1.
Flag of Brazil
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The flag of Brazil is a blue disc depicting a starry sky spanned by a curved band inscribed with the national motto Ordem e Progresso, within a gold rhombus, on a green field. Brazil officially adopted this design for its flag on November 19,1889. The concept was the work of Raimundo Teixeira Mendes, with the collaboration of Miguel Lemos, Manuel Pereira Reis, a blue circle with 27 white five-pointed stars replaced the arms of the Empire of Brazil. The motto Ordem e Progresso is inspired by Auguste Comtes motto of positivism, Lamour pour principe et lordre pour base, le progrès pour, the first Brazilian vexillological symbols were private maritime flags used by Portuguese merchant ships that sailed to Brazil. A flag with green and white stripes was used until 1692, the green and white colors represented the House of Braganza and the national colors of Portugal. In 1692, that flag was no longer used by ships that sailed to Brazil, in 1692, a new flag was introduced for merchant vessels sailing to Brazil. The new flag had a field with a golden armillary sphere. The armillary sphere had served as the emblem of King Manuel I of Portugal. During his reign Portuguese ships used it widely, and eventually it became an emblem of Portugal and, more specifically. A similar flag was introduced for the Portuguese ships that sailed to India and it eventually became the unofficial ensign of Brazil. In 1815, Brazil was elevated to the rank of kingdom, and the kingdoms of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves were united as a single state--the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, the Charter Act of 1816 established the insignia of the new kingdom. It specified that the arms of the Kingdom of Brazil was to be composed of an armillary sphere on a blue field. During this time, the flag of Brazil was the flag of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves. The imperial flag of Brazil was designed by Jean-Baptiste Debret as the Royal Standard of the Prince Royal of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves, Pedro I. After the Brazilian Declaration of Independence, and with the coronation of Pedro I as Emperor of Brazil, the new flag featured the imperial coat of arms within a gold rhombus, on a green field. The green and yellow represented the dynastic houses of Pedro I. The imperial flag was modified during the reign of Pedro II. It was flown from November 15,1889, until November 19,1889, Fonseca suggested that the flag of the new republic should resemble the old imperial flag
2.
Coat of arms of Brazil
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The coat of arms of Brazil was created on November 19,1889, four days after Brazil became a republic. The coat of arms consists of the central emblem surrounded by coffee and tobacco branches, in the blue circle in the center, the Southern Cross can be seen. The ring of 27 stars around it represents Brazils 26 states, the blue ribbon contains the official name of Brazil in its first line. Prior to 1964, this contained the previous official name. In the second line, the date of the federative republics establishment is written, the National Arms of the Republic were instituted by Decree No. 4, with alteration made by Law No, II - The shield will be placed on a star parted gyronny of ten pieces, green and gold, bordered by two strips, the inner red and the outer gold. These arms are used by the present imperial house, on 18 September 1822, eleven days after proclaiming Brazils independence Royal Prince Dom Pedro signed a decree instituting these arms stating. On 12 October 1822 when the independent country was declared an Empire and Prince Pedro became the countrys first emperor. The number of stars in the coat of arms reflected the number of provinces in the Brazilian Empire, the design of the Crown in the coat of arms changed twice. That is the version of the imperial coat of arms of Brazil. Brazil Brazilian heraldry Coat of arms Coat of arms of Dutch Brazil Coats of Brazilian states Flagspot
3.
Brazilian National Anthem
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The anthems lyrics have been described as Parnassian in style and Romantic in content. The melody of the Brazilian national anthem was composed by Francisco Manuel da Silva and was presented to the public for the first time in April 1831. On 7 April 1831, the first Brazilian Emperor, Pedro I, abdicated the Crown and days later left for Europe, in the immediate aftermath of the abdication of Pedro I, the anthem composed by him fell in popularity. Francisco Manuel da Silva then seized this opportunity to present his composition, on that same day, the ship carrying the former Emperor left the port of Rio de Janeiro. The date of April 13 now appears in official calendars as the Day of the Brazilian National Anthem, as to the actual date of composition of the music presented in April 1831, there is controversy among historians. In any event, the Anthem remained in obscurity until it was played in public on 13 April 1831, in style, the music resembles early Romantic Italian music such as that of Gioachino Rossini. It was known during this period as April 7 Hymn. The lyrics by Ovídio Saraiva soon fell out of use, given that they were considered poor, the music, however, continued enjoying sustained popularity, and by 1837 it was played, without lyrics, in all public ceremonies. A national anthem was seen as resulting from praxis or tradition, thus, by 1837, when it was played in all official solemnities, Francisco Manuel da Silvas composition was already the Brazilian National Anthem. The former was dedicated to Emperor Pedro II, and the latter was dedicated to his heiress presumptive and those works are in the vein of similar compositions written at the time in other Nations, such as Charles Gounods Fantasy on the Russian National Anthem. After the Proclamation of the Republic in 1889, the new rulers made a competition in order to choose a new anthem, dedoro himself was said to prefer the old anthem to the new composition that became the anthem of the Proclamation of the Republic. In the early days of the new Federal Republic, the National Anthem continued without official lyrics, but several lyrics were proposed and this presidential decree was issued in execution of a legislative decree adopted by Congress on 21 August 1922. The legal norms currently in force concerning the national anthem are contained in a statute passed in 1971 and this law regulates in great detail the form of the national anthem and how and when it is to be played. This adaptation, long in use, was official by the 1971 statute regulating national symbols. This same statute also confirmed as official the traditional vocal adaptation of the lyrics of the anthem, in F major. Since the redemocratization of the country, far greater artistic liberty has been allowed regarding renderings of the national anthem, singer Fafá de Beléms interpretation of the national anthem, is an example of that. The anthem is sung in Brazils official national language, the Portuguese language, the song consists of two consecutive stanzas. The adoption in 1922 of lyrics containing two stanzas thus created the present situation of the music of the anthem being played twice so as to allow for the singing of both stanzas
4.
Acre (state)
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Acre is a state located in the northern region of Brazil. It occupies an area of 152,581.4 km2 and its capital and largest city is Rio Branco. Other important places include Cruzeiro do Sul, Sena Madureira, Tarauacá, the intense extractive activity, which reached its height in the 20th century, attracted Brazilians from many regions to the state. From the mixture of sulista, Southeast Brazil, nordestino, and indigenous traditions arose a diverse cuisine, which unites sun-dried meat with pirarucu, such dishes are seasoned with tucupi, a sauce made from manioc. There is also a hypothesis that Acquiri derives from Yasiri, or Ysiri, Acre possesses some nicknames, the End of Brazil, The Rubber Tree State, the Latex State and the Western End. The native inhabitants of Acre are called acrianos, in the singular acriano, until the entry in force of the Orthographic Agreement of 1990, the correct spelling was acreano in the singular and in the plural acreanos. The state of Acre occupies an area of 152,581 km2 in the extreme west of Brazil and it is located at 70º0000 west longitude from the Prime Meridian and at 09º0000 latitude south of the equator. In Brazil, the state is part of the North Region, forming borders with the states of Amazonas and Rondônia, and with two countries, Peru and Bolivia. Practically all of the terrain of the state of Acre is part of the low plateau, or terra firme. These terranes rise, in Acre, from the southeast to the northeast, in the extreme west is found the Serra da Contamana or Serra do Divisor, along the western border, with the highest altitudes in the state. About 63% of states surface is lies between 200 and 300 m in height, 16% between 300 and 609, and 21% between 200 and 135. The rainfall reaches a total of 2,100 mm, with a clear dry season in the months of June, July. The Amazon Rainforest covers all of the state territory, very rich in rubber trees of the most valuable species and Brazil nut trees, the forest guarantees that Acre is the greatest national producer of rubber and nuts. Acres principal rivers, mostly navigable during the wet season, cross the state with almost parallel courses which will only converge outside of its territory, the Amazon represents over half of the planets remaining rainforests and comprises the largest and most species-rich tract of tropical rainforest in the world. Wet tropical forests are the most species-rich biome, and tropical forests in the Americas are consistently more species-rich than the wet forests in Africa, as the largest tract of tropical rainforest in the Americas, the Amazonian rainforests have unparalleled biodiversity. More than 1/3 of all species in the live in the Amazon Rainforest. Until the beginning of the 20th century Acre belonged to Bolivia, in 1899, Bolivians tried to gain control of the area, but Brazilians revolted and there were border confrontations, generating the episode which became known as the Acre Revolution. On November 17,1903, with the signing over and sale in the Treaty of Petrópolis, Acre was then integrated into Brazil as a territory divided into three departments
5.
Rio de Janeiro
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Rio de Janeiro, or simply Rio, is the second-most populous municipality in Brazil and the sixth-most populous in the Americas. The metropolis is anchor to the Rio de Janeiro metropolitan area, Rio de Janeiro is the capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazils third-most populous state. Part of the city has designated as a World Heritage Site, named Rio de Janeiro. Founded in 1565 by the Portuguese, the city was initially the seat of the Captaincy of Rio de Janeiro, later, in 1763, it became the capital of the State of Brazil, a state of the Portuguese Empire. Rio stayed the capital of the pluricontinental Lusitanian monarchy until 1822 and this is one of the few instances in history that the capital of a colonising country officially shifted to a city in one of its colonies. Rio de Janeiro has the second largest municipal GDP in the country, the home of many universities and institutes, it is the second-largest center of research and development in Brazil, accounting for 17% of national scientific output according to 2005 data. The Maracanã Stadium held the finals of the 1950 and 2014 FIFA World Cups, the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, the city is divided into 33 administrative regions. Europeans first encountered Guanabara Bay on 1 January 1502, by a Portuguese expedition under explorer Gaspar de Lemos captain of a ship in Pedro Álvares Cabrals fleet, allegedly the Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci participated as observer at the invitation of King Manuel I in the same expedition. The region of Rio was inhabited by the Tupi, Puri, Botocudo, in 1555, one of the islands of Guanabara Bay, now called Villegagnon Island, was occupied by 500 French colonists under the French admiral Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon. Consequently, Villegagnon built Fort Coligny on the island when attempting to establish the France Antarctique colony, Rio de Janeiro was the name of Guanabara Bay. Until early in the 18th century, the city was threatened or invaded by several, mostly French, pirates and buccaneers, such as Jean-François Duclerc, on 27 January 1763, the colonial administration in Portuguese America was moved from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro. The kingdoms capital was transferred to the city, which, thus, as there was no physical space or urban structure to accommodate hundreds of noblemen who arrived suddenly, many inhabitants were simply evicted from their homes. The first printed newspaper in Brazil, the Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro, from the colonial period until the first independent decades, Rio de Janeiro was a city of slaves. There was an influx of African slaves to Rio de Janeiro, in 1819. In 1840, the number of slaves reached 220,000 people, the Port of Rio de Janeiro was the largest port of slaves in America. As a political center of the country, Rio concentrated the political-partisan life of the Empire and it was the main stage of the abolitionist and republican movements in the last half of the 19th century. Rio continued as the capital of Brazil after 1889, when the monarchy was replaced by a republic, until the early years of the 20th century, the city was largely limited to the neighbourhood now known as the historic city centre, on the mouth of Guanabara Bay. Expansion of the city to the north and south was facilitated by the consolidation and electrification of Rios streetcar transit system after 1905, though many thought that it was just campaign rhetoric, Kubitschek managed to have Brasília built, at great cost, by 1960
6.
