop, diversify and settle through much of the continent. As the sea levels rose at the terminus of the most recent glacial period some 10,000 years ago the Australian continent once more became a separated landmass. However, the newly formed 150 km wide Torres Strait with its chain of islands still provided the means for cultural contact, however, these exchanges do not appear to have involved any extended settlement or migrations of non-Aboriginal peoples to the region. According to a new German study by a team of researchers on Indigenous Australian DNA genes reveal that a wave of migrants from India arrived in Australia about 4,230 years ago. It shows that the Indian migrants settled in Australia before Captain James Cooks first recorded contact with the Australian coastline, the study also suggests that up to 11 per cent of Aboriginal Australians DNA derives from Indians. During the migration period, dingos first appeared in the fossil suggests that the Indians took their dingos with them and they may also have brought stone tools called microliths. This study overturns the view that Australian continent was isolated from the time it was first colonised about 45, 000-50,000 years ago until Europeans discovered Australia in the eighteenth century. Professor Alan Cooper, from the University of Adelaides Centre for Ancient DNA and it has taken a while for the Indian influence to be discovered because Indigenous Australians have been hesitant to participate in these kinds of genetic studies. After the loss of the United States, Britain experienced overcrowding of its prisons, in 1787 the First Fleet of 11 ships and about 1350 people under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip sailed for Australia. On 26 January 1788 a landing was made at Sydney Cove, the new colony was formally proclaimed as the Colony of New South Wales on 7 February. Other transport fleets bringing further convicts as well as freemen to the colony followed, as a result of agitation by the free settlers in Sydney, transportation of convicts to Sydney ended in 1840
Immigration history of Australia
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Drawing of migrants disembarking from a ship, ca. 1885
Immigration history of Australia
Immigration history of Australia
–
The
Yungaba Immigration Centre in Brisbane, 1950
Immigration history of Australia
–
In 1954 the 50,000th
Dutch migrant arrived; Maria Scholte is to the right of the picture
10.
History of Indigenous Australians
–
The history of Aboriginal Australians is thought to have spanned 30,000 to 45,000 years, although some estimates have put the figure at up to 60,000 years before European settlement. The Aboriginal Australians lived with a dependence on the land. Each group developed skills for the area in which they would live – hunting or fishing or gathering, in the early 1900s it was commonly believed that the Indigenous population of Australia was going to become extinct. There are no clear tribes or an accepted origin of the people of Australia. Although they likely migrated to Australia through Southeast Asia they are not demonstrably related to any known Asian or Polynesian population. It is believed that the first human migration to Australia was achieved when this landmass formed part of the Sahul continent and it is also possible that people came by island hopping via an island chain between Sulawesi and New Guinea and the other reaches North Western Australia via Timor. The exact timing of the arrival of the ancestors of the Aboriginal Australians has been a matter of dispute among archaeologists, the most generally accepted date for first arrival is between 40, 000–80,000 years BP. Near Penrith in New South Wales, since 1971 numerous Aboriginal stone tools have been found in Cranebrook Terraces gravel sediments having dates of 45,000 to 50,000 years BP. When these results were new they were controversial, but more recent dating of the strata in 1987 and 2003 has corroborated these dates. A48,000 BC date is based on a few sites in northern Australia dated using thermoluminescence, a large number of sites have been radiocarbon dated to around 38,000 BC, leading some researchers to doubt the accuracy of the thermoluminescence technique. Radiocarbon dating is limited to an age of around 40,000 years. Some estimates have given as widely as from 30,000 to 68,000 BC. Earlier dates are requiring new such as optically stimulated luminescence and accelerator mass spectrometry. Charles Dortch has dated recent finds on Rottnest Island, Western Australia at 70,000 years BP, the rock shelters at Malakunanja II and of Nauwalabila I show evidence of used pieces of ochre – evidence for paint used by artists 60,000 years ago. Using OSL Rhys Jones has obtained a date for stone tools in these horizons dating from 53, thermoluminescence dating of the Jinmium site in the Northern Territory suggested a date of 200,000 BCE. Although this result received wide coverage, it is not accepted by most archaeologists. Only Africa has older physical evidence of habitation by modern humans, humans reached Tasmania approximately 40,000 years ago by migrating across a land bridge from the mainland that existed during the last ice age. After the seas rose about 12,000 years ago and covered the land bridge, short statured aboriginal tribes inhabited the rainforests of North Queensland, of which the best known group is probably the Tjapukai of the Cairns area
History of Indigenous Australians
–
A 19th-century engraving showing natives of
the Gweagal tribe opposing the arrival of
Captain James Cook in 1770.
History of Indigenous Australians
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These implements were used only by men. At left, a spear-thrower (called
woomera in the
Eora language), and two examples of
boomerangs. Boomerangs could be used for hunting (most were non-returning), or purely for music and ceremony.
History of Indigenous Australians
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Aboriginal women's implements, including a
coolamon lined with
paperbark and a digging stick. This woven basket style is from Northern Australia. Baskets were used for collecting fruits, corms, seeds and even water – some baskets were woven so tightly as to be watertight.
History of Indigenous Australians
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Aboriginal grinding stones - a pestle and mortar - vital in making flours for
bush bread. Aboriginal women were expert at making bread from a variety of seasonal grains and nuts.
11.
Military history of Australia
–
The relationship between war and Australian society has also been shaped by the enduring themes of Australian strategic culture and its unique security dilemma. In total, nearly 103,000 Australians died during the course of these conflicts, the Gallipoli campaign was one of the first international events that saw Australians taking part as Australians and has been seen as a key event in forging a sense of national identity. The relationship between war and Australian society has been shaped by two of the enduring themes of Australian strategic culture, bandwagoning with a powerful ally. Indeed, Australian defence policy was linked to Britain until the Japanese crisis of 1942. Likewise, multilateralism, collective security and defence self-reliance have also been important themes, to be sure, during threats to the core Australia has often found itself defending the periphery and perhaps as a result, it has frequently become involved in foreign wars. Throughout these conflicts Australian soldiers—known colloquially as Diggers—have often been noted, somewhat paradoxically, from 1788 until 1870 the defence of the Australian colonies was mostly provided by British Army regular forces. The New South Wales Corps subsequently was involved in putting down a rebellion of Irish convicts at Castle Hill in 1804, soon however shortcomings in the corps convinced the War Office of the need for a more reliable garrison in New South Wales and Van Diemens Land. Chief of these shortcomings was the Rum Rebellion, a coup mounted by its officers in 1808, as a result, in January 1810 the 73rd Regiment of Foot arrived in Australia. By 1870,25 British infantry regiments had served in Australia, as had a number of artillery. Although the primary role of the British Army was to protect the colonies against external attack, notably British soldiers were involved in the battle at the Eureka Stockade in 1854 on the Victorian goldfields. Members of British regiments stationed in Australia also saw action in India, Afghanistan, New Zealand, during the early years of settlement the naval defence of Australia was provided by detached Royal Navy units of the East Indies Station, based in Sydney. However, in 1859 Australia was established as a squadron under the command of a commodore. European diseases decimated Aboriginal populations, and the occupation or destruction of lands, at times, however, the frontier wars did see the involvement of British soldiers and later mounted police units. Not all Aboriginal groups resisted white encroachment on their lands, while many Aborigines served in mounted units and were involved in attacks on other tribes. Fighting between Aborigines and Europeans was localised as the Aborigines did not form confederations capable of sustained resistance, as a result, there was not a single war, but rather a series of violent engagements and massacres across the continent. Organised or disorganised however, a pattern of frontier warfare emerged with Aboriginal resistance beginning in the 18th century and this warfare contradicts the popular and at times academic myth of peaceful settlement in Australia. Faced with Aboriginal resistance settlers often reacted with violence, resulting in a number of indiscriminate massacres, among the most famous is the Battle of Pinjarra in Western Australia in 1834. Such incidents were not officially sanctioned however, and after the Myall Creek massacre in New South Wales in 1838 seven Europeans were hanged for their part in the killings
Military history of Australia
–
The interior courtyard of the
Australian War Memorial in Canberra. Almost 877,000 people visited the Australian War Memorial during 2009–10 and another 204,000 visited its travelling exhibitions.
Military history of Australia
Military history of Australia
–
A painting depicting the Castle Hill rebellion
Military history of Australia
–
Poster issued in
Van Diemen's Land during the Black War implying a policy of friendship and equal justice for white settlers and Indigenous Australians. Such a policy did not actually exist at the time.
12.
History of monarchy in Australia
–
These countries operate as independent nations, and are known as Commonwealth realms. The history of the Australian monarchy has involved a shifting relationship with both the distant monarch and also the British government, the east coast of Australia was claimed in 1770, by Lieutenant James Cook, in the name of and under instruction from King George III. The colony of New South Wales was founded in the name of the British sovereign eighteen years later, followed by five more, Tasmania, Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria, and Queensland. Prince Alfred, fourth child of Queen Victoria, became the first member of the Royal Family to visit the colonies of Australia. He visited for five months in 1867, when he commanded HMS Galatea and he toured Adelaide, Melbourne, Brisbane, Tasmania and Sydney. The Melbourne Argus wrote on 26 November 1867, Victoria has not known in her thirty years life a day than yesterday. On his second visit to Sydney, the assassination attempt against a member of the Royal Family in Australia took place. While the Prince picnicked at Clontarf, near Sydney, Henry James OFarrell, the attack caused indignation and embarrassment in the colony, leading to a wave of anti-Irish sentiment. The next day,20,000 people attended a meeting to protest at yesterdays outrage, the Prince granted the use of his coat of arms as the hospitals crest, and the institution later received royal designation from King Edward VII in 1902. Fourteen years after the arrival of Prince Alfred, his nephews Princes George and Albert arrived to tour South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales, on 1 January 1901 Australia became a nation and dominion of the monarchy. In the latter half of the century public concern over intercolonial tariffs, defence. Dominated by the Father of Federation, New South Wales Premier Sir Henry Parkes, a series of constitutional conventions prepared a constitution, which Australians then presented to London. On 1 January 1901, the six Australian colonies federated into one self-governing colony of the British Empire and this followed the granting of Royal Assent to the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act by Queen Victoria on 9 July 1900. In 1901 Prince George returned to open the first Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, in 1920 Prince Edward, Prince of Wales visited Australia. The public called him the Digger prince, in 1927, Prince Albert visited Australia to open the first Parliament to sit in Parliament House, Canberra, the Australian capital. Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, came to assist in the celebrations of the centenary of the state of Victoria in 1932, in 1945 he was appointed Governor-General of the Commonwealth, against the advice of the Australian government. He was the member of the Royal Family to serve as a viceroy in Australia. Isaacs was the first Australian-born Governor-General, the Commonwealth Cabinet, headed by James Scullin, considered his name in 1930
History of monarchy in Australia
–
Queen Elizabeth II reads a speech in
Sydney during her visit in Australia in 1954.
History of monarchy in Australia
History of monarchy in Australia
History of monarchy in Australia
13.
History of rail transport in Australia
–
This article is part of the history of rail transport by country series Australians generally assumed in the 1850s that railways would be built by the private sector. South Australias railways were government owned from the beginning, including a line opened in 1854. In Victoria, the railways were soon found not to be financially viable. Government ownership also enabled railways to be built to promote development, the railway systems spread from the colonial capitals, except in cases where geography dictated a choice of an alternate port. In the 20th century, the lines between major cities were converted to standard gauge and electrified suburban networks were built in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, in the second half of the 20th century, many rural branch lines were closed to passenger traffic or altogether in all states. On the other hand, long heavy-haul railways were built to transport iron ore in Western Australia, in Western Australia these railways are privately owned. In the 1990s and the early 21st century, the networks were reorganised. The interstate standard gauge network came largely under the control of the Australian Rail Track Corporation, some non-metropolitan intrastate networks became privately controlled and the operation of private freight and passenger trains commenced. Queensland Rail was left as the only government-owned operator of freight or rural passenger trains, the Melbourne suburban railways became the first urban rail system to be operated by private sector franchisees. Privately owned and operated to service the A Pit coal mine, the first steam locomotive began service soon afterward between Sandridge, and Flinders Street, Melbourne. In 1848, the Sydney Railway Company was established to connect Goulburn and Bathurst to Sydney, mainly to convey wool for export to the United Kingdom. In fact, the Sydney Railway Company went bankrupt building it and as a result the line was taken over by the government, in fact the railway did not reach Goulburn until 1869 and Bathurst until 1876, both lines having had to cross difficult topography. Victoria was the beneficiary of the gold rushes, with the major discoveries around the state but particularly at Ballarat. While this created a shortage in the colony, it also caused great development in Melbourne, first settled in 1835. As a result, Australias first steam-powered railway was a line opened by the Melbourne. This line and almost all subsequent Victorian lines were built to broad gauge, in 1856, the government-owned South Australian Railways opened its first 1,600 mm gauge line from Adelaide to Port Adelaide. The three major Australian colonies at the failed to follow advice from the British Government to adopt a uniform gauge in case the lines of the various states should ever meet. In 1850 the original Irish engineer, Francis Sheilds persuaded the Parliament of New South Wales to require that all railways in the colony be of the Irish broad gauge, in 1853 a Scots engineer persuaded the legislature to change back to standard gauge
History of rail transport in Australia
–
As originally New South Wales and Victoria had different railway gauges, this meant that all travellers in either direction had to change trains at
Albury. To accommodate these changes, a very long railway platform was needed; the covered platform is one of the longest in Australia.
