1.
United Church of Christ
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The United Church of Christ is in historical continuation of the General Council of Congregational Christian churches founded under the influence of New England Puritanism. The Evangelical and Reformed Church and the General Council of the Congregational Christian Churches united in 1957 to form the UCC and these two denominations, which were themselves the result of earlier unions, had their roots in Congregational, Christian, Evangelical, and Reformed denominations. At the end of 2014, the UCCs 5,116 congregations claimed 979,239 members, in 2015, Pew Research estimated that 0.4 percent, or 1 million adult adherents, of the U. S population self-identify with the United Church of Christ. The UCC maintains full communion with other mainline Protestant denominations, many of its congregations choose to practice open communion. The denomination places high emphasis on participation in interfaith and ecumenical efforts. The national settings of the UCC have historically favored liberal views on issues, such as civil rights, LGBT rights, womens rights. However, United Church of Christ congregations are independent in matters of doctrine and ministry and it is self-described as an extremely pluralistic and diverse denomination. The United Church of Christ was formed when two Protestant churches, the Evangelical and Reformed Church and the General Council of the Congregational Christian Churches united in 1957 and this union adopted an earlier general statement of unity between the two denominations, the 1943 Basis of Union. At this time, the UCC claimed about two million members, in 1959, in its General Synod, the UCC adopted a broad Statement of Faith. The UCC adopted its constitution and by-laws in 1961, there is no UCC hierarchy or body that can impose any doctrine or worship format onto the individual congregations within the UCC. Within this locally focused structure, however, there are central beliefs common to the UCC, the UCC often uses four words to describe itself, Christian, Reformed, Congregational and Evangelical. While the UCC refers to its characteristics, it springs from mainline Protestantism as opposed to Evangelicalism. The word evangelical in this more closely corresponds with the original Lutheran origins meaning of the gospel as opposed to the Evangelical use of the word. UCC is generally liberal, and the denomination notes that the Bible, though written in specific historical times and places. The motto of the United Church of Christ comes from John 17,21, the denominations official literature uses broad doctrinal parameters, emphasizing freedom of individual conscience and local church autonomy. As expressed in the United Church of Christ constitution, The United Church of Christ acknowledges as its sole Head, Jesus Christ, Son of God and it acknowledges as kindred in Christ all who share in this confession. It looks to the Word of God in the Scriptures, and to the presence and power of the Holy Spirit and it claims as its own the faith of the historic Church expressed in the ancient creeds and reclaimed in the basic insights of the Protestant Reformers. It affirms the responsibility of the Church in each generation to make this faith its own in reality of worship, in honesty of thought and expression, and in purity of heart before God
2.
Chair (official)
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The chairman is the highest officer of an organized group such as a board, a committee, or a deliberative assembly. The person holding the office is elected or appointed by the members of the group. The chair presides over meetings of the group and conducts its business in an orderly fashion. When the group is not in session, the officers duties include acting as its head, its representative to the outside world. In some organizations, this position is called president, in others, where a board appoints a president. Other terms sometimes used for the office and its holder include chair, chairperson, chairwoman, presiding officer, president, moderator, facilitator, the chairman of a parliamentary chamber is often called the speaker. The term chair is used in lieu of chairman, in response to criticisms that using chairman is sexist. In his 1992 State of the Union address, then-U. S, president George H. W. Bush used chairman for men and chair for women. A1994 Canadian study found the Toronto Star newspaper referring to most presiding men as chairman, the Chronicle of Higher Education uses chairman for men and chairperson for women. An analysis of the British National Corpus found chairman used 1,142 times, chairperson 130 times, the National Association of Parliamentarians does not approve using chairperson. In World Schools Style debating, male chairs are called Mr. Chairman, the FranklinCovey Style Guide for Business and Technical Communication, as well as the American Psychological Association style guide, advocate using chair or chairperson, rather than chairman. The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style suggests that the forms are gaining ground. It advocates using chair to refer both to men and to women, the word chair can refer to the place from which the holder of the office presides, whether on a chair, at a lectern, or elsewhere. During meetings, the person presiding is said to be in the chair and is referred to as the chair. Major dictionaries state that the word derives from chair and man, some authorities, however, including Riddicks Rules of Procedure, suggest that the second part of chairman derives from the Latin manus, and thus claim gender-neutrality for the word. Vladimir Lenin, for example, officially functioned as the head of Soviet Russia not as tsar or as president, note in particular the popular standard method for referring to Mao Zedong, Chairman Mao. In the absence of the chairman and vice chairman, groups sometimes elect a chairman pro tempore to fill the role for a single meeting. In some organizations that have titles, deputy chairman ranks higher than vice chairman, as there are often multiple vice chairs
3.
Nashville, Tennessee
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Nashville is the capital of the U. S. state of Tennessee and the county seat of Davidson County. It is located on the Cumberland River in the central part of the state. The city is a center for the music, healthcare, publishing, banking and transportation industries and it is known as a center of the country music industry, earning it the nickname Music City, U. S. A. Since 1963, Nashville has had a consolidated city-county government which includes six municipalities in a two-tier system. Nashville is governed by a mayor, vice-mayor, and 40-member Metropolitan Council, thirty-five of the members are elected from single-member districts, five are elected at-large. Reflecting the citys position in government, Nashville is home to the Tennessee Supreme Courts courthouse for Middle Tennessee. According to 2015 estimates from the U. S. Census Bureau, the balance population, which excludes semi-independent municipalities within Nashville, was 654,610. The 2015 population of the entire 13-county Nashville metropolitan area was 1,830,345, the 2015 population of the Nashville-Davidson–Murfreesboro–Columbia combined statistical area, a larger trade area, was 1,951,644. The town of Nashville was founded by James Robertson, John Donelson, and it was named for Francis Nash, the American Revolutionary War hero. Nashville quickly grew because of its location, accessibility as a port on the Cumberland River, a tributary of the Ohio River. By 1800, the city had 345 residents, including 136 African American slaves and 14 free blacks, in 1806, Nashville was incorporated as a city and became the county seat of Davidson County, Tennessee. In 1843, the city was named the permanent capital of the state of Tennessee, by 1860, when the first rumblings of secession began to be heard across the South, antebellum Nashville was a prosperous city. The citys significance as a port made it a desirable prize as a means of controlling important river. In February 1862, Nashville became the first state capital to fall to Union troops, the state was occupied by Union troops for the duration of the war. Within a few years after the Civil War, the Nashville chapter of the Ku Klux Klan was founded by Confederate veteran John W. Morton, meanwhile, the city had reclaimed its important shipping and trading position and developed a solid manufacturing base. The post–Civil War years of the late 19th century brought new prosperity to Nashville and these healthy economic times left the city with a legacy of grand classical-style buildings, which can still be seen around the downtown area. Circa 1950 the state approved a new city charter that provided for the election of city council members from single-member districts. This change was supported because at-large voting diluted the minority populations political power in the city and they could seldom gain a majority of the population to support a candidate of their choice