Portuguese language
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Portuguese is a Romance language and the sole official language of Portugal, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Angola, and São Tomé and Príncipe. It also has co-official language status in East Timor, Equatorial Guinea, Portuguese is part of the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, and has kept some Celtic phonology. Portuguese is also termed the language of Camões, after Luís Vaz de Camões, one of the greatest literary figures in the Portuguese language and author of the Portuguese epic poem, the museum is the first of its kind in the world. In 2015 the museum was destroyed in a fire, but there are plans to reconstruct it, when the Romans arrived in the Iberian Peninsula in 216 BCE, they brought the Latin language with them, from which all Romance languages descend. Between 409 CE and 711 CE, as the Roman Empire collapsed in Western Europe, Portuguese evolved from the medieval language, known today by linguists as Galician-Portuguese, Old Portuguese or Old Galician, of the northwestern medieval Kingdom of Galicia. It is in Latin administrative documents of the 9th century that written Galician-Portuguese words and this phase is known as Proto-Portuguese, which lasted from the 9th century until the 12th-century independence of the County of Portugal from the Kingdom of León, by then reigning over Galicia. In the first part of the Galician-Portuguese period, the language was used for documents. For some time, it was the language of preference for poetry in Christian Hispania. Portugal became an independent kingdom in 1139, under King Afonso I of Portugal, in the second period of Old Portuguese, in the 15th and 16th centuries, with the Portuguese discoveries, the language was taken to many regions of Africa, Asia and the Americas. The language continued to be popular in parts of Asia until the 19th century, some Portuguese-speaking Christian communities in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Indonesia preserved their language even after they were isolated from Portugal. The end of the Old Portuguese period was marked by the publication of the Cancioneiro Geral by Garcia de Resende, Most literate Portuguese speakers were also literate in Latin, and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Portuguese. Portuguese is the language of the majority of people in Brazil and Portugal, perhaps 75% of the population of Angola speaks Portuguese natively, and 85% are fluent. Just over 40% of the population of Mozambique are native speakers of Portuguese, Portuguese is also spoken natively by 30% of the population in Guinea-Bissau, and a Portuguese-based creole is understood by all. No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost all the population is bilingual, there are also significant Portuguese speaking immigrant communities in many countries including Andorra, Bermuda, Canada, France, Japan, Jersey, Namibia, Paraguay, Macau, Switzerland, Venezuela. In some parts of former Portuguese India, namely Goa and Daman and Diu, in 2014, an estimated 1,500 students were learning Portuguese in Goa. Equatorial Guinea made an application for full membership to the CPLP in June 2010. In 2011, Portuguese became its official language and, in July 2014. Portuguese is a subject in The school curriculum in Uruguay
7.
Politics of Brazil
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The political and administrative organization of Brazil comprises the federal government, the 26 states and a federal district, and the municipalities. The federal government exercises control over the government and is divided into three independent branches, executive, legislative and judicial. Executive power is exercised by the President, advised by a cabinet, Legislative power is vested upon the National Congress, a two-chamber legislature comprising the Federal Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. The states are autonomous entities with their own governments that, together with the other federal units. Currently, Brazil is divided politically and administratively into 27 federal units, being 26 states, the executive power is exercised by a governor elected to a four-year term. The judiciary is exercised by courts of first and second instance addressing the common justice, each State has a unicameral legislature with deputies who vote state laws. The Constitution of Brazil knows also two elements of democracy, stated in Article 14. The legislative assemblies supervise the activities of the Executive power of the states and municipalities, the municipalities are minor federal units of the Federative Republic of Brazil. Each municipality has a local government, comprising a mayor, directly elected by the people to a four-year term. Due to a mix of voting, the lack of election threshold. Brazil has had seven constitutions, Constitution of 1824 – the first Brazilian constitution and it was monarchic, hereditary, and highly centralized, permitting suffrage only to property-holders. Constitution of 1891 – the republic was proclaimed in 1889, but a new constitution was not promulgated until 1891 and this federalist, democratic constitution was heavily influenced by the U. S. model. However, women and illiterates were not permitted to vote, Constitution of 1934 – when Getúlio Vargas came to power in 1930, he canceled the 1891 constitution and did not permit a new one until 1934. The Constitutionalist Revolution of 1932 forced Vargas to enact a new constitution that permitted womens suffrage. Getúlio Vargas was indirectly elected president by the Constitutional Assembly to a four-year term, Constitution of 1937 – Getúlio Vargas suppressed a Communist uprising in 1935 and two years later used it as a pretext to establish autocratic rule. He instituted a corporatist constitution nicknamed the Polish, written by Francisco Campos, Constitution of 1946 – in October,1945, with World War II over, a civil-military coup ousted dictatorial Getúlio Vargas, an Assembly wrote a democratic constitution. Constitution of 1967 – after the 1964 coup dÉtat against João Goulart, the military dictatorship passed the Institutional Acts and this strongly undemocratic constitution simply incorporated these Acts. Constitution of 1988 – the progressive redemocratization culminated in the current constitution, very democratic, it is more expansive than a typical constitution – many statutory acts in other countries are written into this constitution, like Social Security and taxes
8.
Deodoro da Fonseca
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Manuel Deodoro da Fonseca was a Brazilian politician and military officer who served as the first President of Brazil. He is therefore the first Brazilian President to have resigned from office, Fonseca was born the third child of a large military family in Vila Madalena, Alagoas, a town that today bears his name as Marechal Deodoro, in Northeast Brazil. He was the son of Manuel Mendes da Fonseca Galvão and his wife Rosa Maria Paulina de Barros Cavalcanti, in the period of the Brazilian Empire, his older brother Severino Martins da Fonseca was nominated the first Baron of Alagoas. Another notable relative was the Portuguese humanist Francisco de Holanda, his remote uncle, Fonseca pursued a military career that was notable for his suppression of the Praieira revolt in Pernambuco in 1848, Brazils response to the European year of failed liberal revolutions. He also saw action during the Paraguayan War, attaining the rank of captain, in 1884 he was promoted to the rank of field-marshal, and he later achieved the rank of full marshal. His personal courage, military competence and manly personal style made him a national figure, as Governor of Rio Grande do Sul, Fonseca was courted by republican intellectuals such as Benjamin Constant and Rui Barbosa in the café society of São Paulo. His daughter, Isabel, Princess Imperial of Brazil, abolished entirely in 1888. Enraged oligarchs played a role in the subsequent coup détat, soon, however, he was in conflict with the civilian republican leaders. His election as president on 25 February 1891, by a plurality, was backed with military pressure on Congress. During the first months of his presidency, he permitted his ministers almost unrestricted control of their ministries and this also caused republicans of the South to withdraw their support from the marshal and provisional government. The situation reached a stage when Fonseca dissolved the National Congress. A group of deputies opposed this decision and found support among the officers of the Navy. The marshal found himself on the brink of a civil war, on 23 November 1891 he signed a resignation and turned over the presidency to Floriano Peixoto. Deodoro da Fonseca died in Rio de Janeiro on 23 August 1892, Deodoro da Fonseca in art List of presidents of Brazil Media related to Deodoro da Fonseca at Wikimedia Commons Charles Willis Simmons, Marshal Deodoro and the fall of Dom Pedro II,1966
9.
National Congress of Brazil
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The National Congress is the legislative body of Brazils federal government. Unlike the state Legislative Assemblies and Municipal Chambers, the Congress is bicameral, composed of the Federal Senate, the Congress meets annually in its Brasília seat from 2 February to 27 July and from 1 August to 22 December. The Senate represents the 26 states and the Federal District, each state and the Federal District has a representation of three Senators, who are elected by popular ballot for a term of eight years. Every four years, renewal of either one third or two-thirds of the Senate takes place, the Chamber of Deputies represents the people of each state, and its members are elected for a four-year term by a proportional representation. Seats are allotted according to each states population, with each state eligible for a minimum of 8 seats. Unlike the Senate, the whole of the Chamber of Deputies is renewed every four years, until recently it was common for politicians to switch parties and the proportion of congressional seats held by each party would often change. Consequently, politicians who abandon the party for which they were elected now face the loss of their Congressional seat, each house of the Brazilian Congress elects its President and the other members of its directing board from among its members. The President of the Senate is ex officio the President of the National Congress, the most recent President of the Chamber was Eduardo Cunha until his suspension by Brazils Supreme Court on 5 May 2016 due to allegations that he attempted to intimidate members of Congress. He was replaced by Waldir Maranhão, the President of the Chamber is second in the presidential line of succession while the President of the Senate is third. The Federal Senate is the house of the National Congress. Currently, the Senate comprises 81 seats, three Senators from each of the 26 states and three Senators from the Federal District are elected on a majority basis to serve eight-year terms. Elections are staggered so that two-thirds of the house is up for election at one time. The candidate in each State and the Federal District who achieve the greatest plurality of votes are elected. The Chamber of Deputies is the house of the National Congress, it is composed of 513 federal deputies. Seats are allotted according to each states population, with each state eligible for a minimum of 8 seats. In 2010,22 out of the countrys 35 political parties were able to elect at least one representative in the Chamber, see the Latest election section for election results table. In early 1900s, the Brazilian National Congress happened to be in separate buildings, the Senate was located near Railway Central Station, beside the Republica Square, at Moncorvo Filho Street, where there is today a Federal University of Rio de Janeiro students center. The Federal Chamber of Deputies was located at Misericórdia Street, which would later be the location of the State of Rio de Janeiros local Chamber of Deputies
10.
Upper house
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An upper house, sometimes called a Senate, is one of two chambers of a bicameral legislature, the other chamber being the lower house. The house formally designated as the house is usually smaller. Examples of upper houses in countries include the UKs House of Lords, Canadas Senate, Indias Rajya Sabha, Russias Federation Council, Irelands Seanad, Germanys Bundesrat, a legislature composed of only one house is described as unicameral. An upper house is different from the lower house in at least one of the following respects, Powers, In a parliamentary system. Therefore, in countries the Upper House votes on only limited legislative matters. Cannot vote a motion of no confidence against the government, while the house always can. In a presidential system, It may have equal or nearly equal power with the lower house and it may have specific powers not granted to the lower house. For example, It may give advice and consent to some executive decisions and it may have the sole power to try impeachments against officials of the executive, following enabling resolutions passed by the lower house. Status, In some countries, its members are not popularly elected, membership may be indirect and its members may be elected with a different voting system than that used to elect the lower house. Less populated states, provinces, or administrative divisions may be represented in the upper house than in the lower house. Members terms may be longer than in the house. Members may be elected in portions, for staggered terms, rather than all at one time, in some countries, the upper house cannot be dissolved at all, or can be dissolved only in more limited circumstances than the lower house. It typically has fewer members or seats than the lower house and it has usually a higher age of candidacy than the lower house. In parliamentary systems the upper house is seen as an advisory or revising chamber. Some or all of the restrictions are often placed on upper houses. No absolute veto of proposed legislation, though suspensive vetoes are permitted in some states, in countries where it can veto legislation, it may not be able to amend the proposals. A reduced or even absent role in initiating legislation, additionally, a Government must have the consent of both to remain in office, a position which is known as perfect bicameralism or equal bicameralism. An example is the British House of Lords, bills can only be delayed for up to one year before the Commons can use the Parliament Act, although economic bills can only be delayed for one month
11.