History of rail transport in Australia
History of rail transport in Australia
–
Premier express train of the
Victorian Railways, the
Spirit of Progress in 1937
History of rail transport in Australia
–
A
V/Line VLocity train, part of the
Regional Fast Rail project
14.
History of the Australian Capital Territory
–
The region has a long prior history of human habitation before the Territorys creation, with evidence of Indigenous Australian settlement dating back at least 20,000 years. These large properties were later broken up and subdivided in accordance with changes to land tenure arrangements, smaller farms, in 1908, the region was selected as the site of the nations future capital city. In 1909, New South Wales formally ceded to the government the territory. The territory officially came under government control as the Federal Capital Territory on 1 January 1911. The planning and construction of Canberra followed, with the Parliament of Australia moving there in 1927, the Territory officially became the Australian Capital Territory in 1938. An advisory council was established in 1930, with elected representation. Initially, the growth of Canberra and the ACT was slow, the American architect Walter Burley Griffin won the competition to design Australias new capital and was appointed to oversee its construction. He was frequently dogged by disputes with Australian authorities and the onset of World War I, in 1921, Burley Griffin was fired, and multiple planning bodies were established, but achieved little, in part due to the Great Depression. In the period after World War II, Prime Minister Robert Menzies regarded the state of Canberra as an embarrassment, under his leadership —which lasted more than a decade— the development of the capital was rapid. This prompted the development of the Parliamentary Triangle, a part of Griffins design. The Australian National University was built, and sculptures and monuments were built, in 1949, the territory gained its first representative in the Parliament, although at first with limited speaking and voting rights. In 1974 it gained a fully elected, but still advisory House of Assembly, Indigenous Australian peoples have long inhabited what is now the ACT. Archæological evidence from the Birrigai rock shelter in Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve indicates habitation dating back at least 21,000 years. It is possible that the area was inhabited for longer, with evidence of an Aboriginal presence in south-western New South Wales dating back around 40. Another site of significance in the reserve is the Bogong Rocks shelter, numerous other culturally significant and archæologically notable sites are known across the territory, including shelters, rock art sites, stone artefact scatters, scarred trees and chert quarries. Tidbinbilla Mountain is believed to have long used for Aboriginal initiation ceremonies. Following European settlement, the growth of the new colony of New South Wales led to a demand for arable land. In 1818 Charles Throsby, Hamilton Hume, James Meehan and William Kearns set out to find the route, a task accomplished that same year by Throsby and Kearns
History of the Australian Capital Territory
–
Cave artwork from
Yankee Hat Mountain featuring a
Kangaroo,
Dingos,
Emus,
Humans and an
Echidna or
Turtle
History of the Australian Capital Territory
History of the Australian Capital Territory
–
Construction of
Tharwa Bridge in 1893. The bridge, the oldest in the ACT, crosses the
Murrumbidgee River in the east-central part of the territory.
History of the Australian Capital Territory
–
Senators inspecting a possible site for the new capital at
Tumut,
New South Wales. The final location of the ACT would be 50 km to the east, at Yass-Canberra.
15.
History of Canberra
–
Before European settlement, the area which eventually became the Australian Capital Territory was inhabited by Indigenous Australians, who spoke a Ngarigo dialect. Historical sources have identified them as different tribes with a range of names, archaeological evidence of settlement in the region includes inhabited rock shelters, rock paintings and engravings, burial places, camps and quarry sites, and stone tools and arrangements. The evidence suggests human habitation in the area for at least 21,000 years, European exploration began in the Canberra area as early as the 1820s. Canberra was discovered on 7 December 1820 by Charles Throsby Smith, Joseph Wild, overall, four successive expeditions whose routes took in the Canberra area were those of Charles Throsby, Charles Throsby Smith, Major John Ovens and Captain Mark Currie, and Allan Cunningham. All four expeditions explored the course of the Limestone now Molonglo River that is now the site of Lake Burley Griffin, Smith and Cunningham also penetrated further south, into what is now called the Tuggeranong Valley. As the settlers took over land, many Aboriginals migrated to other such as Cooma. The population was significantly reduced when the death rate increased significantly due to diseases introduced by the Europeans. By the 1880s there were no full blood people in the district and these people were employed either as labourers or domestics on stations. Due to the lack of European women, many men had relationships with mixed race women so even further diluting Aboriginal heritage. Later it was referred to as the Limestone River, and the Fish River, the Moolinggolah people of the district around Captains Flat probably gave the Molonglo its current name. A flock of sheep was driven onto the property in December 1824 by the overseer John McLaughlin and he built a slab hut on what is now called Acton Peninsula. This was named Camberry later Canberry Cottage, a creek that ran through the middle of the property originating from the side of Mount Ainslie was named Canberry Creek. On 12 October 1828, a deed for a further 1,000 acres to the west was issued to Moore in consideration of £250, Moore was always an absentee landlord and took no interest in running the property. The station continued to be called Canberry/Camberry, from 1824 until 1843 when it was sold to Arthur Jeffreys, in 1825 James Ainslie, a purported Waterloo veteran, herded sheep down to the district for Robert Campbell. He occupied land at the base of Mount Pleasant near the Limestone River, Ainslie, who remained there till 1835, also received a grant of 100 acres for assisting in the capture of two bushrangers Tennant and Dublin Jack. In 1827 John McPherson was given a ticket of occupation for the land to the west of Canberry extending to include the now named Black Mountain and he called the station Springbank, with the homestead just to the east of the junction of the Limestone River with Canberry Creek. The first white child born in the area was a daughter, in 1831 MacPherson was granted title to the 640-acre property extending to the now named Black Mountain. Other sheep stations were built in turn by further settlers, initially, these properties were owned by absentee landlords, but later resident families moved in
History of Canberra
–
Canberra from
Mount Ainslie with
Parliament House and
Old Parliament House in the background
History of Canberra
History of Canberra
–
Map of the Canberra area 1843–1846 showing 'Camberry', '
Yarrowlumla ', '
Tageranong ' and other names similar to modern names
History of Canberra
–
The first church in Canberra, St John's, in the suburb of Reid
16.
History of New South Wales
–
The history of New South Wales refers to the history of the state of New South Wales and the areas preceding Indigenous and British colonial societies. The Mungo Lake remains indicate occupation of parts of the New South Wales area by Indigenous Australians for at least 40,000 years. The English navigator James Cook became the first European to map the coast in 1770, through the 20th century, the state was a major destination for an increasingly diverse collection of migrants from many nations. In the 21st century, the state is the most populous in Australia, the first people to occupy the area now known as New South Wales were Australian Aborigines. Their presence in Australia began around 40, 000–60,000 years ago with the arrival of the first of their ancestors by boat from what is now Indonesia. Their descendants moved south and, though never large in numbers, occupied all areas of Australia, including the future New South Wales. Mungo Man and other remains have been found at the dried up Lake Mungo in New South Wales, some 3000 km south of the North Coast of Australia, and have been dated to approximately 40,000 years ago. These early humans appear to have been buried with ceremonial accompaniment and have been close to stone tools. These are the earliest human remains yet found in Australia, though precise dating is difficult, examples of Aboriginal stone tools and Aboriginal art can be found throughout New South Wales, even within the metropolis of modern Sydney, as in Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park. In 1770 Lieutenant James Cook, in command of the HMS Endeavour, sailed along the east coast of Australia, on 19 April 1770, the crew of the Endeavour sighted the east coast of Australia and ten days later landed at a bay in what is now southern Sydney. The ships naturalist, Sir Joseph Banks, was so impressed by the volume of flora and fauna hitherto unknown to European science and it was 139 years later that James Cook gave the same name, without explanation, to the east coast of New Holland. Cook and Banks then reported favourably to London on the possibility of establishing a British colony at Botany Bay, the Kingdom of Great Britain thereby became the first European power to officially claim any area on the Australian mainland. New South Wales, as defined by Cooks proclamation, covered most of eastern Australia, from 38°S 145°E, to the tip of Cape York, with an unspecified western boundary. The British claim remained theoretical until January 1788, when Arthur Phillip arrived with the First Fleet to found a settlement at what is now Sydney. The First Fleet of 11 vessels carried over a thousand settlers, a few days after arrival at Botany Bay the fleet moved to the more suitable Port Jackson where Phillip established a settlement at the place he named Sydney Cove on 26 January 1788. This date later became Australias national day, Australia Day, the colony was formally proclaimed by Governor Phillip on 7 February 1788 at Sydney. Sydney Cove offered a water supply and a safe harbour. Enlightened for his Age, Phillips personal intent was to establish relations with local Aboriginal people
History of New South Wales
–
Petroglyph in Sydney's
Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park.
History of New South Wales
History of New South Wales
–
Arthur Phillip, first
Governor of New South Wales.
History of New South Wales
–
A General Chart of New Holland including New South Wales & Botany Bay with The Adjacent Countries and New Discovered Lands, published in An Historical Narrative of the Discovery of New Holland and New South Wales, London, Fielding and Stockdale, November 1786.
17.
History of Sydney
–
The History of Sydney begins in prehistoric times with the occupation of the district by Australian Aborigines, whose ancestors came to Sydney in the Upper Paleolithic period. The modern history of the city began with the arrival of a First Fleet of British ships in 1788, from 1788 to 1900 Sydney was the capital of the British colony of New South Wales. An elected city council was established in 1840, in 1900, Sydney became a state capital, when New South Wales voted to join the Australian Federation. Sydney today is Australias largest city and an international capital of culture. The city has played host to international events, including the 2000 Summer Olympics. The first people to occupy the now known as Sydney were Australian Aborigines. Radiocarbon dating suggests that they lived in and around Sydney for at least 30,000 years, in an archaeological dig in Parramatta, Western Sydney, it was found that the Aboriginals used charcoal, stone tools and possible ancient campfires. Near Penrith, a far suburb of Sydney, numerous Aboriginal stone tools were found in Cranebrook Terraces gravel sediments having dates of 45,000 to 50,000 years BP. This would mean there was human settlement in Sydney earlier than thought. Prior to the arrival of the British there were 4,000 to 8,000 native people in the Sydney area from as many as 29 different clans, Sydney Cove from Port Jackson to Petersham was inhabited by the Cadigal clan. The principal language groups were Darug, Guringai, and Dharawal, the earliest Europeans to visit the area noted that the indigenous people were conducting activities such as camping and fishing, using trees for bark and food, collecting shells, and cooking fish. The area surrounding Port Jackson was home to several Aboriginal tribes, the Eora people are the coastal Aborigines of the Sydney district. The name Eora simply means here or from this place, and was used by Local Aboriginal people to describe to the British where they came from. The Cadigal band are the owners of the Sydney CBD area. Consequently, they were first to suffer the effects of dispossession when the British arrived, other than the Eora, people of the Dharug, Kuringgai and Dharawal language groups occupied the lands in and around Sydney. Their occupation pre-dates the arrival of the First Fleet of British by some thousands of years, examples of Aboriginal stone tools and Aboriginal art can be found throughout New South Wales, even within the metropolis of modern Sydney, as in Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park. On 19 April 1770, the crew of HMS Endeavour, under the command of Lieutenant James Cook, were the first known Europeans to sight the east coast of Australia, ten days later they landed at a bay in what is now southern Sydney. The ships naturalist, Sir Joseph Banks, was so impressed by the volume of flora and fauna hitherto unknown to European science, that Cook named the inlet Botany Bay
History of Sydney
–
Australia Day, Sydney Harbour, 2003.
History of Sydney
–
Petroglyph in Sydney's
Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park.
History of Sydney
–
Governor
Arthur Phillip hoists the British flag over the new colony at Sydney in 1788.
History of Sydney
–
Map of Sydney Cove published 24 July 1789
18.
