1.
Order of the Crown (Prussia)
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The Order of the Crown was a Prussian order of chivalry. Officially the Order of the Red Eagle and the Order of the Crown were equal, most officials did however prefer to be appointed in the older Order of the Red Eagle. The Order of the Crown was often used as a decoration of someone who had to be rewarded while the Prussian government did not want to award the Order of the Red Eagle. The badge of the Order for the 1st to 4th classes was a gilt cross pattée, the obverse gilt central disc bore the crown of Prussia, surrounded by a blue enamel ring bearing the motto of the German Empire Gott Mit Uns. The reverse gilt disc has the Prussian royal monogram, surrounded by a blue ring with the date 18 October 1861. The star of the Order was a gilt eight-pointed star, a silver eight-pointed star, or a silver four-pointed star, the gilt central disc again bore the crown of Prussia, surrounded by a blue enamel ring bearing the motto Gott Mit Uns. The ribbon of the Order was blue, the order could be awarded in dozens of variations. For example with superimposed Cross of Geneva, with swords and with oak leaves, the following lists show a fair cross section of individuals who were known to be conferred with the Order in its several classes, in order of precedence. Sir Christopher George Francis Maurice Cradock Baron Giacomo Natoli - 1st Class Mustafa Kemal Atatürk - 1st Class, Count Charles John dOultremont, Knight Grand Cross. Ernst von Bibra - 3rd Class 1869 Gen. Major-General Sir John McNeill - 1st class,1899 - in connection with the visit of Emperor Wilhelm II to the United Kingdom
2.
New Zealand Parliament
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The New Zealand Parliament is the legislative branch of New Zealand, consisting of the Queen of New Zealand and the New Zealand House of Representatives. Before 1951, there was a chamber, the New Zealand Legislative Council. The Parliament was established in 1854 and is one of the oldest continuously functioning parliaments in the world, the House of Representatives is a democratically elected body whose members are known as Members of Parliament. It usually consists of 120 MPs, though sometimes due to overhang seats. 70 MPs are elected directly in electorate seats and the remainder are filled by list MPs based on each partys share of the party vote, Māori were represented in Parliament from 1867, and in 1893 women gained the vote. New Zealand does not allow sentenced prisoners to vote, the Parliament is closely linked to the executive branch. The House of Representatives has met in the Parliament Buildings located in Wellington, Parliament funds the broadcast of its proceedings through Parliament TV, AM Network and Parliament Today. It was based on the Westminster model and had a house, called the House of Representatives. The members of the House of Representatives were elected under the first-past-the-post voting system, originally Councillors were appointed for life, but later their terms were fixed at seven years. In 1951, the Council was abolished altogether, making the New Zealand legislature unicameral, under the Constitution Act, legislative power was also conferred on New Zealands provinces, each of which had its own elected Legislative Council. These provincial legislatures were able to legislate for their provinces on most subjects, over a twenty-year period, political power was progressively centralised, and the provinces were abolished altogether in 1876. Four Māori electorates were created in 1867 during the term of the 4th Parliament, originally the New Zealand Parliament remained subordinate to the British Parliament, the supreme legislative authority for the entire British Empire. One historical speciality of the New Zealand Parliament was the country quota, from 1889 on, districts were weighted according to their urban/rural split. The country quota was in effect until it was abolished in 1945 by a mostly urban-elected Labour government, the New Zealand Parliament is sovereign with no institution able to over-ride its decisions. The ability of Parliament to act is, legally, unimpeded, for example, the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 is a normal piece of legislation, it is not superior law as codified constitutions are in some other countries. The only thing Parliament is limited in its power are on some entrenched issues relating to elections and these issues require either 75% of all MPs to support the bill or a referendum on the issue. The Queen of New Zealand is one of the components of Parliament—formally called the Queen-in-Parliament and this results from the role of the monarch to sign into law the bills that have been passed by the House of Representatives. The House of Representatives was established as a house and has been the Parliaments sole chamber since 1951
3.
William Travers (politician)
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William Thomas Locke Travers was a New Zealand lawyer, politician, explorer, and naturalist. Travers was born near Newcastle West, County Limerick, Ireland and his father chose to retire to France, and Travers was consequently brought up there. He was educated in Saint-Malo, a town in Brittany, in 1835, he joined the British military, and was part of the British Auxiliary Legion that fought in Spains First Carlist War. After his military service ended, Travers became a lawyer, in 1849, he and his family moved to Nelson, New Zealand, where he continued to practice law. Later, he lived in Christchurch and Wellington. He purchased Englefield Lodge in Christchurch in 1866 and sold the property in 1872 to Edward Stevens, Travers political career covered both national and provincial politics. He was a member of the 1st New Zealand Parliament, representing first the Town of Nelson and then Waimea electorates, in the 1st Parliament, the Town of Nelson was a two member electorate. On nomination day on 25 July 1853, Travers and James Mackay were the candidates put forward. They were thus declared elected unopposed, parliaments first term started on 24 May 1854. Travers and William Cautley, MP for Waimea, both resigned on 26 May 1854, Travers subsequently contested the electorate that Cautley had vacated, being elected in the 21 June 1854 Waimea by-election. He was re-elected in the 1855 general election, but was disqualified on 26 July 1859, Travers returned in the 4th Parliament as representative for the City of Christchurch, after winning the 1867 by-election. He resigned on 29 July 1870 before the end of the term and he was a member of the 6th Parliament as representative for the City of Wellington, having won the 1877 by-election. He resigned on 25 January 1878 and he also served in the councils of Nelson Province and Canterbury Province, and unsuccessfully stood for the superintendency of both. He stood as one of seven candidates for the Nelson Provincial Council in 1853 in the Town of Nelson electorate and he came sixth and was thus not elected. He represented Wellington in parliament from 1877 to 1881, but was not elected when he again in 1893. In Wellington he was City Solicitor, and was an advocate for the west coast railway in 1878 and he subsequently became company solicitor to the Wellington and Manawatu Railway Company which built the line north from Wellington to the Manawatu. His most significant political contribution was his campaign to central government responsible for education. At the same time, Travers was also an explorer and naturalist
4.
