1.
H.K. Porter, Inc.
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Porter, Inc. manufactured light-duty railroad locomotives in the US, starting in 1866. The company became the largest producer of industrial locomotives, and built almost eight thousand of them, the last locomotive was built in 1950, but the company continues to produce industrial equipment to this day. Porter was known for building locomotives that were smaller than those normally used by the larger Class I railroads. The companys locomotives were small enough that they were operated by only one person. Porter built mostly steam locomotives, but they built some powered by gasoline and diesel engines. The largest collection of Porter photographs and information is currently housed in the Kentlein Porter Collection at the A. C, kalmbach Memorial Library in Chattanooga, TN. Many of the 780 builders photos, blueprints and other data were republished in Porter Steam Locomotives. 1866, Henry Kirke Porter formed a partnership with John Y. Smith, the two opened a small machine shop on 28th Street in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and begin repairing and building industrial equipment. They received an order for their first locomotive on March 4,1867 and they went on to build 43 locomotives together, including the Minnetonka. They specialized in four wheeled, saddle tank locomotives for small industrial railroads,1871, Fire broke out in the shop on February 7, destroying twelve locomotives under construction, the shop, and 23 adjacent structures. Total losses were estimated at $200,000, and the partnership was dissolved, Smith formed Smith & Dawson Locomotives, which became National Locomotive Works. Porter formed a partnership with Arthur W. Bell, called Porter, Bell & Co. and they expanded their range to include light passenger engines and small freight engines, primarily for narrow gauge railroads. They built 223 locomotives, until Arthur Bell died in May 1878,1878, Henry K. Porter continued the business on his own, as H. K. He had established a reputation as a builder of rugged, specialized locomotives and he could custom build a locomotive quickly and efficiently, with a system of interchangeable parts, pistons, wheels and boilers in various sizes that can be combined to suit a customers requirements. Some of the designs are kept in stock, and can be ordered literally off the shelf. 1890, Porter built their first compressed-air locomotive, for a mine in Pennsylvania. Air was stored in two tanks, and used to drive the pistons instead of steam and this allowed locomotive use inside mines without the fumes of burning coal, or the dangers of high-pressure steam. Porter went on to build over 400 compressed-air locomotives for use in mines, plants, others built compressed-air locomotives, but by 1900 Porter had captured 90% of the market
2.
Locomotive
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A locomotive or engine is a rail transport vehicle that provides the motive power for a train. A locomotive has no payload capacity of its own, and its purpose is to move the train along the tracks. In contrast, some trains have self-propelled payload-carrying vehicles and these are not normally considered locomotives, and may be referred to as multiple units, motor coaches or railcars. The use of these vehicles is increasingly common for passenger trains. Traditionally, locomotives pulled trains from the front, however, push-pull operation has become common, where the train may have a locomotive at the front, at the rear, or at each end. Prior to locomotives, the force for railroads had been generated by various lower-technology methods such as human power, horse power. The first successful locomotives were built by Cornish inventor Richard Trevithick, in 1804 his unnamed steam locomotive hauled a train along the tramway of the Penydarren ironworks, near Merthyr Tydfil in Wales. Although the locomotive hauled a train of 10 long tons of iron and 70 passengers in five wagons over nine miles, the locomotive only ran three trips before it was abandoned. Trevithick built a series of locomotives after the Penydarren experiment, including one which ran at a colliery in Tyneside in northern England, the first commercially successful steam locomotive was Matthew Murrays rack locomotive, Salamanca, built for the narrow gauge Middleton Railway in 1812. This was followed in 1813 by the Puffing Billy built by Christopher Blackett and William Hedley for the Wylam Colliery Railway, Puffing Billy is now on display in the Science Museum in London, the oldest locomotive in existence. In 1814 George Stephenson, inspired by the locomotives of Trevithick. He built the Blücher, one of the first successful flanged-wheel adhesion locomotives, Stephenson played a pivotal role in the development and widespread adoption of steam locomotives. His designs improved on the work of the pioneers, in 1825 he built the Locomotion for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, north east England, which became the first public steam railway. In 1829 he built The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials and this success led to Stephenson establishing his company as the pre-eminent builder of steam locomotives used on railways in the United Kingdom, the United States and much of Europe. The first inter city passenger railway, Liverpool and Manchester Railway, opened in 1830, there are a few basic reasons to isolate locomotive train power, as compared to self-propelled vehicles. Maximum utilization of power cars Separate locomotives facilitate movement of costly motive power assets as needed, flexibility Large locomotives can substitute for small locomotives when more power is required, for example, where grades are steeper. As needed, a locomotive can be used for freight duties. Obsolescence cycles Separating motive power from payload-hauling cars enables replacement without affecting the other, to illustrate, locomotives might become obsolete when their associated cars did not, and vice versa
3.
Reciprocating engine
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A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is typically a heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. This article describes the features of all types. The main types are, the combustion engine, used extensively in motor vehicles, the steam engine, the mainstay of the Industrial Revolution. There may be one or more pistons, the hot gases expand, pushing the piston to the bottom of the cylinder. This position is known as the Bottom Dead Center, or where the piston forms the largest volume in the cylinder. The piston is returned to the top by a flywheel. This is where the forms the smallest volume in the cylinder. In most types the expanded or exhausted gases are removed from the cylinder by this stroke, the exception is the Stirling engine, which repeatedly heats and cools the same sealed quantity of gas. The stroke is simply the distance between the TDC and the BDC, or the greatest distance that the piston can travel in one direction, in some designs the piston may be powered in both directions in the cylinder, in which case it is said to be double-acting. In most types, the movement of the piston is converted to a rotating movement via a connecting rod. A flywheel is used to ensure smooth rotation or to store energy to carry the engine through an un-powered part of the cycle. The more cylinders an engine has, generally, the more vibration-free it can operate. The power of an engine is proportional to the volume of the combined pistons displacement. A seal must be made between the piston and the walls of the cylinder so that the high pressure gas above the piston does not leak past it. This seal is provided by one or more piston rings. These are rings made of a metal, and are sprung into a circular groove in the piston head. The rings fit tightly in the groove and press against the wall to form a seal. Cylinder capacities may range from 10 cm³ or less in model engines up to several thousand cubic centimetres in ships engines, the compression ratio affects the performance in most types of reciprocating engine
4.
Pneumatics
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Pneumatics is a branch of engineering that makes use of gas or pressurized air. Pneumatic systems used in industry are commonly powered by compressed air or compressed inert gases, a centrally located and electrically powered compressor powers cylinders, air motors, and other pneumatic devices. A pneumatic system controlled through manual or automatic solenoid valves is selected when it provides a lower cost, more flexible, pneumatics also has applications in dentistry, construction, mining, and other areas. Pneumatic systems in fixed installations, such as factories, use compressed air because a sustainable supply can be made by compressing atmospheric air, the air usually has moisture removed, and a small quantity of oil is added at the compressor to prevent corrosion and lubricate mechanical components. Factory-plumbed pneumatic-power users need not worry about poisonous leakage, as the gas is usually just air, smaller or stand-alone systems can use other compressed gases that present an asphyxiation hazard, such as nitrogen—often referred to as OFN when supplied in cylinders. Any compressed gas other than air is an asphyxiation hazard—including nitrogen, compressed oxygen would not asphyxiate, but is not used in pneumatically-powered devices because it is a fire hazard, more expensive, and offers no performance advantage over air. Carbon dioxide is an asphyxiant and can be a hazard if vented improperly. The origins of pneumatics can be traced back to the first century when ancient Greek mathematician Hero of Alexandria wrote about his inventions powered by steam or the wind, german physicist Otto von Guericke went a little further. He invented the pump, a device that can draw out air or gas from the attached vessel. He demonstrated the vacuum pump to separate the pairs of copper hemispheres using air pressures, the field of pneumatics has changed considerably over the years. It has moved from small handheld devices to large machines with multiple parts that serve different functions, both pneumatics and hydraulics are applications of fluid power. Pneumatics uses an easily compressible gas such as air or a suitable pure gas—while hydraulics uses relatively incompressible liquid media such as oil, most industrial pneumatic applications use pressures of about 80 to 100 pounds per square inch. Hydraulics applications commonly use from 1,000 to 5,000 psi, simplicity of design and control—Machines are easily designed using standard cylinders and other components, and operate via simple on-off control. Reliability—Pneumatic systems generally have long operating lives and require little maintenance, because gas is compressible, equipment is less subject to shock damage. Gas absorbs excessive force, whereas fluid in hydraulics directly transfers force, compressed gas can be stored, so machines still run for a while if electrical power is lost. Safety—There is a low chance of fire compared to hydraulic oil. Newer machines are usually overload safe, liquid does not absorb any of the supplied energy. Capable of moving much higher loads and providing much higher due to the incompressibility
5.
Steam locomotive
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A steam locomotive is a railway locomotive that produces its pulling power through a steam engine. These locomotives are fueled by burning combustible material—usually coal, wood, the steam moves reciprocating pistons which are mechanically connected to the locomotives main wheels. Both fuel and water supplies are carried with the locomotive, either on the locomotive itself or in wagons pulled behind, the first steam locomotive, made by Richard Trevithick, first operated on 21 February 1804, three years after the road locomotive he made in 1801. The first practical steam locomotive was built in 1812-13 by John Blenkinsop, Steam locomotives were first developed in Great Britain during the early 19th century and used for railway transport until the middle of the 20th century. From the early 1900s they were superseded by electric and diesel locomotives, with full conversions to electric. The majority of locomotives were retired from regular service by the 1980s, though several continue to run on tourist. The earliest railways employed horses to draw carts along railway tracks, in 1784, William Murdoch, a Scottish inventor, built a small-scale prototype of a steam road locomotive. An early working model of a rail locomotive was designed and constructed by steamboat pioneer John Fitch in the US during 1794. His steam locomotive used interior bladed wheels guided by rails or tracks, the model still exists at the Ohio Historical Society Museum in Columbus. The authenticity and date of this locomotive is disputed by some experts, accompanied by Andrew Vivian, it ran with mixed success. The design incorporated a number of important innovations that included using high-pressure steam which reduced the weight of the engine, Trevithick visited the Newcastle area in 1804 and had a ready audience of colliery owners and engineers. The visit was so successful that the railways in north-east England became the leading centre for experimentation. Trevithick continued his own steam propulsion experiments through another trio of locomotives, Four years later, the successful twin-cylinder locomotive Salamanca by Matthew Murray for the edge railed rack and pinion Middleton Railway debuted in 1812. Another well known early locomotive was Puffing Billy built 1813–14 by engineer William Hedley and it was intended to work on the Wylam Colliery near Newcastle upon Tyne. This locomotive is the oldest preserved, and is on display in the Science Museum. George Stephenson built Locomotion No.1 for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, north-east England, in 1829, his son Robert built in Newcastle The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials. This success led to the company emerging as the pre-eminent builder of locomotives used on railways in the UK, US. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway opened a year later making exclusive use of power for passenger
6.