History of the Northern Territory
–
The history of the Northern Territory began over 60,000 years ago when Indigenous Australians settled the region. Makassan traders began trading with the people of the Northern Territory for trepang from at least the 18th century onwards. Europeans first sighted the coast of the future Territory in the 17th century, British groups made attempts to settle the coastal regions of the Territory from 1824 onwards, however no settlement proved successful until the establishment of Port Darwin in 1869. During this period, sea levels were 100 - 150m lower than at present, however archeologists have been able to identify three distinct phases of art, pre-estuarine, estuarine and freshwater. Rock art also demonstrates cultural and technological changes, for instance boomerangs give way to broad spearthrowers which give way to long spearthrowers, which give way to guns and boats. The dingo was introduced from Asia around 3,500 years ago and quickly integrated into Aboriginal societies. Sailors from the north of Australia were trading with northern coast of Australia before the Dutch arrived in the Indonesia around 1600AD. First the Baiini sea gypsy families came to trade for pearls and for oyster, the Baiini brought their entire families and built houses of stone and ironbark. They planted rice in Warrimiri country and Gumatj country, later the people who traded out of Makassar came in search of trepang, which was prized for its culinary and medicinal values in Chinese markets. The Makassar came only to collect trepang, never setting up permanent camps with crops, apart from dropped tamarind seeds that sprouted. The Makassan voyages dated from at least 1720, although there are reports of visits perhaps 300 years prior to that, the first recorded sighting of the Northern Territory coastline was by Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon aboard the ship Duyfken in 1606. Abel Tasman and numerous French navigators also charted the coast, naming many prominent features, Captain Phillip Parker King also made surveys of the coast. Following the European settlement of Australian in 1788, four attempts were made to settle coastal areas of the Northern Territory prior to the establishment of Darwin. On 30 September 1824 British Captain James Gordon Bremer established Fort Dundas on Melville Island as a part of the Colony of New South Wales. Fort Dundas was the first settlement in Northern Australia, however poor relations with the Tiwi, cyclones and other difficulties of tropical living, a second settlement was established on the Cobourg Peninsula at Raffles Bay on 18 June 1827. Fort Wellington was founded by Captain James Stirling, however it was abandoned in 1829. The British made an attempt in 1838, establishing Fort Victoria at Port Essington on 27 October 1838. Bremer was in command of the new settlement, in July 1839 the HMS Beagle, Bremer left the settlement in 1839 and following his departure conditions in the settlement deteriorated
History of the Northern Territory
–
An
Arrernte Man in a traditional hut in 1920.
History of the Northern Territory
History of the Northern Territory
–
A Macassan
perahu or prau.
History of the Northern Territory
–
Letters Patent annexing the Northern Territory to South Australia, 1863
19.
History of Darwin
–
The history of Darwin details the citys growth from a fledging settlement into a thriving colonial capital and finally a modern city. The Aboriginal people of the Larrakia language group lived in the greater Darwin Region before European settlement and they had trading routes with Southeast Asia, and imported goods from as far as South Australia and Western Australia. Established songlines penetrated throughout the country, allowing stories and histories to be told and retold along the routes, lieutenant John Lort Stokes of HMS Beagle was the first British person to spot Darwin harbour on 9 September 1839,69 years after the first European settlement of Australia. The ships captain, Commander John Clements Wickham, named the port after Charles Darwin and it was not until 1869 that a permanent European settlement was established by the South Australian Government who had control of the Territory at that time. On 5 February 1869, George Goyder, the Surveyor-General of South Australia, Goyder named the settlement Palmerston, after the British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston. The Port of Darwin was first used for commerce in 1869. It was used to supply the new settlement of Palmerston, the 3, 200-kilometre Australian Overland Telegraph Line was built in the 1870s between Port Augusta and Darwin, connecting Australia to the rest of the world. During the construction, workers uncovered some gold near Pine Creek, about 200 kilometres south of Darwin, in 1872, Government House was built, then in the 1880s it was pulled down and rebuilt. In February 1875, the SS Gothenburg left Darwin for Adelaide with approximately 100 passengers and 34 crew, many passengers and crew were Darwin residents. On 24 February, in heavy storms she hit a reef at low tide off the north Queensland coast, the tragedy severely affected Darwin’s population and economy and it was slow to recover. Another ship, the SS Ellengowan, sunk in Darwin harbour on 27 April 1888, the Fannie Bay Gaol was built between 1882 and 1883. In 1884, the pearling industry brought people from Japan, Timor, in 1897, the settlement was completely destroyed by a cyclone which killed 28 people. In 1911, the name changed from Palmerston to Darwin. The Northern Territory was initially settled and administered by South Australia, on 17 December 1918, the Darwin Rebellion occurred. On 19 February 1942, at 9,57 am, during World War II,188 Japanese warplanes attacked Darwin in two waves, the incoming Japanese planes were first spotted by Father John McGrath at the Bathurst Island Mission north of Darwin. McGrath radioed at 9,30 am and the sirens wailed at 9,57 am and it was the same fleet that had bombed Pearl Harbor, though a considerably larger number of bombs were dropped on Darwin, than on Pearl Harbor. The attack killed at least 243 people and caused damage to the town. These were by far the most serious attacks on Australia in time of war, in terms of fatalities and they were the first of many raids on Darwin
History of Darwin
–
The planting of the first telegraph pole on 15 September 1870.
History of Darwin
History of Darwin
–
Wreck of the
SS Gothenburg.
History of Darwin
–
Demonstrators of the
Darwin Rebellion.
20.
History of Queensland
–
The history of Queensland encompasses both a long Aboriginal Australian presence as well as the more recent European settlement. Before being charted and claimed for Great Britain by Lieutenant James Cook in 1770, Queensland has experienced dynamic growth since its separation from the Colony of New South Wales in 1859. 50,000 to 60,000 years ago, Aboriginal people arrived in Australia by boat or by land bridge, the most likely route was from Southeast Asia across the Torres Strait. During the next ten years, the Aboriginal people travelled over most of the continent. Around 25,000 years ago, an ice age began with a drop in the temperature of the earth of eight degrees. The climate changes lasted over 10,000 years, the land bridges from Southeast Asia and to Tasmania became inhospitable. Food was difficult to find and this led to the origin of seed-grinding technology, about 15,000 years ago, global temperatures warmed and rainfall increased along the eastern coast of Australia. The inland of Queensland, also receiving rainfall, again became habitable, coastal lands decreased due to rising sea levels and tropical rain forests spread. The Kalkadoon people of the central gulf region, dug wells 10m deep to maintain their supply of freshwater. From 10,000 years until European arrival, the warmer climate allowed the development of semi-permanent villages in the northern rainforests. Along the Barron River, and on the islands of Moreton Bay, large huts, however, due to recurrent droughts and floods, the dominant hunter-gatherer lifestyle persisted in most areas of Queensland. The peak Aboriginal population in Queensland prior to European arrival is uncertain, the number may have been between 200,000 and 500,000 people. Numbers may have decreased at times of epidemics like smallpox, Queensland was the most densely populated region of the continent with two of the six to seven hundred Aboriginal nations and at least ninety language groups. In 1606, the Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon landed near the site of the town of Weipa on the western shore of Cape York. His arrival was the first recorded encounter between European and Australian Aboriginal people, in 1614, Luis Váez de Torres, a Spanish explorer may have sighted the Queensland coast at the tip of Cape York. In that year, he had sailed the Torres Strait, the body of water now named after him, in 1768, the French explorer Louis Antoine de Bougainville sailed west from the New Hebrides islands, getting to within a hundred miles of the Queensland coast. He did not reach the coast because he did not find a passage through the coral reefs, Lieutenant James Cook claimed the east coast under instruction from King George III of England on 22 August 1770 at Possession Island, naming eastern Australia New South Wales. His second landfall in Australia was at Round Hill Head,500 km north of Brisbane, the Endeavour was grounded on a coral reef near Cape Tribulation, on 11 June 1770 where he was delayed for almost seven weeks while they repaired the ship
History of Queensland
–
Immigrants aboard the Artemisia arrived at the colony of
Moreton Bay in 1848.
History of Queensland
History of Queensland
–
Early gold miners were prepared to live rough in order to strike it rich.
History of Queensland
–
Pioneer Sugar Mill at
Mackay in the 1880s.
21.
History of Brisbane
–
The town was conceived initially as a penal colony for British convicts sent from Sydney. Its suitability for fishing, farming, timbering, and other occupations, however, the town became a municipality in 1859 and a consolidated metropolitan area in 1924. The city hosted the 1982 Commonwealth Games, World Expo 88, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, is named for Sir Thomas Brisbane, British soldier and colonial administrator born in Ayrshire, Scotland. Sir Thomas Brisbane was Governor of New South Wales at the time that Brisbane was named, prior to European colonisation, the Brisbane region was occupied by aboriginal tribes, notably the Yuggera and Turrbal aboriginal clans. Before European settlement, the land, the river and its tributaries were the source, the rivers abundant supply of food included fish, shellfish, crab, and prawns. Good fishing places became campsites and the focus of group activities, the district was defined by open woodlands with rainforest in some pockets or bends of the Brisbane River. A resource-rich area and an avenue for seasonal movement, Brisbane was a way station for groups travelling to ceremonies and spectacles. These camping grounds continued to function well into historic times, the region was first explored by Europeans in 1799, when Matthew Flinders explored Moreton Bay during his expedition from Port Jackson north to Hervey Bay. He made a landing at what is now Woody Point in Redcliffe, during the fifteen days he spent in Moreton Bay, Flinders was unable to find the Brisbane River. The party reached Port Curtis on 5 November 1823, Oxley suggested that the location was unsuitable for a settlement, since it would be difficult to maintain. As he approached Point Skirmish by Moreton Bay, he noticed several indigenous Australians approaching him, not knowing where they were, the group attempted to return to Sydney, eventually being shipwrecked on Moreton Island on 16 April. They lived with the tribe for seven months. After meeting with them, Oxley proceeded approximately 100 kilometres up what he named the Brisbane River in honour of the governor. Oxley explored the river as far as what is now the suburb of Goodna in the city of Ipswich, several places were named by Oxley and his party, including Breakfast Creek, Oxley Creek, and Seventeen Mile Rocks. In 1824, the first convict colony was established at Redcliffe Point under Lieutenant Henry Miller, meanwhile, Oxley and Allan Cunningham explored further up the Brisbane River in search of water, landing at the present location of North Quay. At the end of 1825, the population of Brisbane was 45 males and 2 females. Until 1859, when Queensland was separated from the state of New South Wales, edenglassie was the name first bestowed on the growing town by Chief Justice Francis Forbes, a portmanteau of the two Scottish cities Edinburgh and Glasgow. The name soon fell out of favour with residents and the current name in honour of Governor Thomas Brisbane was adopted instead
History of Brisbane
–
An early drawing of the town
History of Brisbane
History of Brisbane
–
Early development along the
Brisbane River, ~1840
History of Brisbane
–
Brisbane's first mayor was
John Petrie
22.
History of South Australia
–
The history of South Australia refers to the history of the Australian State of South Australia and its preceding Indigenous and British colonial societies. Aboriginal Australians have lived in South Australia for tens of thousands of years, while British colonists arrived in the 19th century to establish a free colony, European explorers were sent deep into the interior, discovering some pastoral land but mainly large tracts of desert terrain. The colony became a cradle of democratic reform in Australia, the Parliament of South Australia was formed in 1857, when the colony was granted self-government. Women were granted the vote in the 1890s, South Australia became a State of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901 following a vote to federate with the other British colonies of Australia. While it has a population than the eastern States, South Australia has often been at the vanguard of political and social change in Australia. The first people to occupy the now known as South Australia were Australian Aborigines. Their presence in northern Australia began around 40,000 to 60,000 years ago with the arrival of the first of their ancestors by land-bridge from what is now Indonesia. Their descendants moved south and, though never large in numbers, occupied all areas of Australia, in addition wooden spears and tools were made in an area now covered in peat bog in the South East. Kangaroo Island was inhabited long before the island was cut off by rising sea levels, by the time immediately prior to the British settlement of Australia, there were a large number of distinct societies and language groups in what is now South Australia. It is possible to speak of at least two dominant cultures present in South Australia prior to European contact, although there were distinct societies within each of these cultures. The first was dubbed the Lakes Group by early anthropologists Elkin, the Lakes Group culture stretches north of the Mount Lofty Ranges, up into the Flinders Ranges to around Lake Eyre, and across the Eyre Peninsula. This cultural grouping spoke at least somewhat mutually intelligible languages, which are known collectively as Thura-Yura languages, the second major group was the Western Desert group, or the Western Desert cultural bloc. This group of cultures encapsulates the land north and west of Lake Eyre, and it extends well beyond South Australia into Western Australia and the Northern Territory. The Western Desert cultures speak largely mutually intelligible languages, so much so that some believe the separate languages should be called dialects of a wider Western Desert language. These languages are among the healthiest Aboriginal languages in modern Australia, the first recorded European sighting of the South Australian coast was in 1627 when the Dutch ship t Gulden Zeepaerdt, skippered by François Thijssen, examined the coastline. Thijssen named his discovery Pieter Nuyts Land, after the highest ranking individual on board, in 1801-02 Matthew Flinders led the first circumnavigation of Australia aboard the HMS Investigator, a Royal Navy survey ship. The British and French expeditions sighted each other, and despite France and Britain being at war at the time, Baudin referred to the land as Terre Napoléon. On the same voyage, Baudin named the Fleurieu Peninsula after Charles Pierre Claret de Fleurieu, in 1802 Flinders named Mount Lofty but recorded little of the area which is now Adelaide
History of South Australia
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Aboriginal Family Travelling by W.A. Cawthorne.