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Urban area
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An urban area is a human settlement with high population density and infrastructure of built environment. Urban areas are created through urbanization and are categorized by urban morphology as cities, in urbanism, the term contrasts to rural areas such as villages and hamlets and in urban sociology or urban anthropology it contrasts with natural environment. The worlds urban population in 1950 of just 746 million has increased to 3.9 billion in the decades since, in 2009, the number of people living in urban areas surpassed the number living in rural areas and since then the world has become more urban than rural. This was the first time that the majority of the population lived in a city. In 2014 there were 7.25 billion people living on the planet, Urban areas are created and further developed by the process of urbanization. Urban areas are measured for various purposes, including analyzing population density, historian John Gurda writes, I have tried to uncover Milwaukees civic bedrock - the shifting foundation on which individuals have built their lives and the community has constructed its identity. There is no doubt that the deepest layer of bedrock is economic. In every age, people have chosen to live in areas not because of their climates or landmarks or cultural attractions. It was economic opportunity that brought people to Milwaukee, and it is economic opportunity that keeps them there, I define cities as concentrations of people animated by concentrations of capital. More simply put, money is the root of all cities, official definitions vary somewhat between nations. The ten largest metropolitan areas account for half of the population, about 3 million people live in Buenos Aires City and the Greater Buenos Aires metropolitan area totals around 13 million, making it one of the largest urban areas in the world. The metropolitan areas of Córdoba, Rosario, Mendoza and Tucumán have around 1.3 million inhabitants each and La Plata, seven other provinces have over one million people each, Mendoza, Tucumán, Entre Ríos, Salta, Chaco, Corrientes and Misiones. According to IBGE urban areas already concentrate 84. 35% of the population, while the Southeast region remains the most populated one, with over 80 million inhabitants. The largest metropolitan areas in Brazil are São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte — all in the Southeastern Region — with 20,12, and 5 million inhabitants respectively. The majority of state capitals are the largest cities in their states, except for Vitória, the capital of Espírito Santo, and Florianópolis, there are also non-capital metropolitan areas in the states of São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina. According to Statistics Canada, an area in Canada is an area with a population of at least 1,000 people where the density is no fewer than 400 persons per square kilometre. If two or more areas are within 2 km of each other by road, they are merged into a single urban area. Accordingly, the new definition set out three types of population centres, small, medium and large
6.
National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics
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The NAIA began accepting members from Canada in 1972, which made it the only international intercollegiate athletic association in North America until 2009. Today there are three Canadian members, as of July 1,2016, the NAIA reports having 246 member institutions. The NAIA, whose headquarters is in Kansas City, Missouri, the CBS Sports Network, formerly called CSTV, serves as the national media outlet for the NAIA. In 2014, ESPNU began carrying the NAIA National Football Championship, the goal of the tournament was to establish a forum for small colleges and universities to determine a national basketball champion. The original eight-team tournament expanded to 32 teams in 1938, on March 10,1940, the National Association for Intercollegiate Basketball was formed in Kansas City, Missouri. In 1952, the NAIB was transformed into the NAIA, and with that came the sponsorship of sports such as mens golf, tennis and outdoor track. Football in the NAIA was split into two divisions in 1970, based on enrollment, it was consolidated back into a division in 1997. In 1948, the NAIB became the first national organization to open their intercollegiate postseason to black student-athletes and that same year, Indiana State coach John Wooden, later to become a coaching legend at UCLA, brought the first African-American student athlete to play at the national tournament. In 1957, Tennessee A&I became the first historically black institution to win a basketball national championship. The National Junior College Athletic Association had established a division in the spring of 1975. In 1997, Liz Heaston became the first female athlete to play. Launched in 2000 by the NAIA, the Champions of Character program promotes character, membership- The NAIA was the first association to admit colleges and universities from outside the United States. The NAIA began admitting Canadian members in 1999, football- The NAIA was the first association to send a football team to Europe to play. In the summer of 1976, the NAIA sent Henderson State and Texas A&I to play 5 exhibition games in West Berlin, Vienna, Nuremberg, Mannheim, the NAIA sponsors 14 sports in which it conducts 25 annual championships. The NAIA recognizes three levels of competitions, emerging, invitational, and championship, the association conducts, or has conducted in the past, championship tournaments in the following sports. The tournament was the brainchild of Dr. James Naismith, creator of the game of basketball, Emil Liston, athletic director at Baker University, the event began in 1937 with the inaugural tournament at Municipal Auditorium in Kansas City, MO. The 2012 mens championship marked the 75th edition of what has been tabbed College Basketball’s Toughest Tournament, Basketball is currently the only NAIA sport in which the organizations member institutions are aligned into divisions. The NAIA has 21 member conferences, including 9 that sponsor football, Athletic Trainer of the Year Presented to the NAIA-ATA member Athletic Trainer who has provided substantial service to student-athletes, the association or the member institution
7.
Gulf Coast Athletic Conference
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Member institutions are located in Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina and Tennessee, USA. The first sports were men and womens basketball and mens tennis, in 2005, Hurricane Katrina forced Dillard and Xavier to cancel all athletic competition for 2005-06 and Loyola and Southern-New Orleans were able only to compete partially. All schools returned to competition in 2006-07, although in most cases with a number of sports. Louisiana College left the GCAC to join the American Southwest Conference of the National Collegiate Athletic Association Division III in 2000, Belhaven also left in 2000, only to re-join in 2002, while Talladega College, which joined in 1999, left in 2002. In 2010, Belhaven, Loyola-New Orleans, Spring Hill, Mobile, in 2010 LSU-Shreveport left the conference to join the Red River Athletic Conference. Edward Waters College and Fisk University joined to replace the schools in 2010. Philander Smith College also joined the GCAC in 2011, Talladega College re-joined the conference starting in the 2011-12 academic year. Talladega had been a member of the GCAC from 1999-2002
8.