Boiler explosion
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A boiler explosion is a catastrophic failure of a boiler. As seen today, boiler explosions are of two kinds, one kind is a failure of the pressure parts of the steam and water sides. There can be many different causes, such as failure of the safety valve, corrosion of parts of the boiler. Corrosion along the edges of lap joints was a cause of early boiler explosions. The second kind is an explosion in the furnace, which would more properly be termed a firebox explosion. Firebox explosions in solid-fuel-fired boilers are rare, but firebox explosions in gas or oil-fired boilers are still a potential hazard. There are many causes for boiler explosions, Poor water treatment causing over heating, as for the structure of the boiler there are strict codes which must be adhered to or legal consequence will arise. Poor operator training or neglect on there part would be the most frequent cause of explosions, the principal causes of explosions, in fact the only causes, are deficiency of strength in the shell or other parts of the boilers, over-pressure and over-heating. Deficiency of strength in steam boilers may be due to defects, bad workmanship. Cause. -Boiler explosions are always due to the fact some part of the boiler is, for some reason. In all applications, maintaining the water level is essential for safe operation. Many shell-type boilers carry a large bath of water which is heated beyond the boiling point of water at atmospheric pressure. During normal operation, the water remains in the bottom of the boiler due to gravity, steam bubbles rise through the liquid water. If this boiler opens up to the atmosphere, as a result of a break from over pressure or other such failure, the rapid release of steam and water can provide a very potent blast, and cause great damage to surrounding property or personnel. The action of the expanding steam bubbles will also perform work by throwing large slugs of water inside the boiler. A fast-moving mass of water carries a great deal of energy and this can greatly enlarge the original rupture, or tear the shell in two. Many plumbers and steamfitters are aware of the phenomenon called water hammer, a few ounce slug of water passing through a steam line and striking a 90 degree elbow can instantly fracture a fitting that is otherwise capable of handling several times the normal static pressure. A steam locomotive operating at 350 psi would have a temperature of about 225 °C, and a specific enthalpy of 963.7 kJ/kg
7.
Diesel locomotive
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A diesel locomotive is a type of railway locomotive in which the prime mover is a diesel engine. Several types of diesel locomotive have been developed, differing mainly in the means by which power is conveyed to the driving wheels. Early internal combustion engine-powered locomotives and railmotors used gasoline as their fuel, soon after Dr. Rudolf Diesel patented his first compression ignition engine in 1892, it was considered for railway propulsion. Progress was slow, however, as several problems had to be overcome, power transmission was a primary concern. As opposed to steam and electric engines, internal combustion engines work efficiently only within a range of turning frequencies. In light vehicles, this could be overcome by a clutch, in heavy railway vehicles, mechanical transmission never worked well or wore out too soon. Experience with early gasoline powered locomotives and railcars was valuable for the development of diesel traction, one step towards diesel-electric transmission was the petrol-electric vehicle, such as the Acsev Weitzer railmotor, which could operate from batteries and electric overhead wires too. Steady improvements in diesel design gradually reduced its size and improved its power-to-weight ratio to a point where one could be mounted in a locomotive. Once the concept of drive was accepted, the pace of development quickened. In 1930, Armstrong Whitworth of the United Kingdom delivered two 1,200 hp locomotives using engines of Sulzer design to Buenos Aires Great Southern Railway of Argentina, currently, almost all diesel locomotives are diesel-electric, although the diesel-hydraulic type was widely used between the 1950s and 1970s. The Soviet diesel locomotive TEP80-0002 lays claim to the speed record for a diesel railed vehicle. In 1894, a 20 h. p. two axle machine built by Priestman Brothers was used on the Hull Docks, in 1896 an oil-engined railway locomotive was built for the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, England, in 1896, using an engine designed by Herbert Akroyd Stuart. It was not, strictly, a diesel because it used a hot bulb engine, following the expiration of Dr. Rudolf Diesels patent in 1912, his engine design was successfully applied to marine propulsion and stationary applications. However, the massiveness and poor power-to-weight ratio of early engines made them unsuitable for propelling land-based vehicles. Therefore, the potential as a railroad prime mover was not initially recognized. This changed as development reduced the size and weight of the engine, the worlds first diesel-powered locomotive was operated in the summer of 1912 on the Winterthur-Romanshorn Railroad in Switzerland, but was not a commercial success. In 1906, Rudolf Diesel, Adolf Klose and the steam, Sulzer had been manufacturing Diesel engines since 1898. During further test runs in 1913 several problems were found, after the First World War broke out in 1914, all further trials were stopped
8.
Electric locomotive
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An electric locomotive is a locomotive powered by electricity from overhead lines, a third rail or on-board energy storage such as a battery or fuel cell. Electricity is used to smoke and take advantage of the high efficiency of electric motors. One advantage of electrification is the lack of pollution from the locomotives, electrification results in higher performance, lower maintenance costs and lower energy costs. Power plants, even if they burn fossil fuels, are far cleaner than mobile sources such as locomotive engines, the power can come from clean or renewable sources, including geothermal power, hydroelectric power, nuclear power, solar power and wind turbines. Electric locomotives are quiet compared to locomotives since there is no engine and exhaust noise. The lack of reciprocating parts means electric locomotives are easier on the track, Electric locomotives are ideal for commuter rail service with frequent stops. They are used on high-speed lines, such as ICE in Germany, Acela in the U. S. Shinkansen in Japan, China Railway High-speed in China, Electric locomotives are used on freight routes with consistently high traffic volumes, or in areas with advanced rail networks. Electric locomotives benefit from the efficiency of electric motors, often above 90%. Additional efficiency can be gained from regenerative braking, which allows energy to be recovered during braking to put power back on the line. Newer electric locomotives use AC motor-inverter drive systems provide for regenerative braking. The chief disadvantage of electrification is the cost for infrastructure, overhead lines or third rail, substations, public policy in the U. S. interferes with electrification, higher property taxes are imposed on privately owned rail facilities if they are electrified. In Europe and elsewhere, railway networks are considered part of the transport infrastructure, just like roads, highways and waterways. Operators of the rolling stock pay fees according to rail use and this makes possible the large investments required for the technically and, in the long-term, also economically advantageous electrification. Because railroad infrastructure is owned in the U. S. railroads are unwilling to make the necessary investments for electrification. The first known electric locomotive was built in 1837 by chemist Robert Davidson of Aberdeen and it was powered by galvanic cells. Davidson later built a locomotive named Galvani, exhibited at the Royal Scottish Society of Arts Exhibition in 1841. The seven-ton vehicle had two direct-drive reluctance motors, with fixed electromagnets acting on iron bars attached to a cylinder on each axle. It hauled a load of six tons at four miles per hour for a distance of one and it was tested on the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway in September of the following year, but the limited power from batteries prevented its general use
9.
Tram
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A tram is a rail vehicle which runs on tracks along public urban streets, and also sometimes on a segregated right of way. The lines or networks operated by tramcars are called tramways, Tramways powered by electricity, the most common type historically, were once called electric street railways. However, trams were used in urban areas before the universal adoption of electrification. Tram lines may run between cities and/or towns, and/or partially grade-separated even in the cities. Very occasionally, trams also carry freight, Tram vehicles are usually lighter and shorter than conventional trains and rapid transit trains, but the size of trams is rapidly increasing. Some trams may also run on railway tracks, a tramway may be upgraded to a light rail or a rapid transit line. For all these reasons, the differences between the modes of rail transportation are often indistinct. In the United States, the tram has sometimes been used for rubber-tired trackless trains. Today, most trams use electrical power, usually fed by a pantograph, in some cases by a sliding shoe on a third rail. If necessary, they may have dual power systems — electricity in city streets, trams are now included in the wider term light rail, which also includes segregated systems. The English terms tram and tramway are derived from the Scots word tram, referring respectively to a type of truck used in coal mines and the tracks on which they ran. The word tram probably derived from Middle Flemish trame, a Romanesque word meaning the beam or shaft of a barrow or sledge, the identical word la trame with the meaning crossbeam is also used in the French language. The word Tram-car is attested from 1873, although the terms tram and tramway have been adopted by many languages, they are not used universally in English, North Americans prefer streetcar, trolley, or trolleycar. The term streetcar is first recorded in 1840, and originally referred to horsecars, when electrification came, Americans began to speak of trolleycars or later, trolleys. The troller design frequently fell off the wires, and was replaced by other more reliable devices. The terms trolley pole and trolley wheel both derive from the troller, Modern trams often have an overhead pantograph mechanical linkage to connect to power, abandoning the trolley pole altogether. Conventional diesel tourist buses decorated to look like streetcars are sometimes called trolleys in the US, the term may also apply to an aerial ropeway, e. g. the Roosevelt Island Tramway. Over time, the trolley has fallen into informal use
10.
Switcher
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They do this in classification yards. Switchers may also make short runs and even be the only motive power on branch lines and switching. The term can also be used to describe the workers operating these engines or engaged in directing shunting operations, the typical switcher is optimised for its job, being relatively low-powered but with a high starting tractive effort for getting heavy cars rolling quickly. Switchers are geared to produce high torque but are restricted to low top speeds and have small diameter driving wheels, switchers are rail analogs to tugboats. US switchers tend to be larger, with bogies to allow them to be used on tight radiuses, European shunters tend to be smaller and more often have fixed axles. They also often maintained coupling rods for longer than other types, although bogie types have long been used where very heavy loads are involved. Switching is hard work, and heavily used switch engines wear out quickly from the abuse of constant hard contacts with cars, nevertheless, some types have been remarkably long-lived. Diesel switchers tend to have a cab and often lower and/or narrower hoods containing the diesel engines. Slugs are often used because they allow even greater effort to be applied. Nearly all slugs used for switching are of the low hood, good visibility in both directions is critical, because a switcher may be running in either direction, turning the locomotive is time-consuming. Some earlier diesel switchers used cow-calf configurations of two powered units in order to provide greater power, the vast majority of modern switchers are diesels, but countries with near-total electrification, like Switzerland, use electric switchers. Prior to the introduction of locomotives, electric shunting locomotives were used to an extent in Great Britain where heavy trains needed to be started on steep gradients. The steeply-graded Quayside Branch in Newcastle upon Tyne was electrified by the North Eastern Railway in 1905,1, is now part of the National Collection and resides at Locomotion in Shildon. A number of the early German locomotives built for use on lines have been preserved. These specialised locomotives were tall steeple-cab types not seen anywhere else, one example built by Greenwood and Batley in Armley, Leeds is preserved at the Middleton Railway, not far from where it was built. Small industrial shunters are sometimes of the battery-electric type, an early battery-electric shunting locomotive is shown here. The Tyne and Wear Metro has three battery electric shunters built by Hunslet, which are used to haul engineering trains when the supply is switched off. Flywheel energy storage was used experimentally by Sentinel
11.
0-4-0
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Under the Whyte notation for the classification of steam locomotives, 0-4-0 represents one of the simplest possible types, that with two axles and four coupled wheels, all of which are driven. The wheels on the earliest four-coupled locomotives were connected by a gear wheel. The notation 0-4-0T indicates a locomotive of this wheel arrangement on which its water and fuel is carried on board the engine itself. In Britain, the Whyte notation of wheel arrangement was often used for the classification of electric and diesel-electric locomotives with side-rod-coupled driving wheels. The UICs Bo classification for electric and diesel-electric locomotives indicates that the axles are independently motored, the term Four-coupled is often used for 0-4-0 locomotives. Four-wheeled is also used, but this term can also encompass other wheel arrangements. 0-4-0 locomotives were built as tank locomotives as well as tender locomotives, the former was more common in Europe and the latter in the United States, except in the tightest of situations such as that of a shop switcher, where overall length was a concern. The earliest 0-4-0 locomotives were tender engines and appeared as early as c, 0-4-0 tank engines were introduced in the early 1850s. The type was found to be so useful in locations that they continued to be built for more than a century. Richard Trevithicks Coalbrookedale, Pen-y-Darren and Newcastle locomotives were of the 0-4-0 type, the first 0-4-0 to use coupling rods was Locomotion No. 1, built by Robert Stephenson and Company for the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825, Stephenson also built the Lancashire Witch in 1828, and Timothy Hackworth built Sans Pareil which ran at the Rainhill Trials in 1829. The latter two later worked on the Bolton and Leigh Railway. A four-wheeled configuration, where all the wheels are driving wheels, the type was therefore mainly used for switchers and shunters. Because of the lack of stability, tender engines of type were only built for a few decades in the United Kingdom. They were built for a period in the United States. The possible tractive effort of an 0-4-0 within normal axle load limits was not enough to large loads. By 1900, they had largely been superseded for most purposes by locomotives with more complex wheel arrangements. They nevertheless continued to be used in situations where tighter radius curves existed or the length was an advantage
12.