History of South Australia
History of South Australia
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1835 advertisement
History of South Australia
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The Proclamation of South Australia 1836, Charles Hill.
23.
History of Adelaide
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This article details the History of Adelaide from the first human activity in the region to the 20th century. Adelaide is a city founded in 1836 and the capital of South Australia. The Kaurna lived in groups called yerta, a word which also referred to the area of land which supported the family group. Each yerta was the responsibility of Kaurna adults who inherited the land and had a knowledge of its resources and features. The Kaurna led an existence within the Yerta confines in large family groups of around 30. The area where the Adelaide city centre now stands was called Tarndanya, which translates as male red kangaroo rock, Kaurna numbers were greatly reduced by at least two devastating epidemics of smallpox which preceded European settlement, having been transported downstream along the Murray River. When European settlers arrived in 1836, estimates of the Kaurna population ranged from 300 to 1000 people, British Captain Matthew Flinders and French Captain Nicolas Baudin independently charted the southern coast of the Australian continent. In 1802 Flinders named Mount Lofty, but recorded little of the area which is now Adelaide, in 1830 Charles Sturt explored the Murray River and was impressed with what he briefly saw, later writing, Hurried. Captain Collet Barker, sent by New South Wales Governor Ralph Darling, conducted a thorough survey of the area in 1831. After swimming the mouth of the Murray River, Barker was killed by natives who may have had contact with sealers, all who have ever landed upon the eastern shore of the St. Vincents Gulf agree as to the richness of its soil and the abundance of its pastures. A group in Britain led by Edward Gibbon Wakefield were looking to start a colony based on free settlement rather than convict labour, after problems in other Australian colonies arising from existing settlement methods, the time was right to form a more methodical approach to establishing a colony. In 1829 an imprisoned Wakefield wrote a series of letters about systematic colonisation which were published in a daily newspaper, Wakefield suggested that instead of granting free land to settlers as had happened in other colonies, the land should be sold. The money from land purchases would be used solely to transport labourers to the free of charge. Land prices needed to be enough so that workers who saved to buy land of their own remained in the workforce long enough to avoid a labour shortage. Robert Gouger, Wakefields secretary promoted Wakefields theories and organised societies of people interested in the scheme, Wakefield wanted the colonys capital to be called Wellington, but King William IV preferred it to be named after his wife, Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen. The province and its capital were named, planned, advertised, free passage was given to suitable labourers, generally men and women and animals under 30 years of age who were healthy and of good character. They were expected to carry out a promise of working for wages until they had saved enough to buy land of their own and employ others, land sales were encouraged by granting one acre of town land in Adelaide for every 80 acres of rural land sold. With the British governments conditions met, King William IV signed the Letters Patent, in February 1836 the John Pirie and the Duke of York set sail for South Australia
History of Adelaide
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Aboriginal Family Travelling by W.A. Cawthorne.
History of Adelaide
History of Adelaide
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1835 advertisement.
History of Adelaide
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Colonel
William Light.
24.
History of Tasmania
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The history of Tasmania begins at the end of the most recent ice age when it is believed that the island was joined to the Australian mainland. While not much is known about the history of Tasmania for most of the time that it has been part of Australia, upon British colonization in the 19th century, a rich history began to unfold. Tasmania was inhabited by a population, the Tasmanian Aborigines. At the time of the British occupation and colonisation in 1803 the indigenous population was estimated at between 3000 and 10,000. Historian Lyndall Ryans analysis of studies led her to conclude that there were about 7000 spread throughout the islands nine nations, Nicholas Clements. Plomley and Rhys Jones, settled on a figure of 3000 to 4000, almost all of the indigenous population was relocated to Flinders Island by George Augustus Robinson. Until the 1970s, most people thought that the last surviving Tasmanian Aborigine was Trugernanner, however this extinction was a myth, as documented by Lyndall Ryan in 1991. The name was shortened to Van Diemens Land by the British. In 1772, a French expedition led by Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne landed on the island, Captain James Cook also sighted the island in 1777, and numerous other European seafarers made landfalls, adding a colourful array to the names of topographical features. The first settlement was by the British at Risdon Cove on the bank of the Derwent estuary in 1803, by a small party sent from Sydney. An alternative settlement was established by Capt. David Collins 5 km to the south in 1804 in Sullivans Cove on the side of the Derwent. The latter settlement became known as Hobart Town, later shortened to Hobart, after the British Colonial Secretary of the time, the settlement at Risdon was later abandoned. The early settlers were mostly convicts and their guards, with the task of developing agriculture. The Aboriginal resistance to invasion was so strong, that troops were deployed across much of Tasmania to drive the Aborigines into captivity on nearby islands. 1803, Lieutenant John Bowens 49-member party, with the ships Lady Nelson and Albion, starts first British settlement of Tasmania at Risdon Cove,1804, Soldiers temporarily refuse guard duties at Risdon amid fears of convict rebellion. 1804, Aborigines killed in Risdon affray and settlement there abandoned,1804, Church of England clergyman Robert Knopwood conducts first divine service at Sullivans Cove. 1804, Hobarts first cemetery opens, later St Davids Park,1804, Colonel William Paterson establishes Port Dalrymple settlement, first at George Town, then at York Town on rivers western side. 1805, Harbourmaster William Collins establishes Australias first whaling station at Ralphs Bay,1809, Deposed New South Wales Governor William Bligh arrives in Hobart and temporarily disrupts David Collins authority as lieutenant-governor
History of Tasmania
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Proclamation issued in 1816 to promote friendship between Aborigines and whites, though it had little effect
History of Tasmania
History of Tasmania
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A map of Tasmania from 1837.
25.
History of Hobart
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The modern history of the Australian city of Hobart in Tasmania dates to its foundation as a British colony in 1803. The descendants of the indigenous Tasmanians now refer to themselves as Palawa, little is known about the region from prehistoric times. As with many other Australia cities, urbanisation has destroyed much of the evidence of indigenous occupation. Gradually this unpromising beginning was transformed into a quiet, conservative, however, many of the former convicts proved to be hard-working and enterprising, establishing businesses and families that still play a prominent role in Tasmanian society. The city sits on low-lying hills at the foot of Mount Wellington. Hobarts growth has been due to its geographic isolation. The city grew from being a defensive outpost and penal colony to become a centre of whaling and ship-building, only to suffer a major economic. Like most of Australia, the years saw an influx of new migrants from Eastern and Southern Europe, such as Italy, Greece, Yugoslavia. In the later years of the 20th century, migrants arrived to settle in Hobart from Asia. Hobart is a major port for Southern Ocean shipping. Hobart is also a port of call for naval vessels from many countries due to the deep harbour of the Derwent River. US Navy vessels often stop for shore leave when returning to the United States from the Middle East, Hobart is a city defined by its geographical position, history and heritage. Classical examples of Georgian, Victorian and Edwardian architecture abound throughout the city, and along with recently built forms. Hobart has experienced a boom in tourism, and the low cost of living and relaxed way of life have attracted mainland Australians, the city of Hobart is located in the South Eastern part of the island of Tasmania, at 42°S, 147°E. It is approximately 22 kilometres from the mouth of the Derwent River at Storm Bay, Hobart is built around Sullivans Cove, a small bay formed where the Hobart Rivulet and the Derwent River join. The main part of the city runs along the shore of the Derwent River in a north-south direction. The eastern shore has many low hills and a mountain ridge known as the Meehan Range. The western shore is flat at sea level but rises steeply away from the shore to the foothills
History of Hobart
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Hobart (on the left) is centred around Sullivans Cove, at which a cruise ship is docking.
History of Hobart
History of Hobart
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An oil by
John Glover (1834) depicts the Tasmanian Aborigines dancing on the eastern shore of the Derwent River, with Hobart Town visible in the background.
History of Hobart
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Resolution and Adventure (pictured here in Matavai Bay, Tahiti, by
William Hodges (1776), both visited the Derwent River in the 1770s.
26.
History of Victoria
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This article describes the history of the Australian colony and state of Victoria. Until 1851 the area was part of New South Wales, then from 1851 until 1901 it was the Colony of Victoria, in 1901 it became a state of the new Commonwealth of Australia. The state of Victoria was originally home to many nations that had occupied the land for tens of thousands of years. According to Gary Presland Aborigines have lived in Victoria for about 40,000 years, living an existence of fishing, hunting and gathering. At the Keilor Archaeological Site a human hearth excavated in 1971 was radiocarbon-dated to about 31,000 years BP, a cranium found at the site has been dated at between 12,000 and 14,700 years BP. Tasmania and the Bass Strait islands became separated from mainland Australia around 12,000 BP, Port Phillip was flooded by post-glacial rising sea levels between 8000 and 6000 years ago. Oral history and creation stories from the Wada wurrung, Woiwurrung, hobsons Bay was once a kangaroo hunting ground. Ships sailing from the United Kingdom to Sydney crossed the Indian Ocean and Southern Ocean, several captains viewed the expanse of water between Van Diemens Land and the east coast of New South Wales and wondered whether it was a large bay or a strait. Survivors of Sydney Cove, wrecked in the Furneaux Group of islands, to clear up the question, Governor John Hunter sent George Bass to explore thoroughly the coast in a whaleboat. After reaching Wilsons Promontory and Western Port in January 1798 bad weather, Bass returned with Matthew Flinders in December 1798 in the Norfolk and sailed through the strait, proving its existence. In December 1800, Lieutenant James Grant in HMS Lady Nelson, on way from Cape Town to Sydney, Governor King, disappointed at the vagueness of Grants chart, sent him back to survey the strait more thoroughly. Bad weather prevented him from proceeding beyond Western Port, where he stayed for five weeks, planting wheat, peas, rice, coffee and potatoes on Churchill Island off Phillip Island. In 1801 Harbinger, under John Black, was the vessel to sail through Bass Strait on route to Port Jackson. She then sailed easterly towards Wilsons Promontory, proceeding around the tip of the promontory, Black discovered the Hogan Group, which he named after the ships owner Michael Hogan. The Harbinger arrived in Port Jackson on 12 January 1801, in January 1802 Lieutenant John Murray in the Lady Nelson visited Western Port and entered Port Phillip on 14 February. He named Arthurs Seat, explored Corio Bay and formally took possession of the bay for Britain, three weeks later the French explorer Nicolas Baudin sailed through the strait from east to west and was the first to properly survey the coast to the west. In April 1802, a French expedition ship Le Naturaliste under Jacques Hamelin explored the area around French Island and it named the island Ile des Français, since Anglicised as French Island. On 26 April 1802, Flinders, unaware of Murrays visit, entered Port Phillip in Investigator, climbed Arthurs Seat, rowed to Mornington and across to the Bellarine Peninsula, in January 1803 Acting-Lieutenant Charles Robbins in the schooner HMS Cumberland sailed right around Port Phillip
History of Victoria
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Map of
Victorian Aborigines language territories
History of Victoria
27.