Federal Senate
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The Federal Senate is the upper house of the National Congress of Brazil. Created by the first Constitution of the Brazilian Empire in 1824, since the Proclamation of the Republic in 1889 the Federal Senate has resembled the United States Senate. Currently, the Senate comprises 81 seats, three Senators from each of the 26 states and three Senators from the Federal District are elected on a majority basis to serve eight-year terms. Elections are staggered so that two-thirds of the house is up for election at one time. The candidate in each State and the Federal District who achieve the greatest plurality of votes are elected, the current president of the Brazilian Senate is Eunício Oliveira, from the Brazilian Democratic Movement Party of Ceará. He was elected in early 2017 for a two-year term, the Federal Senate of Brazil was established as the Senate of the Empire by the Constitution of 1824, first enacted after the Declaration of Independence. Following independence, in 1822, Emperor Pedro I ordered the convocation of a National Assembly to draft the countrys first Constitution, following several disagreements with the elected deputies, the Emperor dissolved the Assembly. In 1824, Pedro I implemented the first Constitution which established a Legislative branch with the Chamber of Deputies as the house. The first configuration of the Senate was a body to the Emperor. Membership was for life and it was a place of great prestige, members of the Senate were elected, but they had to be at least 40 years old and have an annual income of 800,000 contos-de-réis, which limited candidates to wealthy citizens. Voters also faced an income qualification, voting in an election for the Senate was limited to male citizens with an annual income of at least 200,000 contos-de-réis. Those who qualified for this did not vote directly for Senators, instead, to be a Senate elector required an annual income of 400,000 contos-de-réis. Once elected, these electors would vote for senator. The election itself would not result in a winner automatically, the three candidates receiving the most votes would make up what was called a triple list, from which the Emperor would select one individual that would be considered elected. The Emperor usually chose the candidate with the most votes, the unelected Princes of the Brazilian Imperial House were senators by right and would assume their seats in the Senate upon reaching age 25. The original Senate had 50 members, representing all of the Empires Provinces, following the adoption of the 1824 Constitution the first session of the Senate took place in May 1826. The Emperor had repeatedly delayed calling the first election, which had led to accusations that he would attempt to establish an absolutist government
12.
Lower house
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A lower house is one of two chambers of a bicameral legislature, the other chamber being the upper house. Despite its official position below the house, in many legislatures worldwide. A legislature composed of one house is described as unicameral. In comparison with the house, lower houses frequently display certain characteristics, Powers In a parliamentary system, Much more power. Able to override the upper house in some ways, can vote a motion of no confidence against the government. In a presidential system, Somewhat less power, as the house alone gives advice. Given the sole power to impeach the executive Status Always elected directly, while the house may be elected directly, indirectly. Its members may be elected with a different voting system to the upper house, most populated administrative divisions are better represented than in the upper house, representation is usually proportional to population. Elected all at once, not by staggered terms, in a parliamentary system, can be dissolved by the executive. Has total or original control over budget and monetary laws, lower age of candidacy than the upper house. Many lower houses are named in the manner, House/Chamber of Representatives/the People/Commons/Deputies
13.
Chamber of Deputies (Brazil)
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The Chamber of Deputies is a federal legislative body and the lower house of the National Congress of Brazil. The chamber comprises 513 deputies, who are elected by proportional representation to serve four-year terms, the current president of the Chamber is the deputy Rodrigo Maia, who was elected in July 14,2016 to serve for the remainder of the 2015-2016 term. The legislatures are counted from the first meeting of the Chamber of Deputies and of the Senate, on 6 May 1826, the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate were created by Brazils first Constitution, the Constitution of the Empire of Brazil, adopted in 1824. The inauguration of a new composition of Chamber of Deputies for a term of office marks the start of a new Legislature. In the imperial era the national legislature was named General Assembly and it was made up of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. Senators were elected for life and the Senate was a permanent institution, whereas the Chamber of Deputies, when Brazil became a republic and a federal state the model of a bicameral Legislature was retained at the federal level, but the parliament was renamed National Congress. The National Congress is made up of the Chamber of Deputies, both houses have fixed terms and cannot be dissolved earlier. Under Brazils present Constitution, adopted in 1988, senators are elected to eight-year terms, each Brazilian state is represented in the Senate by three senators. Elections to the Senate are held four years, with either a third or two thirds of the seats up for election. The number of deputies elected is proportional to the size of the population of the respective state, however, no delegation can be made up of less than eight or more than seventy seats. Thus the least populous state elects eight Federal Deputies and the most populous elects seventy and these restrictions favour the smaller states at the expense of the more populous states and so the size of the delegations is not exactly proportional to population. Elections to the Chamber of Deputies are held four years. New elections were summoned by the government of the Republic in 1890. Old Republic 21st Legislature, discharged the role of Constituent Congress, during the drafting of the Constitution, the Congress was to meet in joint session. The Congress was required to adopt a Constitution that conformed to the form of government. Vargas Era 36th Legislature, discharged the role of Constituent Assembly 37th Legislature, legislatures elected under the Republic of 46 38th Legislature, discharged the role of National Constituent Assembly. The Constitution was voted under duress, legislatures elected under the Military Regime 43rd Legislature 44th Legislature 45th Legislature 46th Legislature 47th Legislature. The Chamber of Deputies was elected under the process of return to democracy
14.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
15.
20th century
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The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States
16.
Revolta da Armada
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The Brazilian government received support from the United States, although military involvement was minor during the conflict. To avoid a war, Marshal Deodoro resigned the presidency in 23 November. With the resignation of Deodoro, after just nine months from the beginning of his administration, the 1891 Constitution, however, provided for a new election if the presidency or vice-presidency became vacant sooner than two years in office. The opposition then accused Floriano of staying as head of the nation illegally, the second revolt started in March 1892, when thirteen generals sent a letter and manifesto to the President Marshal Floriano Peixoto. This document demanded new elections be called to fulfill the constitutional provision, Floriano harshly suppressed the movement, ordering the arrest of their leaders. Thus, not legally solved, the tensions increased. The revolt broke out in September 1893 at Rio de Janeiro, with many of the Brazilian Navys most powerful ships either in the hands of the rebels or under repair, the Brazilian government had to improvise a new fleet to battle the rebel fleet. The cardboard squadron had to face off against a mutiny that had overtaken most of the ships of the original navy. Local bloody conflicts in some regions of Brazil ensued, the navys mutiny off Rio de Janeiro also was a challenge, and became linked to the Federalist Rebellion. The revolt included the powerful battleship Aquidaban and a collection of small ironclads, modern cruisers and this did not leave the government with much left to challenge the mutineers, who could have controlled the seas and influenced the concurrent conflicts on land. In this case, however, the new fleet was dedicated to confronting the original navy of the same country, Brazilian Navy Brazilian battleship Aquidabã Brazilian battleship Riachuelo First Battle of Topolobampo Rebellions and revolutions in Brazil
17.
Federalist Riograndense Revolution
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The Federalist Riograndense Revolution was a revolution in the State of Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil against the Republic, proclaimed in 1889. Inspired by the monarchist ideologies from Gaspar da Silveira Martins, it had Gumercindo Saraiva as the military head. The revolutionaries, known as Maragatos, faced the defeated in the Battle of the Pulador, in 1894, by the troops of Pinheiro Machado, at the time, then President Marshal Floriano Peixoto summoned veteran of the Paraguayan War Colonel Gomes Carneiro. His orders were to halt the Federalist Revolution in Southern Brazil, in five days, he came to the area to become one of the protagonists of history. It was November 1893 and the troops were now advancing towards the state of Paraná. The goal was to reach the Brazilian capital at the time, Rio de Janeiro, the rebels also fought against the governor of Rio Grande do Sul, Julio de Castillos. With the revolution, which began circa 120 years ago, the three states became the scene of a bloodbath that left nearly 10,000 dead. During and after the battles, there were many degolas, the Federalists won mood in the same year. In the national capital, the Revolt of the Navy began, under the leadership of Admiral Custodio de Melo, after some exchange of gunfire with the army, the rebels went to the South. After docking in the city now known as Florianópolis, called Desterro at the time, interests meant that the two revolts came to join. They have joined forces to overthrow Floriano, by sea, Custódio de Melo was responsible for striking Paranaguá, which happened in January 1894 says the judge and scholar Paul Hapner. By land, Gumercindo Saraiva advanced toward the capital of Paraná, in the same period that the coast was taken, the maragatos passed by Tijucas do Sul and came to Lapa -60 km away from Curitiba, capital of the state of Paraná. With the advance of the rebels, the governor, Vicente Machado. With only 639 men, few weapons and food shortages, Colonel Carneiro had a mission to contain the Federalists in Lapa, during 26 days, Carneiro and his army, called woodpeckers, bravely resisted the attacks of 3000 fighters commanded by Gumercindo Saraiva. The troops of maragatos made a siege to the city. At least 500 people died in the Siege of Lapa, including Carneiro, with the death of the commander in February, Lapa surrendered and left the passage open for the revolutionaries to take Curitiba. Despite the defeat, the battle in Lapa was critical for the Republican victory, Hapner considers the siege to have been a strategic error of the maragatos, If they wanted to go to Rio de Janeiro, they should not have wasted time in Lapa. This gave Florianos army enough time to organize, utlimately defeating the Federalists, for the historian Dennisson de Oliveira, This was a mythical episode that, to the power established under Floriano, saved the Republic
18.