0-6-0
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This was the most common wheel arrangement used on both tender and tank locomotives in versions with both inside and outside cylinders. In the United Kingdom, the Whyte notation of wheel arrangement was often used for the classification of electric and diesel-electric locomotives with side-rod coupled driving wheels. The 0-6-0 configuration was the most widely used wheel arrangement for both tender and tank steam locomotives, the type was also widely used for diesel switchers. On the other hand, the lack of unpowered leading wheels have the result that 0-6-0 locomotives are less stable at speed and they are therefore mostly used on trains where high speed is unnecessary. The tank engine versions were used as switching locomotives since the smaller 0-4-0 types were not large enough to be versatile in this job. The earliest 0-6-0 locomotives had outside cylinders, as these were simpler to construct, however, once designers began to overcome the problem of the breakage of the crank axles, inside cylinder versions were found to be more stable. Thereafter this pattern was adopted, particularly in the United Kingdom. Tank engine versions of the type began to be built in quantity in the mid-1850s and had become common by the mid-1860s. 0-6-0 locomotives were amongst the first types to be used, the earliest recorded example was the Royal George, built by Timothy Hackworth for the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1827. Derwent, a locomotive built in 1845 by William and Alfred Kitching for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, is preserved at Darlington Railway Centre. On most branch lines, though, larger and more powerful tank engines tended to be favoured, in New South Wales, the Z19 class was a tender type with this wheel arrangement, as was the Victorian Railways Y class. The Dorrigo Railway Museum collection includes seven Locomotives of the 0-6-0 wheel arrangement, tank locomotives used by Finland were the VR Class Vr1 and VR Class Vr4. The VR Class Vr1s were numbered 530 to 544,656 to 670 and 787 to 799 and they had outside cylinders and were operational from 1913 to 1975. Built by Tampella, Finland and Hanomag, they were nicknamed Chicken, number 669 is preserved at the Finnish Railway Museum. The Vr4s were a class of four locomotives, numbered 1400 to 1423, originally built as 0-6-0s by Vulcan Iron Works, United States, but modified to 0-6-2s in 1951-1955. Finland’s tender locomotives were the classes C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, the Finnish Steam Locomotive Class C1s were a class of ten locomotives numbered 21 to 30. They were operational from 1869 to 1926 and they were built by Neilson and Company and were nicknamed Bristollari. Number 21, preserved at the Finnish Railway Museum, is the second oldest preserved locomotive in Finland, the eighteen Class C2s were numbered 31 to 43 and 48 to 52
13.
0-8-0
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Locomotives of this type are also referred to as eight coupled. Examples of the 0-8-0 wheel arrangement were constructed both as tender and tank locomotives, the earliest locomotives were built for mainline haulage, particularly for freight, but the configuration was later also often used for large switcher types. The wheel arrangement provided a layout with all engine weight as adhesive weight. The layout was too large for smaller and lighter railways. Two 0-8-0 locomotives were delivered from Andre Koechlin & Cie in Mulhouse to the Austrian Southern Railway in 1862 and they were later sent to Italy and worked over the Apennines between Bologna and Pistoja. In 1952, the Chrzanów works in Poland supplied 81 750mm gauge locomotives, by 1958, China was building their own copies resulting in such classes as the C2, YJ, ZM-4, ZG and ZM16-4. Peckett and Sons of Bristol built a 0-8-0 tender locomotive for the Christmas Island Phosphate Company in 1931, freight engines with an 0-8-0 wheel arrangement were once very popular in Germany. The Prussian state railways had several types of 0-8-0s that were all classified as G7, G8, the latest of these, the Prussian G8.1, was the most numerous German state railway locomotive with over five thousand examples being built between 1913 and 1921. They remained in service with the Deutsche Bundesbahn until 1972, the narrow gauge Heeresfeldbahn class HF160 D were developed for wartime service during the Second World War. The engines were classified as Kriegsdampflokomotive 11. After the war, the locomotives were put to use for civilian purposes, in Russia, the 0-8-0 type locomotives were represented by the various O-class freight locomotives. They were built from the end of the 19th century until the 1920s and they were commonly called the Ovechka and were the most common freight locomotives in Tsarist Russia. Some are still preserved in working order,1,000 of the 750mm gauge standard design, also known as class 159, were built between 1930 and 1941. They were poor performers, so the Kolomna works built a version of these locomotives. Only nine were built before the USSR was invaded in June 1941, on the South African Railways, shunting was traditionally performed by downgraded mainline locomotives. Three classes of 0-8-0 shunting steam locomotives were introduced between 1929 and 1952, in 1929, fourteen Class S locomotives were placed in service. They were built by Henschel and Son in Germany, designed to SAR specifications, the top sides of the tender’s coal bunker were set inwards and the water tank top was rounded to improve the crew’s rearward vision. The second type, the Class S1, was designed by Dr. M. M, loubser, chief mechanical engineer of the SAR from 1939 to 1949
14.
Heisler locomotive
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Somewhat similar to a Climax locomotive, Heislers design featured two cylinders canted inwards at a 45-degree angle to form a V-twin arrangement. The inboard axle on each truck was driven from the outboard one by external side rods. In 1897, Heisler received a patent on a three-truck locomotive, as with Class C Shay locomotives, the tender rode on the third truck. Unlike the Shay, Heislers design did not have a string of line shafting running the length of the engine. Instead, the truck was driven by a line shaft above the shaft driving the main engine trucks. This patent also covered use of a 4-cylinder vee four cylinder configuration, the Heisler was the fastest of the geared steam locomotive designs, and yet was still claimed by its manufacturer to have the same low-speed hauling ability. They did not adopt the Heisler design, but in 1894 the Stearns Manufacturing Company of Erie, Pennsylvania started to produce Heislers, reorganised as the Heisler Locomotive Works in 1907, it produced locomotives of the Heisler design until 1941. Heislers were produced mostly in two- and three-truck variants in sizes ranging from 17 to 95 short tons, there was one single-truck, narrow gauge Heisler built, Lake Shore Stone Products Co. #7 for the Lake Shore Stone Products Co. Lake Shore Stone Co. Roughly 625 Heislers were produced, of which some 35 still exist, approximately eight of these survivors are currently operational. Clarks Trading Post in Lincoln, New Hampshire, operates the White Mountain Central RR #4, Roaring Camp Railroads in Felton, California, operates the Roaring Camp & Big Trees Narrow Gauge RR #2. The Sumpter Valley Railway in Baker County, Oregon, operates the former W. H. Eccles Lumber Co. #3 on a regular basis, a 75-ton 1918 Heisler locomotive is on static display at the Travel Town open-air museum in Los Angeles. The Southeastern Railway Museum in Duluth, Georgia, has a two-truck Heisler lovingly restored on static display inside the exhibit hall. The Heisler is painted for the Campbell Limestone Co and is in excellent condition, in operation in Willits, California, at the Roots of Motive Power is a 47-ton 2-truck Heisler, former Bluestone Mining & Smelting #1. Ex-Curtiss Lumber Company loco number 2 operates on the Oregon Coast Scenic Railroad during the tourist season, the 3-truck, 90-ton West Fork Logging Co #91 operates on the Mount Rainier Scenic Railroad in Elbe, Washington, who also have a 78-ton 3 truck on static display. Cass Scenic Railroad State Park in Cass, West Virginia, operates a 90-ton, another Heisler two-truck locomotive can be found on static display next to the headquarters building of the former Pacific Lumber Co. in Scotia, California. Heisler serial number 1260 built in 1912 is currently running on the Silver Creek and Stephenson historical railroad in Freeport, a & G Price 148, built in 1943 survives at Steam Scene, Christchurch, New Zealand, in full working order. Its boiler ticket will expire in 2022, Heisler 1082 is preserved at the Bush Tramway Club at Pukemiro, New Zealand, where it is on static display. Heisler 1450 is preserved at Ferrymead Railway, Christchurch, New Zealand, Heisler 1494 is preserved at Shantytown, near Greymouth, New Zealand
15.
Steam accumulator
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A steam accumulator is an insulated steel pressure tank containing hot water and steam under pressure. It is a type of storage device. It can be used to smooth out peaks and troughs in demand for steam, steam accumulators may take on a significance for energy storage in solar thermal energy projects. An example is the PS10 solar power plant near Seville, Spain and one planned for the solar steam train project in Sacramento. It was invented in 1874 by the Scottish engineer Andrew Betts Brown, the tank is about half-filled with cold water and steam is blown in from a boiler via a perforated pipe near the bottom of the drum. Some of the steam condenses and heats the water, the remainder fills the space above the water level. When the accumulator is fully charged the condensed steam will have raised the level in the drum to about three-quarters full. Steam can be drawn off as required, either for driving a turbine or for process purposes. The pressure in the drum will fall but the pressure causes more water to boil
16.
Boiler
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A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. The fluid does not necessarily boil, the heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications, including water heating, central heating, boiler-based power generation, cooking, and sanitation. The pressure vessel of a boiler is usually made of steel, stainless steel, especially of the austenitic types, is not used in wetted parts of boilers due to corrosion and stress corrosion cracking. In live steam models, copper or brass is used because it is more easily fabricated in smaller size boilers. For much of the Victorian age of steam, the material used for boilermaking was the highest grade of wrought iron. In the 20th century, design practice instead moved towards the use of steel, which is stronger and cheaper, with welded construction, which is quicker and requires less labour. It should be noted, however, that wrought iron boilers corrode far slower than their steel counterparts. This makes the longevity of older wrought-iron boilers far superior to those of welded steel boilers, cast iron may be used for the heating vessel of domestic water heaters. Although such heaters are usually termed boilers in some countries, their purpose is usually to produce hot water, not steam, the brittleness of cast iron makes it impractical for high-pressure steam boilers. The source of heat for a boiler is combustion of any of several fuels, such as wood, coal, oil, electric steam boilers use resistance- or immersion-type heating elements. Nuclear fission is used as a heat source for generating steam, either directly or, in most cases. Heat recovery steam generators use the heat rejected from other such as gas turbine. 18th century Haycock boilers generally produced and stored large volumes of very low-pressure steam and these could burn wood or most often, coal. Flued boiler with one or two large flues—an early type or forerunner of fire-tube boiler, fire-tube boiler, Here, water partially fills a boiler barrel with a small volume left above to accommodate the steam. This is the type of boiler used in nearly all steam locomotives, the heat source is inside a furnace or firebox that has to be kept permanently surrounded by the water in order to maintain the temperature of the heating surface below the boiling point. Fire-tube boilers usually have a low rate of steam production. Fire-tube boilers mostly burn solid fuels, but are adaptable to those of the liquid or gas variety. Water-tube boiler, In this type, tubes filled with water are arranged inside a furnace in a number of possible configurations and this type generally gives high steam production rates, but less storage capacity than the above
17.