United Negro College Fund
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The UNCF was incorporated on April 25,1944 by Frederick D. Patterson, Mary McLeod Bethune, and others. The UNCF is headquartered at 1805 7th Street, NW in Washington, in 2005, the UNCF supported approximately 65,000 students at over 900 colleges and universities with approximately $113 million in grants and scholarships. About 60% of these students are the first in their families to attend college, UNCF also administers over 450 named scholarships. The UNCFs president and chief officer is Michael Lomax. Past presidents of the UNCF included William H. Gray and Vernon Jordan and it provides scholarships to students attending its member colleges as well as to those going elsewhere. Graduates of UNCF scholarships have included blacks in the fields of business, politics, health care. The UNCF has received donations for its scholarship programs. One of the more high-profile donations made was by then-senator and future U. S. President John F. Kennedy who donated the money from the Pulitzer Prize for his book Profiles in Courage to the Fund. The largest ever single donation was made in 1990 by Walter Annenberg, beginning in 1980, singer Lou Rawls began the Lou Rawls Parade of Stars telethon to benefit the UNCF. The telethon featured comedy and musical performances from artists in support of the UNCFs. The event has raised over $200 million in 27 shows for the fund through 2006, in January 2004, Rawls was honored by the United Negro College Fund for his more than 25 years of charity work with the organization. Instead of Rawls hosting and performing, he was given the seat of honor and celebrated by his colleagues, including Stevie Wonder, The OJays, Gerald Levert, Ashanti. In addition to the telethon, there are a number of fundraising activities, including the Walk for Education held annually in Los Angeles, California. In Houston, Texas, the Cypresswood Golf Club hosts a golf tournament in April. In 2014, Koch Industries Inc. and the Charles Koch Foundation made a $25 million grant to UNCF. In protest of the Kochs, the American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees, in 1972, the UNCF adopted as its motto the maxim A mind is a terrible thing to waste. This maxim has become one of the most widely recognized slogans in advertising history, the motto, which has been used in numerous award-winning UNCF ad campaigns, was created by Forest Long, of the advertising agency Young & Rubicam, in partnership with the Ad Council. A lesser-known slogan the UNCF also uses, in reference to its beneficiaries, points out about them, not asking for a handout
9.
Oak Ridge Associated Universities
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The organization was first established in 1946 as the Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies by a consortium of southern universities. This was an effort championed by William G. Pollard, who was its director until 1974. The name Oak Ridge Associated Universities was adopted in 1966, in 1950, ORINS opened a hospital where it conducted clinical research for the United States Atomic Energy Commission on the use of radiation and radioactive materials in cancer treatment. The hospital treated patients until the mid-1970s, ORINS also conducted training courses in radioisotopes and established resident training programs in nuclear medicine. In the 1980s, clinical research at ORINS was the subject of investigation by the Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, the Institute for Energy Analysis was organized as a unit of ORAU in January 1974, under the leadership of former Oak Ridge National Laboratory director Alvin Weinberg. This institutes focus was evaluation of alternatives for meeting future energy requirements, from 1976 until it ceased operation with Weinbergs retirement in 1984, the Institute for Energy Analysis was a center for study of diverse issues related to carbon dioxide and global climate. In the mid-1970s, ORAU operated the Training And Technology Project, TAT taught basic sciences, as well as technical skill concentrations, such as welding, machining, mechanical operations, drafting and physical testing. Employment search assistance was provided to trainees to integrate with regional industrial company opportunities, oRAUs mission continues to be the advancement of scientific research and education. ORAU operates the Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education under contract to the Department of Energy, health physics and epidemiology continue to be major areas of activity for ORAU and ORISE. Activities include radiological surveys, dose reconstruction, and health screening for workers who may have exposed to radioactive material, beryllium. The Radiation Emergency Assistance Center/Training Site continues to operate as a part of ORISE, imperial College London is the British university affiliated with the ORAU. Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture Radiation Emergency Assistance Center/Training Site Cytogenetic Biodosimetry Laboratory
10.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
11.
Southern Association of Colleges and Schools
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This agency accredits over 13,000 public and private educational institutions ranging from preschool to college level in the Southern United States. Its headquarters are in North Druid Hills, Georgia, near Decatur, there are a number of affiliate organizations within the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. One affiliate organization is the Southern Association of Community, Junior, the reports include specific public sanctions of schools and statements disclosing why those institutions have been placed on sanction. The Commission on Colleges accredits both public and private institutions of education in the United States, including some community colleges as well as four-year institutions. As a regional accreditor, SACSCOC accreditation extends to all of the programs offered at the accredited institution. The SACSCOC has also accredited the American University in Dubai, SACS CASI accredits over 13,000 primary, middle, and secondary schools, as well as school systems located in the SACS region. In 2006, AdvancED was established with the unification of SACS CASI, NCA CASI, today, SACS CASI acts as an accreditation division of AdvancED. List of recognized accreditation associations of higher learning Official website
12.
Clinton B. Fisk
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Clinton Bowen Fisk, for whom Fisk University is named, was a senior officer during Reconstruction in the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands. He endowed Fisk University with $30,000, in addition, he helped establish the first free public schools in the South for white and African-American children. Fisk was born in York, Livingston County, New York, as part of the 19th-century westward migration, his family soon moved to Coldwater, Michigan. He studied in the course at Albion Seminary before becoming one of the five students to matriculate on the opening day of Michigan Central College in 1844. Fisk later became a merchant, miller, and banker in Coldwater and he suffered financial disaster in the Panic of 1857. He moved to St. Louis, Missouri where he started working in the insurance business, an abolitionist, Fisk was appointed colonel of the 33rd Missouri Volunteer Infantry of the Union Army on September 5,1862. He organized a brigade and was commissioned brigadier general November 24,1862 and he served most of the American Civil War in Missouri and Arkansas, commanding first the District of Southeast Missouri and later the Department of North Missouri. The primary duty of these commands was opposing raids into Missouri by Confederate States of America cavalry, after the Civil War, Fisk was appointed assistant commissioner of the Freedmens Bureau for Kentucky and Tennessee. He made the abandoned barracks in Nashville, Tennessee available to the American Missionary Association for the creation of the Fisk School, after authorizing legislation expired for the Freedmens Bureau, Fisk returned to his native New York. In 1874 President Ulysses S. Grant appointed him to the Board of Indian Commissioners, Fisk was a leader in the temperance movement and became the presidential candidate for the Prohibition Party in the 1888 election. He came in third with 249,506 votes, the election was won by Benjamin Harrison of the Republican Party. Fisk was also surpassed by the incumbent President of the United States Grover Cleveland of the Democratic Party, but, Fisk did receive one of the highest results of any Prohibition Party candidate in history. The Party has run candidates in presidential election since 1872. Fisk died in New York City on July 9,1890, Fisk University was named after him, his work and funds contributed to education for generations of young people. In 2001 he was the first to be inducted into the new Hillsdale County, Michigan Veterans Hall of Fame, Prohibition Park, a planned community on Staten Island, New York, named one of its major streets Clinton B. The name remains, although the community changed its name to Westerleigh, list of American Civil War generals Alphonso A. Hopkins, The Life of Clinton Bowen Fisk Reavis L. Mitchell Jr. Fisk University Since 1866, Thy Loyal Children Make Their Way. Fisk Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture
13.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
14.