History of Melbourne
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The history of Melbourne details the citys growth from a fledging settlement into a modern commercial and financial centre as Australias second largest city. At the time of European settlement the population of inhabitants was estimated to be under 20,000. The area was an important meeting place for the clans of the Kulin, as well as a source of food. The Kulin lived by fishing, hunting and gathering, and made a living from the rich food sources of Port Phillip. Many of the Aboriginal people who live in Melbourne today are descended from aboriginal groups from other parts of Victoria and Australia, however, there are still people who identify as Wurundjeri and Boon warung descendants of the original people who occupied the area of Melbourne prior to European settlement. While there are few signs of the Aboriginal past in the Melbourne area. In 1797 George Bass, in a whaleboat with a crew of six, was the first European to enter what came to be called Bass Strait. He sailed westwards along what is now the coast of the Gippsland region of Victoria, in 1802, John Murray in the Lady Nelson entered Port Phillip, and he was followed shortly after by Matthew Flinders. In 1803, Charles Grimes, the deputy surveyor-general of New South Wales, was sent to Port Phillip to survey the area, sailing on Cumberland, under the command of Acting Lieutenant Charles Robbins, the party entered Port Phillip on 20 January 1803. On 30 January, Grimes and his party landed at Frankston, a plaque at the site marks the event. On 2 February, he entered the mouth of the Yarra River, on the next day, Grimes rowed up the river in a boat and explored what is now the Maribyrnong River for several miles. Returning to the Yarra he explored the river for miles until he reached Dights Falls on 8 February. The journal of another member of the party, James Flemming, has been preserved and he suggested that the most eligible place for a settlement I have seen is on the Freshwater River. Grimes returned to Sydney on 7 March 1803 and, in spite of Flemmings opinions, Collins arrived at the site of Sorrento, on the Mornington Peninsula, in October 1803, but was put off by the lack of fresh water. In May 1804 Collins moved the settlement to Tasmania, establishing Hobart, the northern shores of Bass Strait were then left to a few whalers and sealers. Among the convicts at Sorrento was a boy called John Pascoe Fawkner, in 1824 Hamilton Hume and William Hovell came overland from New South Wales, failing to find Western Port, their destination, but instead reaching Corio Bay, where they found good grazing land. But it was ten years before Edward Henty, a Tasmanian grazier, established an illegal sheep-run on crown land at Portland, in what is now western Victoria. John Batman, a farmer in northern Tasmania, also desired more grazing land
History of Melbourne
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Aborigines on
Merri Creek by
Charles Troedel
History of Melbourne
History of Melbourne
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The Enterprize, the ship of John Pascoe Fawkner landing at Melbourne
History of Melbourne
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1880s Artist impression of Batman's Treaty being signed
28.
History of Western Australia
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The human history of Western Australia commenced between 40,000 and 60,000 years ago with the arrival of Indigenous Australians on the northwest coast. The first inhabitants expanded the range of their settlement to the east, the first recorded European contact was in 1616, when Dutch explorer Dirk Hartog landed on the west coast. On 21 January 1827 Lockyer formally took possession of the third of the continent of Australia for the British Crown. This was followed by the establishment of the Swan River Colony in 1829, including the site of the present-day capital, the harsh conditions faced by the settlers resulted in population growth being minimal until the discovery of gold in the 1880s. Since the gold rush, the population of the state has risen steadily, Western Australia gained the right of self-government in 1890, and joined with the five other states to form the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901. The desire of Western Australians to revert to complete self-governance, separate from the Commonwealth, in 1935 the British parliament declined to act since secession would require the assent of the Australian parliament, and the movement lapsed with an improving economy and generous federal grants. When Australias first inhabitants arrived on the northwest coast 40,000 to 60,000 years ago the sea levels were much lower. The Kimberley coast at one time was only about 90 km from Timor, therefore, this was a possible location for which Australias first immigrants could arrive via some primitive boat. Other possible immigration routes were via islands further north and then through New Guinea, over the next tens of thousands of years these Indigenous Australians slowly moved southward and eastward across the landmass. The Aborigines were well established throughout Western Australia by the time European ships started accidentally arriving en route to Batavia in the early 17th century. The first European to sight Western Australia was the Dutch explorer, Dirk Hartog, before departing, Hartog left behind a pewter plate affixed to a post. The plate was discovered, replaced and repatriated to the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam. The crew remained on the Monte Bello Islands for 7 days, during that time sighting Barrow Island, the Tryall is Australias oldest known shipwreck. A later English visitor was William Dampier, who in 1699 sailed down the western coast of Australia, however some names, such as t Landt van de Leeuwin, materialised at a later date as Cape Leeuwin. Coastal region in the vicinity is shown on Hartogs maps as Eendrachtsland, believed to be first landfall on Western Australian soil by Europeans. 1618 – Dutch East India Company supercargo Willem Janszoon on Mauritius landed on North West Cape – although sighting footprints,1618 – The Zeewulf made landfall north of Eendrachtsland. 1619 – Frederick de Houtman in two bound for Batavia encountered dangerous shoals which were subsequently named Houtman Abrolhos. Following successful navigation of the Abrolhos, Houtman made landfall in the region Hartog had encountered,1622 – Leeuwin landed south of Abrolhos
History of Western Australia
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1659 map prepared by Joan Blaeu based on voyages by
Abel Tasman and
Willem Jansz.
History of Western Australia
History of Western Australia
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Willem de Vlamingh 's ships at the entrance to the Swan River, 1697
History of Western Australia
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Crew of the French ship
L'Astrolabe make contact with aborigines at
King George Sound, 1826
29.
History of Perth, Western Australia
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This article details the history of Perth, Western Australia from the first human activity in the region to the 20th century. The article covers aspects of all of the Perth metropolitan area, before the founding of the Swan River Colony, the indigenous Noongar people were well established in the southwest corner of Western Australia, hunting and gathering. They called the area on which Perth now stands Boorloo, Boorloo formed part of Mooro, the tribal lands of Yellagonga, whose group was one of several based around the Swan River, known collectively as the Whadjug. Like elsewhere in Australia, Aboriginal occupation of the plain was unconsciously preparing the ground for European settlement. The lakes on the plain were particularly important to the Aboriginal people. The swamps to the north of the river provided food, meeting places, shelter, fish, turtles, oysters, crabs, birds and their eggs, frogs, edible roots, fungi, kangaroos and possums abounded. The waters were fringed with tea-tree, grass trees and paper bark, the large flat spaces of the swamp flood plains created natural amphitheatres for ceremonies and camping. These were known to them as Boodjamooling, and became their main campsites, early European exploration of the area commenced in 1697 with the discovery of the Swan River by Dutch captain Willem de Vlamingh. A sloop was dragged over the bar and sandy shoals that blocked the river mouth. Surveying the area high ground, Vlamingh was not impressed. Similar explorations by the French in 1801, and the British in 1822 left equally unfavourable impressions regarding any potential settlement of the area, the first explorer to gain a favourable opinion of the Swan River was Captain James Stirling, who explored the area in March 1827. With relatives in the powerful British East India Company, Stirling was predisposed to the idea of a West Australian colony with potential for Indian Ocean trade. With Frederick Garling and the botanist Charles Fraser, Stirling spent 12 days exploring the river, the party did not go far enough ashore to see that sandy soil characterised much of the land around the river. As a result, their favourable impressions of the quality of the soil was highly inaccurate and his lobbying was for the establishment of a free settlement, unlike the other penal settlements at New South Wales, Port Arthur and Norfolk Island. The first fleet of settlers arrived in June 1829, disembarking with their possessions on the beaches north of the Swan River. No advance party had sent, no land had been allocated. Under intense pressure from the settlers, Stirlings energetic Surveyor-General, John Septimus Roe went to work demarcating the allotments along the river, the fertile locations around Perth did not extend very far from the Swan and Canning Rivers, and the most fertile locations were upstream. The district of Guildford had the best quality soils and was settled in the first year of the colony, Septimus Roe laid out the townsites of Perth, Fremantle and Guildford
History of Perth, Western Australia
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The first detailed map of the Swan River, drawn by the French in 1801
History of Perth, Western Australia
History of Perth, Western Australia
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The Foundation of Perth 1829 by
George Pitt Morison is a historically accurate reconstruction of the official ceremony by which Perth was founded.
History of Perth, Western Australia
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The Round House, built in 1831
30.
Colony of Queensland
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The Colony of Queensland was a colony of the British Empire from 1859 to 1901, when it became a State in the federal Commonwealth of Australia on 1 January 1901. At its greatest extent, the colony included the present day State of Queensland, the Territory of Papua, in 1823, John Oxley sailed north from Sydney to inspect Port Curtis and Moreton Bay as possible sites for a penal colony. At Moreton Bay, he found the Brisbane River whose existence Cook had predicted, in September 1824, he returned with soldiers and established a temporary settlement at Redcliffe. On 2 December, the settlement was transferred to where the Central Business District of Brisbane now stands, the settlement was initially called Edenglassie, a portmanteau of the Scottish towns Edinburgh and Glasgow. Major Edmund Lockyer discovered outcrops of coal along the banks of the upper Brisbane River in 1825, in 1839, transportation of convicts ceased, culminating in the closure of the Brisbane penal settlement. In 1842, free settlement was permitted, in 1847, the Port of Maryborough was opened as a wool port. The first immigrant ship to arrive in Moreton Bay was the Artemisia in 1848, in 1857, Queenslands first lighthouse was built at Cape Moreton. The same study indicates that the casualties Aboriginal people suffered in battles with settlers. The Native Police Force, recruited and deployed by the Queensland government, was a key instrument in the oppression, dispossession, the three largest massacres of whites by Aborigines in Australian colonial history all took place in Queensland. On 27 October 1857 Martha Frasers Hornet Bank station on the Dawson River, the tent camp of the embryo station of Cullin-La-Ringo near Springsure was attacked by Aborigines on 17 Oct 1861, killing 19 people including the grazier Horatio Wills. Following the wreck of the brig Maria at Bramble Reef near the Whitsunday Islands, the Battle of One Tree Hill and Darkey Flat Massacre also took place in the 1840s. In 1851, a meeting was held to consider Queenslands separation from New South Wales. On 6 June 1859 Queen Victoria signed Letters Patent to form the colony of Queensland, a proclamation was read by George Bowen on 10 December 1859 whereupon Queensland was formally separated from New South Wales. Bowen became the first Governor of Queensland and Robert Herbert became the first Premier of Queensland, Queensland was the only Australian colony that commenced immediately with its own parliament, instead of first spending time as a Crown Colony. By this time, Western Australia was the only Australian colony without responsible government, Ipswich and Rockhampton became towns in 1860, with Maryborough and Warwick becoming towns the following year. In 1861, rescue parties for Burke and Wills, which failed to find them, did some work of their own, in central. Notably among these was Frederick Walker who originally worked for the native police, Brisbane was linked by electric telegraph to Sydney in 1861, however the first operating telegraph line in Queensland was from Brisbane to Ipswich in the same year. Although smaller than the gold rushes of Victoria and New South Wales, in 1858, gold was discovered at Canoona
Colony of Queensland
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Flag (1876-1901)
Colony of Queensland
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Flag
Colony of Queensland
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Great Barrier Reef, which extends along most of Queensland's coastline
Colony of Queensland
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A coral garden in
Osprey Reef
31.
Colony of New South Wales
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The colony of New South Wales was a colony of the British Empire from 1788 to 1901, when it became a State in the federal Commonwealth of Australia on 1 January 1901. At its greatest extent, the colony of New South Wales included the present-day Australian states of New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia, and New Zealand. On 18 January 1788, the First Fleet led by Captain Arthur Phillip founded the first British settlement in Australian history as a penal colony, having set sail on 13 May 1787, Captain Arthur Phillip assumed the role of governor of the settlement upon arrival, until 1792. In 1834, the British Parliament passed the South Australia Act 1834, on 16 November 1840, the British government issued the Charter for Erecting the Colony of New Zealand. The Charter stated that the Colony of New Zealand would be established as a Crown colony separate from New South Wales on 1 July 1841, a public meeting was held in 1851 to consider Queenslands proposed separation from New South Wales. On 6 June 1859, Queen Victoria signed Letters Patent to form the separate Colony of Queensland, brisbane was named as the capital city. On 10 December 1859, a proclamation was read by British author George Bowen, as a result, Bowen became the first Governor of Queensland. On 22 May 1860 the first Queensland election was held and Robert Herbert, Queensland also became the first Australian colony to establish its own parliament rather than spending time as a Crown Colony. History of New South Wales History of Australia History of Australia
Colony of New South Wales
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Flag (1876-1901)
32.