Superheated water
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Superheated water is liquid water under pressure at temperatures between the usual boiling point,100 °C and the critical temperature,374 °C. It is also known as water or pressurized hot water. This is distinct from the use of the term superheating to refer to water at pressure above its normal boiling point. Many of waters anomalous properties are due to very strong hydrogen bonding, over the superheated temperature range the hydrogen bonds break, changing the properties more than usually expected by increasing temperature alone. Water becomes less polar and behaves more like an organic solvent such as methanol or ethanol, all materials change with temperature, but superheated water exhibits greater changes than would be expected from temperature considerations alone. Viscosity and surface tension of water drop and diffusivity increases with increasing temperature, self-ionization of water increases with temperature, and the pKw of water at 250 °C is closer to 11 than the more familiar 14 at 25 °C. This means the concentration of ion is and the concentration of hydroxide are increased while the pH remains neutral. Specific heat capacity at constant pressure increases with temperature, from 4.187 kJ/kg at 25 °C to 8.138 kJ/kg at 350 °C. A significant effect on the behaviour of water at high temperatures is decreased dielectric constant, water is a polar molecule, where the centers of positive and negative charge are separated, so molecules will align with an electric field. The extensive hydrogen bonded network in water tends to oppose this alignment, water has a high relative permittivity of about 80 at room temperature, because polarity shifts are rapidly transmitted through shifts in orientation of the linked hydrogen bonds. This allows water to dissolve salts, as the electric field between ions is reduced by about 80–fold. Thermal motion of the molecules disrupts the hydrogen bonding network as temperature increases, at 205 °C the relative permittivity falls to 33, the same as methanol at room temperature. Thus water behaves like a water / methanol mixture between 100 °C and 200 °C, disruption of extended hydrogen bonding allows molecules to move more freely, and extra energy must be supplied to break the bonds. Thus materials generally considered “insoluble” can become soluble in superheated water, thus superheated water can be used to process many organic compounds with significant environmental benefits compared to the use of conventional organic solvents. Despite the reduction in relative permittivity, many salts remain soluble in superheated water until the point is approached. Sodium chloride, for example, dissolves at 37 wt% at 300 °C As the critical point is approached, solubility drops markedly to a few ppm, some salts show a reduction in solubility with temperature, but this behaviour is less common. The solubility of gases in water is thought to decrease with temperature. For nitrogen, this minimum is 74 °C and for oxygen it is 94 °C Gases are soluble in superheated water at elevated pressures, above the critical temperature, water is completely miscible with all gasses
18.
Steam engine
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A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid. Steam engines are combustion engines, where the working fluid is separate from the combustion products. Non-combustion heat sources such as power, nuclear power or geothermal energy may be used. The ideal thermodynamic cycle used to analyze this process is called the Rankine cycle, in the cycle, water is heated and transforms into steam within a boiler operating at a high pressure. When expanded through pistons or turbines, mechanical work is done, the reduced-pressure steam is then exhausted to the atmosphere, or condensed and pumped back into the boiler. Specialized devices such as hammers and steam pile drivers are dependent on the steam pressure supplied from a separate boiler. The use of boiling water to mechanical motion goes back over 2000 years. The Spanish inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained the first patent for an engine in 1606. In 1698 Thomas Savery patented a steam pump that used steam in direct contact with the water being pumped, Saverys steam pump used condensing steam to create a vacuum and draw water into a chamber, and then applied pressurized steam to further pump the water. Thomas Newcomens atmospheric engine was the first commercial steam engine using a piston. In 1781 James Watt patented an engine that produced continuous rotary motion. Watts ten-horsepower engines enabled a range of manufacturing machinery to be powered. The engines could be sited anywhere that water and coal or wood fuel could be obtained, by 1883, engines that could provide 10,000 hp had become feasible. The stationary steam engine was a key component of the Industrial Revolution, the aeolipile described by Hero of Alexandria in the 1st century AD is considered to be the first recorded steam engine. Torque was produced by steam jets exiting the turbine, in the Spanish Empire, the great inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained a patent for the first steam engine in history in 1603. Thomas Savery, in 1698, patented the first practical, atmospheric pressure and it had no piston or moving parts, only taps. It was an engine, a kind of thermic syphon, in which steam was admitted to an empty container. The vacuum thus created was used to water from the sump at the bottom of the mine
19.
Andrew Barclay Sons & Co.
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Andrew Barclay Sons & Co. are a builder of steam and later fireless and diesel locomotives. The companys history dates to foundation of a workshop in 1840 in Kilmarnock. In 2011 Brush Traction and Brush-Barclay were acquired from FKI by Wabtec - as of 2012 the company operates in Kilmarnock providing rail engineering services as Wabtec Rail Scotland. Born in 1814, Andrew Barclay was only 25 years of age when he set up a partnership with Thomas McCulloch to manufacture mill shafts in Kilmarnock, East Ayrshire, Scotland. It was only a couple of later that he branched out on his own to manufacture his patented gas lamps. In 1847 he set up workshops specializing in the manufacture of winding engines for the coal mining industry. However, the money from the gas lamp patent sale was never paid, by 1859 Barclay had recovered from this setback and his newly formed company produced its first locomotive. Sometime around 1871 Andrew Barclay set up a locomotive building business known as Barclays & Co. He had set up this company for his brother, John. This business remaining closely associated with Andrew Barclay, again not all went well and the companies were declared bankrupt in 1874 and 1882 respectively. Four years after this latest collapse, Andrew Barclay’s business was relaunched as Andrew Barclay Sons & Co, later Barclays & Co was also revived. In 1892 the firm became a liability company as Andrew Barclay Sons & Co. Ltd. Just two years later Andrew was removed from control of the company which bore his name by its shareholders, Barclay sued the company for unpaid wages, a matter which was settled out of court 5 years later. In 1930 the company bought the business of John Cochrane Ltd, engine makers and in 1963 it acquired the goodwill of the North British Locomotive Company, in 1972 the company was acquired by the Leeds-based Hunslet Group of companies and its name was changed in 1989 to Hunslet-Barclay Ltd. As such, it operated six ex-British Rail Class 20 diesels to provide power for weed-killing trains used on the national rail network. Some Barclay locomotives were supplied through Lennox Lange, who acted as an agent for Barclay, after going into financial administration in 2007 the company was acquired by the locomotive builder Brush Traction of Loughborough through its parent, the FKI Group. On 28 February 2011, Wabtec announced that it had acquired Brush Traction for US$31 million, the Kilmarnock works became Wabtec Rail Scotland. The company was noted for constructing simple robust locomotives, chiefly for industrial use, a typical product would be an 0-4-0 with squared-off saddle tank
20.
W. G. Bagnall
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W. G. Bagnall was a locomotive manufacturer from Stafford, England which was founded in 1875 and operated until it was taken over in 1962 by English Electric. It was founded in 1875 by William Gordon Bagnall and ceased trading in 1962 when it was taken over by English Electric Co Ltd. English Electric didnt purchase Bagnall directly, the owner at the time was local engine manufacturer Dorman Diesels which was taken over by English Electric, robert Stephenson and Hawthorns and Vulcan Foundry were acquired in 1955 by English Electric and in 1962. English Electric formed English Electric Traction to bring all railway activities under one set of management, the majority of their products were small four- and six-coupled steam locomotives for industrial use, and many were narrow gauge. They were noted for building steam and diesel locomotives in standard, some of Kerr Stuarts designs were brought to Bagnalls when they employed Kerr Stuarts chief Draughtsman. Examples of such locomotives can be seen on the Sittingbourne & Kemsley Light Railway, the company was located at the Castle Engine Works, in Castle Town, Stafford. The factory is currently being demolished, the factory was in a state of disrepair and is being demolished to make way for houses. Bagnalls introduced several types of locomotive valve gear including the Baguley. They also used marine fireboxes on narrow gauge engines, a design that was cheap, Bagnall also developed the inverted saddle tank. The two tanks were joined underneath the smokebox and supported the smokebox, Bagnall also commonly used the saddle tank which carries the water on top of the boiler. Bagnall also produced the GWR9400 Class in two orders, 1949-51 lot number 384 and in 1953-54 to the lot number. Bagnall produced their own tank designs, examples of such can be seen at the Mangapps Railway Museum in Essex. Bagnall designed possibly the most advanced steam locomotive and one of the most powerful, Bagnalls also created locomotives for the Great Western Railway and the London, Midland and Scottish Railway in the form of the GWR5700 Class, the GWR9400 Class and the LMS Fowler Class 3F. During the war, Bagnall was subcontracted work for the Hunslet Austerity 0-6-0ST which resulted in 52 being manufactured from 1943 to 1947, Bagnall Works numbers 2358–2364 of the LMS Fowler Class 3F class were employed on the Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway. As mentioned in the previous paragraph The Victor/Vulcan 2994-6 locomotives were ordered by the Steel Company of Wales for their Abbey, Margam, Steel fireboxes were used as well as Owens patent poppet valve and balanced regulator valves. In later life 2994 and 2996 were sold to Austin Motor company and were named Victor and they ran until 1972 when the locos were preserved on the West Somerset Railway and currently run at the Stephenson Railway Museum and the Lakeside and Haverthwaite Railway. 2995 was sold to NCB at the time for use at a colliery and was scrapped in 1967. An example of this is the New Zealand TR class locomotive which W. G Bagnall built seven TRs in 1956-57, Bagnalls worked with Siemens at the Siemens Stafford works to supply the electrical equipment for the locomotives
21.
Compressed-air vehicle
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A compressed-air vehicle is powered by an air engine, using compressed air, which is stored in a tank. Instead of mixing fuel with air and burning it in the engine to drive pistons with hot expanding gases, one manufacturer claims to have designed an engine that is 90 percent efficient. Compressed-air propulsion may also be incorporated in hybrid systems, such as battery electric propulsion. This kind of system is called an electric propulsion. Additionally, regenerative braking can also be used in conjunction with this system, the tanks must be designed to safety standards appropriate for a pressure vessel, such as ISO11439. The storage tank may be made of metal or composite materials, the fiber materials are considerably lighter than metals but generally more expensive. Metal tanks can withstand a number of pressure cycles. One company stores air in tanks at 4,500 pounds per square inch and hold nearly 3,200 cubic feet of air. The tanks may be refilled at a station equipped with heat exchangers, or in a few hours at home or in parking lots. The cost of driving such a car is typically projected to be around €0.75 per 100 km, compressed air has a low energy density. In 300 bar containers, about 0.1 MJ/L and 0.1 MJ/kg is achievable, comparable to the values of electrochemical lead-acid batteries. A consumer-automobile of conventional size and shape typically consumes 0. 3–0.5 kWh at the drive shaft per mile of use, like other non-combustion energy storage technologies, an air vehicle displaces the emission source from the vehicles tail pipe to the central electrical generating plant. Where low emissions sources are available, net production of pollutants can be reduced, emission control measures at a central generating plant may be more effective and less costly than treating the emissions of widely dispersed vehicles. Since the compressed air is filtered to protect the compressor machinery, the car works when gas expands. Compressed air has been used since the 19th century to power mine locomotives and trams in cities such as Paris, during the construction of the Gotthardbahn from 1872 to 1882, pneumatic locomotives were used in the construction of the Gotthard Rail Tunnel and other tunnels of the Gotthardbahn. In 1903, the Liquid Air Company located in London England manufactured a number of compressed-air and liquified-air cars, the major problem with these cars and all compressed-air cars is the lack of torque produced by the engines and the cost of compressing the air. Recently several companies have started to develop compressed air cars, although none has been released to the public, compressed-air vehicles are comparable in many ways to electric vehicles, but use compressed air to store the energy instead of batteries. Their potential advantages over other vehicles include, Much like electrical vehicles, which makes it easier to focus on reducing pollution from one source, as opposed to the millions of vehicles on the road
22.
Mining
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Mining is extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually from an orebody, lode, vein, seam, reef or placer deposits. These deposits form a mineralized package that is of economic interest to the miner, ores recovered by mining include metals, coal, oil shale, gemstones, limestone, chalk, dimension stone, rock salt, potash, gravel, and clay. Mining is required to obtain any material that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, Mining in a wider sense includes extraction of any non-renewable resource such as petroleum, natural gas, or even water. Mining of stones and metal has been a human activity since pre-historic times, Mining operations usually create a negative environmental impact, both during the mining activity and after the mine has closed. Hence, most of the nations have passed regulations to decrease the impact. Work safety has long been a concern as well, and modern practices have significantly improved safety in mines, levels of metals recycling are generally low. Unless future end-of-life recycling rates are stepped up, some rare metals may become unavailable for use in a variety of consumer products, due to the low recycling rates, some landfills now contain higher concentrations of metal than mines themselves. Since the beginning of civilization, people have used stone, ceramics and, later and these were used to make early tools and weapons, for example, high quality flint found in northern France, southern England and Poland was used to create flint tools. Flint mines have been found in areas where seams of the stone were followed underground by shafts. The mines at Grimes Graves and Krzemionki are especially famous, other hard rocks mined or collected for axes included the greenstone of the Langdale axe industry based in the English Lake District. The oldest-known mine on archaeological record is the Lion Cave in Swaziland, at this site Paleolithic humans mined hematite to make the red pigment ochre. Mines of an age in Hungary are believed to be sites where Neanderthals may have mined flint for weapons. Ancient Egyptians mined malachite at Maadi, at first, Egyptians used the bright green malachite stones for ornamentations and pottery. Later, between 2613 and 2494 BC, large building projects required expeditions abroad to the area of Wadi Maghareh in order to secure minerals and other resources not available in Egypt itself. Quarries for turquoise and copper were found at Wadi Hammamat, Tura, Aswan and various other Nubian sites on the Sinai Peninsula. Mining in Egypt occurred in the earliest dynasties, the gold mines of Nubia were among the largest and most extensive of any in Ancient Egypt. These mines are described by the Greek author Diodorus Siculus, who mentions fire-setting as one used to break down the hard rock holding the gold. One of the complexes is shown in one of the earliest known maps, the miners crushed the ore and ground it to a fine powder before washing the powder for the gold dust
23.