American Missionary Association
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The American Missionary Association was a Protestant-based abolitionist group founded on September 3,1846 in Albany, New York. The main purpose of organization was to abolish slavery, to educate African Americans, to promote racial equality. Its members and leaders were of races, The Association was chiefly sponsored by the Congregationalist churches in New England. Starting in 1861, it opened camps in the South for freed slaves and it played a major role during the Reconstruction Era in promoting education for blacks in the South. From the beginning the leadership was integrated, the first board was made up of 12 men, one of its primary objectives was to abolish slavery. The AMA was actually one of the responsible for pushing slavery onto the national political agenda. The organization started the American Missionary magazine, published from 1846 through 1934, among its achievements was the founding of anti-slavery churches. Members of the AMA began their support of education for blacks before the Civil War, by wars end, there were 100 contraband camps, and many had AMA teachers. The AMA also served the Roanoke Island Freedmens Colony, located on an island occupied by Union troops, the colony was intended to be self-sustaining. It was supervised by Horace James, a Congregational chaplain appointed by the Army as Superintendent for Negro Affairs in the North Carolina District, the first of 27 teachers who volunteered through the AMA was his cousin, Elizabeth James. By 1864 the colony had more than 2200 residents, and both children and adults filled the classrooms in the several schools, as they were eager for learning. The missionary teachers also evangelized and helped provide the medical care of the time. The AMAs pace of founding schools and colleges increased during and after the war, Freedmen, historically free blacks, and white sympathizers alike believed that education was a priority for the newly freed slaves. Together with the Freedmens Bureau, the AMA founded Howard University in Washington, in addition, the AMA organized the Freedmens Aid Society, which recruited northern teachers for the schools and arranged to find housing for them in the South. In the mid-1870s, however, the Association pronounced black suffrage a failure, by the 1870s, the AMA national office had relocated to New York City. Its magazine, American Missionary, had a circulation of 20,000 in the 19th century, the Cornell University Library has editions from 1878-1901 accessible online in its Making of America digital library. While the AMA became notable in the United States with its work in opposition to slavery and in support of education for freedmen, the 19th-century missionary effort was strong in India, China and east Asia. Over time, the association became most closely aligned with the Congregational Christian Churches, most of those congregations have become members of the United Church of Christ
15.
Freedmen
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A freedman or freedwoman is a former slave who has been released from slavery, usually by legal means. Historically, slaves were freed either by manumission or emancipation, a fugitive slave is one who escaped slavery by fleeing. Rome differed from Greek city-states in allowing freed slaves to become plebeian citizens, the act of freeing a slave was called manumissio, from manus, hand, and missio, the act of releasing. After manumission, a slave who had belonged to a Roman citizen enjoyed not only freedom from ownership. A slave who had acquired libertas was known as a libertus in relation to his former master, as a social class, freed slaves were liberti, though later Latin texts used the terms libertus and libertini interchangeably. Libertini were not entitled to public office or state priesthoods. During the early Empire, however, freedmen held key positions in the government bureaucracy, any future children of a freedman would be born free, with full rights of citizenship. The Claudian Civil Service set a precedent whereby freedmen could be used as servants in the Roman bureaucracy. In addition, Claudius passed legislation concerning slaves, including a law stating that sick slaves abandoned by their owners became freedmen if they recovered, the emperor was criticized for using freedmen in the Imperial Courts. Some freedmen enjoyed enormous success and became quite wealthy, the brothers who owned House of the Vettii, one of the biggest and most magnificent houses in Pompeii, are thought to have been freedmen. A freedman who became rich and influential might still be looked down on by the aristocracy as a vulgar nouveau riche. Trimalchio, a character in the Satyricon of Petronius, is a caricature of such a freedman, for centuries Arab slave traders took and transported an estimated 10 to 15 million sub-Saharan Africans to slavery in North Africa and the Middle East. They also enslaved Europeans from coastal areas and the Balkans, many Arabs took women slaves as concubines in their harems. In the patrilineal societies, mixed-race children of concubines and Arab men were considered free and were given inheritance rights related to their fathers property. In the United States, the freedmen and freedwomen refer chiefly to former slaves emancipated during and after the American Civil War, by the Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves freed before the war, usually by individual manumissions, often in wills, were referred to as Free Negroes or free blacks. There were numerous such families formed in the Upper South before the Revolution, for the first two decades after the Revolution, thousands of slaves were freed in the Upper South, and most northern states abolished slavery, some on a gradual basis. In Louisiana and other areas of the former New France, free people of color were classified in French as gens de couleur libres and they were born to African or African-European mothers and white fathers of mixed-race African and French or other European ancestry
16.
Freedmen's Bureau
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The Freedmens Bureau Bill, which established the Freedmens Bureau on March 3,1865, was initiated by President Abraham Lincoln and was intended to last for one year after the end of the Civil War. The Freedmens Bureau was an important agency of early Reconstruction, assisting freedmen in the South, the Bureau was made a part of the United States Department of War, as it was the only agency with an existing organization that could be assigned to the South. Headed by Union Army General Oliver O. Howard, the Bureau started operations in 1865, the Freedmens Bureau controlled limited arable land. The Bureaus powers were expanded to help African Americans find family members from whom they had separated during the war. It arranged to teach them to read and write, considered critical by the freedmen themselves as well as the government, Bureau agents also served as legal advocates for African Americans in both local and national courts, mostly in cases dealing with family issues. In 1866, Congress renewed the charter for the Bureau, by 1869, the Bureau had lost most of its funding and as a result been forced to cut much of its staff. By 1870 the Bureau had been weakened due to the rise of Ku Klux Klan violence in the South. In 1872, Congress abruptly abandoned the program, effectively shutting down the Bureau by refusing to approve renewal legislation and it did not inform Howard, who had been transferred to Arizona by President Ulysses S. Grant to settle hostilities between the Apache and settlers. Grants Secretary of War William W. Belknap, was hostile to Howards leadership and authority at the Bureau, the Bureau helped solve everyday problems of the newly freed slaves, such as obtaining clothing, food, water, health care, communication with family members, and jobs. It distributed 15 million rations of food to African Americans, although the Bureau set aside $350,000 for this service, only $35,000 was borrowed by planters. Despite the good intentions, efforts, and limited success of the Bureau, most southern white doctors and nurses would not treat freedmen, infrastructure had been destroyed by the war, and people had few means of improving sanitation. Blacks had not had much opportunity to develop their own medical personnel, in this period epidemics of cholera and yellow fever were carried along the river corridors, breaking out across the South. Freedmans Bureau agents, at first, complained that freedwomen were refusing to contract their labor, one of the first actions black families took was to withdraw womens labor from fieldwork. The Bureau did allow some exceptions, such as married women with employed husbands, unworthy women, meaning the unruly and prostitutes, were usually the ones subjected to punishment for vagrancy. After the war, the Freedmens Bureau performed numerous marriages for freed couples who asked for it, as many husbands and wives had been separated during wartime chaos, the Bureau agents helped families in their attempts to reunite after the war. The Bureau had a regional communications system that allowed agents to send inquiries. It sometimes provided transportation to reunite families, Freedmen and freed women turned to the Bureau for assistance in resolving issues of abandonment and divorce. The most widely recognized accomplishments of the Freedmans Bureau were in education, prior to the Civil War, no southern state had a system of universal, state-supported public education and prohibited slaves and free blacks from gaining education
17.