Brazilian Revolution of 1930
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The Revolution of 1930, also known as the 1930 coup détat was an armed movement led by the states of Minas Gerais, Paraíba and Rio Grande do Sul, culminating in a coup. Known as the Coup of 1930, the revolution ousted President Washington Luís on October 24,1930, prevented the inauguration of President-elect Júlio Prestes, and ended the Old Republic. In 1929, leaders of São Paulo broke the alliance with the mineiros, known as the coffee with milk policy, in response, the President of Minas Gerais, Antônio Carlos Ribeiro de Andrada, supported the opposition candidate from the south, Getúlio Vargas. On March 1,1930, elections for President were held and victory was won by the candidate, Júlio Prestes. However, he did not take office because the coup was triggered on October 3,1930, Getúlio Vargas assumed the leadership of the provisional government on November 3,1930, a date that marks the end of the Old Republic. The crisis of the Old Republic extended throughout the 1920s and these events threatened the stability of the traditional rural alliance between the states of São Paulo and Minas Gerais - i. e. the coffee with milk policy. In 1926, the fourth and final dissent arose within the Paulista Republican Party, the dissidents were led by Dr. José Adriano de Marrey Junior. He founded the Democratic Party, which, among other reforms and this political crisis originated within the Freemasons, chaired by Dr. José Adriano de Marrey Junior. As such, São Paulo was divided during the elections of 1930, however, the greatest sign of wear of the Old Republic was overproduction of coffee during the crisis of 1929, fueled by the government through constant price increases. In Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, the Mineiro Republican Party was in opposition and they supported Gaucho Getúlio Vargas for the presidency with the politician João Pessoa Cavalcanti de Albuquerque as a candidate for vice president. Minas Gerais was also divided, unable to generate a consensus for the presidential nominee, part of the PRM supported the candidacy of Getúlio Vargas. During the Old Republic, the coffee with milk policy was enforced and they alternated in the presidency but were not necessarily Paulistas or Mineiros or their nominees. However, in early 1929, Washington Luís indicated Júlio Prestes to be his successor in a move to be supported by presidents of 17 states, only three states denied supporting Prestes, Minas Gerais, Rio Grande do Sul, and Paraíba. Politicians from Minas Gerais expected Antonio Carlos Ribeiro de Andrada, then the governor of the state, thus the coffee with milk policy came to an end and the opposition began articulating a position against the 17 states to elect Júlio Prestes as President. In September 1929 in São Paulo, there was a perception that the Liberal Alliance and it is against our state of São Paulo, and it is not today. The undying envy against our stunning progress that should be a cause of pride for all of Brazil, notoriously, Vargas had almost 100% of the votes in Rio Grande do Sul. The Liberal Alliances refused to accept the validity of the elections, moreover, representatives elected in states where the Liberal Alliance led the vote failed to obtain recognition of their mandates. This led to a conspiracy, based in Rio Grande do Sul, the conspiracy suffered a setback in June with Luís Carlos Prestes
19.
Geography of Brazil
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The country of Brazil occupies roughly half of South America, bordering the Atlantic Ocean. Brazil covers a area of 8,514,215 km2 which includes 8,456,510 km2 of land and 55,455 km2 of water. The highest point in Brazil is Pico da Neblina at 2,994 m, Brazil is bordered by the countries of Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, Venezuela, and France. Much of the climate is tropical, with the south being relatively temperate, the largest river in Brazil, the second longest in the world, is the Amazon. The rainforest that covers the Amazon Basin constitutes almost half of the rainforests on Earth, the only countries in the world that are larger are Russia, Canada, China, and the United States. The national territory extends 4,395 kilometers from north to south and it spans three time zones, the westernmost of which is one hour ahead of Eastern Standard Time in the United States. The Atlantic islands are in the easternmost time zone, in the early 1970s, Brazil claimed a territorial sea extending 362 kilometers from the countrys shores, including those of the islands. On Brazils east coast, the Atlantic coastline extends 7,367 kilometers. In the west, in order from the south, Brazil has 15,719 kilometers of borders with Uruguay, Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname. The only South American countries with which Brazil does not share borders are Chile, a few short sections are in question, but there are no true major boundary controversies with any of the neighboring countries. Precambrian crystalline shields cover 36% of the territory, especially its central area, the principal mountain ranges average elevations just under 2,000 meters. The Serra do Mar Range hugs the Atlantic coast, and the Serra do Espinhaço Range, the highest mountains are in the Tumucumaque, Pacaraima, and Imeri ranges, among others, which traverse the northern border with the Guianas and Venezuela. In addition to mountain ranges, Brazils Central Highlands include a vast central plateau, the plateaus uneven terrain has an average elevation of 1,000 meters. The rest of the territory is made up primarily of sedimentary basins, of the total territory, 41% averages less than 200 meters in elevation. The coastal zone is noted for thousands of kilometers of tropical beaches interspersed with mangroves, lagoons, the Parcel de Manuel Luís Marine State Park off the coast of Maranhão protects the largest coral reef in South America. Brazil has one of the worlds most extensive systems, with eight major drainage basins. Two of these basins — the Amazon and Tocantins-Araguaia account for more than half the drainage area. The largest river system in Brazil is the Amazon, which originates in the Andes and receives tributaries from a basin that covers 45. 7% of the country, principally the north, the main Amazon river system is the Amazonas-Solimões-Ucayali axis, flowing from west to east
20.
Demographics of Brazil
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Brazils population is very diverse, comprising many races and ethnic groups. In general, Brazilians trace their origins from five sources, Europeans, Africans, Amerindians, Levantines, Brazil has conducted a periodical population census since 1872. Brazil is widely known to be one of the most diverse countries in the world, since 1940, this census has been carried out decennially. Scanned versions of the forms for each census distributed in Brazil since 1960 are available on-line from IPUMS International, historically, Brazil has experienced large degrees of ethnic and racial admixture, assimilation of cultures and syncretism. According to the 2008 PNAD, conducted by the IBGE, the Brazilian Statistics bureau, as of the latest census, the Brazilian government estimates its population at 190.8 million. The population of Brazil is estimated based on sources from 1550 to 1850. The first official census took place in 1873, from that year, every 8 years the population is counted. Brazil is the fifth most populated country in the world, the majority of Brazilians live within 300 kilometers of the coast, while the interior in the Amazon Basin is almost empty. Therefore, the populated areas are on the coast and the sparsely populated areas are in the interior. This historical pattern is changed by recent movements into the interior. According to the 2015 revision of the World Population Prospects the total population was 198,614,000 in 2010, compared to only 53,975,000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 13 in 2015 was 25. 0%,69. 2% was between 15 and 61 years of age, while 7. 8% was 65 years or older. Registration of vital events in Brazil has considerably improved during the past decades but is not considered complete. The Population Division of the United Nations prepared the following estimates, births and deaths In some states in the North and Northeast, the fertility rate was higher than the national average in 2013. On the other hand, Santa Catarina is the state with the lowest rate,1.58 children per woman. Other states with low fertility include, Federal District, with 1.59, Rio Grande do Sul,1.60, in Rio de Janeiro,1.62 in São Paulo and Minas Gerais,1.63. The color or race of the woman and the level of education has shown to influence the fact of not having children. In 2013, among women aged 15 to 49 years,41. 5% had no children, while among black women
21.
Brazilian real (old)
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The first official currency of Brazil was the real. As the currency of the Portuguese empire, it was in use in Brazil from the earliest days of the period, and remained in use until 1942. The name real was resurrected in 1994 for the new currency unit and this currency is still in use. One modern real is equivalent to 2.75 ×1018 of the old réis, the name comes from the Portuguese word real and was borrowed from a Portuguese currency previously used in Brazil. The dollar-like sign in the symbol, called cifrão in Portuguese, was always written with two vertical strokes rather than one. The real was retained when Brazil became independent in 1822 and it was not sub-divided in smaller units, even though it was affected by significant inflation during its long lifespan. The practical currency unit shifted from the real to the mil réis, amounts under 1,000 réis were typically written prefixed by Rs, as in Rs 350. In amounts of 1,000 réis and over, the Rs remained as the prefix, but the cifrão S ∥, a doubly stroked dollar sign, was inserted just after the thousands digit — as in Rs 1$712 for 1,712 réis. For amounts of one million reais and over, a colon, was inserted just after the millions digit, as in Rs 1. In the 18th century and early 19th centuries, the currency was based on the 22 carat gold piece which weighed ½ ounce. The standard for the silver currency varied during this period, with the 640 real coin fixed at 5⁄8 onça of.917 silver in 1806. In 1834, the peça was revalued at 10$000 réis and the silver 1$200 real coin was set at 415 grains of.917 silver. In 1846, a standard was established with the mil réis set at 822.076 mg gold. After the establishment of the Republic in 1889, the value of the currency fell and this was abandoned in 1933 when the mil réis was pegged to the U. S. dollar at a rate of 12$500 réis =1 dollar. A further devaluation occurred in 1939, when it was pegged to the U. S. dollar at a rate of 22$500 réis =1 USD, in 1942, the real was replaced by the cruzeiro, at a rate of 1$000 réis =1 cruzeiro. In the 1750s, copper coins were in circulation in denominations of 5,10,20 and 40 réis, silver coins for 75,150,300 and 600 réis, and gold coins for 1000,2000,4000 and 6400 réis. The silver coinage was reformed in 1778, with the introduction of 80,160,320 and 640 real coins, between 1780 and 1782, gold 800,1600 and 3200 réis were added. From 1810, Spanish 8 real coins were overstruck to produce 960 real coins, copper 80 réis were introduced in 1811
22.
Empire of Brazil
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The Empire of Brazil was a 19th-century state that broadly comprised the territories which form modern Brazil and Uruguay. Its government was a parliamentary constitutional monarchy under the rule of Emperors Dom Pedro I. João VI later returned to Portugal, leaving his eldest son and heir, Pedro, to rule the Kingdom of Brazil as regent. On 7 September 1822, Pedro declared the independence of Brazil and, after waging a war against his fathers kingdom, was acclaimed on 12 October as Pedro I. The new country was huge but sparsely populated and ethnically diverse, the empires bicameral parliament was elected under comparatively democratic methods for the era, as were the provincial and local legislatures. This led to an ideological conflict between Pedro I and a sizable parliamentary faction over the role of the monarch in the government. The unsuccessful Cisplatine War against the neighboring United Provinces of the Río de la Plata in 1828 led to the secession of the province of Cisplatina. In 1826, despite his role in Brazilian independence, he became the king of Portugal, two years later, she was usurped by Pedro Is younger brother Miguel. Unable to deal with both Brazilian and Portuguese affairs, Pedro I abdicated his Brazilian throne on 7 April 1831, Pedro Is successor in Brazil was his five-year-old son, Pedro II. As the latter was still a minor, a regency was created. The power vacuum resulting from the absence of a monarch as the ultimate arbiter in political disputes led to regional civil wars between local factions. Brazil was victorious in three international conflicts under Pedro IIs rule, and the Empire prevailed in other international disputes. With prosperity and economic development came an influx of European immigration, including Protestants and Jews, slavery, which had initially been widespread, was restricted by successive legislation until its final abolition in 1888. Brazilian visual arts, literature and theater developed during time of progress. Although heavily influenced by European styles that ranged from Neoclassicism to Romanticism, the next in line to the throne was his daughter Isabel, but neither Pedro II nor the ruling classes considered a female monarch acceptable. Lacking any viable heir, the Empires political leaders saw no reason to defend the monarchy, the territory which would come to be known as Brazil was claimed by Portugal on 22 April 1500, when the navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral landed on its coast. Permanent settlement followed in 1532, and for the next 300 years the Portuguese slowly expanded westwards until they had reached all of the borders of modern Brazil. In 1808, the army of French Emperor Napoleon I invaded Portugal, forcing the Portuguese royal family—the House of Braganza and they re-established themselves in the Brazilian city of Rio de Janeiro, which became the unofficial seat of the Portuguese Empire
23.