Alfred Saunders
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Alfred Saunders was a 19th-century New Zealand politician. He was elected onto the Nelson Provincial Council representing Waimea South in 1855 and he was elected as Member of Parliament for Waimea in 1861, and he resigned from this seat in 1864. He then represented Cheviot from 1878 to 1881 when he was defeated and he contested the 1888 by-election in the Ashley electorate and was defeated by John Verrall by just two votes. From 1889 to 1890 he represented the Lincoln electorate and from 1890 to 1896 he represented Selwyn and he supported the Temperance Union petition in favour of womans suffrage to Parliament in 1891. He had ten children, including Sarah Page
5.
Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin
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The Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin was a territory in Northern Germany held by the House of Mecklenburg residing at Schwerin. It was a member state of the German Confederation and became a federated state of the North German Confederation. The smaller southeastern part was held by the Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz branch of the ducal house. Likewise in the west, the Duchy of Holstein was incorporated into the Schleswig-Holstein Province, in the early years of the French Revolutionary Wars Duke Frederick Francis I of Mecklenburg-Schwerin had remained neutral, and in 1803 he regained Wismar, which was pawned to him from Sweden. After Napoleons victory at the Battle of Austerlitz and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. Napoleon, in preparation for the French invasion of Russia in 1812, disregarded this alliance, instead, Denmark was promised the adjacent lands of Swedish Pomerania by the 1814 Peace of Kiel and the rule of the Mecklenburg dukes remained inviolate. In 1819 serfdom was abolished in his dominions. During the revolutions of 1848, the duchy witnessed a considerable agitation in favour of a liberal constitution, on 10 October 1849 Grand Duke Frederick Francis II granted a new Basic law elaborated by his First Minister Ludwig von Lützow. In the dispute over neighbouring Holstein which culminated in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War, Frederick Francis II supported the Kingdom of Prussia and his grand duchy began to pass more and more under Prussian influence. In 1867 he joined the North German Confederation and the Zollverein, in the Franco-Prussian War, Prussia again received valuable assistance from Grand Duke Frederick Francis II, who was an ardent advocate of German unity and held a high command in her armies. In the course of the German unification in 1871, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, there was now renewed agitation for a more democratic constitution, and the German Reichstag parliament gave some countenance to this movement. In 1897 Frederick Francis IV succeeded his father Frederick Francis III as the last grand duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, in 1907 the Grand Duke promised a constitution to his subjects. The duchy had always been under a system of government. The duchy shared a diet, which met for a short session each year, at other times they were represented by a committee consisting of the proprietors of knights estates, known as the Ritterschaft, and the Landschaft, or burgomasters of certain towns. Mecklenburg-Schwerin returned six members to the Reichstag, upon the suicide of his cousin Grand Duke Adolphus Frederick VI on 23 February 1918, Frederick Francis served as regent of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Shortly afterwards, on 14 November, he was forced to renounce the Mecklenburg throne in the course of the German Revolution, the grand duchy turned into the Free State of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, a federated state of the Weimar Republic. Thereby ended nearly eight centuries of rule by the originally Obotrite Mecklenburg dynasty. Until 1918 the grand duke was styled as Prince of the Wends and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
6.