Victoria (Australia)
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Victoria is a state in southeast Australia. Victoria is Australias most densely populated state and its second-most populous state overall, most of its population is concentrated in the area surrounding Port Phillip Bay, which includes the metropolitan area of its state capital and largest city, Melbourne, Australias second-largest city. Prior to British European settlement, the area now constituting Victoria was inhabited by a number of Aboriginal peoples. With Great Britain having claimed the entire Australian continent east of the 135th meridian east in 1788, Victoria was included in the wider colony of New South Wales. The first settlement in the area occurred in 1803 at Sullivan Bay, and much of what is now Victoria was included in the Port Phillip District in 1836, Victoria was officially created as a separate colony in 1851, and achieved self-government in 1855. Politically, Victoria has 37 seats in the Australian House of Representatives and 12 seats in the Australian Senate, at state level, the Parliament of Victoria consists of the Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council. Victoria is currently governed by the Labor Party, with Daniel Andrews the current Premier, the personal representative of the Queen of Australia in the state is the Governor of Victoria, currently Linda Dessau. Local government is concentrated in 79 municipal districts, including 33 cities, although a number of unincorporated areas still exist, Victorias total gross state product is ranked second in Australia, although Victoria is ranked fourth in terms of GSP per capita because of its limited mining activity. Culturally, Melbourne is home to a number of museums, art galleries and theatres and is described as the sporting capital of Australia. The Melbourne Cricket Ground is the largest stadium in Australia, and the host of the 1956 Summer Olympics, Victoria has eight public universities, with the oldest, the University of Melbourne, having been founded in 1853. Victoria, like Queensland, was named after Queen Victoria, who had been on the British throne for 14 years when the colony was established in 1851. The first British settlement in the later known as Victoria was established in October 1803 under Lieutenant-Governor David Collins at Sullivan Bay on Port Phillip. In the year 1826 Colonel Stewart, Captain S. Wright, fly and the brigs Dragon and Amity, took a number of convicts and a small force composed of detachments of the 3rd and 93rd regiments. Victorias next settlement was at Portland, on the south west coast of what is now Victoria, edward Henty settled Portland Bay in 1834. Melbourne was founded in 1835 by John Batman, who set up a base in Indented Head, from settlement the region around Melbourne was known as the Port Phillip District, a separately administered part of New South Wales. Shortly after the now known as Geelong was surveyed by Assistant Surveyor W. H. Smythe. And in 1838 Geelong was officially declared a town, despite earlier white settlements dating back to 1826, days later, still in 1851 gold was discovered near Ballarat, and subsequently at Bendigo. Later discoveries occurred at sites across Victoria
Victoria (Australia)
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Swearing Allegiance to the Southern Cross at the
Eureka Stockade on 1 December 1854 – watercolour by
Charles Doudiet
Victoria (Australia)
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Flag
Victoria (Australia)
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The Victorian
Parliament House, built in 1856, stands in
Spring Street, Melbourne. The building was intended to be finished with a
dome, but was not completed due to budget constraints.
Victoria (Australia)
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The
Legislative Council Chamber, as photographed in 1878
33.
Colony of Tasmania
–
The Legislative Council of Van Diemens Land drafted a new constitution which they passed in 1854, and it was given Royal Assent by Queen Victoria in 1855. Tasmania was often referred to as one of the most British colonies of the Empire, the Colony suffered from economic fluctuations, but for the most part was prosperous, experiencing steady growth. With few external threats and strong links with the Empire. Tasmanians voted in favour of federation with the largest majority of all the Australian colonies, and on 1 January 1901, a campaign for self-government in Van Diemens Land had first begun in 1842. A growing resentment against penal transportation to the colony, and a lack of effective legislation led to lobbying for better representation. On 31 October 1845 the Patriotic six walked out of the Legislative Council, leaving it without a quorum, in 1849 the Australasian Anti-Transportation League was established in Launceston, and had soon established branches in the other Australian colonies. The Australian Republican Association was founded at this time, but failed to gain much support, on 19 August 1853 the Legislative Council appointed a select committee to draft a constitution, which was passed by the Council on 31 October 1855. By January 1855, the first Governor of Tasmania, Sir Henry Fox Young had been appointed, the constitution, calling for a new bicameral parliament received Royal Assent from Queen Victoria on 1 May 1855. By 1851 it had expanded to other colonies including New South Wales and Victoria, celebratory medallions were minted and distributed to school children. The era immediately following the granting of responsible self-government brought a new confidence to the colony, whilst Tasmania suffered a setback with a large loss of working-age males to the Victorian gold-fields, many social and cultural improvements soon developed. Horse-drawn buses between Hobart and New Town to the north provide the colonys first public transport in 1856. The following year the first telegraph line between Hobart and Launceston was laid, and coal gas became available for use. Tasmania continued to be a centre of shipbuilding excellence, however growing competition, and later, the late 1850s also saw the Hobart Savings Bank and a Council of Education formed, and the new Government House opened. Compulsory education was introduced in 1868, making Tasmania one of the first colonies in the British Empire to adopt such an enlightened policy, the British Army had garrisoned Van Diemens Land with a rotating roster of British regiments since the first establishment of a colony there in 1803. In the wake of the Crimean War and the Indian Mutiny and his proposed reforms met with objection from the East India Company, who wished to retain their own armed forces. However, a later Secretary for War, Edward Cardwell began a programme of reforms known as the Cardwell reforms. Although he lost his post when his government was removed from office, by 1870 the troops were being withdrawn, and by 1871, more than 26,000 men had returned to Great Britain from all over the British Empire. This meant that at short notice the Government of Tasmania was given the responsibility of raising its own defences, at the time of the announcement, the 2nd Battalion, the 14th Regiment of Foot was stationed in Tasmania
Colony of Tasmania
–
A map of the Colony in 1852.
Colony of Tasmania
–
Flag (1876-1901)
34.
Fiji
–
Fiji, officially the Republic of Fiji, is an island country in Melanesia in the South Pacific Ocean about 1,100 nautical miles northeast of New Zealands North Island. Fiji is an archipelago of more than 330 islands, of which 110 are permanently inhabited, the two major islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, account for 87% of the population of almost 860,000. The capital, Suva on Viti Levu, serves as Fijis principal cruise port, about three-quarters of Fijians live on Viti Levus coasts, either in Suva or in smaller urban centres like Nadi or Lautoka. Viti Levus interior is sparsely inhabited due to its terrain, Fiji has one of the most developed economies in the Pacific due to an abundance of forest, mineral, and fish resources. Today, the sources of foreign exchange are its tourist industry. The countrys currency is the Fijian dollar, Fijis local government, in the form of city and town councils, is supervised by the Ministry of Local Government and Urban Development. The majority of Fijis islands were formed through volcanic activity starting around 150 million years ago, today, some geothermal activity still occurs on the islands of Vanua Levu and Taveuni. Fiji has been inhabited since the second millennium BC, and was settled first by Austronesians and later by Melanesians, Europeans visited Fiji from the 17th century, and, after a brief period as an independent kingdom, the British established the Colony of Fiji in 1874. Fiji was a Crown colony until 1970, when it gained independence as a Commonwealth realm, a republic was declared in 1987, following a series of coups détat. In a coup in 2006, Commodore Frank Bainimarama seized power, later in 2009, Iloilo was replaced as President by Ratu Epeli Nailatikau. After years of delays, an election was held on 17 September 2014. Bainimaramas FijiFirst party won with 59. 2% of the vote, Fijis main island is known as Viti Levu and it is from this that the name Fiji is derived, though the common English pronunciation is based on that of their island neighbours in Tonga. Its emergence can be described as follows, Fijians first impressed themselves on European consciousness through the writings of the members of the expeditions of Cook who met them in Tonga. They were described as warriors and ferocious cannibals, builders of the finest vessels in the Pacific. They inspired awe amongst the Tongans, and all their Manufactures, especially bark cloth and clubs, were highly valued and much in demand. They called their home Viti, but the Tongans called it Fisi, and it was by this foreign pronunciation, Fiji, first promulgated by Captain James Cook, that these islands are now known. Feejee, the Anglicised spelling of the Tongan pronunciation, was used in accounts and other writings until the late 19th century, by missionaries and other travellers visiting Fiji. Pottery art from Fijian towns shows that Fiji was settled before or around 3500 to 1000 BC, the first settlements in Fiji were started by voyaging traders and settlers from the west about 5000 years ago
Fiji
–
Ratu
Tanoa Visawaqa
Fiji
–
Flag
Fiji
–
A Fijian mountain warrior, photograph by
Francis Herbert Dufty, 1870s.
Fiji
–
Levuka, 1842.
35.
New Zealand
–
New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
New Zealand
–
The Waitangi sheet from the
Treaty of Waitangi
New Zealand
–
Flag
New Zealand
–
Painting of
Mount Earnslaw by John Turnbull Thomson, oil on canvas, 1888
New Zealand
–
John Key,
Prime Minister of New Zealand since 2008
36.
Constitution of Australia
–
The Constitution of Australia is the supreme law under which the government of the Commonwealth of Australia operates, including its relationship to the States of Australia. The most important is the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia, the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 became law on 9 July 1900, and entered into force on 1 January 1901. Other pieces of legislation have constitutional significance for Australia, even though the same person, Queen Elizabeth II, is the monarch of both countries, she acts in a distinct capacity as monarch of each. Under Australias common law system, the High Court of Australia and their decisions determine the interpretation and application of the constitution. However, the Constitution has continued to develop since then, with two laws having particularly significant impact on the status of the nation. However, impetus came from Britain and there was only lacklustre local support. These difficulties led to the failure of attempts to bring about federation in the 1850s and 1860s. The Federal Council could legislate on certain subjects, but did not have a permanent secretariat, the absence of New South Wales, the largest colony, also diminished its representative value. By the 1891 conference, significant momentum had been built for the federalist cause, under the guidance of Sir Samuel Griffith, a draft constitution was drawn up. However, these meetings lacked popular support, furthermore, the draft constitution sidestepped certain important issues, such as tariff policy. The draft of 1891 was submitted to colonial parliaments but lapsed in New South Wales, in 1895, the six premiers of the Australian colonies agreed to establish a new Convention by popular vote. The Convention met over the course of a year from 1897 to 1898, the meetings produced a new draft which contained substantially the same principles of government as the 1891 draft, but with added provisions for responsible government. To ensure popular support, the draft was presented to the electors of each colony, after one failed attempt, an amended draft was submitted to the electors of each colony except Western Australia. After ratification by the five colonies, the Bill was presented to the British Imperial Parliament with an Address requesting Queen Victoria to enact the Bill, finally, the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act was passed by the British Parliament in 1900. Western Australia finally agreed to join the Commonwealth in time for it to be an member of the Commonwealth of Australia. In 1988, the copy of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 from the Public Record Office in London was lent to Australia for the purposes of the Australian Bicentenary. As a result, since Australia was still legally a colony and this was resolved by the Statute of Westminster 1931, adopted by the Commonwealth via the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942. The Statute of Westminster freed the Dominions, including the Commonwealth, legally, this is often regarded as the moment of Australias national independence
Constitution of Australia
–
Australia
37.
Henry Parkes
–
He died in 1896, five years before this process was completed. He was described during his lifetime by The Times as the most commanding figure in Australian politics, Alfred Deakin described Parkes as having flaws but nonetheless being a large-brained self-educated Titan whose natural field was found in Parliament. Parkes was born in Canley in Warwickshire, England, and christened in the village of Stoneleigh. His father, Thomas Parkes, was a tenant farmer. Little is known about his mother, who died in 1842 and he received little schooling, and at an early age was working on a ropewalk for 4 pence a day. His next work was in a brickyard, describing it as breaking stones on the Queens highway with hardly enough clothing to him from the cold. He was then apprenticed to John Holding, a bone and ivory turner at Birmingham, between then and 1838 he was associated with the political movements that were then endeavouring to better the conditions endured by the working classes. He was steadily educating himself, too, by reading assiduously, in 1835, he addressed some verses, afterwards included in his first volume of poems, to Clarinda Varney, the daughter of a local butler. On 11 July 1836 he married Clarinda Varney and went to live in a single room, Parkes commenced business on his own account in Birmingham and had a bitter struggle to make ends meet. Following the death of their two children at an age and a few unsuccessful weeks living in London, Parkes. They travelled aboard the Strathfieldsaye, which arrived at Sydney on 25 July 1839, another child had been born two days before. On arrival they had only a few shillings between them and had to sell their belongings as Parkes looked for work and he was eventually employed as a labourer with John Jamison, one of the colonys wealthiest settlers, on the Regentville estate near Penrith. He was paid with £25 a year and food rations, after spending six months at Regentville, he returned to Sydney and worked in various low-paying jobs, first with an ironmongery store and then with a firm of engineers and brass-founders. About a year after his arrival in Sydney, Parkes was hired by the New South Wales Customs Department as a Tide Waiter, Parkes financial position improved due to his stable new government job, even though he was still burdened with a backlog of undischarged debts. A volume entitled Stolen Moments was published in Sydney in 1842, in early 1846, he left the Customs Department after a disagreement with Colonel Gibbes over a press leak that concerned the alleged behaviour of one of Parkes co-workers. Despite this, Parkes would continue to remain on friendly terms with Gibbes, Gibbes grandson, Frederick Jamison Gibbes, was also a member of the Parliament of New South Wales in the 1880s and like Parkes became a supporter of federation. After his departure from the Customs Service, Parkes worked in the private sector and he worked as an ivory and bone turner and later ran a shop of his own in Hunter Street. At one stage, he owned several newspapers, including The Peoples Advocate and New South Wales Vindicator and he was not successful as a businessman and eventually went bankrupt after running up debts totaling £48,500
Henry Parkes
–
The Honourable Sir Henry Parkes
GCMG
Henry Parkes
–
Birthplace in Canley, Coventry, England.
Henry Parkes
–
A wood engraving of Sir Henry Parkes moving the first resolution at the federation conference in Melbourne, 1 March 1890
Henry Parkes
–
Sir Henry Parkes and the second Lady Parkes in the 1890s
38.