Tramway (industrial)
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Tramways are lightly laid railways, sometimes worked without locomotives. In New Zealand, they are known as bush tramways, while in parts of Australia where American experts were influential. They generally do not carry passengers, although staff may use of them. Tramways can take many forms, sometimes just tracks temporarily laid on the ground to move materials around a factory, many, if not most, are narrow gauge railway technologies. At the other extreme they could be complex and lengthy systems, such as the Lee Moor Tramway in the county of Devonshire, England, motive power can be manual, animal, cable hauled by stationary engine, or utilize small locomotives. The term was applied to wagons running on primitive tracks in early England. The name seems to date from around 1517 and to be derived from an English dialect word for the shaft of a turn from Low German traam, literally. The tracks themselves were known as gangways, dating from before the 12th century. In south Wales and Somerset the term dramway is also used, the alternative term is Wagonway which originally consisted of horses, equipment and tracks which were used for hauling wagons. Usually the wheels would be guided along grooves, in time, to combat wear, the timber would be reinforced with an iron strip covering. This developed to use L-shaped steel plates, the track then being known as a plateway, the origin of the word railway is uncertain, but Benjamin Outram was referring to his lines as railways in the early 19th century. The fact that many of these lines were built for horse-drawn vehicles, an alternative appeared, the so-called edge-rail where the wagons were guided by having the wheels flanged instead of running in grooves. Since these rails were raised above the ground they were likely to be blocked by debris. They were, however, the forerunners of the modern railway and these early lines were built to transport minerals from quarries and mines to canal wharves. Meanwhile, in the United Kingdom the term became the term for passenger vehicles that ran on tracks in the public highway. Initially horse-drawn, they developed to use power from an overhead line. A development of the tramway in the United Kingdom dispensed with tracks, in 2000 the CarGoTram began operating as a cargo tram for the Volkswagen factory in Dresden. In Australia, most tramways were in practice heavy railways, or equivalent to British light railways and these include, Kerang–Koondrook Tramway, a 5 ft 3 in gauge private railway which junctioned with the Victorian Railways at Kerang
24.
Mekarski system
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The Mekarski system was a compressed-air propulsion system for trams invented by Louis Mékarski or Louis Mékarsky in the 1870s. He worked in France, was born in 1843 in Clermont-Ferrand of Polish origin, many references to him use the Polish name Ludwik Mękarski. A problem with compressed-air propulsion is that the air cools as it expands, Mekarski sought to overcome this problem by heating the air with steam, produced in a small boiler called a bouillotte. It is uncertain whether the steam was mixed with the air and it was a single-stage engine in that air was expanded in one piston and then exhausted. The air was reheated after leaving the tank and before entering the engine, the reheater bubbled air through a hot water tank, picking up hot water vapor to improve the engines range. An improved engine contained a high-pressure cylinder of 5 1⁄2 inches operating at 50-150 lb/sq. in, the system was tested in Paris in 1876 and introduced to the tramways of Nantes in 1879. It seems to have been a success at Nantes with a fleet of 94 trams in 1900, the Mekarski tramcars continued in use there until 1917, when they were replaced by electric trams. The system was used in England on the Wantage Tramway but did not find favour there because the plant used more than four times as much coal as a steam locomotive. Between 1881 and 1883 an improved air car was used on the Caledonian Road tramway of the London Street Tramway Company, one Mekarski tramcar is preserved at Nantes
25.
Hybrid train
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A hybrid train is a locomotive, railcar or train that uses an onboard rechargeable energy storage system, placed between the power source and the traction transmission system connected to the wheels. Since most diesel locomotives are diesel-electric, they have all the components of a hybrid transmission except the storage battery. Surplus energy from the source, or energy derived from regenerative braking. During acceleration, stored energy is directed to the transmission system, in existing designs, the storage system can be electric traction batteries, or a flywheel. The energy source is diesel, liquefied gas, or hydrogen and transmission is direct mechanical. Diesel electric locomotives may have most of what they need for regenerative braking since they might already use dynamic braking, using a storage system means that a non-fully electric train can use regenerative braking, and even shut down the main power source whilst idling or stationary. Reducing energy consumption provides environmental benefits and economic savings, a smaller scale version of the concept is found in hybrid automobiles, such as the chevy volt. The Patton Motor Car was a hybrid system, although the term hybrid was not yet in use. William H. Patton filed for a patent on February 25,1889, Patton built a tram car that was in experimental service in Pullman, Illinois in 1891 and a small Patton locomotive was sold to a street railway company in Cedar Falls, Iowa in 1897. The latter used a 2-cylinder,25 hp gasoline engine to drive a 220 volt generator that served to charge the 200 Ampere hour 100 cell lead acid battery in parallel with the traction motors. The engine ran at constant speed, with a generator that also served as an electric starter motor. A conventional series-parallel controller was used for the two 35 hp traction motors drove the wheels of the locomotive. The term mixed drive train came to be used at the turn of twentieth century, the Pieper system was applied to Belgian and French railcars as soon as 1911. Thomas transmission, which is similar in design to the part of the Hybrid Synergy Drive, was used in the United Kingdom. In 1986, Czechoslovak locomotive manufacturer ČKD built a prototype hybrid shunting locomotive termed the DA600, the locomotive was powered a 190-kW diesel engine and four electric motors, with a maximum overall power 360 kW powered from batteries. The batteries were recharged while the engine was running, by regenerative braking or from external electric power. After tests on the Railway test circuit Velim and some minor tweaks, Czechoslovak socialist economics failed to start mass production, mainly because of a lack of proper battery manufacturing capacities. In May 2003, JR East started test runs using an NE Train railcar, the design had two 65-kilowatt fuel cells and six hydrogen tanks under the floor, with a lithium-ion battery on the roof
26.
Fowler's Ghost
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Fowlers Ghost is the nickname given to an experimental fireless 2-4-0 steam locomotive designed by John Fowler and built in 1861 for use on the Metropolitan Railway, Londons first underground railway. The broad gauge locomotive used exhaust recondensing techniques and a quantity of fire bricks to retain heat and prevent the emission of smoke. The locomotive was sold in 1865 with the intention to convert it into a steam engine. The Metropolitan Railway was designed to run through covered tunnels in railway cuttings, to avoid problems with smoke and steam overwhelming staff and passengers on the covered sections, Fowler proposed a unique fireless locomotive. However, early experiments with these steam locomotives had failed. The locomotive was built by Robert Stephenson and Company at their works in Newcastle upon Tyne and it was built to broad gauge specification with a 2-4-0 wheel arrangement with tender. The boiler had a normal firebox connected to a combustion chamber containing a large quantity of fire bricks which were to act as a heat reservoir. The combustion chamber was linked to the smokebox through a set of very short firetubes, exhaust steam was re-condensed instead of escaping and fed back to the boiler. The locomotive was intended to operate conventionally in the open, but in tunnels dampers would be closed and steam would be generated using the stored heat from the fire bricks. As the Metropolitan Railway was still two years from completion, the first trial was held on the broad gauge Great Western Railway in October 1861 on the line near Hanwell railway station, the trial was a failure, with the locomotive completing only 7.5 miles. The condensing system leaked, causing the boiler to run dry, as a result, the boiler feed-pumps jammed, creating a dangerous situation where the boiler could overheat and explode. An explosion was evidently narrowly avoided, after a second failed trial on the Metropolitan Railway between Kings Cross and Edgware Road station in 1862, development work on the locomotive ceased. Cuthbert Hamilton Ellis noted that the engine was a fine, sturdy creation, however, the conversion was left incomplete when Boultons locomotive-hire business ceased trading in 1894, the locomotive was eventually scrapped by Beyer, Peacock and Company in 1895
27.
Metropolitan Railway
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Its first line connected the main-line railway termini at Paddington, Euston, and Kings Cross to the City. It opened to the public on 10 January 1863 with gas-lit wooden carriages hauled by steam locomotives, the line was soon extended from both ends, and northwards via a branch from Baker Street. Harrow was reached in 1880, and the line extended to Verney Junction in Buckinghamshire, more than 50 miles from Baker Street. Electric traction was introduced in 1905 and by 1907 electric multiple units operated most of the services, unlike other railway companies in the London area, the Met developed land for housing, and after World War I promoted housing estates near the railway using the Metro-land brand. On 1 July 1933, the Met was amalgamated with the Underground Electric Railways Company of London, former Met tracks and stations are used by the London Undergrounds Metropolitan, Circle, District, Hammersmith & City, Piccadilly, and Jubilee lines, and by Chiltern Railways. In the first half of the 19th century the population and physical extent of London grew greatly, only Fenchurch Street station was within the City. The congested streets and the distance to the City from the stations to the north, none were successful, and the 1846 Royal Commission investigation into Metropolitan Railway Termini banned construction of new lines or stations in the built-up central area. The concept of a railway linking the City with the mainline termini was first proposed in the 1830s. Charles Pearson, Solicitor to the City, was a promoter of several schemes. The scheme was rejected by the 1846 commission, but Pearson returned to the idea in 1852 when he helped set up the City Terminus Company to build a railway from Farringdon to Kings Cross. Although the plan was supported by the City, the companies were not interested. The Bayswater, Paddington, and Holborn Bridge Railway Company was established to connect the Great Western Railways Paddington station to Pearsons route at Kings Cross, a bill was published in November 1852 and in January 1853 the directors held their first meeting and appointed John Fowler as its engineer. After successful lobbying, the company secured parliamentary approval under the name of the North Metropolitan Railway in the summer of 1853 and this dropped the City terminus and extended the route south from Farringdon to the General Post Office in St. Martins Le Grand. The route at the end was also altered so that it connected more directly to the GWR station. Permission was also sought to connect to the London and North Western Railway at Euston and to the Great Northern Railway at Kings Cross, the companys name was also to be changed again, to Metropolitan Railway. Royal assent was granted to the North Metropolitan Railway Act on 7 August 1854, construction of the railway was estimated to cost £1 million. Initially, with the Crimean War under way, the Met found it hard to raise the capital, while it attempted to raise the funds it presented new bills to Parliament seeking an extension of time to carry out the works. In July 1855, an Act to make a connection to the GNR at Kings Cross received royal assent
28.