Nelson, New Zealand
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Nelson is a city on the eastern shores of Tasman Bay, and is the economic and cultural centre of the Nelson Region. Nelson is the oldest city in the South Island and the second-oldest settled city in New Zealand, Nelson city is bordered to the west and south-west by the Tasman District Council and the north-east, east and south-east by the Marlborough District Council. The city does not include Richmond, the areas second-largest settlement, Nelson City has a population of around 50,000, making it New Zealands 12th most populous city and the geographical centre of New Zealand. When combined with the town of Richmond which has close to 14,000 residents, Nelson is well known for its thriving local arts and crafts scene, Each year, the city hosts events popular with locals and tourists alike, such as the Nelson Arts Festival. The annual Wearable Art Awards began near Nelson and a local museum, Nelson was named in honour of the Admiral Horatio Nelson who defeated both the French and Spanish fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. Many roads and public areas around the city are named after people and ships associated with that battle, inhabitants of Nelson are referred to as Nelsonians. Nelsons Māori name, Whakatū, means build, raise, or establish, in an article to The Colonist newspaper on 16 July 1867, Francis Stevens described Nelson as The Naples of the Southern Hemisphere. Today, Nelson has the nicknames of Sunny Nelson due to its high sunshine hours per year or the Top of the South because of its geographic location, settlement of Nelson began about 700 years ago by Māori. There is evidence the earliest settlements in New Zealand are around the Nelson-Marlborough regions, the earliest recorded iwi in the Nelson district are the Ngāti Kuia, Ngāti Tumatakokiri, Ngāti Apa and Rangitane tribes. Raids from northern tribes in the 1820s, led by Te Rauparaha and his Ngāti Toa, soon decimated the local population, the New Zealand Company in London planned the settlement of Nelson. They intended to buy cheaply from the Māori some 200,000 acres which they planned to divide into one thousand lots, the Company earmarked future profits to finance the free passage of artisans and labourers and their families, and for the construction of public works. However, by September 1841 only about one third of the lots had sold, despite this the Colony pushed ahead, and land was surveyed by Frederick Tuckett. Three ships sailed from London under the command of Captain Arthur Wakefield, however, after some delay, Hobson allowed the Company to investigate the Tasman Bay area at the north end of the South Island. The Company selected the now occupied by Nelson City because it had the best harbour in the area. The Company secured a vague and undetermined area from the Māori for £800 that included Nelson, Waimea and this allowed the settlement to begin, but the lack of definition would prove the source of much future conflict. The three colony ships sailed into Nelson Haven during the first week of November 1841, within 18 months the Company had sent out 18 ships with 1052 men,872 women and 1384 children. However, fewer than ninety of the settlers had the capital to start as landowners, the early settlement of Nelson province included a proportion of German immigrants, who arrived on the ship Sankt Pauli and formed the nucleus of the villages of Sarau and Neudorf. These were mostly Lutheran Protestants with a number of Bavarian Catholics
7.
Hamburg
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Hamburg, officially Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg, is the second largest city in Germany and the eighth largest city in the European Union. It is the second smallest German state by area and its population is over 1.7 million people, and the wider Hamburg Metropolitan Region covers more than 5.1 million inhabitants. The city is situated on the river Elbe, the official long name reflects Hamburgs history as a member of the medieval Hanseatic League, a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire, a city-state, and one of the 16 states of Germany. Before the 1871 Unification of Germany, it was a sovereign state. Prior to the changes in 1919, the civic republic was ruled by a class of hereditary grand burghers or Hanseaten. Though repeatedly destroyed by the Great Fire of Hamburg, the floods and military conflicts including WW2 bombing raids, the city managed to recover and emerge wealthier after each catastrophe. On the river Elbe, Hamburg is a port and a global service, media, logistics and industrial hub, with headquarters and facilities of Airbus, Blohm + Voss, Aurubis, Beiersdorf. The radio and television broadcaster NDR, Europes largest printing and publishing firm Gruner + Jahr, Hamburg has been an important financial centre for centuries, and is the seat of Germanys oldest stock exchange and the worlds second oldest bank, Berenberg Bank. The city is a fast expanding tourist destination for domestic and international visitors. It ranked 16th in the world for livability in 2015, the ensemble Speicherstadt and Kontorhausviertel was declared a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO in 2015. Hamburg is a major European science, research and education hub with several universities and institutes and its creative industries and major cultural venues include the renowned Elbphilharmonie and Laeisz concert halls, various art venues, music producers and artists. It is regarded as a haven for artists, gave birth to movements like Hamburger Schule. Hamburg is also known for theatres and a variety of musical shows. St. Paulis Reeperbahn is among the best known European entertainment districts, Hamburg is on the southern point of the Jutland Peninsula, between Continental Europe to the south and Scandinavia to the north, with the North Sea to the west and the Baltic Sea to the north-east. It is on the River Elbe at its confluence with the Alster, the city centre is around the Binnenalster and Außenalster, both formed by damming the River Alster to create lakes. The island of Neuwerk and two neighbouring islands Scharhörn and Nigehörn, in the Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park, are also part of Hamburg. The neighbourhoods of Neuenfelde, Cranz, Francop and Finkenwerder are part of the Altes Land region, neugraben-Fischbek has Hamburgs highest elevation, the Hasselbrack at 116.2 metres AMSL. Hamburg has a climate, influenced by its proximity to the coast
8.