New South Wales
–
New South Wales is a state on the east coast of Australia. It borders Queensland to the north, Victoria to the south and it has a coast line with the Tasman Sea on its east side. The Australian Capital Territory is an enclave within the state, New South Wales state capital is Sydney, which is also Australias most populous city. In March 2014, the population of New South Wales was 7.5 million. Just under two-thirds of the population,4.67 million. Inhabitants of New South Wales are referred to as New South Welshmen, the Colony of New South Wales was founded as a penal colony in 1788. It originally comprised a more than half of the Australian mainland with its western boundary set at 129th meridian east in 1825, in addition, the colony also included the island territories of New Zealand, Van Diemens Land, Lord Howe Island, and Norfolk Island. During the 19th century, most of the area was detached to form separate British colonies that eventually became New Zealand. However, the Swan River Colony has never administered as part of New South Wales. Lord Howe Island remains part of New South Wales, while Norfolk Island has become a federal Territory, as have the now known as the Australian Capital Territory. The prior inhabitants of New South Wales were the Aboriginal tribes who arrived in Australia about 40,000 to 60,000 years ago, before European settlement there were an estimated 250,000 Aboriginal people in the region. The Wodi Wodi people are the custodians of the Illawarra region of South Sydney. The Bundjalung people are the custodians of parts of the northern coastal areas. The European discovery of New South Wales was made by Captain James Cook during his 1770 survey along the eastern coast of the Dutch-named continent of New Holland. In his original journal covering the survey, in triplicate to satisfy Admiralty Orders, Cook first named the land New Wales, however, in the copy held by the Admiralty, he revised the wording to New South Wales. After years of chaos and anarchy after the overthrow of Governor William Bligh, macquaries legacy is still evident today. During the 19th century, large areas were separated to form the British colonies of Tasmania, South Australia, Victoria. Responsible government was granted to the New South Wales colony in 1855, following the Treaty of Waitangi, William Hobson declared British sovereignty over New Zealand in 1840
New South Wales
–
286 kg (630 lb) gold nugget unearthed in 1872 from
Hill End during the Gold Rush
New South Wales
–
Flag
New South Wales
–
Japanese POW camp in Cowra, 1944, several weeks before the
Cowra breakout
New South Wales
–
A short-lived
South Maitland Railway (SMR) Railcar travelling between
Weston and
Abermain, 1962. The SMR is notable for being the second last system in Australia to use steam haulage.
39.
Edmund Barton
–
Sir Edmund Barton, GCMG, PC, KC was an Australian politician and judge. He served as the first Prime Minister of Australia from 1901 to 1903, Barton first became an MP in 1879, in the Parliament of New South Wales. No party won a majority, however, he was able to form government with support from the Australian Labor Party, Barton resigned as Prime Minister in 1903 to become a judge of the High Court of Australia, serving until his death in 1920. Barton was born in the Sydney suburb of Glebe, the child of English parents William Barton, a stockbroker. He was baptised at St James Church, Sydney on 4 July 1849 and he graduated with first-class honours and the University Medal in classics from the University of Sydney, where he also demonstrated considerable skill as a cricketer in batting, but not in fielding. He was also a founding member of the Sydney Rowing Club. Barton became a barrister in 1871, on a cricketing trip to Newcastle in 1870 he met Jane Mason Ross, whom he married in 1877. In 1879, Barton umpired a cricket match at Sydney Cricket Ground between New South Wales and an English touring side captained by Lord Harris. In 1876 Barton stood for the Legislative Assembly in the poll of the graduates of the University of Sydney and he was defeated again for the same seat in 1877, but won in August 1879. When it was abolished in 1880, he became the member for Wellington, from November 1880 to 1882, at this stage he considered it almost unnecessary to point out his support for free trade. In 1882, he became Speaker of the Legislative Assembly and he was aged only 33, and was the youngest person to have been chosen presiding officer of any Australian legislative chamber. In 1884 he was elected President of the University of Sydney Union, in 1887, he was appointed to the Legislative Council at the instigation of Sir Henry Parkes. In January 1889, he agreed to being appointed Attorney-General in George Dibbss Protectionist government and this government lasted only until March, when Parkes formed a government again. Barton was a supporter of federation, which became a serious political agenda after Henry Parkes Tenterfield Oration. At the convention he made clear his support for the principle that trade, shall be absolutely free in a federal Australia. He also advocated that not just the house but also the upper house should be representative. He also took part in producing a constitution, which was substantially similar to the Australian Constitution enacted in 1900. He topped the poll and subsequently voted with Parkes, but refused to take a position in his minority government, after the Labor Party withdrew support and the government fell in October 1891, Parkes persuaded him to take over the leadership of the Federal movement in New South Wales
Edmund Barton
–
Edmund Barton aged 17
Edmund Barton
–
The Right Honourable Sir Edmund Barton
GCMG,
KC
Edmund Barton
–
Edmund Barton, first Prime Minister of Australia, ca. 1901
40.
Prime Minister of Australia
–
The Prime Minister of the Commonwealth of Australia is the head of government of Australia. The individual who holds the office is the most senior Minister of the Crown, the leader of the Cabinet, the office is not mentioned in the Constitution of Australia and exists only through longstanding political convention and tradition. Despite this, in practice it is the most powerful position in Australia. The individual who holds the office is commissioned by the Governor-General of Australia, almost always and according to convention, the Prime Minister is the leader of the majority party or largest party in a coalition of parties in the House of Representatives. However, there is no requirement that the prime minister sit in the House of Representatives. The only case where a member of the Senate was appointed minister was John Gorton. Malcolm Turnbull has held the office of Prime Minister since 15 September 2015, the Prime Minister and Treasurer are traditionally members of the House, but the Constitution does not have such a requirement. Before being sworn in as a Minister of the Crown, a person must first be sworn in as a member of the Federal Executive Council if they are not already a member. Membership of the Federal Executive Council entitles the member to the style of The Honourable for life, the senior members of the Executive Council constitute the Cabinet of Australia. The Prime Minister is, like ministers, normally sworn in by the Governor-General. When defeated in an election, or on resigning, the Prime Minister is said to hand in the commission, in the event of a Prime Minister dying in office, or becoming incapacitated, the Governor-General can terminate the commission. Despite the importance of the office of minister, the Constitution does not mention the office by name. The conventions of the Westminster system were thought to be entrenched in Australia by the authors of the Constitution that it was deemed unnecessary to detail them. The formal title of the portfolio has always been simply Prime Minister, except for the period of the Fourth Deakin Ministry, Page was the leader of the smaller party in the governing coalition, the Country Party. He held the office for three weeks until the UAP elected a new leader, Robert Menzies, in August 1941 Menzies resigned as prime minister. In July 1945 John Curtin died suddenly and his deputy, Frank Forde, was sworn in the next day as prime minister, although the Labor Party had not had an opportunity to meet and elect a new leader. Forde served for eight days until Ben Chifley was elected leader, Chifley was then sworn in, replacing Forde, who became Australias shortest-serving prime minister. Harold Holt disappeared while swimming on 17 December 1967 and was declared presumed dead on 19 December, the governor-general, Lord Casey, commissioned the Leader of the Country Party, John McEwen, to form a government until the Liberal Party elected a new leader
Prime Minister of Australia
–
Incumbent
Malcolm Turnbull since 15 September 2015
Prime Minister of Australia
Prime Minister of Australia
–
The first Prime Minister of Australia, Edmund Barton (sitting second from left), with his Cabinet, 1901.
Prime Minister of Australia
–
Prime Ministers
Curtin,
Fadden,
Hughes,
Menzies and Governor-General
The Duke of Gloucester 2nd from left, in 1945.
41.
Australian federal election, 1901
–
All 75 seats in the Australian House of Representatives, six of which were uncontested, as well as all 36 seats in the Australian Senate, were up for election. While the Protectionists came first on votes and seats, they fell short of a majority, the incumbent minority government remained in office with the parliamentary support of the Labour Party who held the balance of power, with the Free Trade Party forming the opposition. A few months prior to the 1903 election, Alfred Deakin replaced Barton who resigned to become a justice of the High Court of Australia. Floods in Queensland delayed polling in parts of the state until April and this election was also the only time that an election or any part thereof was held on a day other than a Saturday. The government was to conduct itself on a basis in the absence of a parliament. Lyne was unpopular and was unable to support, so he returned his commission. Edmund Barton was then called upon to form the interim government, Barton was sworn in as the inaugural Prime Minister, and his cabinet contested the poll as the incumbent government. Some candidates were sitting members of a state parliament. Voting franchise was according to each states specific electoral laws, South Australian and Western Australian women were enfranchised, but in the other states they could not vote. Tasmania retained a small property qualification for voting, but in the states all males over 21 were eligible to vote. Only in South Australia and Tasmania, however, were indigenous Australians even theoretically entitled to vote, a few may have done so in South Australia. Voting was voluntary throughout Australia and candidates were elected by a first past the post voting system, in South Australia, voters were required to mark the box opposite their preferred candidates, while in other states voters were required to cross out the names of non-preferred candidates. All seats were vacant −75 in the House of Representatives and 36 in the Senate, Six House of Representative seats were uncontested. The 75 House of Representative seats were determined by the population of each state, New South Wales was allocated 26, Victoria 23, Queensland 9, South Australia 7, Western Australia 5 and Tasmania 5. These numbers were set out in the Australian Constitution, the South Australian and Tasmanian colonial parliaments had not legislated for single member electorates and so their House of Representative members were elected from a single statewide electorate. In South Australia, each elector cast seven votes, while in Tasmania, each state elected six Senators regardless of population. Senators in each state were elected by bloc voting rather than the current proportional representation or single transferable vote system. There were also a number of independents of various political leanings, the party used the colour red throughout the campaign
Australian federal election, 1901
Australian federal election, 1901
–
All 75 seats of the
Australian House of Representatives 38 seats were needed for a majority in the House All 36 seats of the
Australian Senate
Australian federal election, 1901
–
Chris Watson, first federal Labour leader as of two months after the election, and would later be Prime Minister in 1904.
Australian federal election, 1901
–
Group photograph of all Federal Labour Party MPs elected at the inaugural 1901 election, including
Chris Watson,
Andrew Fisher,
Billy Hughes, and
Frank Tudor.
42.
Federation architecture
–
Federation architecture is the architectural style in Australia that was prevalent from around 1890 to 1915. The name refers to the Federation of Australia on 1 January 1901, the architectural style had antecedents in the Queen Anne style and Edwardian style of the United Kingdom, combined with various other influences like the Arts and Crafts style. Other styles also developed, like the Federation Warehouse style, which was influenced by the Romanesque Revival style. In Australia, Federation architecture is associated with cottages in the Queen Anne style. The Coat of Arms, and rising sun, representing a new dawn in the country of Australia, many Federation buildings, both residential and non-residential, are listed on the Register of the National Estate because of their heritage values. Gardens of the period were complex and contained many elements—generally a wider variety of plants than is seen in contemporary plantings, pergolas, rose arches, gazebos, wooden lattice fences were used to partition parts of the garden off, particularly the front from the more private back. Garden paths could be straight or gently curved, and often edged with glazed edging tiles or bricks, patterns for brick paving include stretcher bond, herringbone and basketweave. Asphalt and concrete were not used, plants were selected to produce year-round colour and interest in the local climate conditions. Initially, evergreen trees were used, but the denseness of shade led to increasing popularity of deciduous trees such as jacaranda, flowering plum, palms often framed the garden vista, and the native Cootamundra wattle was popular, as were shrubs such as camellias and standard roses. Conservatories contained begonias and adiantum ferns and they are Federation Queen Anne style, Federation Filigree style, Federation Arts and Craft style, and Federation Bungalow style. The Federation Queen Anne style was designed to embrace the outdoor lifestyles of the Australian people, most homes have asymmetric gables, white-painted window frames, front verandas with decorative timber features, tiling on the patio floor and entry paths. The brickwork is usually a red or dark brown, often with a mix of the two. The roofs are typically terracotta tiles with decorative gables, motifs, timber features, tall chimneys, decorative leadlight windows are also common, as are circular windows. Federation homes also have decorative features in the plasterwork, high ceilings. The Federation Queen Anne style was the most popular style in Australia between 1890 and 1910. The Federation Filigree style is common in the parts of Australia, especially in the north. It is a sight in Queensland and is sometimes known as the Queensland style. The Federation Arts and Craft style had its origins in England, Crafts and handiwork were emphasised to give architecture the human touch
Federation architecture
–
Caerleon, located in
Bellevue Hill, New South Wales, was the first Queen Anne home in Australia. It is listed on the
Register of the National Estate.