Normal school
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A normal school is a school created to train high school graduates to be teachers. Most such schools are now denominated teachers colleges, the first public normal school in the United States was founded in Concord, Vermont, by Samuel Read Hall in 1823 to train teachers. In 1839, another school was established in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. It operates today as Framingham State University, in the United States teacher colleges or normal schools began to evolve from their initial mission of training teachers to add programs in the sciences, engineering, technology, health, and business. They started to become universities in the 1940s. For instance, Southern Illinois University was formerly Southern Illinois Normal College, the University is now a system of two campuses of more than 34,000 students, but still issues most of its baccalaureate degrees in education. Further, the town of Normal, Illinois was named from the name of Illinois State University. Many famous state universities, such as the University of California, such a list includes Emporia State University in Emporia, Kansas, which was established as Kansas State Normal School in 1863, and which by 1889 had become the largest normal school in the Nation. In Canada, such institutions were typically assimilated by a university as the latters Faculty of Education and it requires at least three, but usually four, years of prior undergraduate study. The term normal school originated in the early 16th century from the French école normale, the French concept of an école normale was to provide a model school with model classrooms to teach model teaching practices to its student teachers. The children being taught, their teachers, and the teachers of the teachers were often together in the same building, although a laboratory school, it was the official school for the children—primary or secondary. In Finland, normal schools are under national university administration, whereas most schools are administered by the local municipality, Teacher aspirants do most of their compulsory trainee period in normal schools and teach while being supervised by a senior teacher. In France, a system developed since the Revolution, primary school teachers were educated at départemental écoles normales. Nowadays all teachers are educated in École supérieure du professorat et de léducation, the Écoles Normales Supérieures in France and the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa in Italy no longer specialize in teacher training. In the United Kingdom, teacher training colleges were once separate institutions, the University of Chester traces its roots back to 1839 as the earliest training college in the United Kingdom. Others were established by religious institutions and were single-sex until World War II, since then, they have either become multi-discipline universities in their own right or merged with another university to become its faculty of education. The latter was one of the last institutions to retain the word Normal in its name, in Lithuania, Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences, former Vilnius Pedagogical University is the main teachers training institution, established in 1935. The terminology is still preserved in the translations of such schools in China since the early 20th century
18.
Mozart
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Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, baptised as Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart, was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical era. Born in Salzburg, he showed prodigious ability from his earliest childhood, already competent on keyboard and violin, he composed from the age of five and performed before European royalty. At 17, Mozart was engaged as a musician at the Salzburg court, while visiting Vienna in 1781, he was dismissed from his Salzburg position. He chose to stay in the capital, where he achieved fame, during his final years in Vienna, he composed many of his best-known symphonies, concertos, and operas, and portions of the Requiem, which was largely unfinished at the time of his death. The circumstances of his death have been much mythologized. He was survived by his wife Constanze and two sons and he composed more than 600 works, many acknowledged as pinnacles of symphonic, concertante, chamber, operatic, and choral music. He is among the most enduringly popular of classical composers, Ludwig van Beethoven composed his own early works in the shadow of Mozart, and Joseph Haydn wrote, posterity will not see such a talent again in 100 years. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born on 27 January 1756 to Leopold Mozart and Anna Maria, née Pertl and this was the capital of the Archbishopric of Salzburg, an ecclesiastic principality in what is now Austria, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. He was the youngest of seven children, five of whom died in infancy and his elder sister was Maria Anna Mozart, nicknamed Nannerl. Mozart was baptized the day after his birth, at St. Ruperts Cathedral in Salzburg, the baptismal record gives his name in Latinized form, as Joannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart. He generally called himself Wolfgang Amadè Mozart as an adult, Leopold Mozart, a native of Augsburg, Germany, was a minor composer and an experienced teacher. In 1743, he was appointed as fourth violinist in the establishment of Count Leopold Anton von Firmian. Four years later, he married Anna Maria in Salzburg, Leopold became the orchestras deputy Kapellmeister in 1763. During the year of his sons birth, Leopold published a textbook, Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule. When Nannerl was 7, she began lessons with her father. Years later, after her brothers death, she reminisced, He often spent much time at the clavier, picking out thirds, which he was ever striking, and his pleasure showed that it sounded good. In the fourth year of his age his father, for a game as it were, began to teach him a few minuets and he could play it faultlessly and with the greatest delicacy, and keeping exactly in time. At the age of five, he was composing little pieces
19.
Fisk Jubilee Singers
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The Fisk Jubilee Singers are an African-American a cappella ensemble, consisting of students at Fisk University. The first group was organized in 1871 to tour and raise funds for college and their early repertoire consisted mostly of traditional spirituals, but included some Stephen Foster songs. The original group toured along the Underground Railroad path in the United States, as well as performing in England, later 19th-century groups also toured in Europe. In 2002 the Library of Congress honored their 1909 recording of Swing Low, in 2008 they were awarded a National Medal of Arts. The Singers were organized as an effort for Fisk University. The five-year-old university was facing financial difficulty. To avert bankruptcy and closure, Fisks treasurer and music director, on October 6,1871, the group of students, consisting of two quartets and a pianist, started their U. S. tour under Whites direction. They first performed in Cincinnati, Ohio, over the next 18 months, the group toured through Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Jersey, Massachusetts, Maryland, and Washington, D. C. After a concert in Cincinnati, the group donated their small profit, as soprano Maggie Porter recalled, We had thirty dollars and sent every penny to Chicago and didn’t have anything for ourselves. The mayor of Chillicothe, Ohio, expressed thanks to these young colored people for their liberality in giving the proceeds of last evening’s concert to our relief fund for the Chicago sufferers. The group traveled on to Columbus, where lack of funding, poor hotel conditions, the group and their pastor, Henry Bennett, prayed about whether to continue with the tour. White went off to pray as well, he believed that they needed a name to capture audience attention, the next morning, he met with the singers and said Children, it shall be Jubilee Singers in memory of the Jewish year of Jubilee. This was a reference to Jubilee described in the book of Leviticus in the Bible, each fiftieth Pentecost was followed by a year of jubilee in which all slaves would be set free. Since most of the students at Fisk University and their families were freed slaves. The Jubilee Singers performances were a departure from the familiar black minstrel genre of white musicians performing in blackface. Those who have heard the burnt cork caricatures of negro minstrelsy have not the slightest conception of what it really is. Some could not understand the reason for enjoying so thoroughly as almost everyone did these simple unpretending songs, as the tour continued, audiences came to appreciate the singers voices, and the group began to be praised. After the rough start, the first United States tours eventually earned $40,000 for Fisk University and they gave a separate performance in Washington, D. C. for Vice President Schuyler Colfax and members of the U. S. Congress
20.