New Zealand Company
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The New Zealand Company was a 19th-century English company that played a key role in the colonisation of New Zealand. The company was formed to carry out the principles of systematic colonisation devised by Edward Gibbon Wakefield, the New Zealand Company established settlements at Wellington, Nelson, Wanganui and Dunedin and also became involved in the settling of New Plymouth and Christchurch. It reached the peak of efficiency about 1841, encountered problems from 1843 from which it never recovered. The company indulged in many land purchases from Māori, in many cases reselling land it did not own. The company, in turn, was criticised by the Colonial Office and New Zealand Governors for its trickery. Missionaries in New Zealand were also critical of the company, fearing its activities would lead to the “conquest, britains Colonial Secretary rejected the proposal. The earliest organised attempt to colonise New Zealand came in 1825, on 5 March 1826 the ships, Lambton and Rosanna, reached Stewart Island, which Herd explored and then dismissed as a possible settlement, before sailing north to inspect land around Otago Harbour. Herd was unconvinced that area was the location and sailed instead for Te Whanganui-a-Tara. The ships then sailed up the east coast to explore prospects for trade, stopping at the Coromandel Peninsula and the Bay of Islands. In January 1827 Herd surveyed parts of the harbour at Hokianga, the price for the land was five muskets, fifty three pounds powder, four pair blankets, three hundred flints and four musket cartridge boxes. The venture had cost the New Zealand Company ₤20,000, the failure of Lambtons project came to the attention of 30-year-old aspiring politician Edward Gibbon Wakefield, who was serving three years in jail for abducting a 15-year-old heiress. Wakefields plan entailed a company buying land from the residents of Australia or New Zealand very cheaply, then selling it to speculators. The immigrants would provide the labour to break in the gentlemens lands and they would eventually be able to buy their own land, but high land prices and low rates of pay would ensure they first laboured for many years. In May 1830 Wakefield was released from prison and joined the National Colonisation Society, whose committee included Wilmot-Horton, nine MPs and three clergymen. Wakefields influence within the society grew and by the end of the year his plans for colonisation of Australasia had become the central focus of the societys pamphlets. Land in the town of Adelaide was offered at ₤1 an acre on maps showing town, in March 1836 a survey party sailed for South Australia and the first emigrants followed four months later. Wakefield claimed all credit for the establishment of the colony, but was disappointed with the outcome, instead, in late 1836, he set his sights on New Zealand, where his theories of systematic colonisation could be put into full effect. Wakefield formed the New Zealand Association, and on 22 May 1837 chaired its first meeting, which was attended by ten others including MPs Molesworth and William Hutt, and R. S
9.
William Fox (politician)
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Sir William Fox KCMG was the second Premier of New Zealand on four occasions in the 19th century, while New Zealand was still a colony. He was known for his confiscation of Māori land rights, his contributions to the education system and he has been described as determined and intelligent, but also as bitter and too fond of personal attacks. Different aspects of his personality are emphasised by different accounts, changing due to the reviewers political beliefs. Fox was born on 2 September 1812 at 5 Westoe Village in South Shields and his family was a relatively successful one. He was educated initially at Durham School and then at Wadham College and his activities for several years after graduating are a mystery, some speculate that he was not in England. In 1838 he studied law in London, shortly after qualifying to practice as a lawyer, Fox married Sarah Halcomb. The couple decided that they would emigrate to New Zealand, joining a number of other colonists. Upon his arrival in Wellington Foxs legal qualifications were recognised, but there was little work, Fox lost the right to practice as a lawyer when, in 1843, he refused to swear an oath that he considered degrading. This event forced him to focus almost entirely on writing and journalism, initially, Fox was opposed to government negotiations with Māori over land, stating that Māori had a right only to land that they used. He also condemned the governments weak response to the killing of Arthur Wakefield. Foxs criticism of Governor Robert FitzRoy eventually played a part in FitzRoys removal from office, in 1843 Fox was chosen by the New Zealand Company as Wakefields replacement in Nelson. In Nelson, Fox met with mixed success, there was little direct conflict with the Māori, and most of Foxs work was related to economic development. Poor planning and inaccurate land surveying had left colonists with considerably less than had been promised them, while many modern historians believe that he did a good job, Fox himself found that even his best efforts were not good enough for the angry colonists. Fox increasingly spent his time leading parties into the wilderness near Nelson, Fox was physically active all through his life. As the New Zealand Companys senior officer in the colony, he was Foxs superior, Fox quickly travelled to Wellington, and managed to secure himself Wakefields position. He accomplished this mainly because of the distance between Nelson and Wellington, which enabled him to win the position before instructions could be received from other cities. He was not the first choice of the Companys board in London, which preferred Dillon Bell, the Company was in decline after the deaths of both Edward and Arthur Wakefield. Fox gradually became active in the Company, taking more of an interest in the colonial government
10.
Taranaki
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Taranaki is a region in the west of New Zealands North Island, administered by the Taranaki Regional Council. It is named for its main feature, the stratovolcano of Mount Taranaki. The main centre is the city of New Plymouth, the New Plymouth District has over 65% of the population of Taranaki. New Plymouth is in North Taranaki along with Inglewood and Waitara, South Taranaki towns include Hawera, Stratford and Etham. Since 2005, Taranaki has used the promotional brand Like no other, Taranaki is on the west coast of the North Island, surrounding the volcanic peak. The region has an area of 7258 km², the large bays north-west and south-west of Cape Egmont are the prosaically named North Taranaki Bight and South Taranaki Bight. Mount Taranaki or Mount Egmont, the second highest mountain in the North Island, is the dominant feature of the region. A Māori legend says that Taranaki previously lived with the Tongariro, Ngauruhoe and Ruapehu mountains of the central North Island, a near-perfect cone, it last erupted in the mid-18th century. The mountain and its immediate surrounds form Egmont National Park, the mountain has two alternative official names, Mount Taranaki and Mount Egmont. The region is fertile, thanks to generous rainfall and the rich volcanic soil. Dairy farming predominates, with Fonterras Whareroa milk factory just outside of Hawera producing the largest volume of dairy ingredients from a single anywhere in the world. There are also oil and gas deposits in the region, both on- and off-shore, the Maui gas field off the south-west coast has provided most of New Zealands gas supply as well as, at one time supporting two methanol plants at Motunui. More fuel and fertiliser is produced from a well-complex at Kapuni, the way the land mass projects into the Tasman Sea with northerly, westerly and southerly exposures results in many excellent surfing and windsurfing locations, some of them considered world-class. Taranaki has a population of 116,600 as of Statistics New Zealands June 2016,2.5 percent of New Zealands population and it is the tenth most populous region of New Zealand. The median age of Taranakis population is 39.9 years, around 16.2 percent of the population is aged 65 or over while 21.1 percent is aged under 15. There are 95.7 males for every hundred females in Taranaki, just under half the residents live in New Plymouth, with Hawera being the only other town in the region with a population over 10,000. The region has had a strong Māori presence for centuries, the local iwi include Ngāti Mutunga, Ngāti Maru, Ngāti Ruanui, Taranaki, Te Āti Awa, Nga Rauru, Ngāruahinerangi and Ngāti Tama. Around 50.2 percent of Taranakis population affiliate with Christianity and 2.7 percent affiliate with non-Christian religions, catholicism is the largest Christian denomination in Taranaki with 15.5 percent affiliating, while Anglicanism is the second-largest with 13.5 percent affiliating
11.