Vargas Era
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The Vargas Era is the period in the history of Brazil between 1930 and 1945, when the country was under the dictatorship of Getúlio Dornelles Vargas. The Brazilian Revolution of 1930 marked the end of the Old Republic, Federal intervention in State governments increased and the political landscape was altered by suppressing the traditional oligarchies of São Paulo and Minas Gerais states. The Estado Novo period, that began when, in order to perpetuate his rule, Vargas imposed a new, authoritarian Constitution in a coup détat, and shut down Congress, assuming dictatorial powers. The tenente rebellion did not mark the revolutionary breakthrough for Brazils bourgeois social reformers, Brazils vulnerability to the Great Depression had its roots in the economys heavy dependence on foreign markets and loans. Despite limited industrial development in São Paulo, the export of coffee, days after the U. S. stock market crash on October 29,1929, coffee quotations immediately fell 30% to 60%. Between 1929 and 1931, coffee prices fell from 22.5 cents per pound to 8 cents per pound, as world trade contracted, the coffee exporters suffered a vast drop in foreign exchange earnings. The Great Depression possibly had a dramatic effect on Brazil than on the United States. The coffee planters had grown dangerously dependent on government valorization, for example, in the aftermath of the recession following World War I, the government was not short of the cash needed to bail out the coffee industry. But between 1929–30, world demand for Brazils primary products had fallen far too drastically to maintain government revenues, by the end of 1930, Brazils gold reserves had been depleted, pushing the exchange rate down to a new low. The program for warehoused coffee collapsed altogether, Government of President Washington Luís Pereira de Sousa faced a deepening balance-of-payments crisis and the coffee growers were stuck with an unsellable harvest. Since power ultimately rested on patronage system, wide-scale defections in the balance of regional interests left the regime of the Washington Luís vulnerable. Government policies designed to favor foreign interests further exacerbated the crisis, despite capital flight, Washington Luís clung to a hard-money policy, guaranteeing the convertibility of the Brazilian currency into gold or British sterling. Once the gold and sterling reserves were exhausted amid the collapse of the valorization program, a populist governor of Brazils southernmost Rio Grande do Sul state, Vargas was a cattle rancher with a doctorate in law and the 1930 presidential candidate of the Liberal Alliance. He came from a region with a positivist and populist tradition, Vargas built up political networks, and was attuned to the interests of the rising urban classes. In his early years Vargas even relied on the support of the tenentes of the 1922 rebellion, using such insights, he gradually established such mastery over the Brazilian political world that he stayed in power for 15 years. During this time, as the stranglehold of the agricultural elites eased, new urban industrial leaders acquired more influence nationally, along with the urban bourgeois groups, Northeastern sugar barons were left with a legacy of longstanding grievances against the paulista coffee oligarchs of the South. Northeastern landowners opposed Washington Luís 1930 discontinuance of the relief projects of his predecessor. The decay of established sugar oligarchies of the Northeast had begun dramatically with the drought of 1877
24.
History of Brazil
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The history of Brazil starts with indigenous people in Brazil. Europeans arrived in Brazil at the opening of the 16th century, the first European to colonize Brazil was Pedro Álvares Cabral on April 22,1500 under the sponsorship of the Kingdom of Portugal. From the 16th to the early 19th century, Brazil was a colony, the countrys borders were only finalized in the early 20th century. On September 7,1822, the country declared its independence from Portugal, a military coup in 1889 established the First Brazilian Republic. The country has seen a dictatorship during Vargas Era and a period of rule under Brazilian military government. When Portuguese explorers arrived in Brazil, the region was inhabited by hundreds of different types of Jiquabu tribes, the dating of the origins of the first inhabitants, who were called Indians by the Portuguese, is still a matter of dispute among archaeologists. For this reason, very little is known about the history of Brazil before 1500, archaeological remains indicate a complex pattern of regional cultural developments, internal migrations, and occasional large state-like federations. At the time of European discovery, the territory of current day Brazil had as many as 2,000 tribes, the indigenous peoples were traditionally mostly semi-nomadic tribes who subsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering, and migrant agriculture. When the Portuguese arrived in 1500, the Natives were living mainly on the coast, initially, the Europeans saw the natives as noble savages, and Europeans began having children with the Native people right away. Tribal warfare, cannibalism and the pursuit of brazilwood for its treasured red dye convinced the Portuguese that they should Christianize the natives. But the Portuguese, like the Spanish in their South American possessions, had brought diseases with them. Measles, smallpox, tuberculosis, gonorrhea, and influenza killed tens of thousands of indigenous people, the diseases spread quickly along the indigenous trade routes, and whole tribes were likely annihilated without ever coming in direct contact with Europeans. There are so many theories regarding who was the first European to set foot on the now called Brazil. In April 1500, Brazil was claimed for Portugal on the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral, the Portuguese encountered stone-using natives divided into several tribes, many of whom shared the same Tupi–Guarani language family, and fought among themselves. Until 1529 Portugal had very little interest in Brazil mainly due to the profits gained through commerce with India, China. The system was a failure - only four lots were successfully occupied Pernambuco, São Vicente, Captaincy of Ilhéus, the captaincies gradually reverted to the Crown and became provinces and eventually states of the country. At first, settlers tried to enslave the natives as labor to work the fields, the initial exploration of Brazils interior was largely due to para-military adventurers, the bandeirantes, who entered the jungle in search of gold and Native slaves. However colonists were unable to sustainably enslave Natives, and Portuguese land owners soon turned to import millions of slaves from Africa, mortality rates for slaves in sugar and gold enterprises were dramatic, and there were often not enough females or proper conditions to replenish the slave population indigenously
25.
Luzia Woman
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Luzia Woman is the name for an Upper Paleolithic period skeleton of a Paleo-Indian woman who was found in a cave in Brazil. Some archaeologists believe the woman may have been part of the first wave of immigrants to South America. Nicknamed Luzia, the 11, 500-year-old skeleton was found in Lapa Vermelha, Brazil, Luzia was originally discovered in 1975 in a rock shelter by a joint French-Brazilian expedition that was working not far from Belo Horizonte, Brazil. The skull, which was separated from the rest of the skeleton but was in good condition, was buried under more than forty feet of mineral deposits. There were no human remains at the site. New dating of the bones announced in 2013 confirmed that at an age of 10,030 ±60 14C yr BP, Luzia is one of the most ancient American human skeletons ever discovered. Forensics have determined that Luzia died in her early 20s, although flint tools were found nearby, hers are the only human remains in Vermelha Cave. Her facial features include a narrow, oval cranium, projecting face and pronounced chin, strikingly dissimilar to most Native Americans, anthropologists have variously described Luzias features as resembling those of Negroids, Indigenous Australians, Melanesians and the Negritos of Southeast Asia. Walter Neves, an anthropologist at the University of São Paulo, richard Neave of Manchester University, who undertook a forensic facial reconstruction of Luzia described it as negroid. The oldest confirmed date for an archaeosite in the Americas is 18,500 and 14,500 cal BP. for the Monte Verde site in southern Chile. A comparison in 2005 of the Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais specimens, with modern Aimoré people of the region, also showed strong affinities. Luzia stood just under five feet tall—about one-third of her skeleton has been recovered and her remains seem to indicate that she died either in an accident or as the result of an animal attack. She was a member of a group of hunter-gatherers
26.
Indigenous peoples in Brazil
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Unlike Christopher Columbus, who thought he had reached the East Indies, the Portuguese, most notably Vasco da Gama, had already reached India via the Indian Ocean route when they reached Brazil. At the time of European contact, some of the people were traditionally mostly semi-nomadic tribes who subsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering. The indigenous population was killed by European diseases, declining from a pre-Columbian high of millions to some 300,000. However, the number could be higher if the urban indigenous populations are counted in all the Brazilian cities today. A somewhat dated linguistic survey found 188 living indigenous languages with 155,000 total speakers, on January 18,2007, FUNAI reported that it had confirmed the presence of 67 different uncontacted tribes in Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. With this addition Brazil has now surpassed New Guinea as the country having the largest number of uncontacted people, in the last IBGE census,817,000 Brazilians classified themselves as indigenous. Questions about the settlement of the Americas has produced a number of hypothetical models. The origins of indigenous people are still a matter of dispute among archaeologists. A migrant wave would have some time after initial entry to reach present-day Brazil. An analysis of Amerindian Y-chromosome DNA indicates specific clustering of much of the South American population, according to an autosomal genetic study from 2012, Native Americans descend of at least three main migrant waves from East Asia. Most of it is traced back to an ancestral population. However, those who speak Inuit languages from the Arctic inherited almost half of their ancestry from a second East Asian migrant wave, and those who speak Na-dene, on the other hand, inherited a tenth of their ancestry from a third migrant wave. The initial settling of the Americas was followed by a rapid expansion southwards, by the coast, with gene flow later. One exception to this are the Chibcha speakers, whose ancestry comes from both North and South America, linguistic studies have backed up genetic studies, with ancient patterns having been found between the languages spoken in Siberia and those spoken in the Americas. Two 2015 autosomal DNA genetic studies confirmed the Siberian origins of the Natives of the Americas, however an ancient signal of shared ancestry with the Natives of Australia and Melanesia was detected among the Natives of the Amazon region. The migration coming out of Siberia would have happened 23000 years ago, following a rapid movement throughout the Americas, limited gene flow in South America resulted in a marked phylogeographic structure of populations, which persisted through time. All of the ancient mitochondrial lineages detected in this study were absent from modern data sets, to investigate this further, we applied a novel principal components multiple logistic regression test to Bayesian serial coalescent simulations. The analysis supported a scenario in which European colonization caused a loss of pre-Columbian lineages
27.
Marajoara culture
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The Marajoara or Marajó culture was a pre-Columbian era society that flourished on Marajó island at the mouth of the Amazon River. In a survey, Charles C. Mann suggests the culture appeared to flourish between 800 AD and 1400 AD, based on archeological studies, researchers have documented that there was human activity at these sites as early as 1000 BCE. The culture seems to have persisted into the colonial era, archeologists have found sophisticated pottery in their excavations on the island. These pieces are large, and elaborately painted and incised with representations of plants and these provided the first evidence that a complex society had existed on Marajó. The extent, level of complexity, and resource interactions of the Marajoara culture have been disputed, working in the 1950s in some of her earliest research, American Betty Meggers suggested that the society migrated from the Andes and settled on the island. Many researchers believed that the Andes were populated by Paleoindian migrants from North America who gradually moved south after being hunters on the plains, in the 1980s, another American archeologist, Anna Curtenius Roosevelt, led excavations and geophysical surveys of the mound Teso dos Bichos. She concluded that the society constructed the mounds originated on the island itself. The pre-Columbian culture of Marajó may have developed social stratification and supported a population as large as 100,000 people, thus, the large Marajoara mounds or tesos are not entirely manmade. Rather, the took advantage of the natural, preexisting elevated surfaces. This interpretation suggests less cumulative labor investment in the construction of the mounds, the earliest phase of human activity on Marajo Island is known as the Ananatuba phase. Plant remains on Marajo Island show a pattern that relied heavily on small seed crops, as well as small fish. Many of the seed remains have not yet been identified, though they seem to be herbaceous. Trees such as the acai and tucuma palms also provided important supplements in the Marajo diet, since small fish make up the majority of biomass fauna and there are relatively few terrestrial animals, it follows that pre-historic peoples focused on the abundant populations of small fish. The method for catching fish was likely similar to present-day techniques. This method of harvesting is not as useful in the rainy season as it is during the dry months when fish are trapped in receding streams or ponds. The agricultural technology at Marajo is limited to, primarily, stone axes that were introduced in the Marajoara Phase, other stone artifacts include griddles found at Teso Dos Bichos during Roosevelt’s excavations, although these are very rare. Their rarity is another marker of the absence of root crops from the diet at Marajo, earthen mounds, unlike lithic artifacts, are abundant. They were used for purposes as well as for habitation
28.