Superheater
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A superheater is a device used to convert saturated steam or wet steam into superheated steam or dry steam. Superheaters are used in steam turbines for electricity generation, steam engines, there are three types of superheaters, radiant, convection, and separately fired. A superheater can vary in size from a few tens of feet to several hundred feet, a radiant superheater is placed directly in the combustion chamber. A convection superheater is located in the path of the hot gases, a separately fired superheater, as its name implies, is totally separated from the boiler. In a steam engine, the superheater re-heats the steam generated by the boiler, increasing its thermal energy, superheaters increase the thermal efficiency of the steam engine, and have been widely adopted. Steam which has been superheated is logically known as superheated steam, superheaters were applied to steam locomotives in quantity from the early 20th century, to most steam vehicles, and to stationary steam engines. This equipment is used in conjunction with steam turbines in electrical power generating stations throughout the world. In steam locomotive use, by far the most common form of superheater is the fire-tube type and this takes the saturated steam supplied in the dry pipe into a superheater header mounted against the tube sheet in the smokebox. The steam is passed through a number of superheater elements—long pipes which are placed inside large diameter fire tubes. The superheated steam, at the end of its journey through the elements, passes into a compartment of the superheater header. Some locomotives were fitted with snifting valves which admitted air to the superheater when the locomotive was coasting and this kept the superheater elements cool and the cylinders warm. The snifting valve can be seen behind the chimney on many LNER locomotives, a superheater increases the distance between the throttle and the cylinders in the steam circuit and thus reduces the immediacy of throttle action. To counteract this, some steam locomotives were fitted with a front-end throttle—placed in the smokebox after the superheater. Such locomotives can sometimes be identified by an external throttle rod that stretches the length of the boiler. This arrangement also allows superheated steam to be used for appliances, such as the dynamo. Another benefit of the front end throttle is that superheated steam is immediately available, with the dome throttle, it took quite some time before the super heater actually provided benefits in efficiency. With the front-end throttle, steam is in the units while the engine is sitting at the station. Then when the throttle is opened, superheated steam goes to the cylinders immediately, Locomotives with superheaters are usually fitted with piston valves or poppet valves
29.
Sentinel Waggon Works
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Sentinel Waggon Works Ltd was a British company based in Shrewsbury, Shropshire that made steam-powered lorries, railway locomotives, and later, diesel engined lorries and locomotives. Alley & MacLellan was founded in 1875 and was based in Polmadie and this company continued in operation until the 1950s. They began producing steam road vehicles in 1905 and in 1906 introduced a 5 ton vertical-boiler wagon, around 1915 Alley & McLellan moved the steam wagon production to a new factory in England and it continued under a separate company. And in 1918 the company opened a third factory in Worcester specialising in valve manufacture. Both factory buildings were prefabricated in Glasgow for local assembly and in both cases core Scottish employees transferred to the new sites, Alley & MacLellan continued to operate in the original Sentinel Works in Jessie Street, Glasgow until the 1950s. They produced a range of engineering products including compressors, valves. The Sentinel name continued to be used for the products of the original Glasgow works until the mid 20th Century, a new company Sentinel Waggon Works Ltd was formed when steam wagon production was switched to a new factory, opened at Shrewsbury in 1915. There were several slight changes to the name over the companys lifetime when further infusions of working capital were required to obviate financial problems. Alley & MacLellans early wagon was so successful that it remained in production with few updates until the launch of Sentinels famous Super in 1923. The company also produced steam locomotives and railcars, for railway companies. In 1917, the company was bought by William Beardmore & Co. Ltd, in 1920, after financial problems, the company was reorganised as Sentinel Waggon Works Ltd. In 1934 Sentinel launched a new and advanced steamer – the S type which had a single-acting 4-cylinder underfloor engine with longitudinal crankshaft and an overhead worm-drive axle. Their Sentinel Waggon Works design of 1935 led to the production of 3,750 Sentinel Standards in the seventeen years that followed, the biggest selling steam lorry ever. It was lighter and featured a drivers cab with a set-back boiler and was available in four, six and eight-wheel form, designated S4, S6. In spite of its design, however, it could not compete with contemporary diesel trucks for all-round convenience and payload capacity. It was not the end of Sentinels involvement with steam, however and it has been stated that Sentinel were never paid for the last batch of the Río Turbio production run. At least two of the Río Turbio waggons survive in Argentina to this day, in 1946 Thomas Hills signed an agency agreement with Sentinel for repair and maintenance of diesel vehicles. In 1947 Sentinel offered to extend the agreement for diesel vehicles to include the steam locomotives, in 1947 the company became Sentinel Ltd, and had developed a new range of diesel lorries
30.
0-10-0
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In the United Kingdom, this type is known as a Decapod, a name which is applied to 2-10-0 types in the United States. The Russian E class 0-10-0 was the most numerous class of locomotive in the world. In 1899, Karl Gölsdorf introduced his famous 180.00 class for the Austrian State Railway and it employed the Gölsdorf axle system and had the drive, unusually, on the fourth axle. The class existed both as simple expansion and as two-cylinder compound engines, and they worked in Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Romania. Three 0-10-0 locomotives were owned by the Canadian Pacific Railway, sixteen 600 mm narrow gauge 0-10-0 locomotives, built by Baldwin Locomotive Works from 1924 to 1929, remained operational on the Yunnan-Kopei Railway until 1990. The VR Class Vr3 0-10-0T was numbered in the range from 752 to 756, the first locomotive was ordered in 1924 from Hanomag in Germany. No.755 is stored at the Finnish Railway Museum, the 0-10-0 type proved popular in Germany. Several types of tender locomotives of this arrangement were built between approximately 1905 and 1915, after which the wheel arrangement was abandoned in favor of the 2-10-0. Subsequent German locomotives of type were tank locomotives, including classes BR82, BR87, BR940, BR941, BR942-4, BR945-17, BR9419-21. The Staatspoorwegen ter Sumatara’s Westkust built a line on the west coast of Sumatra from 1887 until 1896. This railway used to haul products from Ombilin coal mines to the port of Teluk Bayur in Padang, severe terrain with 8% grades required a locomotive with great power. The E10 was a tank steam locomotive employed in West Sumatra, of which 22 were built from 1921 to 1928 by Esslingen in Germany. The E10 has four cylinders, with two dedicated to drive the rack gears. The class E10 eventually consisted of 39 locomotives, of which the last seven engines were built in 1967 by Nippon Sharyo, the class was used in regular service until the mid-1980s. Four 4100 class 0-10-0T locomotives, numbered from 4100 to 4103, based on this design, a total of 394110 Class 0-10-0T locomotives, numbered from 4110 to 4148, were built in Japan in 1914 and 1917. The last members of the class were withdrawn from service on JNR in 1950, four of the locomotives were sent to the Korean Peninsula in 1938, but their subsequent fate is unknown. The 0-10-0 type was the standard freight locomotive in Russia and was manufactured in very large numbers. The E class freight locomotive was made up of several sub-classes, the sub-classes included E, Em, Eg, Esh, Eu, and Er
31.
Henschel & Son
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Georg Christian Carl Henschel founded the factory in 1810 at Kassel. His son Carl Anton Henschel founded another factory in 1837, in 1848, the company began manufacturing locomotives. The factory became the largest locomotive manufacturer in Germany by the 20th century, Henschel built 10 articulated steam trucks, using Doble steam designs, for Deutsche Reichsbahn railways as delivery trucks. Several cars were built as well, one of which became Hermann Görings staff car, early in 1935, Henschel began manufacturing Panzer I tanks. During World War II, the firm was responsible for production of the Dornier Do 17Z medium bomber. Henschel was the manufacturer of the Tiger I and Tiger II. In 1945, the company had 8000 workers working in two shifts each of 12 hours, and forced labour was used extensively. Henschel Hs P.87, a similar to the Hs P.75, except that the canards in the front are straight. Henschel Zitterrochen, air-to-surface missile Manufacturing began again in 1948, in 1964, the company took over Rheinische Stahlwerke and became Rheinstahl Henschel AG, in 1976 Thyssen-Henschel, and 1990 ABB Henschel AG. In 1996, the company became ABB Daimler Benz Transportation Adtranz, the company was subsequently acquired by Bombardier around 2002. The Kassel facility still exists and is one of the worlds largest manufacturers of locomotives, herbert A. Wagner <http, //www. steamlocomotive. info/vlocomotive. cfm. Display=1309> Henschels Mittelfeld Werkes Tiger tank factory Luft 46
32.
Baghdad railway
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Completion of the project took several decades and by the outbreak of World War I, the railway was still 960 km away from its intended objective. The last stretch to Baghdad was built in the late 1930s, if the railway had been completed, the Germans would have gained access to suspected oil fields in Mesopotamia, as well as a connection to the port of Basra on the Persian Gulf. The latter would have provided access to the parts of the German colonial empire, and avoided the Suez Canal. The railway became a source of international disputes during the immediately preceding World War I. Although it has argued that they were resolved in 1914 before the war began. Construction resumed in the 1930s and was completed in 1940, the journey home to Germany would have given German industry direct supply of oil. The Europeans saw great potential to exploit the resources of the empire, irrigation could transform agriculture, there were chrome, antimony, lead and zinc mines. Not least there were potentially vast amounts of oil, during 1901 a German report announced the region had a veritable lake of petroleum of almost inexhaustible supply. In 1872 German railway engineer Wilhelm von Pressel was retained by the Ottoman government to develop plans for railways in Turkey, thus came into existence the Anatolian Railway Company. The two lines were the first two sections of the Baghdad Railway, another railway built at the same time by German engineers was the Hejaz railway, commissioned by Sultan Hamid II. The Ottoman Empire chose to place the line outside the range of the British Navy guns, therefore, the coastal way from Alexandretta to Aleppo was avoided. The line had to cross the Amanus Mountains inland at the cost of engineering including an 8 km tunnel between Ayran station and Fevzipaşa. A Russian plan was rejected for fear of it extending Russian influence in Constantinople, a well-financed British plan collapsed due to the outbreak of the Boer War. A well-financed French proposal titled the Imperial Ottoman Railway enabled them to become financiers of the winning Deutsche Bank plan and this Baghdad Railway Company was controlled by a few German banks. McMurray rejects the theory that the railway tied Turkey to Germany, there was concern in Russia, France, and Britain after 1903 as the implications of the German scheme to construct a great Berlin-Baghdad railway became apparent. A railway that would link Berlin to the Persian Gulf would provide Germany with a connection to its southernmost colonies in Africa, i. e. with German East Africa and German South-West Africa. The railway might eventually have strengthened the Ottoman Empire and its ties to Germany, despite obstructions at the diplomatic level, work slowly began on the railway. Both geographical and political obstacles prevented the completion of the Baghdad Railway before World War I commenced in 1914, much of the construction work was undertaken by Philipp Holzmann
33.
Hohenzollern Locomotive Works
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The Hohenzollern Locomotive Works was a German locomotive-building company which operated from 1872 to 1929. The Hohenzollern works was a manufacturer of standard engines and about 400 fireless locomotives as well as diesel locomotives of various rail gauges. The company was founded on 8 June 1872 in Grafenberg near Düsseldorf, the firm produced around 4,600 locomotives. After the increasingly critical situation in the German locomotive building industry around 1929 the works was closed in November 1929, the Hohenzollern AG had hoped in vain for follow-on orders for the DRG Class 80 from the Deutsche Reichsbahn-Gesellschaft. Locomotive number 80030 in the Bochum-Dahlhausen Railway Museum was one of the last that had built by the Lokomotivbau Hohenzollern and is preserved today in photograph-grey livery. The last locomotives had left the factory in September 1929, it was immediately torn down. Hohenzollern built a number of fireless locomotives, including some articulated fireless locomotives with a cab at each end. Hohenzollerns fireless locomotives were unusual in having inside cylinders, the German for fireless steam locomotive is Dampfspeicherlokomotive, meaning steam storage locomotive. Each locomotive had two 2-axle bogies, on no.1685 only one axle was powered but, on the others, two axles were powered. For an explanation of wheel arrangements see, AAR wheel arrangement, nos.1685 and 2107 had air-cooled condensers to condense the exhaust steam. Hohenzollern supplied a 1,200 horsepower diesel-mechanical locomotive to the Russian State Railways in the 1920s and this had a constant-mesh gearbox with an individual electromagnetic clutch to engage each gear. Around the same time, Russian State Railways also took delivery of a 1,200 hp diesel-electric locomotive, class E el-2, work on this locomotive was started by Hohenzollern but, for political reasons, it was later transferred to Maschinenfabrik Esslingen. South African Class 16DA 4-6-2 The Locomotive Engineers Pocket Book 1934, publisher unknown, page 286 The Industrial Railway Record, published by the Industrial Railway Society, ISSN 0537-5347, no. 170, pp 216–218 List of preserved Hohenzollern locomotives Photo of Hohenzollern fireless locomotive at Keilehaven Gas Works, Rotterdam Hohenzollern AG at www. lokhersteller. de
34.