Second Taranaki War
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The Second Taranaki War is a term used by some historians for the period of hostilities between Māori and the New Zealand Government in the Taranaki district of New Zealand between 1863 and 1866. The Hauhau movement became a factor for Taranaki Māori in the absence of individual Māori commanders. The style of warfare after 1863 differed markedly from that of the 1860-61 conflict, in which Māori had taken set positions, as the troops advanced, the Government built an expanding line of redoubts, behind which settlers built homes and developed farms. The effect was a creeping confiscation of almost a million acres of land, the Governments war policy was opposed by the British commander, General Duncan Cameron, who clashed with Governor Sir George Grey and offered his resignation in February 1865. He left New Zealand six months later, among the new colonial forces were specialist Forest Ranger units, which embarked on lengthy search-and-destroy missions deep into the bush. It concluded, In so far as Māori fought at all – and few did – they were defending their kainga, crops and land against military advance. The conflict in Taranaki had its roots in the First Taranaki War, neither side fulfilled the terms of the truce, leaving many of the issues unresolved. In 1861 Governor Thomas Gore Browne had promised to investigate the legitimacy of the sale of the Waitara land, in a despatch to London Grey wrote that he had failed to shake the dogged determination of Māori on the Waitara question. A great part of the race, he wrote, may be stated to be at the present moment in arms. Large numbers of them have renounced the Queens authority, and many of them declare openly that they have been so wronged that they never return under it. The great majority of them declare that if war arises from this cause, they will rise, the reasons they urge for such proceedings are. That the people of the Waitara, without having been guilty of any crime, were driven at the point of the sword from villages, houses and that a great crime had been committed against them. That through all future generations it will be told that their lands have been forcibly and unlawfully taken from them by officers appointed by the Queen of England. A month later Grey began planning to return Waitara to the Māori, but he did nothing to signal his intention and on 4 May, a week before he acted, Māori began killing British troops traversing their land. Little distinction was made between the land of rebels and Māori loyal to the government, in their eyes the fight was not against the Queens sovereignty, but a struggle for house and home. In 1862 the so-called Hauhau Movement emerged among Taranaki Māori, the movement was an extremist part of the Pai Mārire religion that was both violent and vehemently anti-Pākehā. The fragile peace that had existed in Taranaki since the truce of March 1861 was broken with two separate but related events southwest of New Plymouth. In March 1863 a group of Māori encamped on land they had seized at Tataraimaka were ousted with force by British troops in what they regarded as an act of war
12.
Consul (representative)
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A consul is distinguished from an ambassador, the latter being a representative from one head of state to another. In Classical Greece, some of the functions of the modern consul were fulfilled by a proxenos, unlike the modern position, this was a citizen of the host polity. The proxenos was usually a rich merchant who had ties with another city. The position of proxenos was often hereditary in a particular family, modern honorary consuls fulfil a function that is to a degree similar to that of the ancient Greek institution. Consuls were the highest magistrates of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire, the term was revived by the Republic of Genoa, which, unlike Rome, bestowed it on various state officials, not necessarily restricted to the highest. The Consolat de mar was an institution established under the reign of Peter IV of Aragon in the fourteenth century and it was primarily a judicial body, administering maritime and commercial law as Lex Mercatoria. Although the Consolat de mar was established by the Corts General of the Crown of Aragon and this distinction between consular and diplomatic functions remains to this day. Modern consuls retain limited powers to settle disputes on ships from their country. The Consulado de mercaderes was set up in 1543 in Seville as a merchant guild to control trade with Latin America, as such, it had branches in the principal cities of the Spanish colonies. The connection of consul with trade and commercial law is retained in French, in francophone countries, a juge consulaire is a non-professional judge elected by the chamber of commerce to settle commercial disputes in the first instance. Like the term embassy, the consulate may refer not only to the office of consul. The consulate may share premises with the embassy itself, a consul of the highest rank is termed a consul-general, and his or her office a consulate-general. He or she typically has one or several deputy consuls-general, consuls, vice-consuls, consulates-general need not have their offices in the capital city, but rather could have them in the most important/appropriate cities in terms of bilateral relations. In the United States, for example, most countries have a consulate-general in New York City, consuls of various ranks may have specific legal authority for certain activities, such as notarizing documents. As such, diplomatic personnel with other responsibilities may receive consular letters patent, aside from those outlined in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, there are few formal requirements outlining what a consular official must do. Nonetheless, consulates proper will be headed by consuls of various ranks, and although it is never admitted publicly, consulates, like embassies, may also gather intelligence information from the assigned country. Contrary to popular belief, although many of the staff of consulates may be career diplomats, in practice, the extension and application of consular privileges and immunities can be subject to wide discrepancies from country to country. Consulates are more numerous than diplomatic missions, such as embassies, ambassadors are posted only in a foreign nations capital
13.