Jubilee Hall (Fisk University)
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Jubilee Hall is the oldest academic building on the campus of Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee. Completed in 1876, it was the universitys first permanent building and it presently serves as an undergraduate residence hall. Jubilee Hall is located on the side of the Fisk University Campus. It is a large L-shaped masonry building, six stories in height, with a hip roof encrusted with gabled dormers and its main facade is divided into a central section and slightly projecting end sections, with a tower rising at the junction of the center and right sections. The tower rises to an octagonal belfry and steeple, all adorned with Gothic spires. WIndows are generally set in openings, either singly or pairwise. The main roof cornice has decorative brick corbelling, Fisk University was founded in 1865 through the efforts of the antislavery American Missionary Association, and was named for Clinton B. The school was different from other schools, in that it was designed from the outset to provide a full liberal arts education to its African-American students. In 1871, the financially trouble school raised funds to build Jubilee Hall by sending the Fisk Jubilee Singers in their first European singing tour in 1873, Jubilee Hall was built in 1873-76 with proceeds from the tour. It was designed by New York architect Stephen D. Hatch, although its exterior is little changed, the interior has been completely modernized to provide dormitory facilities. It also houses a portrait of the original Jubilee Singers that was given to the university by Queen Victoria during the 1873 tour. Media related to Jubilee Hall at Wikimedia Commons List of National Historic Landmarks in Tennessee National Register of Historic Places listings in Davidson County, Tennessee
21.
National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
22.
Fayette Avery McKenzie
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Fayette Avery McKenzie was one of the most prominent educators of the American Progressive Era and devoted his professional life to the uplift of American Indians and Blacks in the United States. McKenzie was the first American sociologist to specialize in Indian affairs, from 1915 to 1925, McKenzie was President of Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee. McKenzies tenure, before and after World War I, was during a turbulent period in American history, McKenzie was a Professor of Sociology at Juniata College, Huntingdon, Pennsylvania from 1925 to 1941. Fayette Avery McKenzie was born July 31,1872, in Montrose, Pennsylvania, one of four sons of Edwin and Gertrude McKenzie, a merchant, McKenzies father lost nearly everything in the financial crash of 1876. In 1890, the moved to South Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. McKenzie attended Lehigh University from 1891 to 1895, where he earned a B. S. and was a member of Phi Beta Kappa, for the next two years, McKenzie tutored families of railroad officials of the Lehigh Valley Railroad and Pennsylvania Railroad. McKenzie was one of the first American sociologists to study and live among western Native American peoples, in the early 20th century, anthropology and sociology were represented by prominent scholars Simon Nelson Patten, Franklin Henry Giddings, George Bird Grinnell, Roland Burrage Dixon and James Mooney. During the Progressive Era of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, there was an explosion of public interest in American Indian culture, newspapers, dime-store novels, Wild West shows, and public exhibitions portrayed Native Americans as a vanishing race. Their numbers had decreased since the long Indian wars and survivors were struggling with poverty, at this time, many whites still viewed Indians as savages and incapable of any civilizing influence. Debate raged regarding undesirable racial characteristics of peoples, including intelligence, capability. Advanced in part to justify slavery in the United States, proponents often used data to support claims of inferiority. McKenzie was influenced by anthropologist George Bird Grinnell a student of American Indian life who repudiated the view of Indians biological inferiority. McKenzies work with Giddings and Patten sparked his interest in sociology and economics, here his observations and friendships helped develop his new approach toward addressing the Indian problem. Pan-Indianism developed during the period when modern social science came of age, reformers of the bully Progressive era were inveterate founders of organizations, translating ideas into organizations and organizations into action. Problems existed to be solved, and the democratic promise existed to be fulfilled, Fayette Avery McKenzie was the first American sociologist to specialize in Indian affairs. By all accounts, McKenzie was well liked by students and faculty. McKenzies observations and experience at Wind River provided important information for his dissertation, at Wind River Reservation, McKenzie began a lifelong association Rev. Sherman Coolidge, an Arapaho Episcopalian priest and missionary. McKenzie often invited Rev. Coolidge and Dr. Charles Eastman to lecture in his classes at Ohio State University and they also shared their ideas about forming the first national association run by Indians for Indians
23.
Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
24.
University of Chicago
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The University of Chicago is a private research university in Chicago, Illinois. It holds top-ten positions in national and international rankings and measures. The university currently enrolls approximately 5,700 students in the College, Chicagos physics department helped develop the worlds first man-made, self-sustaining nuclear reaction beneath the viewing stands of universitys Stagg Field. The university is home to the University of Chicago Press. With an estimated date of 2020, the Barack Obama Presidential Center will be housed at the university. Both Harper and future president Robert Maynard Hutchins advocated for Chicagos curriculum to be based upon theoretical and perennial issues rather than on applied sciences, the University of Chicago has many prominent alumni. 92 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with the university as professors, students, faculty, or staff, similarly,34 faculty members and 16 alumni have been awarded the MacArthur “Genius Grant”. Rockefeller on land donated by Marshall Field, while the Rockefeller donation provided money for academic operations and long-term endowment, it was stipulated that such money could not be used for buildings. The original physical campus was financed by donations from wealthy Chicagoans like Silas B, Cobb who provided the funds for the campus first building, Cobb Lecture Hall, and matched Marshall Fields pledge of $100,000. Organized as an independent institution legally, it replaced the first Baptist university of the same name, william Rainey Harper became the modern universitys first president on July 1,1891, and the university opened for classes on October 1,1892. The business school was founded thereafter in 1898, and the law school was founded in 1902, Harper died in 1906, and was replaced by a succession of three presidents whose tenures lasted until 1929. During this period, the Oriental Institute was founded to support, in 1896, the university affiliated with Shimer College in Mount Carroll, Illinois. The agreement provided that either party could terminate the affiliation on proper notice, several University of Chicago professors disliked the program, as it involved uncompensated additional labor on their part, and they believed it cheapened the academic reputation of the university. The program passed into history by 1910, in 1929, the universitys fifth president, Robert Maynard Hutchins, took office, the university underwent many changes during his 24-year tenure. In 1933, Hutchins proposed a plan to merge the University of Chicago. During his term, the University of Chicago Hospitals finished construction, also, the Committee on Social Thought, an institution distinctive of the university, was created. Money that had been raised during the 1920s and financial backing from the Rockefeller Foundation helped the school to survive through the Great Depression, during World War II, the university made important contributions to the Manhattan Project. The university was the site of the first isolation of plutonium and of the creation of the first artificial, in the early 1950s, student applications declined as a result of increasing crime and poverty in the Hyde Park neighborhood
25.