Articulated locomotive
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The term articulated locomotive usually means a steam locomotive with one or more engine units which can move independent of the main frame. This is done to allow a locomotive to negotiate tighter curves. Articulation is also applied to electric locomotives, such as the Italian FS Class E656. Many different schemes for articulation were developed over the years, most other types saw only limited success. Also, the Kitson-Meyer variant with the spread apart to allow a deeper firebox between them. Simple expansion, or simple, articulated steam engines had two sets of equally sized cylinders, when the steam was used in the firebox, the high pressure and low pressure came out the smokestack at once, resulting in higher tractive effort at the cost of more fuel burnt. Compound expansion, or compound, articulated steam engines like Anatole Mallets original idea and this, however, resulted in lower tractive effort because of its low efficiency. g. Electric and diesel locomotives have many construction aspects in common with Meyer type steam locomotives but are not seen as articulated. Beyer Peacock Bissel bogie Cleminsons patent Grovers bogie Jacobs bogie Articulated locomotives Articulated steam bogie locomotives
35.
Bogie
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A bogie is a chassis or framework carrying wheels, attached to a vehicle, thus serving as a modular subassembly of wheels and axles. Bogies take various forms in various modes of transport, while bogie is the preferred spelling and first-listed variant in various dictionaries, bogey and bogy are also used. A bogie in the UK, or a truck, wheel truck. In Indian English, bogie may also refer to a railway carriage. In South Africa, the bogie is often alternatively used to refer to a freight or goods wagon. The first standard gauge British railway to build coaches with bogies, an alternate configuration often is used in articulated vehicles, which places the bogies under the connection between the carriages or wagons. Most bogies have two axles, but some cars designed for heavy loads have more axles per bogie, heavy-duty cars may have more than two bogies using span bolsters to equalize the load and connect the bogies to the cars. Suspension to absorb shocks between the frame and the rail vehicle body, Common types are coil springs, or rubber airbags. At least one wheelset, composed of an axle with bearings and a wheel at each end The bolster, the railway car is supported at the pivot point on the bolster. Axle box suspensions absorb shocks between the bearings and the bogie frame. The axle box suspension usually consists of a spring between the frame and axle bearings to permit up-and-down movement, and sliders to prevent lateral movement. A more modern design uses solid rubber springs, brake equipment, Two main types are used, brake shoes that are pressed against the tread of the wheel, and disc brakes and pads. More modern, bolsterless bogie designs omit these features, instead taking advantage of the movement of the suspension to permit rotational movement. The Commonwealth bogie, manufactured by the English Steel Corporation under licence from the Commonwealth Steel Company in Illinois, fitted with SKF or Timken bearings, it was introduced in the late 1950s for all BR Mark 1 vehicles. It was a heavy, cast-steel design weighing about 6.5 long tons, with sealed roller bearings on the axle ends, the leaf springs were replaced by coil springs running vertically rather than horizontally. The advanced design gave a better quality than the BR1. The side frame of the bogie was usually of bar construction, with simple horn guides attached, the axle boxes had a cast-steel equaliser beam or bar resting on them. The bar had two steel coil springs placed on it and the bogie frame rested on the springs, the effect was to allow the bar to act as a compensating lever between the two axles and to use both springs to soften shocks from either axle
36.
Thermal power station
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A thermal power station is a power plant in which heat energy is converted to electric power. In most of the places in the world the turbine is steam-driven, water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator. After it passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser and recycled to where it was heated, this is known as a Rankine cycle. The greatest variation in the design of power stations is due to the different heat sources, fossil fuel dominates here, although nuclear heat energy. Some prefer to use the energy center because such facilities convert forms of heat energy into electrical energy. Certain thermal power plants also are designed to heat energy for industrial purposes of district heating, or desalination of water. Almost all coal, nuclear, geothermal, solar thermal electric, natural gas is frequently combusted in gas turbines as well as boilers. Power plants burning coal, fuel oil, or natural gas are often called fossil-fuel power plants, some biomass-fueled thermal power plants have appeared also. Non-nuclear thermal power plants, particularly fossil-fueled plants, which do not use co-generation are sometimes referred to as power plants. Commercial electric utility power stations are constructed on a large scale. Virtually all Electric power plants use three-phase electrical generators to produce alternating current electric power at a frequency of 50 Hz or 60 Hz. Large companies or institutions may have their own power plants to supply heating or electricity to their facilities, steam-driven power plants have been used to drive most ships in most of the 20th century until recently. Steam power plants are now used in large nuclear naval ships. Shipboard power plants usually directly couple the turbine to the propellers through gearboxes. Power plants in such ships also provide steam to turbines driving electric generators to supply electricity. Nuclear marine propulsion is, with few exceptions, used only in naval vessels, there have been many turbo-electric ships in which a steam-driven turbine drives an electric generator which powers an electric motor for propulsion. Combined heat and power plants, often called co-generation plants, produce both electric power and heat for heat or space heating. The initially developed reciprocating steam engine has been used to produce mechanical power since the 18th Century, the development of the steam turbine in 1884 provided larger and more efficient machine designs for central generating stations
37.
Incineration
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Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves the combustion of organic substances contained in waste materials. Incineration and other waste treatment systems are described as thermal treatment. Incineration of waste materials converts the waste ash, flue gas. The ash is formed by the inorganic constituents of the waste. The flue gases must be cleaned of gaseous and particulate pollutants before they are dispersed into the atmosphere, in some cases, the heat generated by incineration can be used to generate electric power. Incineration with energy recovery is one of several technologies such as gasification, pyrolysis. Incineration and gasification may also be implemented without energy and materials recovery, in several countries, there are still concerns from experts and local communities about the environmental effect of incinerators. In some countries, incinerators built just a few decades ago often did not include a materials separation to remove hazardous and these facilities tended to risk the health of the plant workers and the local environment due to inadequate levels of gas cleaning and combustion process control. Most of these facilities did not generate electricity, Incinerators reduce the solid mass of the original waste by 80–85% and the volume by 95–96%, depending on composition and degree of recovery of materials such as metals from the ash for recycling. This means that while incineration does not completely replace landfilling, it reduces the necessary volume for disposal. Garbage trucks often reduce the volume of waste in a built-in compressor before delivery to the incinerator, alternatively, at landfills, the volume of the uncompressed garbage can be reduced by approximately 70% by using a stationary steel compressor, albeit with a significant energy cost. In many countries, simpler waste compaction is a practice for compaction at landfills. Examples include chemical multi-product plants with diverse toxic or very toxic wastewater streams, Waste combustion is particularly popular in countries such as Japan where land is a scarce resource. Denmark and Sweden have been leaders in using the energy generated from incineration for more than a century, in localised combined heat, in 2005, waste incineration produced 4. 8% of the electricity consumption and 13. 7% of the total domestic heat consumption in Denmark. A number of other European countries rely heavily on incineration for handling municipal waste, in particular Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Germany, and France. The first UK incinerators for waste disposal were built in Nottingham by Manlove and they were originally known as destructors. The first US incinerator was built in 1885 on Governors Island in New York, the first facility in the Czech Republic was built in 1905 in Brno. An incinerator is a furnace for burning waste, Modern incinerators include pollution mitigation equipment such as flue gas cleaning
38.
Glossary of boiler terms
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Boilers for generating steam or hot water have been designed in countless shapes, sizes and configurations. An extensive terminology has evolved to describe their common features and this glossary provides definitions for these terms. Terms which relate solely to boilers used for heating or generating hot water are identified by. Ashpan A container beneath the furnace, catching ash and clinker that falls through the firebars and this may be made of brickwork for a stationary boiler, or steel sheet for a locomotive. Ashpans are often the location of the damper and they may also be shaped into hoppers, for easy cleaning during disposal. Blastpipe Blow-down Periodic venting of water from the boiler and this water contains the most concentrated precursors for sludge build-up, so by venting it whilst still dissolved, the build-up is reduced. When early marine boilers were fed with water, they would be blown-down several times an hour. Blow-down cock a valve mounted low-down on the boiler, often around the foundation ring, blower the blower provides a forced draught on the fire, encouraging combustion. It consists of a ring mounted either in the base of the chimney or on top of the blastpipe. Holes are drilled in the top of the ring, and when steam is fed into the ring. Boiler A pressure vessel for the creation of hot water or steam, boilersmith a craftsman skilled in the techniques required for the construction and repair of boilers - not to be confused with at boilermaker. A boilermaker is a metalworker, usually the member of a union of the same name. A boilermaker may or may not be a boilersmith, a boilersmith may also be a member of another trade such as a plumber or pipeworker and so may not be a boilermaker. Boiler suit heavy-duty one-piece protective clothing, worn when inspecting the inside of a firebox for steam leaks, for which task it is necessary to crawl through the firehole door. Boiler ticket the safety certificate issued for a boiler on passing a formal inspection after a major rebuild. Additional annual safety inspections must also be undertaken, which may result in the locomotive being withdrawn from service if the boiler requires work, when the ticket expires the locomotive cannot be used until the boiler has been overhauled or replaced, and a new ticket obtained. Boiler water treatment Removal or chemical modification of boiler feedwater impurities to avoid scale, corrosion, brick arch A horizontal baffle of firebrick within the furnace, usually of a locomotive boiler. This forces combustion gases from the front of the furnace to flow further, back over the rest of the furnace, encouraging efficient combustion
39.
Pressure vessel
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A pressure vessel is a container designed to hold gases or liquids at a pressure substantially different from the ambient pressure. The pressure differential is dangerous, and fatal accidents have occurred in the history of pressure vessel development, consequently, pressure vessel design, manufacture, and operation are regulated by engineering authorities backed by legislation. The preferred test is hydrostatic testing because its a much safer method of testing as it much less energy if fracture were to occur. Today vessels in the USA require BPVC stamping but the BPVC is not just a domestic code, there are, however, other official codes in some countries, Japan, Australia, Canada, Britain, and Europe have their own codes. Regardless of the nearly all recognize the inherent potential hazards of pressure vessels. Pressure vessels can theoretically be almost any shape, but shapes made of sections of spheres, cylinders, a common design is a cylinder with end caps called heads. Head shapes are frequently either hemispherical or dished, more complicated shapes have historically been much harder to analyze for safe operation and are usually far more difficult to construct. Theoretically, a pressure vessel has approximately twice the strength of a cylindrical pressure vessel with the same wall thickness. However, a shape is difficult to manufacture, and therefore more expensive. Smaller pressure vessels are assembled from a pipe and two covers, many pressure vessels are made of steel. To manufacture a cylindrical or spherical pressure vessel, rolled and possibly forged parts would have to be welded together, some mechanical properties of steel, achieved by rolling or forging, could be adversely affected by welding, unless special precautions are taken. In addition to adequate strength, current standards dictate the use of steel with a high impact resistance. In applications where carbon steel would suffer corrosion, special corrosion resistant material should also be used, some pressure vessels are made of composite materials, such as filament wound composite using carbon fibre held in place with a polymer. Due to the high tensile strength of carbon fibre these vessels can be very light. The composite material may be wound around a metal liner, forming a composite overwrapped pressure vessel, other very common materials include polymers such as PET in carbonated beverage containers and copper in plumbing. Pressure vessels may be lined with metals, ceramics, or polymers to prevent leaking. This liner may also carry a significant portion of the pressure load, Pressure Vessels may also be constructed from concrete or other materials which are weak in tension. Cabling, wrapped around the vessel or within the wall or the vessel itself, a leakproof steel thin membrane lines the internal wall of the vessel
40.