Nelson Province
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It was abolished, along with all other provinces, in 1876. Nelson Province initially covered the entire upper South Island, land sales in Nelson and Marlborough netted the Nelson Provincial Council £33,000 and £160,000, respectively. Of that, £200 were expended benefiting the Marlborough region, there was considerable conflict between Superintendent John Perry Robinsons policies of supporting smaller land holders, and the objectives of the large pastoral run-holders in the Wairau Valley. The New Provinces Act 1858 allowed for parts of a province to break if the area was large enough. The petition was signed by almost all settlers in the Wairau, the new Marlborough Province was gazetted on 4 October 1859. The election of Nelsons first superintendent was contested by three candidates, Edward Stafford, Francis Jollie and John Waring Saxton, the election took place on 1 August 1853 and resulted in Edward Stafford being Nelsons first superintendent. The final results for the election were, Stafford, Saxton, Edward Stafford will be remembered for his free, secular and compulsory education system became the model for New Zealand, with this ‘Nelson system’ introduced to all state primary schools in 1877. Nelson was the seat of government and Superintendent John Perry Robinson laid the foundation stone for the Provincial Government buildings in Nelson on 26 August 1859. The building was in Albion Square in Bridge Street and it was designed by visiting architect Maxwell Bury and he modeled it on Aston Hall near Birmingham. Whereas Aston Hall was built from stone, the Government buildings were from timber, the buildings were run down and had stood empty for some years when they were demolished in 1969, amidst much controversy. The Nelson District Court building now stands on the site, during the First Taranaki War in 1860 nearly 1,200 Taranaki settlers including women and children were relocated to Nelson. The Nelson Provincial Council funded the building of cottages known as the Taranaki Buildings for the housing of these refugees, upon the cessation of hostilities the war refugees were offered free passage back to Taranaki, the majority took advantage of this offer but some elected to remain in Nelson. By 1876 the province was abolished under the Counties Bill of 1876 with the following boroughs, in 1886, there was a proposal for the Grey District to be annexed by the Nelson Province. New Zealand law provides for an anniversary day
14.
2nd New Zealand Parliament
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The 2nd New Zealand Parliament was a term of the Parliament of New Zealand. It opened on 15 April 1856, following New Zealands 1855 election and it was dissolved on 5 November 1860 in preparation for 1860–61 election. The 2nd Parliament was the first under which New Zealand had responsible government, meaning that unlike previously, at this time political parties had not been established, meaning that anyone attempting to form an administration had to win support directly from individual MPs. This made forming a government difficult, the Sewell Ministry, the first responsible government, led by Henry Sewell, lasted only two weeks. The first Fox Ministry, the responsible government, led by William Fox. The third responsible government, the first Stafford Ministry, led by Edward Stafford, was stable, governing for the remainder of the 2nd Parliament. Two regions of the colony were not part of any electorate, the turnover of MPs was very high in the 2nd Parliament, with 32 by-elections and a supplementary election being held. The northern portion of the Northern Division electorate was split off, the Wairarapa and Hawkes Bay electorate was split into two separate components, Wairarapa and County of Hawke. All the previously unincorporated areas in the lower North Island were divided between Wairarapa, County of Hawke, Wanganui and Rangitikei, and Wellington Country, in the South Island, the southern portion of Wairau electorate, plus part of Christchurch Country, became the new Cheviot electorate. The western portion of Dunedin Country was split off and became the new Wallace electorate, the northwest of the South Island remained the colonys only territory not part of an electorate. At the opening of the 6th session of the Parliament on 10 April 1858, akaroa Cuff resigned in 1858 and was succeeded by William Sefton Moorhouse. Auckland Suburbs Merriman resigned on 13 March 1860 and he was succeeded by Joseph Hargreaves, who was elected on 5 April 1860, and resigned on 24 July 1860. Hargreaves was replaced by Logan Campbell, who was returned unopposed on 4 August 1860, brodie resigned on 6 December 1859 and was succeeded by Theophilus Heale. Christchurch Country Brittin resigned in 1856, returned to England on urgent business and he was succeeded in 1856 by John Ollivier, who himself resigned in 1860. Ollivier was succeeded by Isaac Thomas Cookson, hall resigned in 1860 and was succeeded by Charles Hunter Brown. City of Auckland Campbell resigned in 1858 and he was succeeded by Thomas Forsaith. He was succeeded by Archibald Clark, city of Wellington In 1858, Featherston and Fitzherbert resigned their seats in Parliament. Featherston apparently wanted to return to England, instead, he successfully stood for re-election within months
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Stoke, New Zealand
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Stoke is a suburb of Nelson in New Zealand, located between Richmond and Tahunanui. In 2013 its population was 17,163, Stoke was named by William Songer, the personal servant of Arthur Wakefield, after his birthplace Stoke-by-Nayland in Suffolk. In 2010 it was voted the Keep New Zealand Beautiful Peoples Choice Best Place in New Zealand, attractions include, Isel Park - A historic park and house, which form part of the legacy left by the Marsden family of Stoke. Isel Park also contains the Isel Park research facility which is part of the Nelson Provincial Museum, monaco – a residential peninsular which juts into the Waimea estuary The Stoke Hand – a sculpture outside the Stoke library. Sport, Saxtons Field, a sports ground which features softball, cricket, football. There is also an archery programme, Saxtons Stadium, for indoor sports such as futsal, handball, table tennis and volleyball. Home of the basketball team Nelson Giants, nayland Park Pools – include a 50m heated swimming pool and diving pool A group of streets in Stoke have been named after famous literary figures. A Catholic co-educational secondary school, Garin College, is slightly west of Stoke
