1.
The Five Days
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The Five Days is a 1973 comedy-drama film directed by Dario Argento. It was shot in Rome and Milan, the film is set in Milan in full swing during the anti-Austrian revolt of 1848. A petty criminal, Cainazzo and a baker, Romulus, are involved in the movements of that period. Assist - in the midst of idealists and patriots - an exemplary gallery of characters, aristocrats, opportunistic, reluctantly, the two villains are overwhelmed by events. But in the face of so much injustice and violence, Romulus responds, the Five Days was director Dario Argentos first box office failure in Italy. Audiences were displeased with his change of genre and the differences from his Animal Trilogy. Soon after, he work on his giallo masterpiece Deep Red. The Five Days at the Internet Movie Database The Five Days at AllMovie
2.
First Italian War of Independence
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The First Italian War of Independence was fought in 1848 and 1849 between the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Austrian Empire. The war saw major battles at Custoza and Novara in which the Austrians under Joseph Radetzky attained victory, the war was part of the Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states, which generally saw the reactionary forces triumphant and many rebels forced into exile. In 1848 revolutionary riots broke out in parts of Europe, including numerous places in the Apennines. Charles Albert of Piedmont and Leopold II of Tuscany were forced to make concessions to the democrats, Charles II, Duke of Parma was ousted. Sicily, excepting Messina, revolted against the Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, there were also rebellions in the two capitals of the Austrian-controlled Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, Milan and Venice. With Vienna itself in revolt, the Austrian Empire was tottering, the Kingdom of Sardinia decided to exploit the apparently favorable moment. Sardinia declared war on Austria, in alliance with the Papal States and the Two Sicilies, the Piedmontese army was composed of two corps and a reserve division, for a total of 12,000 troops. Artillery and cavalry were the best units, on March 21 the Grand Duke of Tuscany also declared his entrance in the war against Austria, with a contingent of 6,700 men. The Papal Army had a similar sized force, backed by numerous volunteers, on March 25 the vanguard of the II Piedmontese Corps entered Milan. After an initial campaign, with the victories at Goito and Peschiera del Garda. The kingdom of the Two Sicilies also retired, but the general Guglielmo Pepe refused to return to Naples, in the revolutionary year of 1848, popular uprisings were springing up everywhere in Europe. Revolutionaries in many countries supported a revolution to establish constitutions and representative government in much of Europe, in every case the reactionary forced prevailed using military force. The French did not enter the First War for Italian Independence in 1848, at the Curtatone on May 29,1848, the Austrians attacked a combined force of Piedmontese and Tuscan troops. Although the Austrians won the battle, the resistance offered at Curtatone allowed the Piedmontese troops to regroup, the Piedmontese Army was defeated by Radetzky and the Austrians at Custoza on July 25,1848. The defeat of the Piedmontese at Custoza was followed up by the capture of Milan on August 6,1848, while not a total Austrian victory, the spirit of King Charles Albert and of his generals was all but broken. An armistice was signed on August 9,1848 between Austria and Sardinia at Vigevano, the Piedmontese Army retreated within the borders of the Kingdom of Sardinia. This armistice, however, lasted less than seven months, before Charles Albert denounced the truce on March 12,1849, the Austrian army took the military initiative in Lombardy and heavily defeated the Piedmontese at Novara on March 23,1849. The attempt to renew the war was a disaster and it resulted in another victory for Radetzky and the effective end of the First Italian War of Independence, all the rebellious provinces returned to Austrian rule
3.
Baldassare Verazzi
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Baldassare Verazzi was an Italian painter. He studied at the Academy of Brera at Milan from 1833 to 1842, then under the Venetian Romantic painter Francesco Hayez in 1851 and he took his inspiration from history and religion. His masterpiece is considered to be Episodio delle Cinque Giornate - known in English as Episode from the Five Days, heavily involved in the Risorgimento, he was hunted down by the Austrian authorities in 1848 and forced to live under severe proscriptions. He left for Argentina in 1856, where he taught and painted local personalities, scenes of everyday life and history paintings of political or military events. He returned to Italy and installed himself near Lake Maggiore, tullio Manacorda, Los pintores del Museo Historico. Baltasar Verazzi, in ”Revista Historica”, tomo X, n, ezio Brambilla, Baldassare Verazzi, in ”Le Vie dItalia e dellAmerica Latina”,1929. ”, in ”Antiquarium Medionovarese”, II, Arona 2007, pp. 429-442. Fabio Copiatti et Valerio Cirio, L’opera di Baldassare Verazzi, pittore verbanese, nella chiesa di San Martino a Malnate, in ”La Cava 2007”, Varese,2007, biography of Baldassare Verazzi on the Magazzeno storico Verbanese site
4.