Colonial Brazil
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Slaves, especially those brought from Africa, provided most of the working force of the Brazilian export economy after a brief period of Indian slavery to cut brazilwood. The boom and bust economic cycles were linked to export products, gold and diamonds were discovered and mined in southern Brazil through the end of the colonial era. Brazilian cities were largely port cities and the administrative capital was moved several times in response to the rise. Unlike Spanish America that fragmented in many republics, Brazil remained as an administrative unit with a monarch. Like Spanish America with European Spanish, Brazil had linguistic integrity of Portuguese, both Spanish America and Brazil were Roman Catholic. The Portuguese identified brazilwood as a red dye and an exploitable product. Its maritime exploration then proceeded down the coast of West Africa and they sought the sources of gold, ivory, and African slaves that were high value goods of the African trade. The Portuguese set up fortified trading factories, whereby permanent, fairly small commercial settlements anchored trade in a region, the initial costs of setting up these commercial posts was borne by private investors, who in turn received hereditary titles and commercial advantages. From the Portuguese crowns point of view, its realm was expanded with relatively little cost to itself, the most decisive of these treaties was the Treaty of Tordesillas, signed in 1494, that created the Tordesillas Meridian, dividing the world between those two kingdoms. All land discovered or to be discovered east of that meridian was to be the property of Portugal, the Tordesillas Meridian divided South America into two parts, leaving a large chunk of land to be exploited by the Spaniards. The Treaty of Tordesillas was arguably the most decisive event in all Brazilian history, the present extent of Brazils coastline is almost exactly that defined by the treaty of Madrid, which was approved in 1750. On April 22,1500, during the reign of King Manuel I, although it is debated whether previous Portuguese explorers had already been in Brazil, this date is widely and politically accepted as the day of the discovery of Brazil by Europeans. Álvares Cabral was leading a fleet of 13 ships and more than 1000 men following Vasco da Gamas way to India. The place where Álvares Cabral arrived is now known as Porto Seguro, after the voyage of Álvares Cabral, the Portuguese concentrated their efforts on the lucrative possessions in Africa and India and showed little interest in Brazil. Between 1500 and 1530, relatively few Portuguese expeditions came to the new land to chart the coast, in Europe, this wood was used to produce a valuable dye to give color to luxury textiles. Over time, the Portuguese realized that some European countries, especially France, were also sending excursions to the land to extract brazilwood. Worried about foreign incursions and hoping to find riches, the Portuguese crown decided to send large missions to take possession of the land. In 1530, an expedition led by Martim Afonso de Sousa arrived in Brazil to patrol the entire coast, ban the French, at first, Brazil was set up as fifteen private, hereditary captaincies
29.
2nd Portuguese India Armada (Cabral, 1500)
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The Second Portuguese India Armada was assembled in 1500 on the order of King Manuel I of Portugal and placed under the command of Pedro Álvares Cabral. Cabrals armada famously discovered Brazil for the Portuguese crown along the way, by and large, the 2nd Armadas diplomatic mission to India failed, and provoked the opening of hostilities between the Kingdom of Portugal and the feudal city-state of Calicut, ruled by Zamorins. Nonetheless, it managed to establish a factory in the nearby Kingdom of Cochin, the first India Armada, commanded by Vasco da Gama, arrived in Portugal in the summer of 1499, in a rather sorry shape. Battles, disease and storms had taken their toll—half of his ships, nonetheless, Gama had opened up the sea route to India via the Cape of Good Hope and secured good relations with the African city-state of Malindi, a critical staging post along the way. On the orders of King Manuel I of Portugal, arrangements began to assemble a Second Armada in Cascais. Many details of the composition of the fleet are missing, only three ship names are known, and there is some conflict among the sources on the naming of the captains. The following list of ships should not be regarded as authoritative, neither of the two eyewitnesses—the Anonymous Portuguese pilot and Pêro Vaz de Caminha—give a list of captains. The Second Armada would be headed by the Portuguese nobleman Pedro Álvares Cabral, Cabral had no notable naval or military experience, his appointment as capitão-mor of the armada being largely a political one. The exiled Castillian nobleman Sancho de Tovar was designated vice-admiral and successor should anything befall Cabral, veteran pilot Pedro Escobar was given the overall technical command of the expedition. Other veterans of the first armada include captain Nicolau Coelho, pilot Pêro de Alenquer and clerks Afonso Lopes, going as captains were the famed navigator Bartolomeu Dias and his brother Diogo Dias. Most of the ships were either carracks or caravels and at least one was a supply ship, although details on names. At least two ships, Cabrals flagship and Tovars El Rei, were said to be around 240t, ten ships were destined for Calicut, while two ships were destined for Sofala and one was destined to be scuttled and burnt along the way. At least two ships were owned and outfitted. The remainder belonged to the Portuguese crown, accompanying the expedition as translator was Gaspar da Gama as well as four Hindu hostages from Zamorins kingdom taken by da Gama in 1498 during negotiations. Also aboard is the ambassador of the Sultan of Malindi, who had come with Gama, other passengers on the expedition included Aires Correia, designated factor for Calicut, his secretary Pêro Vaz de Caminha, Sofala factor Afonso Furtado and clerk Martinho Neto. Accompanying the trip was the physician and amateur astronomer, Master João Faras. One chronicler suggests that the knight Duarte Pacheco Pereira was also aboard, the fleet carried some twenty Portuguese degredados, who could fulfill their sentences by being abandoned along the shores of various places and exploring inland on the crowns behalf. The priority was to secure a treaty with Zamorins Calicut, the principal commercial entrepôt of the Kerala spice trade and dominant feudal city-state on the Malabar coast of India
30.
Treaty of Tordesillas
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This line of demarcation was about halfway between the Cape Verde islands and the islands entered by Christopher Columbus on his first voyage, named in the treaty as Cipangu and Antilia. The lands to the east would belong to Portugal and the lands to the west to Castile, the treaty was signed by Spain,2 July 1494 and by Portugal,5 September 1494. Originals of both treaties are kept at the Archivo General de Indias in Spain and at the Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo in Portugal. This treaty would be observed fairly well by Spain and Portugal, despite considerable ignorance as to the geography of the New World, however and those countries generally ignored the treaty, particularly those that became Protestant after the Protestant Reformation. The Treaty of Tordesillas was intended to solve the dispute that had been created following the return of Christopher Columbus and his crew, on his way back to Spain he first reached Lisbon, in Portugal. There he asked for another meeting with King John II to show him the newly discovered lands, also, the Portuguese King stated that he was already making arrangements for a fleet to depart shortly and take possession of the new lands. After reading the letter the Catholic Monarchs knew they did not have any power in the Atlantic to match the Portuguese. The bull did not mention Portugal or its lands, so Portugal could not claim newly discovered lands even if they were east of the line. The Portuguese King John II was not pleased with that arrangement, feeling that it gave him far too little land—it prevented him from possessing India, by 1493 Portuguese explorers had reached the southern tip of Africa, the Cape of Good Hope. The Portuguese were unlikely to go to war over the islands encountered by Columbus, the treaty effectively countered the bulls of Alexander VI but was subsequently sanctioned by Pope Julius II by means of the bull Ea quae pro bono pacis of 24 January 1506. Even though the treaty was negotiated without consulting the Pope, a few sources call the line the Papal Line of Demarcation. Very little of the divided area had actually been seen by Europeans. Castile gained lands including most of the Americas, which in 1494 had little proven wealth, the easternmost part of current Brazil was granted to Portugal when in 1500 Pedro Álvares Cabral landed there while he was en route to India. Some historians contend that the Portuguese already knew of the South American bulge that makes up most of Brazil before this time, the line was not strictly enforced—the Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. However, the Catholic Monarchs attempted to stop the Portuguese advance in Asia, by claiming the meridian line ran around the world, Portugal pushed back, seeking another papal pronouncement that limited the line of demarcation to the Atlantic. This was given by Pope Leo X, who was friendly toward Portugal and its discoveries, for a period between 1580 and 1640, the treaty was rendered meaningless, as the Spanish King was also King of Portugal. It was superseded by the 1750 Treaty of Madrid which granted Portugal control of the lands it occupied in South America, however, the latter treaty was immediately repudiated by the Catholic Monarch. The First Treaty of San Ildefonso settled the problem, with Spain acquiring territories east of the Uruguay River, the Treaty of Tordesillas only specified the line of demarcation in leagues from the Cape Verde Islands
31.
Captaincies of Brazil
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Each was granted to a single donee, a Portuguese nobleman who was given the title captain General. Except for two, São Vicente and Pernambuco, they were administrative and economic failures and they were effectively subsumed by the Governorates General and the States of Brazil and Maranhão starting in 1549, and the last of the privately granted captaincies reverted to the Crown in 1754. Their final boundaries in the half of the eighteenth century became the basis of the provinces of Brazil. The captaincies were drawn as parallel to the equator, commencing at the Atlantic coast. They were established by King John III of Portugal in 1534, within a system of royal patronage and nepotism, five of the captaincies were given to two cousins of finance minister António de Ataíde, Martim Afonso de Sousa and his brother Pero Lopes. An additional captaincy was issued to Pero de Gois, captain of Afonsos 1530 expedition, the remaining captaincies were granted to a trusted mixture of military men and court bureaucrats. So actual heights varied, as shown in the map at right, initially fifteen, they were granted to twelve donees. They were the following, All but four captaincies failed, due to resources of the donees. Four donees failed to take possession of their lands, and four more succumbed to Indians. Only four captaincies survived past 1549, São Vicente, Pernambuco, Ilhéus, in 1549, in order to solve the governance problem of his South American colonies, King John III of Portugal established the Governorate General of Brazil. The governorate united the fifteen colonies into a colony. Thereafter, the Governorates split and merged, shuffling captaincies among them and their powers then reverted to the Crown, and the donatary captaincies became Crown Captaincies with royal officials in place of the former grantees. The history of the captaincies is one of constant subordination, annexation and division, at least fifteen donatary captaincies were granted through the middle of the 18th century, carved out of royal captaincies. New royal captaincies were carved out of existing ones. Some complications result from captaincies being merged and recreated with the same name, at least a few of the later captaincies were islands or capes of negligible size. Dates are of independent captaincies, in cases, new captaincies were created as administrative divisions or subcaptaincies of existing ones before becoming fully independent. The Captaincy of São Vicente, called São Paulo after the city of São Paulo became its capital in 1681, in 1621, these became the basis for the southeastern State of Brazil. In 1815, the State of Brazil was elevated to a kingdom and all existing provinces and Crown captaincies became provinces of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, thirteen modern states have names of their predecessor captaincies, and several cities
32.