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New Zealand general election, 1871
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The New Zealand general election of 1871 was held between 14 January and 23 February to elect 78 MPs across 72 electorates to the fifth session of the New Zealand Parliament. 1871 was the first general election to include the four Māori electorates, the first Māori Members of Parliament had been elected in 1868, but in 1871 three retired and one was defeated. So in 1871 four new Māori MPs were elected, in 1866 the secret ballot was introduced for general elections. The 1871 general election was the first one at which it was used, the secret ballot not used in Māori electorates until 1938, thus Māori voters continued to inform a polling officer orally of their chosen candidate. The date of election is defined here as the day on which the poll took place, or if there was no contest, the earliest election day was 14 January 1871. The earliest date in the general electorate results table,13 January 1871, the last election was held on 23 February 1871 in the Franklin electorate. 68 European electorates and 4 Māori electorates were defined by the Representation Act 1870, six of the general electorates had two representatives, the rest were single member electorates
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Julius Vogel
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Sir Julius Vogel KCMG was the eighth Premier of New Zealand. His administration is best remembered for the issuing of bonds to fund railway construction and he was the first Jewish prime minister of New Zealand. Historian Warwick R. Armstrong assesses Vogels strengths and weaknesses, Vogels politics were like his nature, imaginative – and occasionally brilliant – but reckless and he was an excellent policymaker but he needed a strong leader to restrain him. Yet Vogel had vision. He saw New Zealand as a potential Britain of the South Seas, born in London, Vogel received his early education at University College School in Hampstead, London. He later studied chemistry and metallurgy at the Royal School of Mines and he emigrated to Victoria, Australia in 1852, being editor of several newspapers on the goldfields, including the Inglewood Advertiser and the Maryborough and Dunolly Advertiser. After an unsuccessful attempt to enter the Victorian Parliament in the Avoca district in August 1861, he moved to Otago in October 1861, in November 1861, he founded the Otago Daily Times and became its first editor. On 19 March 1867, Vogel got married in Dunedin to his neighbour Mary Clayton and they had three sons and one daughter. Vogel first became involved in politics in 1862, winning election to the council of Otago. Four years later became the head of the government, a post which he held until 1869. In 1863 he was elected a member of the New Zealand House of Representatives in the Dunedin, in the 1866 election, he was defeated by William Murison in the Waikouaiti electorate on Wednesday,28 February. It is unclear why Vogel stood in Waikouaiti as two earlier, he had been returned unopposed at the nomination for the Goldfields electorate. He represented several electorates throughout the colony, Dunedin and Suburbs North 1863–1866, Goldfields in Otago 1866–1870, Auckland East 1871–1875, Wanganui 1876, Vogel successfully contested the 1884 election in Christchurch North against John Crewes. Vogel was premier from 1873 to 1875 and again in 1876, from 1876 to 1881, he was agent-general for New Zealand in London, and, in 1884, he was again a member of the government of the colony. During his political career, Vogel worked generally successfully for reconciliation with the Māori people, in 1887, he introduced the first womens suffrage Bill to Parliament, but suffrage was not granted until 1893. He finally gave up colonial office in 1887, from which date he lived in England, Vogel is best remembered for his Great Public Works scheme of the 1870s. Before 1870, New Zealand was a country dominated by provincial interests. This ultimately led to the end of government in 1876. Vogel is also noteworthy as one of the few practising Jewish prime ministers outside Israel, benjamin Disraeli, of Jewish descent but Anglican, was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom contemporaneously to Vogels premiership
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Joseph Ward
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Sir Joseph George Ward, 1st Baronet, GCMG, PC was the 17th Prime Minister of New Zealand on two occasions in the early 20th century. Ward was born in Melbourne on 26 April 1856 to a Roman Catholic family of Irish descent and his father, who is believed to have been an alcoholic, died in 1860, aged 31 – Ward was raised by his mother, Hannah. In 1863, the moved to Bluff, in New Zealands Southland region, seeking better financial security – Hannah Ward established a shop. Ward received his education at primary schools in Melbourne and Bluff. He did not go to secondary school and he did, however, read extensively, and also picked up a good understanding of business from his mother. In 1869, Ward found a job at the Post Office, later, with the help of a loan from his mother, Ward began to work as a freelance trader, selling supplies to the newly established Southland farming community. Ward became involved in local politics very quickly and he was elected to the Campbelltown Borough Council