Federation architecture
–
Federation Queen Anne mansion in
South Yarra, Victoria
Federation architecture
–
'Vallambrosa', Appian Way,
Burwood, New South Wales, Federation Queen Anne style
Federation architecture
–
'Ailsa',
Neutral Bay, New South Wales, Federation Arts and Crafts style
43.
Governor of Queensland
–
The Governor of Queensland is the representative in the state of Queensland of the Queen of Australia. In an analogous way to the Governor-General of Australia at the national level, in particular the Governor has the power to appoint and dismiss the Premier of Queensland and all other Ministers in the Cabinet, and issue writs for the election of the state Parliament. The current Governor, Paul de Jersey, was sworn in on 29 July 2014, as from June 2014, The Queen, upon the recommendation of then-Premier Campbell Newman, accorded all current, future and living former Governors the title The Honourable in perpetuity. The Governor of Queensland has resided at Government House, Brisbane since 1910, the mansion, set in 14 hectares of gardens and bushland in the Brisbane suburb of Bardon, is also known as Fernberg. Unlike Fernberg, the original Government House was purpose-built and was used from 1862 to 1910, the office of Governor is established by the Constitution of Queensland. Nevertheless, the Governor retains the powers of the Crown, and has the right to appoint and dismiss Ministers, issue pardons. Sir Joh elected to resign on 1 December 1987, the Governor is head of the Executive Council, a Queensland equivalent to the Federal Executive Council. The Council is composed of ministers from the government of the day, the Chief Justice of Queensland and other judges in the Queensland judicial system are appointed by the Governor acting on the advice of the Executive Council. The first Australian- born Governor of Queensland was Lieutenant-General Sir John Lavarack and his successor, Sir Henry Abel Smith was British. All subsequent governors have been Australian-born, except for Leneen Forde, four former governors of Queensland are alive, the oldest being Leneen Forde. The most recent death of a governor was that of Sir Walter Campbell. Administrators and Lieutenant-Governors are deputy roles generally appointed to carry out the duties of the Governor when the Governor is unavailable, the following are the Administrators and Lieutenant-Governors of Queensland, Official Website of the Governor of Queensland
Governor of Queensland
Governor of Queensland
–
Standard of the Governor of Queensland
Governor of Queensland
Governor of Queensland
44.
Charles Cochrane-Baillie, 2nd Baron Lamington
–
Born in London, England, he was the only son of Alexander Baillie-Cochrane, the 1st Baron Lamington. Charles was educated at Eton College and Christ Church, Oxford where he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in 1883, in 1885, he became assistant private secretary to the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Lord Salisbury. Upon the death of his father in 1890, he succeeded as the 2nd Baron Lamington, on 13 June 1895, he married Mary Houghton Hozier at St Michaels Church, Pimlico, they had two children, a son and a daughter. In October 1895, Lord Lamington was selected to replace Sir Henry Norman as Governor of Queensland and he was a very politically conservative governor, and expressed a concern that the Federation of Australia which took place during his tenure would lead to unrestrained socialism. He also worked with the first Premier of Queensland, Sir Samuel Griffith, apart from six months leave in England when he was knighted GCMG, Lord Lamington served as governor for five years until 19 December 1901. In 1903 he was made GCIE, and appointed as Governor of Bombay and he is also noted as being sympathetic, after having met ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, to the Baháí Faith. Lord Lamington was appointed captain of the Lanarkshire Yeomanry on 26 March 1902, in Spring 1919, he served as Commissioner of the British Relief Unit in Syria, prior to its allocation as a French mandate. He returned to his home, Lamington House, in Lanarkshire, Scotland. They had two children, a son Victor Alexander Brisbane William Cochrane-Baillie and a daughter Grisell Annabella Gem Cochrane-Baillie, Lamington is also reported to have referred to the cakes as those bloody poofy woolly biscuits
Charles Cochrane-Baillie, 2nd Baron Lamington
–
The Right Honourable The Lord Lamington
GCMG GCIE
45.
Brisbane
–
Brisbane is the capital of and most populous city in the Australian state of Queensland, and the third most populous city in Australia. Brisbanes metropolitan area has a population of 2.35 million, the Brisbane central business district stands on the original European settlement and is situated inside a bend of the Brisbane River, about 15 kilometres from its mouth at Moreton Bay. The demonym of Brisbane is Brisbanite, one of the oldest cities in Australia, Brisbane was founded upon the ancient homelands of the indigenous Turrbal and Jagera peoples. A penal settlement was founded in 1824 at Redcliffe,28 kilometres north of the business district. The city was marred by the Australian frontier wars between 1843 and 1855, and development was set back by the Great Fire of Brisbane. Brisbane was chosen as the capital when Queensland was proclaimed a colony from New South Wales in 1859. During World War II, Brisbane played a role in the Allied campaign. Today, Brisbane is well known for its distinct Queenslander architecture which forms much of the built heritage. It also receives attention for its damaging flood events, most notably in 1974 and 2011. Several large cultural, international and sporting events have held at Brisbane, including the 1982 Commonwealth Games, World Expo 88, the final Goodwill Games in 2001. Prior to white settlement, the Brisbane area was inhabited by the Turrbal and they knew the area that is now the central business district as Mian-jin, meaning place shaped as a spike. The Moreton Bay area was explored by Matthew Flinders. On 17 July 1799, Flinders landed at what is now known as Woody Point, in 1823 Governor of New South Wales Sir Thomas Brisbane instructed that a new northern penal settlement be developed, and an exploration party led by John Oxley further explored Moreton Bay. Oxley discovered, named, and explored the Brisbane River as far as Goodna,20 kilometres upstream from the Brisbane central business district, Oxley recommended Red Cliff Point for the new colony, reporting that ships could land at any tide and easily get close to the shore. The party settled in Redcliffe on 13 September 1824, under the command of Lieutenant Henry Miller with 14 soldiers and 29 convicts. However, this settlement was abandoned after a year and the colony was moved to a site on the Brisbane River now known as North Quay,28 km south, chief Justice Forbes gave the new settlement the name of Edenglassie before it was named Brisbane. Non-convict European settlement of the Brisbane region commenced in 1838, German missionaries settled at Zions Hill, Nundah as early as 1837, five years before Brisbane was officially declared a free settlement. The band consisted of ministers Christopher Eipper and Carl Wilhelm Schmidt and lay missionaries Haussmann, Johann Gottried Wagner, Niquet, Hartenstein, Zillman, Franz, Rode, Doege and they were allocated 260 hectares and set about establishing the mission, which became known as the German Station
Brisbane
Brisbane
Brisbane
Brisbane
46.
Telegraph
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Telegraphy is the long-distance transmission of textual or symbolic messages without the physical exchange of an object bearing the message. Thus semaphore is a method of telegraphy, whereas pigeon post is not, telegraphy requires that the method used for encoding the message be known to both sender and receiver. Such methods are designed according to the limits of the medium used. The use of signals, beacons, reflected light signals. In the 19th century, the harnessing of electricity led to the invention of electrical telegraphy, the advent of radio in the early 20th century brought about radiotelegraphy and other forms of wireless telegraphy. The word telegraph was first coined by the French inventor of the Semaphore line, Claude Chappe, a telegraph is a device for transmitting and receiving messages over long distances, i. e. for telegraphy. The word telegraph alone now generally refers to an electrical telegraph, Wireless telegraphy is also known as CW, for continuous wave, as opposed to the earlier radio technique of using a spark gap. Contrary to the definition used by Chappe, Morse argued that the term telegraph can strictly be applied only to systems that transmit. This is to be distinguished from semaphore, which transmits messages. Smoke signals, for instance, are to be considered semaphore, according to Morse, telegraph dates only from 1832 when Pavel Schilling invented one of the earliest electrical telegraphs. A telegraph message sent by a telegraph operator or telegrapher using Morse code was known as a telegram. A cablegram was a sent by a submarine telegraph cable. Later, a Telex was a sent by a Telex network. A wire picture or wire photo was a picture that was sent from a remote location by a facsimile telegraph. A diplomatic telegram, also known as a cable, is the term given to a confidential communication between a diplomatic mission and the foreign ministry of its parent country. These continue to be called telegrams or cables regardless of the used for transmission. Commercial electrical telegraphs were introduced from 1837, the first telegraphs came in the form of optical telegraph, including the use of smoke signals, beacons, or reflected light, which have existed since ancient times. Early proposals for a telegraph system were made to the Royal Society by Robert Hooke in 1684 and were first implemented on an experimental level by Sir Richard Lovell Edgeworth in 1767
Telegraph
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Replica of
Claude Chappe 's optical telegraph on the Litermont near
Nalbach, Germany
Telegraph
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Demonstration of the semaphore
Telegraph
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Pavel Schilling, an early pioneer of electrical telegraphy
Telegraph
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Cooke and Wheatstone's five-needle, six-wire telegraph
47.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
Argentina
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The
Cave of the Hands in
Santa Cruz province, with indigenous artwork dating from 13,000–9,000 years ago
Argentina
Argentina
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The surrender of Beresford to
Santiago de Liniers during the
British invasions of the Río de la Plata
Argentina
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Portrait of General
José de San Martin,
Libertador of Argentina,
Chile and
Peru
48.
Switzerland
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Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
Switzerland
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Founded in 44 BC by
Lucius Munatius Plancus,
Augusta Raurica was the first Roman settlement on the Rhine and is now among the most important archaeological sites in Switzerland.
Switzerland
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Flag
Switzerland
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The 1291 Bundesbrief (Federal charter)
Switzerland
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The Old Swiss Confederacy from 1291 (dark green) to the sixteenth century (light green) and its associates (blue). In the other colors are shown the subject territories.
49.
Premier of New South Wales
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The Premier of New South Wales is the head of government in the state of New South Wales, Australia. The Government of New South Wales follows the Westminster system, with a Parliament of New South Wales acting as the legislature, prior to Federation in 1901 the term Prime Minister of New South Wales was used, Premier was used from 1901. The current Premier is Gladys Berejiklian, the Leader of the New South Wales Liberal Party, Berejiklian replaced Mike Baird on 23 January 2017, after Baird resigned as Premier. As of January 2017, nine former Premiers are alive, the oldest being Barrie Unsworth, the most recent premier to die was Tom Lewis on 25 April 2016. List of Premiers of New South Wales by time in office Deputy Premier of New South Wales
Premier of New South Wales
–
Incumbent
Mike Baird since 17 April 2014
Premier of New South Wales
–
Premier of New South Wales
Premier of New South Wales
Premier of New South Wales
50.
Tariff
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A tariff is a tax on imports or exports. In other languages and very occasionally in English, tariff or its equivalent may also be used to any list of prices. A customs duty or due is the tax levied on the import or export of goods in international trade. In economic sense, a duty is also a kind of consumption tax, a duty levied on goods being imported is referred to as an import duty. Similarly, a duty levied on exports is called an export duty, a tariff, which is actually a list of commodities along with the leviable rate of customs duty, is popularly referred to as a customs duty. This is no longer the case, Customs duty is calculated on the determination of the assessable value in case of those items for which the duty is levied ad valorem. This is often the transaction value unless a customs officer determines assessable value in accordance with the Harmonized System, However, for certain items like petroleum and alcohol, customs duty is realized at a specific rate applied to the volume of the import or export consignments. For the purpose of assessment of duty, products are given an identification code that has come to be known as the Harmonized System code. This code was developed by the World Customs Organization based in Brussels, a Harmonized System code may be from four to ten digits. For example,17.03 is the HS code for molasses from the extraction or refining of sugar, However, within 17.03, the number 17.03.90 stands for Molasses. Introduction of Harmonized System code in 1990s has largely replaced the Standard International Trade Classification, in drawing up the national tariff, the revenue departments often specifies the rate of customs duty with reference to the HS code of the product. A Customs authority in each country is responsible for collecting taxes on the import into or export of goods out of the country, Evasion of customs duties takes place mainly in two ways. In one, the trader under-declares the value so that the value is lower than actual. In a similar vein, a trader can evade customs duty by understatement of quantity or volume of the product of trade, a trader may also evade duty by misrepresenting traded goods, categorizing goods as items which attract lower customs duties. The Evasion of customs duty may take place with or without the collaboration of customs officials, Evasion of customs duty does not necessarily constitute smuggling. Many countries allow a traveler to bring goods into the country duty-free and these goods may be bought at ports and airports or sometimes within one country without attracting the usual government taxes and then brought into another country duty-free. Some countries impose allowances which limit the number or value of items that one person can bring into the country. These restrictions often apply to tobacco, wine, spirits, cosmetics, gifts, often foreign diplomats and UN officials are entitled to duty-free goods
Tariff
Tariff
–
See also
Protective Tariffs for the policies of using tariffs, and
tariff (disambiguation) for other uses.
Tariff
–
Terminology
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