Bandeirantes
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The Bandeirantes were 17th-century Portuguese settlers in Brazil and fortune hunters. This group mostly hailed from the São Paulo region, which was known as the Captaincy of São Vicente until 1709, the São Paulo settlement served as the home base for the most famous bandeirantes. Most bandeirantes were descendants of first- and second-generation Portuguese who settled in São Paulo, though they originally aimed to capture and force Indigenous Americans into slavery, the bandeirantes later began to focus their expeditions on finding gold, silver, and diamond mines. As they ventured into unmapped regions in search of profit and adventure, the main focus of the bandeirantes earlier missions was to enslave native populations. They carried this out by disguising themselves as Jesuits, often singing mass to lure the natives out of their settlements, however, they usually relied on surprise attacks. If luring the natives with promises did not work, the bandeirantes would surround the settlements and set them alight, forcing inhabitants out into the open. At a time when imported African slaves sold from $100–$500 the bandeirantes were able to large numbers of native slaves at a huge profit due to their relatively inexpensive price. The first bandeira took place in 1628 and was organized by Antônio Raposo Tavares and this bandeira raided 21 Jesuit villages in the upper Paraná Valley, ultimately capturing about 2,500 natives. A bandeira tactic was to set native tribes against each other in order to weaken them, and then to enslave both sides. In 1628, Tavares led a bandeira, composed of 2,000 allied Indians,900 mamelucos and this expedition alone was responsible for the destruction of most of the Jesuit missions of Spanish Guayrá and the enslavement of over 60,000 indigenous people. The expedition travelled to Andean Quito, part of the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru, of the 1,200 men who left São Paulo, only 60 reached their final destination in Belém. In addition to capturing natives as slaves, bandeiras also helped to extend the power of Portugal by expanding its control over the Brazilian interior. Along with the exploration and settlement of territory the bandeiras also discovered mineral wealth for the Portuguese. In the 1660s, the Portuguese government offered rewards to those who discovered gold, so the bandeirantes, driven by greed, ventured into the depths of Brazil not only to enslave natives, but also to find mines and receive government rewards. As the number of natives diminished, the bandeirantes began to more intensely on finding minerals. The bandeirantes were responsible for the discovery of mineral wealth, and along with the missionaries, for the enlargement of central. This mineral wealth made Portugal wealthy during the 18th century, Taunay, Afonso de E. Relatos Sertanistas, Ed. São Paulo University * Taunay, Afonso de E. História das Bandeiras Paulistas, melhoramentos Franco, Francisco de Assis Carvalho, Dicionário de Bandeirantes e Sertanistas do Brasil, Ed
33.
Slavery in Brazil
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Slavery in Brazil began long before the first Portuguese settlement was established in 1532, as members of one tribe would enslave captured members of another. The importation of African slaves began midway through the 16th century, during the Atlantic slave trade era, Brazil imported more African slaves than any other country. An estimated 4.9 million slaves from Africa came to Brazil during the period from 1501 to 1866, until the early 1850s, most enslaved Africans who arrived on Brazilian shores were forced to embark at West Central African ports, especially in Luanda. Today, with the exception of Nigeria, the largest population of people of African descent is in Brazil, Slave labor was the driving force behind the growth of the sugar economy in Brazil, and sugar was the primary export of the colony from 1600–1650. Gold and diamond deposits were discovered in Brazil in 1690, which sparked an increase in the importation of African slaves to power this newly profitable market, transportation systems were developed for the mining infrastructure, and population boomed from immigrants seeking to take part in gold and diamond mining. Demand for African slaves did not wane after the decline of the industry in the second half of the 18th century. Cattle ranching and foodstuff production proliferated after the growth, both of which relied heavily on slave labor. 1.7 million slaves were imported to Brazil from Africa from 1700 to 1800, Brazil was the last country in the Western world to abolish slavery. By the time it was abolished, in 1888, a four million slaves had been imported from Africa to Brazil. Slaves exported from Africa during this period of the Portuguese slave trade primarily came from Mauritania. Scholars estimate that as many as 156,000 slaves were exported from 1441 to 1521 to Iberia, the trade made the shift from Europe to the Americas as a primary destination for slaves around 1518. Prior to this time, slaves were required to pass through Portugal to be taxed before making their way to the Americas, the Portuguese first traveled to Brazil in 1500 under the expedition of Pedro Álvares Cabral, though the first Portuguese settlement was not established until 1532. Long before Europeans came to Brazil and began colonization, indigenous groups such as the Papanases, the Guaianases, the captured lived and worked with their new communities as trophies to the tribe’s martial prowess. Some enslaved would eventually escape but could never re-attain their previous status in their own tribe because of the social stigma against slavery. During their time in the new tribe, enslaved indigenous would even marry as a sign of acceptance, for the enslaved of cannibalistic tribes, execution for devouring purposes could happen at any moment. While other tribes did not consume flesh, their enslaved were still put to work, imprisoned, used as hostages. The colonization effort proved to be a difficult undertaking on such a vast continent and these indigenous enslaving expeditions were known as bandeiras. These expeditions were composed of Bandeirantes, adventurers who penetrated steadily westward in their search for Indian slaves
34.
France Antarctique
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France Antarctique was a French colony south of the Equator, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, which existed between 1555 and 1567, and had control over the coast from Rio de Janeiro to Cabo Frio. The colony quickly became a haven for the Huguenots, and was destroyed by the Portuguese in 1567. Europeans first arrived in Brazil in April 1500, when a fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral on behalf of the Portuguese crown arrived in present-day Porto Seguro, except for Salvador and São Vicente, however, the territory still remained largely unexplored half a century later. His travels were succeeded by that of Binot Paulmier de Gonneville in 1504 onboard LEspoir, Gonneville affirmed that when he visited Brazil, French traders from Saint-Malo and Dieppe had already been trading there for several years. France continued to trade with Brazil, especially loading Brazilwood, for its use as a red dyes for textiles. In 1550, in the entry for Henry II of France, at Rouen, about fifty men depicted naked Indians. The fort was named in honor of Gaspard de Coligny, an admiral who supported the expedition, Villegaignon secured his position by making an alliance with the Tamoio and Tupinambá Indians of the region, who were fighting the Portuguese. Unchallenged by the Portuguese, who took little notice of his landing. He sent one of his ships, the Grande Roberge, to Honfleur, entrusted with letters to King Henry II, Gaspard de Coligny and according to some accounts, the Protestant leader John Calvin. They were joined by 14 Calvinists from Geneva, led by Philippe de Corguilleray, including theologians Pierre Richier, the relief fleet was composed of, The Petite Roberge, with 80 soldiers and sailors was led by Vice Admiral Sieur De Bois le Comte. The Grande Roberge, with about 120 on board, captained by Sieur de Sainte-Marie dit lEspine, the Rosée, with about 90 people, led by Captain Rosée. Doctrinal disputes arose between Villegagnon and the Calvinists, especially in relation to the Eucharist, and in October 1557 the Calvinists were banished from Coligny island as a result. In 1560 Mem de Sá, the new Governor-General of Brazil, Admiral Villegaignon had returned to France in 1558, disgusted with the religious tension that existed between French Protestants and Catholics, who had come also with the second group. Estácio de Sá founded the city of Rio de Janeiro on March 1,1565, colignys and Villegaignons dream had lasted a mere 12 years. Largely in response to the two attempts of France to conquer territory in Brazil, between 1612 and 1615, the Portuguese crown decided to expand its efforts in Brazil. In the 17th century, France again briefly established a colony in Brazil with the establishment of France Equinoxiale, investors in this venture doubled their money, and Duguay-Trouin earned a promotion to Lieutenant général de la Marine. André Thevet, Les singularités de la France antartique,1558, French in Brazil, Saint-Alexis, France Antarctique and Sao Luis de Maranhao
35.
Equinoctial France
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All of these settlements were in violation of the papal bull of 1493, which divided the New World between Spain and Portugal. This division was defined more exactly by the Treaty of Tordesillas. Carrying 500 colonists, it arrived in the Northern coast of what is today the Brazilian state of Maranhão, de la Ravardière had discovered the region in 1604 but the death of the king postponed his plans to start its colonization. The colonists soon founded a village, which was named Saint-Louis and this later became São Luís in Portuguese, the only Brazilian state capital founded by France. On 8 September, Capuchin friars prayed the first mass, an important difference in relation to France Antarctique is that this new colony was not motivated by escape from religious persecutions to Protestants. The colony did not last long, thus, it repeated the disaster spelt for the colonists of France Antarctique, in 1567. A few years later, in 1620, Portuguese and Brazilian colonists arrived in number and São Luís started to develop, with an economy based mostly in sugar cane and slavery. French traders and colonists tried again to settle a France Équinoxiale further North, in what is today French Guiana, twice a Compagnie de la France Équinoxiale was founded, in 1643 and 1645, but both foundered as a result of misfortune and mismanagement. It was only after 1674, when the colony came under the control of the French crown and a competent Governor took office. To this day, French Guiana is a department of France, History of French Guiana History of Brazil Antarctic France French colonisation of the Americas List of French possessions and colonies
36.
Palmares (quilombo)
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Palmares, or Quilombo dos Palmares, was a fugitive community of escaped slaves and others in colonial Brazil that developed from 1605 until its suppression in 1694. It was located in what is today the Brazilian state of Alagoas, the modern tradition has been to call the settlement the Quilombo of Palmares. Quilombos were settlements mainly of survivors and free-born enslaved African people, the Quilombos came into existence when Africans began arriving in Brazil in the mid-1530s and grew significantly as slavery expanded. No contemporary document calls Palmares a quilombo, instead the term mocambo is used, Palmares was home to not only escaped enslaved Africans, but also to mulattos, caboclos, Indians and poor whites, especially Portuguese soldiers trying to escape forced military service. One estimate places the population of Palmares in the 1690s at around 20,000 inhabitants, stuart Schwartz places the number at roughly 11,000, noting that it was, regardless, undoubtedly the largest fugitive community to have existed in Brazil. These inhabitants developed a society and government that derived from a range of Central African sociopolitical models and this government was confederate in nature, and was led by an elected chief who allocated landholdings, appointed officials, and resided in a type of fortification called Macoco. Six Portuguese expeditions tried to conquer Palmares between 1680 and 1686, but failed, as early as 1602, Portuguese settlers complained to the government that their captives were running away into this inaccessible region and building mocambos, or small communities. However, the Portuguese were unable to dislodge these communities, which were small and scattered. In 1630 the Dutch West India Company sent a fleet to conquer Pernambuco, in the context of the Dutch-Portuguese War, although they captured and held the city of Recife, they were unable to conquer the rest of the province. As a result, there was a constant low-intensity war between Dutch and Portuguese settlers, during this time thousands of enslaved people escaped and went to the Palmares. Although initially the Dutch considered making an alliance with Palmares against the Portuguese, consequently, the Dutch leader John Maurice of Nassau decided to send expeditions against Palmares. These expeditions also collected intelligence about them, and it is from these accounts that we learn about the organization of Palmares in their time, by the 1640s, many of the mocambos had consolidated into larger entities ruled by kings. Dutch descriptions by Kaspar Barlei and Johan Nieuhoff spoke of two larger consolidated entities, Great Palmares and Little Palmares, in each of these units there was a large central town that was fortified and held 5, 000-6,000 people. The surrounding hills and valleys were filled with many more mocambos of 50 to 100 people. A description of the visit of Johan Blaer to one of the larger mocambos in 1645 revealed that there were 220 buildings in the community, a church, four smithies, and a council house. Churches were common in Palmares partly because Angolans were frequently Christianized, either from the Portuguese colony or from the Kingdom of Kongo, others had been converted to Christianity while enslaved. According to the Dutch, they used a person who knew something of the church as a priest. After 1654 the Dutch were expelled, and the Portuguese began organizing expeditions against the mocambos of Palmares, in the post-Iberian Union period, the kingdoms of Palmares grew and became even more consolidated
37.