in 1878, despite being only 21 years old – at age 25 he became Mayor, the youngest in New Zealand. He also served on the Bluff Harbour Board, eventually becoming its chairman, in 1887, Ward stood for Parliament, winning the seat of Awarua. Politically, Ward was a supporter of such as Julius Vogel and Robert Stout. Ward became known as a strong debater on economic matters, in 1891, when the newly founded Liberal Party came to power, the new Prime Minister, John Ballance, appointed Ward as Postmaster General. Later, when Richard Seddon became Prime Minister after Ballances death, Wards basic political outlook was that the state existed to support and promote private enterprise, and his conduct as Treasurer reflects this. Wards increasing occupation with government affairs led to neglect of his own interests, however. In 1896, a judge declared Ward hopelessly insolvent and this placed Ward, as Treasurer, in a politically difficult situation, and he was forced to resign his portfolios on 16 June. In 1897, he was forced to file for bankruptcy, which legally obligated him to resign his seat in Parliament, a loophole meant that there was nothing to stop him contesting it again, however. In the resulting by-election he was elected with an increased majority, gradually, Ward rebuilt his businesses, and paid off his creditors. Seddon, still Prime Minister, quickly reappointed him to Cabinet where he served as Minister of Railways, Ward gradually emerged as the most prominent of Seddons supporters, and was seen as a possible successor. As Seddons long tenure as Prime Minister continued, some suggested that Ward should challenge Seddon for the leadership, Ward was in London at the time. It was generally agreed in the party that Ward would succeed him, Ward was sworn in on 6 August 1906
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Ministry for Culture and Heritage
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Minister for Cultural Affairs Marie Hasler oversaw the transition of functions into the new agency. The Ministry of Cultural Affairs had been created in 1991, prior to this, at the time of its establishment, the responsible minister for the ministry was the Minister for Culture and Heritage. This position is now titled the Minister for Arts, Culture, the ministry advises the government on policies and issues relating to the arts, culture, heritage, sport and recreation, and broadcasting sectors. Creative New Zealand New Zealand Music Commission New Zealand Symphony Orchestra Royal New Zealand Ballet Te Matatini Society Inc and this includes publication in New Zealand history books and e-books, and on a number of websites. Waites number of some 8,500 men was corrected to approximately 13,000 in September 2013, the ministry is also responsible for overseeing dozens of current acts and regulations. Port Nicholson Block Claims Settlement Act 2009 Ngaa Rauru Kiitahi Claims Settlement Act 2005 The ministry serves two portfolios and two ministers, Te Ara, The Encyclopedia of New Zealand Jock Phillips Official website New Zealand History Online
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OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
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David Monro
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Sir David Monro was a New Zealand politician. He served as Speaker of the New Zealand House of Representatives from 1861 to 1870 and his father was Alexander Monro, a lecturer at the Edinburgh Medical College. Monro was from a line of doctors, the Monro of Fyrish family that was a branch of clan Munro. He graduated as a Doctor of Medicine from his fathers college in 1835, after first studying for a time in Paris, Berlin and Vienna, Monro established a medical practice in Edinburgh. In 1841, however, Monro bought land in the settlement at Nelson. He arrived in Nelson the following year, Monro married Dinah Secker on 7 May 1845 and they had five sons and two daughters, including Charles Monro. His daughter, Maria Georgiana Monro, married the Scottish geologist, naturalist, in 1843, following the Wairau Affray, Monro was chosen to present the Nelson settlers views to Willoughby Shortland, the acting Governor. Partly as a result of this attention, Monro was appointed to the Legislative Council of the New Munster Province in 1849, in 1853, Monro was elected to the 1st New Zealand Parliament, representing the seat of Waimea. He was re-elected in the seat for the 2nd Parliament in 1858. At the beginning of the 3rd Parliament, to which Monro had been elected as representative of Picton and he is generally regarded as having conducted this duty with dignity, although his use of the Speakers casting vote to unseat Premier William Fox in 1862 was controversial. At the 1866 general election, he contested the Cheviot electorate. Monro remained Speaker until 1870, when he announced that he would step down, William Fox, who was once again Premier, failed to move the traditional vote of thanks. Monro contested the Motueka seat in the 1871 elections, and was declared elected, a subsequent petition, however, overturned this result. The committee that made the ruling had a government majority, furthermore, a proposal to appoint Monro to the Legislative Council was blocked by Fox. Monro nevertheless succeeded in re-entering Parliament through a 1872 by-election in Waikouaiti, after the Fox government had been defeated, Monro resigned in 1873. For some time, Monro leased Warwick House, at the known as Sunnyside. The house was built for Arthur Fell in 1854 by builder David Goodall, when Fell returned to England, Monro leased the house. Later, the house was bought by Nathaniel Edwards, the building at 64 Brougham Street in Nelson is one of the finest and largest examples of early Victorian Gothic Revivalism still remaining in New Zealand
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Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
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Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