Meiningen Steam Locomotive Works
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The Meiningen Steam Locomotive Works is a railway repair shop in Meiningen, Germany. It is owned by Deutsche Bahn and has specialised in the maintenance of steam locomotives since 1990. Today, customers of the factory include railway museums and museum railways from all over Europe, the factory is responsible for the safety inspections of all operational German steam locomotives. Dampflokwerk Meiningen is the facility in Europe capable of constructing new locomotive boilers up to modern standards of construction, performance. The newly built British steam locomotive 60163 Tornado that was delivered in 2008 had her all-steel, high-performance boiler made at Meiningen, in 1863 the Werra Railway built a locomotive repair shop opposite Meiningen station, which became a main workshop for the Prussian state railways in 1902. In 1910, construction of a new building on the present site was due to the lack of space at the original location. On 2 March 1914, the workshop was opened with 420 employees, from that time to the present day it has carried out the repair and maintenance of steam locomotives of all types. By 1918 the number of employees had risen to 2,200, from 1919 onwards, the shop was operated by the Deutsche Reichsbahn. After the foundation of the Deutsche Reichsbahn-Gesellschaft in 1924, it was renamed the Meiningen Reichsbahn Repair Depot, from 1925 the new Einheitsdampflokomotiven were repaired and inspected too, mainly those of classes 01,02,43 and 44. In the 1930s an average of 60 locomotives a month were repaired, on 18 April 1945 the factory was occupied by the United States Army and on 21 April around 400 employees began work again. By the end of 1946 the number of workers had risen to just under 3,000, in 1951 nine employees lost their lives when there was a boiler explosion on a DRG Class 95 locomotive in the boiler house, a passer-by in a nearby street was also killed. The boiler landed in the garden of the neighbouring hospital, in the 1960s, construction began on new snow ploughs for the DR in East Germany as well as the conversion of steam locomotives to oil-firing. At the same time the refurbishment of locomotives was taken on. The number of employees hovered around 2,000, in 1961 the former streamliner,61002, was converted by the factory into the high-speed, trial locomotive,18201, which is still operational today. This engine reached a top speed of 180 km/h and is currently the fastest, in 1981 the construction of fireless locomotives and S-Bahn bogies began, whilst the repair of steam locomotives steadily waned. After the merger of the DB and DR in 1994 into the Deutsche Bahn AG, today there are only 120 men in the factory. In 1995 a major project was begun for a private investor and it is a piece of history and, at the same time, an example of the quality and construction capability of the ex DR repair shop and the present day steam locomotive works. In 2002, locomotive 18201 which the workshop had rebuilt, was overhauled again
41.
Mannheim
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Mannheim is a city in the southwestern part of Germany, the third-largest in the German state of Baden-Württemberg after Stuttgart and Karlsruhe. Mannheim is among the twenty largest cities in Germany, with a 2015 population of approximately 305,000 inhabitants, the city is at the centre of the larger densely populated Rhine-Neckar Metropolitan Region which has a population of 2,400,000 and is Germanys eighth-largest metropolitan region. Mannheim is located at the confluence of the Rhine and the Neckar in the corner of Baden-Württemberg. The Rhine separates Mannheim from the city of Ludwigshafen, just to the west of it in Rhineland-Palatinate, Mannheim is downstream along the Neckar from the city of Heidelberg. Mannheim is unusual among German cities in that its streets and avenues are laid out in a grid pattern, the eighteenth century Mannheim Palace, former home of the Prince-elector of the Palatinate, now houses the University of Mannheim. In addition, Mannheims SAP Arena is not only the home of the German ice hockey record champions the Adler Mannheim, but also the well-known handball team, the Rhein-Neckar Löwen. According to the Forbes magazine, Mannheim is known for its exceptional power and was ranked 11th among the Top 15 of the most inventive cities worldwide. The New Economy Magazine elected Mannheim under the 20 cities that best represent the world of tomorrow emphasizing Mannheims positive economic, since 2014, Mannheim has been a member of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network and holds the title of UNESCO City of Music. Mannheim is a Smart City the citys electrical grid is installed with a Power-line communication network, the citys tourism slogan is Leben. The civic symbol of Mannheim is der Wasserturm, a Romanesque water tower completed in 1886 that rises to 60 metres above the highest point of the art nouveau area Friedrichsplatz, Mannheim is the starting and finishing point of the Bertha Benz Memorial Route. The name of the city was first recorded as Mannenheim in a transaction in 766. The name is interpreted as the home of Manno, a form of a Germanic name such as Hartmann or Hermann. Mannheim remained a mere village throughout the Middle Ages, in 1606, Frederick IV, Elector Palatine started building the fortress of Friedrichsburg and the adjacent city centre with its grid of streets and avenues. On January 24,1607, Frederick IV gave Mannheim the status of a city, Mannheim was mostly levelled during the Thirty Years War around 1622 by the forces of Johan Tillys troops. After being rebuilt, it was severely damaged by the French Army in 1689 during the Nine Years War. During the eighteenth century, Mannheim was the home of the Mannheim School of classical music composers, Mannheim was said to have one of the best court orchestras in Europe under the leadership of the conductor Carlo Grua. The royal court of the Palatinate left Mannheim in 1778, two decades later, in 1802, Mannheim was removed from the Palatinate and given to the Grand Duchy of Baden. In 1819, Norwich Duff wrote of Mannheim, In 1819, the climate crisis of 1816-17 caused famine and the death of many horses in Mannheim
42.
Jember Regency
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Jember Regency is a regency of East Java province, Indonesia. The population was 2,332,726 at the 2010 census and its administrative capital is the urban area of Jember, which with 332,611 inhabitants in 2010 is the third urban area in East Java province but does not have municipality or city status. Jember is famous for its farms and traditional food called tape which is made of fermented cassava. Jember Regency has an area of 3,092.34 km². It shares its borders with the regencies of Lumajang, Probolinggo, Bondowoso and Situbondo, to the south lies the Indian Ocean, where the regency includes the island of Nusa Barong, located to the south of Java. The University of Jember is located in the regency, Jember Regency consists of 31 districts, listed below with their populations at the 2010 Census, There were 2,332,726 people living in Jember Regency at the 2010 Census. The population has risen by 2014 to 2,398,252 - an average density of about 775.5 people/km², Jember Regency is one heterogeneous area where many ethnic groups are mingled and live together. Most of its population are Javanese and Madurese people, with a percentage of ethnic Chinese, Balinese, Arabic. Most citizens speak the Javanese language or the Madurese language, many citizen speak Indonesian for official and business purposes only, and to communicate with non-Javanese or non-Madurese people. Jember Fashion Carnival is an annual event, in the tenth carnival in 2011, over 600 participants walked along the worlds longest catwalk. It ran for 3.6 kilometres, along on Sudirman Street nad Gajah Mada Street up to Jember Sport Hall, an expansion of dormant Noto Hadinegoro Airport has been verified for reuse/operational in June 2014. The airport now has 1,705 meters runway and ready to serve up to ATR 72/600, culture of Jember Official website Official website, Majalah Gempur Jember travel guide from Wikivoyage Witton, Patrick
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Madiun
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Madiun is a city in the western part of East Java, known for its agricultural center. It was formerly the capital of the Madiun Regency, but is now separated from the regency. Madiun, located 169 km south west of Surabaya, covers an area of 33.92 sq. km, and had a population of 170,964 at the 2010 Census, the latest official estimate is 175,767. This town is an average of 63 metres above sea level and lies on the Madiun River and it is surrounded by a number of mountains, including Mount Wilis to the east, to the south the Kapur Selatan range and to the west Mount Lawu. Madiun has a temperature of 20-35 degrees Celsius. After the signing of the Renville Agreement that year, guerrilla units, in Madiun a group of PKI militia refused to disarm and were killed in September. The killings sparked a violent uprising, army sources claimed that the PKI had announced the proclamation of the Soviet Republic of Indonesia on 18 September with Muso as its president and Amir Sjarifuddin as its prime minister. The uprising was suppressed by republican troops, on 30 September, Madiun was taken over by republican troops of the Silwangi Division. Thousands of party cadres were killed and 36,000 were imprisoned, amongst the executed PKi members were several leaders including Muso killed on 31 October, allegedly while trying to escape from prison. Other PKI leaders such as D. N. Aidit went into exile in China, ATV Madiun Official site Map of Madiun and surrounding area
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Davenport Locomotive Works
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The Davenport Locomotive Works, of Davenport, Iowa, USA was formed as the W W Whitehead Company in 1901. In 1902 the company commenced building light locomotives, the Company was renamed the Davenport Locomotive Works in 1904. In late 1930 Davenport was licensed to assemble and market R G LeTourneau Inc products under the Davenport-LeTourneau brand, the agreement is believed to have ended in 1935 when LeTourneau’s moved to Peoria, Illinois. In 1933 the company was restructured and renamed the Davenport-Besler Corporation which continued in business until 1956. William George Besler was a Director at the time of the restructuring, the company acquired the locomotive business of H. K. Porter, Inc in 1950 and from then on produced Porter designs as well as its own. An extensive range of locomotives in all industrial sizes followed, utilizing either mechanical torque converter or electric transmission. Railroad buyers included the Rock Island, Milwaukee Road, Santa Fe, the Frisco, in 1963, that rule was relaxed and railroads ceased buying industrial-sized locomotives for light switching. Various Davenport locomotives are preserved in the US as well as parts of the world. The Canadian Locomotive Company acquired Davenport-Besler in 1955, closing it the following year
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Pemex
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Pemex has a total asset worth of $415. Asphalt and pitch had been worked in Mexico since the time of the Aztecs, small quantities of oil were first refined into kerosene around 1876 near Tampico. In 1938, President Lázaro Cárdenas sided with oil workers striking against foreign-owned oil companies for an increase in pay and he framed expropriation as a necessary national response to the injustice of the operations of foreign companies operating on Mexican soil. Expropriation was not outright confiscation, since the Mexican government promised to compensate companies, however, in retaliation, many foreign governments closed their markets to Mexican oil. In spite of the boycott, Pemex developed into one of the largest oil companies in the world and helped Mexico become the fifth-largest oil exporter in the world. In an interview on the oil news website in November 2005, annual production has dropped each year since 2004. Furthermore, it has reported the 2005-2006 daily oil production was down by approximately 500,000 barrels per day on the previous year. Pemex averaged 3.71 MMBPD in 2006, Pemex has never produced 4 MMBPD or higher for a yearly average. Pemex has been replaced as Latin America’s largest company by Petrobras, President Calderón made clear at the beginning of his presidency that he would try his best to open up the sector to private investment. Pemex is Latin America’s second largest company measured by revenues, according to a ranking of the region’s 500 largest companies by Latin Business Chronicle, in June 2009, Pemex has asked for an extra $1.5 billion state aid to finance oil fields investments, reported Bloomberg. President Felipe Calderón called for change in Mexico’s oil industry after output at Pemex fell at the fastest rate since 1942. His comments came after Petrobras and London-based BP said they made a giant oil find of as much as 3 billion barrels in the Gulf of Mexico southeast of Houston. In February 2016, Emilio Lozoya Austin stepped down as CEO of Pemex, in addition to a failing infrastructure, dwindling reserves have created urgency in completing some type of reform. In February 2015, the board approved a $4.16 billion spending cut, the company also said it will delay deepwater exploration plans and cut jobs in response to weak oil prices. In 1979, Pemex’s Ixtoc I exploratory oil well in the Bay of Campeche suffered a blowout resulting in one of the largest oil spills in history, Pemex spent $100 million to clean up the spill and avoided most compensation claims by asserting sovereign immunity as a state-run company. On 19 September 2012 an explosion at the Pemex gas plant in Reynosa, Tamaulipas killed 30, Pemex Director Juan Jose Suarez said that there was no evidence that it was a deliberate incident, or some kind of attack. On January 31,2013, an explosion occurred at the offices of Pemex in Mexico City. At least 37 people were killed and at least 126 were injured, the cause has not been confirmed
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