African American
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African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of 73. 2–80. 9% West African, 18–24% European, according to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities, immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, believed to be inferior to white people, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, in 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, the ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic, the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come. The first recorded Africans in British North America were 20 and odd negroes who came to Jamestown, as English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Typically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World, the landowner received 50 acres of land from the state for each servant purchased from a ships captain. An indentured servant would work for years without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom and they raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of slavery when they sentenced John Punch. One of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black slaves, John Casor
26.
Charles S. Johnson
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He preferred to work collaboratively with liberal white groups in the South, quietly as a sideline activist, to get practical results. His position is contrasted with that of W. E. B. Du Bois, who was a powerful and militant advocate for blacks, Johnson was unwavering in personal terms in his opposition to this oppressive system, yet worked hard to change race relations in terms of short-term practical gains. His grandson Jeh Johnson served as the United States Secretary of Homeland Security beginning in 2013, Johnson was born in 1893 in Bristol, Virginia, to well-educated parents. His father was a respected Baptist minister, and his mother was educated in public school and he attended a boarding school in Richmond, Virginia, then earned a B. A. in sociology from Virginia Union University. Afterward, he began study of sociology at the University of Chicago. After returning to the US, he resumed work at the University of Chicago. In 1920 Johnson married Marie Antoinette Burgette, as he got appointed as director of research and investigation of the National Urban League the couple moved to New York City. During his time with the National Urban League, he founded the magazine Opportunity as an outlet for black expression in the arts. He was a researcher and author for the Chicago Commission on Race Relations for its report on the riot. His work was fundamental to The Negro in Chicago, A Study of Race Relations and it was considered a classic model for comprehensive commission reports. In the 1920s Johnson moved to New York City, where he became director for the National Urban League. He was an entrepreneur of the Harlem Renaissance, the movement by African-American writers. He edited two journals that published many writers of the period, and established prizes at the National Urban League to recognize young writers, in Harlem, he argued for black artists saying that they must use their own experiences as the basis for their creativity, rejecting European standards. His goal was to improve Negro self-image and character, and he felt that by writing they could achieve this, Johnson yearned to return to the South, not only to study race relations but to change them. In 1926 he moved to Nashville, taking a position as chair of the Department of Sociology at Fisk University, there he wrote or directed numerous studies of how combined legal, economic and social factors produced an oppressive racial structure. Two of his works have become classics, Shadow of the Plantation, in 1929 an American missionary in Liberia reported that Liberian officials were using soldiers to gather tribal people who were shipped to the island of Fernando Po as forced laborers. The Liberian government denied the charges and invited a League of Nations commission of inquiry, cuthbert Christy of Britain headed the commission
27.
Sociology
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Sociology is the study of social behaviour or society, including its origins, development, organisation, networks, and institutions. It is a science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social order, disorder. Many sociologists aim to research that may be applied directly to social policy and welfare. Subject matter ranges from the level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems. The traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification, social class, social mobility, religion, secularization, law, sexuality, the range of social scientific methods has also expanded. Social researchers draw upon a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques, the linguistic and cultural turns of the mid-twentieth century led to increasingly interpretative, hermeneutic, and philosophic approaches towards the analysis of society. There is often a great deal of crossover between social research, market research, and other statistical fields, Sociology is distinguished from various general social studies courses, which bear little relation to sociological theory or to social-science research-methodology. The US National Science Foundation classifies sociology as a STEM field, Sociological reasoning pre-dates the foundation of the discipline. Social analysis has origins in the stock of Western knowledge and philosophy. The origin of the survey, i. e, there is evidence of early sociology in medieval Arab writings. The word sociology is derived from both Latin and Greek origins, the Latin word, socius, companion, the suffix -logy, the study of from Greek -λογία from λόγος, lógos, word, knowledge. It was first coined in 1780 by the French essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès in an unpublished manuscript, Sociology was later defined independently by the French philosopher of science, Auguste Comte, in 1838. Comte used this term to describe a new way of looking at society, Comte had earlier used the term social physics, but that had subsequently been appropriated by others, most notably the Belgian statistician Adolphe Quetelet. Comte endeavoured to unify history, psychology and economics through the understanding of the social realm. Comte believed a positivist stage would mark the final era, after conjectural theological and metaphysical phases, Comte gave a powerful impetus to the development of sociology, an impetus which bore fruit in the later decades of the nineteenth century. To say this is not to claim that French sociologists such as Durkheim were devoted disciples of the high priest of positivism. To be sure, beginnings can be traced back well beyond Montesquieu, for example, Marx rejected Comtean positivism but in attempting to develop a science of society nevertheless came to be recognized as a founder of sociology as the word gained wider meaning. For Isaiah Berlin, Marx may be regarded as the father of modern sociology
28.