Dutch Brazil
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Dutch Brazil, also known as New Holland, was the northern portion of the Portuguese colony of Brazil, ruled by the Dutch during the Dutch colonization of the Americas between 1630 and 1654. The main cities of the Nieuw Nederland were the capital Mauritsstad, Frederikstadt, Nieuw Amsterdam, Saint Louis, São Cristóvão, Fortaleza, Sirinhaém, from 1630 onward, the Dutch Republic conquered almost half of Brazils area at the time, with their capital in Recife. The Dutch West India Company set up their headquarters in Recife, the governor, Johan Maurits, invited artists and scientists to the colony to help promote Brazil and increase immigration. However, the tide turned against the Dutch when the Portuguese won a significant victory at the Second Battle of Guararapes in 1649, on 26 January 1654, the Dutch surrendered and signed the capitulation, but only as a provisory pact. By May 1654, the Dutch demanded that the Dutch Republic was to be given New Holland back, on 6 August 1661, New Holland was formally ceded to Portugal through the Treaty of The Hague. While of only transitional importance for the Dutch, this period was of importance in the History of Brazil. The Low Countries had long been part of the Spanish Empire, however, in 1568 the Eighty Years War broke out, a consequence of the war was Dutch raiding of Spanish lands, colonies, and ships. In 1594 Phillip II, who was king both of Spain and of Portugal, gave permission for Dutch ships bound for Brazil to sail together once a year in a fleet of twenty ships. As part of the truce, the Dutch also agreed to delay the creation of a West India Company, by the end of the truce, the Dutch had vastly expanded its trade networks, and gained over half of the carrying trade between Brazil and Europe. There were 29 sugar refineries in the Northern Netherlands by 1622, in 1621, the twelve-year peace treaty expired and the Dutch West India Company was immediately created. The Dutch–Portuguese War resumed, and through the new company, the Dutch now started to interfere with the Spanish, the expedition consisted of 26 ships and 3,300 men. They arrived there on May 8,1624, on which Portuguese Governor Diogo Tristão de Mendonça Furtado surrendered to the Dutch. However, by April 30,1625, the Portuguese recaptured the city, with the help of a combined Spanish and Portuguese force, the city was to then play a critical role as a base of the Portuguese struggle against the Dutch for the control of Brazil. In 1628, the seizure of a Spanish silver convoy by Piet Heyn in Matanzas Bay provided the Dutch WIC the funds for another attempt to conquer Brazil at Pernambuco. In the summer of 1629, the Dutch coveted a newfound interest in obtaining the Brazilian state of Pernambuco, the largest and richest sugar-producing area in the world. The Dutch fleet of 65 ships was led by Hendrick Corneliszoon Loncq, the WIC gained control of Olinda by February 16,1630, and Recife and António Vaz by March 3. Matias de Albuquerque, the Portuguese governor, led a strong Portuguese resistance which hindered the Dutch from developing their forts on the lands which they had captured. By 1631, the Dutch left Olinda and tried to control of the Fort of Cabedello on Paraíba, the Rio Grande, Rio Formoso
38.
Jesuit reduction
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A Jesuit reduction was a type of settlement for indigenous people in South America created by the Jesuit Order during the 17th and 18th centuries. The strategy of the Spanish Empire was to gather native populations into centers called Indian reductions, in order to Christianize, tax, the Jesuit interpretation of this strategy was implemented primarily in an area that corresponds to modern-day Paraguay amongst the Tupi-Guarani peoples. Later reductions were extended into areas now part of Argentina, Brazil, to understand the impetus behind these Jesuit efforts, one must take into account the widespread Catholic belief about baptism, current at that time. It would be centuries before the Catholic church would reconsider its glum appraisal of the chances of salvation for those not baptized into the Church, from this came the heroic efforts of missionaries to the detriment of native cultures, which few today could countenance. Jesuit reductions were different from the reductions in other regions because the people were expected to convert to Christianity. Under the leadership of both the Jesuits and native caciques, the reductions achieved a degree of autonomy within the Spanish colonial empire. With the use of Indian labour, the reductions became economically successful, when their existence was threatened by the incursions of Bandeirante slave traders, Indian militia were created that fought effectively against the colonists. In the 16th century, priests of different religious orders set out to evangelize the Americas, legally, under colonial rule, Indians were classified as minors, in effect children, to be protected and guided to salvation by European missionaries. The Jesuit reductions originated in the seventeenth century when Bishop Lizarraga asked for missionaries for Paraguay. In 1609, acting under instructions from Phillip III, the Spanish governor of Asunción made a deal with the Jesuit Provincial of Paraguay. The Jesuits agreed to set up hamlets at strategic points along the Paraná river, the Jesuits were to enjoy a tax holiday for ten years which extended longer. This mission strategy continued for 150 years until the Jesuits were expelled in 1767, fundamentally the purpose, as far as the government was concerned, was to safeguard the frontier with the reductions where Indians were introduced to European culture. In 1609 three Jesuits began the first mission in San Ignacio Guazú, in the next 25 years,15 missions were founded in the province of Guayrá. But since some of these were within the Portuguese area they were subjected to frequent destructive raids by Bandeirantes of São Paulo to enslave the Indians. In 1631 most of the reductions moved west into Uruguay which was under Spanish jurisdiction, the missions also secured the Spanish Crowns permission, and some arms, to raise militias of Indians to defend the reductions against raids. The bandeirantes followed the reductions into Spanish territory and in 1641 the Indian militia stopped them at Mbororé, the militias could number as many as 4,000 troops and their cavalry was especially effective, wearing European-style uniforms and carrying bows and arrows as well as muskets. What came to be known as the War of the Reductions ended when a force of 3,000 combined Spanish and Portuguese troops crushed the revolt in 1756. The reductions came to be considered a threat by the authorities and were caught up in the growing attack on the Jesuits in Europe for unrelated reasons
39.
War of the Emboabas
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The War of the Emboabas, was a war waged in the early 18th century between two generations of Portuguese settlers in the viceroyalty of Brazil - then the Captaincy of São Vicente. Their goal was to capture new Indian slaves, recapture runaway slaves and their search was rewarded in a then inaccessible area just north of their original Capitania that was to become Minas dos Matos Gerais. The problem was that the mines, while rich, were in a vast area they couldnt effectively settle, the Bandeirantes, or simply Paulistas, tried to assert rights of precedence but were defeated. São Sebastião became the city of the viceroyalty and later of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil. As soon as news of the discovery of gold spread thousands of people moved to the area, the term is derived from the tupi mbóaba which literally means hairy leg. Originally the term referred to birds with feathered legs and as, unlike the pioneers, regulation of the distribution of mines between Emboabas and Paulistas. Regulation of collection of the quinto do ouro tax, breakup on 3 November 1709 of the Province of São Vicente into São Paulo e Minas de Ouro and Rio de Janeiro, ruled directly by the Crown. End of the wars in the areas with the crown assuming the administrative control of the region. The defeat of Paulistas caused some of them to move west where, years later, they would discover new gold deposits in the current states of Mato Grosso do Sul, Mato Grosso and Goiás. The production of gold after the war increased so that Minas Gerais became the richest region of Brazil between 1740 and 1760, leme, Pedro Taques de Almeida Paes, Nobiliarquia Paulistana Histórica e Genealógica, Ed. Taunay, Afonso de E. Relatos Sertanistas, Ed, São Paulo University Taunay, Afonso de E. História das Bandeiras Paulistas, Ed. Melhoramentos Franco, Francisco de Assis Carvalho, Dicionário de Bandeirantes e Sertanistas do Brasil, São Paulo University, São Paulo, Ed Itatiaia, Belo Horizonte Mello, José Soares de. São Paulo, Governo do estado de São Paulo,1942, O índio na história do Brasil. O retrato do rei São Paulo, Companhia das Letras,1991
40.
Mascate War
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The Mascate War, also known as the War of the Peddlers, was a conflict fought between two rival mercantile groups in colonial Brazil from Oct.1710 to Aug.1711. On one side were landowners and sugar mill owners concentrated in Olinda, on the other were Portuguese traders in Recife, pejoratively called peddlers. It ended with a siege of Recife by planter militas. The installation of a new governor by the crown favoring the peddlers resulted in razing, a lack of capital to invest in crops, equipment and manpower, combined with the declining price of sugar due to competition from European powers investments in the West Indies, caused a crisis. In an effort to resolve this, the planters of Olinda began to borrow money from traders in the settlement of Recife. At that time, Portuguese traders living in Recife agreed to lend money to the planters in Olinda, aware of Recifes economic importance, merchants asked king of Portugal that the settlement be elevated to town status. In February 1709, shortly after receiving the Royal Charter which declared it a town, merchants erected the town hall, Recife was formally separated from Olinda, the seat of the Captaincy. Economically dependent on Portuguese merchants, the landowners did not accept the Pernambuco political-administrative emancipation of Recife, the emancipation of Recife was seen as an aggravating the situation of local landowners before the bourgeoisie Portuguese, which by this mechanism put them at the level of political equality. As the separation between the two cities was being implemented in 1710, the lords of Olinda revolted, with mill owner Bernardo Vieira de Melo among their leaders, no condition to resist, the wealthiest merchants of Recife fled to avoid being captured. This, in turn, in order to ensure their safety, he withdrew to Bahia, the crown appointed a new governor Félix José de Mendonça. The peddlers fought back in 1712, invading Olinda and causing fires and destroying villages, the new governor and the intervention of troops sent from Bahia ended the war. The commercial bourgeoisie was supported by the metropolis, and Recife maintained its autonomy, the city intervened in the region in 1711, arresting the leaders of the rebellion. Finally after much struggling, which included the intervention of colonial authorities, with the victory of the merchants, the war reaffirmed the dominance of merchant capital on the colonial production
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