Harlem Renaissance
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The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural, social, and artistic explosion that took place in Harlem, New York, spanning the 1920s. During the time, it was known as the New Negro Movement, the Harlem Renaissance was considered to be a rebirth of African-American arts. The Harlem Renaissance is generally considered to have spanned from about 1918 until the mid-1930s, many of its ideas lived on much longer. The zenith of this flowering of Negro literature, as James Weldon Johnson preferred to call the Harlem Renaissance, until the end of the Civil War, the majority of African Americans had been enslaved and lived in the South. During the Reconstruction Era, the emancipated African Americans, freedmen, began to strive for civic participation, political equality and economic, soon after the end of the Civil War the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 gave rise to speeches by African-American Congressmen addressing this Bill. By 1875 sixteen blacks had been elected and served in Congress, the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 was denounced by black Congressmen and resulted in the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1875, part of Reconstruction legislation by Republicans. By the late 1870s, Democratic whites managed to power in the South. From 1890 to 1908 they proceeded to pass legislation that disenfranchised most Negros and many poor whites and they established white supremacist regimes of Jim Crow segregation in the South and one-party block voting behind southern Democrats. Convict laborers were typically subject to forms of corporal punishment, overwork. While a small number of blacks were able to land shortly after the Civil War. As life in the South became increasingly difficult, African Americans began to migrate north in great numbers, most of the African-American literary movement arose from a generation that had memories of the gains and losses of Reconstruction after the Civil War. Sometimes their parents or grandparents had been slaves and their ancestors had sometimes benefited by paternal investment in cultural capital, including better-than-average education. Many in the Harlem Renaissance were part of the early 20th century Great Migration out of the South into the Negro neighborhoods of the North, African Americans sought a better standard of living and relief from the institutionalized racism in the South. Others were people of African descent from racially stratified communities in the Caribbean who came to the United States hoping for a better life, uniting most of them was their convergence in Harlem. During the enormous influx of European immigrants in the late 19th century, the once exclusive district was abandoned by the middle class. Harlem became an African-American neighborhood in the early 1900s, in 1910, a large block along 135th Street and Fifth Avenue was bought by various African-American realtors and a church group. Many more African Americans arrived during the First World War, due to the war, the migration of laborers from Europe virtually ceased, while the war effort resulted in a massive demand for unskilled industrial labor. The Great Migration brought hundreds of thousands of African Americans to cities such as Chicago, Philadelphia, Detroit, despite the increasing popularity of Negro culture, virulent white racism, often by more recent ethnic immigrants, continued to affect African-American communities, even in the North
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Phi Beta Kappa
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The Phi Beta Kappa Society - the oldest honor society for the liberal arts and sciences in the United States - is widely recognized and considered as the nations most prestigious honor society. Phi Beta Kappa aims to promote and advocate excellence in the arts and sciences and to induct the most outstanding students of arts. Phi Beta Kappa stands for Φιλοσοφία Βίου Κυβερνήτης or in Latin letters Philosophia Biou Cybernētēs, according to Phi Beta Kappa, they have chapters in about 10% of American higher learning institutions, and about 10% of these schools Arts and Sciences graduates are invited to join the society. Although most students are elected their senior year, many colleges elect a limited number of extremely select students in their junior year. There is an initiation fee, which is sometimes covered by the inductees university. There had been earlier fraternal societies at the College, but these, Society, founded in 1750, were Latin-letter societies, their names were taken from initial letters of a secret Latin motto. William and Mary alumnus and third U. S. President Thomas Jefferson was perhaps the most famous member of the F. H. C, other notable members of the original Society included Col. James Innes, St. George Tucker, and George Wythe. Jefferson noted that When I was a student of Wm. & Mary college of this state, Society, confined to the number of six students only, of which I was a member, but it had no useful object, nor do I know whether it now exists. The best opinion is that the society did not survive the invasion by British forces during the Revolution, a second Latin-letter fraternity at William and Mary was the P. D. A. John Heath, chief organizer of Phi Beta Kappa, according to tradition earlier sought but was refused admission to the P. D. A, though he may instead have disdained to join it. The new society was intended to be purely of domestic manufacture, without any connexion whatever with anything European, either English or German. The founders of Phi Beta Kappa declared that the society was formed for congeniality and to good fellowship, with friendship as its basis and benevolence. Like the older, Latin-letter fraternities, the Phi Beta Kappa was a secret society, the new society was given the motto, Φιλοσοφία Βίου Κυβερνήτης or in Latin letters Philosophia Biou Kybernētēs, which means in English The Love for Knowledge be the Guide of Life. Greek was chosen, because Greek was in Roman times the language of science like Latin in medieval times, one official historian of the society, William T. The heading on the original list of states, A List of the members. This new complex of gestures was created to allow the recognition of members in any foreign country or place. A second chapter was founded at Yale College in late 1780, a third, at Harvard College in 1781, from these new chapters, the Phi Beta Kappa evolved from a fraternity with principally academic and some social purposes to an entirely honorary organization recognizing scholastic achievement. Further chapters appeared at Union College in 1817, Bowdoin College in 1825, the original chapter at William and Mary was re-established
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Hazel O'Leary
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Hazel Reid OLeary was the seventh United States Secretary of Energy, from 1993 to 1997, appointed by President Bill Clinton. As of 2015, she is the first and only woman and first and she served as president of Fisk University, a historically black college, from 2004 to 2012. Born Hazel Reid in Newport News, Virginia, to Dr. Russell E. both of the parents were successful medical doctors around the 1930s. She has a sister Edna Reid and her parents divorced and each remarried. She and Edna have half-siblings Marina, Louis and William Morse, after earning a bachelors degree at Fisk University in Nashville, OLeary earned her Juris Doctor degree from Rutgers School of Law. OLeary is a member of Alpha Kappa Alpha sorority, Reid married Carl G. Rollins, Jr. with whom she had a son, also named Carl. Her second husband was anchorman Max Robinson and she remarried to John F. OLeary, the former Deputy Secretary of Energy, on April 24,1980. OLeary worked as a prosecutor in New Jersey and was later a partner in the firm of Coopers & Lybrand. In 1981, OLeary and her husband established the firm of OLeary & Associates. From 1989 to 1993, she worked as a vice president of the Northern States Power Company. In 1993, President Bill Clinton nominated OLeary as Secretary of Energy, President Clinton issued Executive Order 12891, which created the Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments to prevent such abuses of power. During OLearys service, she was criticized in a GAO audit of traveling too frequently and she apologized to Congressional committees in 1996 for spending which exceeded limits on the funds appropriated to the agency for travel, and resigned in January 1997. In 1997 Johnny Chung, a Democratic political donor, claimed that OLeary met with Chinese oil officials after he gave $25,000 to OLearys favorite charity Africare in 1995, FBI director Louis Freeh urged an independent investigation. Attorney General Janet Reno determined there was no evidence of wrongdoing by OLeary, in 2004, OLeary was selected as President of her undergraduate alma mater, Fisk University, a historically black college in Nashville, Tennessee. As president, OLeary has helped the university recapture its place in competing for top students and financial support, while she accomplished major fundraising, the university continued to struggle to build its endowment. In 2012 she announced that she would retire at the end of the calendar year and she was succeeded at Fisk by H. James Williams. It was bequeathed to Fisk by his widow and fellow artist Georgia OKeeffe on the condition that it never be sold, Fisk appealed to the Chancery Court to be released from the condition prohibiting sale. The court directed the State Attorney General to develop a plan to keep the collection in Nashville
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United States Secretary of Energy
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The United States Secretary of Energy is the head of the U. S. Department of Energy, a member of the Cabinet of the United States, and fourteenth in the presidential line of succession. The position was formed on October 1,1977 with the creation of the Department of Energy when President Jimmy Carter signed the Department of Energy Organization Act, originally the post focused on energy production and regulation. The emphasis soon shifted to developing technology for better and more efficient energy sources as well as energy education, after the end of the Cold War, the departments attention also turned toward radioactive waste disposal and maintenance of environmental quality. Schlesinger is also the secretary to be dismissed from the post. Hazel OLeary, Bill Clintons first Secretary of Energy, was the first female, the first Hispanic to serve as Energy Secretary was Clintons second, Federico Peña. Spencer Abraham became the first Arab American to hold the position on November 15,2004, steven Chu became the first Asian American to hold the position on January 20,2009, serving under the administration of Barack Obama. He is also the longest-serving Secretary of Energy, parties Democratic Republican As of April 2017, there are ten living former Secretaries of Energy, the oldest being Charles Duncan, Jr. The most recent Secretary of Energy to die was James B, the most recently serving Secretary to die was James D. Watkins on July 26,2012. United States Secretary of Transportation White House Office of Energy and Climate Change Policy Official site of U. S. Department of Energy
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President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