Milan
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Milan is a city in Italy, capital of the Lombardy region, and the most populous metropolitan area and the second most populous comune in Italy. The population of the city proper is 1,351,000, Milan has a population of about 8,500,000 people. It is the industrial and financial centre of Italy and one of global significance. In terms of GDP, it has the largest economy among European non-capital cities, Milan is considered part of the Blue Banana and lies at the heart of one of the Four Motors for Europe. Milan is an Alpha leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts Italys Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks, the city is a major world fashion and design capital, well known for several international events and fairs, including Milan Fashion Week and the Milan Furniture Fair. The city hosts numerous cultural institutions, academies and universities, with 11% of the national total enrolled students, Milans museums, theatres and landmarks attract over 9 million visitors annually. Milan – after Naples – is the second Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, the city hosted the Universal Exposition in 1906 and 2015. Milan is home to two of Europes major football teams, A. C. Milan and F. C. Internazionale, the etymology of Milan is uncertain. One theory holds that the Latin name Mediolanum comes from the Latin words medio, however, some scholars believe lanum comes from the Celtic root lan, meaning an enclosure or demarcated territory in which Celtic communities used to build shrines. Hence, Mediolanum could signify the central town or sanctuary of a Celtic tribe, indeed, the name Mediolanum is borne by about sixty Gallo-Roman sites in France, e. g. Saintes and Évreux. Alciato credits Ambrose for his account, around 400 BC, the Celtic Insubres settled Milan and the surrounding region. In 222 BC, the Romans conquered the settlement, renaming it Mediolanum, Milan was eventually declared the capital of the Western Roman Empire by Emperor Diocletian in 286 AD. Diocletian chose to stay in the Eastern Roman Empire and his colleague Maximianus ruled the Western one, immediately Maximian built several monuments, such as a large circus 470 m ×85 m, the Thermae Herculeae, a large complex of imperial palaces and several other buildings. With the Edict of Milan of 313, Emperor Constantine I guaranteed freedom of religion for Christians, after the city was besieged by the Visigoths in 402, the imperial residence was moved to Ravenna. In 452, the Huns overran the city, in 539, the Ostrogoths conquered and destroyed Milan during the Gothic War against Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. In the summer of 569, a Teutonic tribe, the Lombards, conquered Milan, some Roman structures remained in use in Milan under Lombard rule. Milan surrendered to the Franks in 774 when Charlemagne took the title of King of the Lombards, the Iron Crown of Lombardy dates from this period
5.
Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states
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The 1848 revolutions in the Italian states were organized revolts in the states of the Italian peninsula and Sicily, led by intellectuals and agitators who desired a liberal government. As Italian nationalists they sought to eliminate reactionary Austrian control, during this time period, Italy was not a unified country, and was divided into many states, which, in Northern Italy, were ruled by the Austrian Empire. A desire to be free from rule, and the conservative leadership of the Austrians. The revolution was led by the state of Piedmont, one of the four states where the Austrian leaders were forced to grant liberal rights, also, the uprisings in the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, particularly in Milan, forced the Austrian General Radetzky to retreat to the Quadrilatero fortresses. King Charles Albert, who ruled Piedmont-Sardinia from 1831 to 1849 and he declared war on Austria and launched a full-out attack on the Quadrilateral. Lacking allies, Charles Albert was no match for the Austrian army and he was defeated at the Battle of Custoza, signed a truce, and withdrew his forces from Lombardy. Austria remained dominant in a divided Italy and the Revolution was lost, the economy was heavily based on agriculture. Farm products were subject to unstable prices due to competition. There were food riots all through 1840 to 1847, radical groups proliferated in Rome, on June 16,1846 Cardinal Giovanni Mastai-Ferretti, was chosen to the papacy as Pope Pius IX. He was considered a liberal and aroused the hopes of political liberals and he began numerous political and economic reforms. Most dramatically he immediately pardoned hundreds of prisoners, creating a sensation. He created a Council of State in order to share his power, as well as a council for Rome. These projects raised high hopes for greater influence in the papal government and for Italian unification. The reforms failed to any of the grave political and economic problems of the Papal States. Pius IX refused to lead an Italian war of liberation against Habsburg Austria, a violent uprising in Rome forced Pius to flee in November 1848. The failure of his modest liberal reforms turned him to the right, after witnessing the liberal friendly events that were occurring in Rome, the people of other states started to demand similar treatment. It commenced on 12 January in Sicily, were the people began to demand a Provisional Government, King Ferdinand II tried to resist these changes, however a full-fledged revolt erupted in Sicily, a revolt also erupted in Salerno and Naples. These revolts drove Ferdinand and his men out of Sicily, notwithstanding the events in Rome and Naples, the states still were under a conservative rule
6.
Austrian Empire
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The Austrian Empire was an empire in Central Europe created out of the realms of the Habsburgs by proclamation in 1804. It was an empire and one of Europes great powers. Geographically it was the second largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire and it was also the third most populous after Russia and France, as well as the largest and strongest country in the German Confederation. Proclaimed in response to the First French Empire, it overlapped with the Holy Roman Empire until the dissolution in 1806. The Ausgleich of 1867 elevated Hungarys status and it became a separate entity from the Empire entirely, joining with it in the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Changes shaping the nature of the Holy Roman Empire took place during conferences in Rastatt, on 24 March 1803, the Imperial Recess was declared, which reduced the number of ecclesiastical states from 81 to only 3 and the free imperial cities from 51 to 6. This measure was aimed at replacing the old constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, taking this significant change into consideration, the German Emperor Francis II created the title Emperor of Austria, for himself and his successors. In 1804 the Holy Roman Emperor Francis II, who was ruler of the lands of the Habsburg Monarchy, founded the Empire of Austria. In doing so he created a formal overarching structure for the Habsburg Monarchy, to safeguard his dynastys imperial status he adopted the additional hereditary title of Emperor of Austria. Hungarys affairs remained administered by its own institutions as they had been beforehand, thus under the new arrangements no Imperial institutions were involved in its internal government. The fall and dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was accelerated by French intervention in the Empire in September 1805, on 20 October 1805, an Austrian army led by general Karl Mack von Leiberich was defeated by French armies near the town of Ulm. The French victory resulted in the capture of 20,000 Austrian soldiers, Napoleons army won another victory at Austerlitz on 2 December 1805. Francis was forced into negotiations with the French from 4 to 6 December 1805, the French victories encouraged rulers of certain imperial territories to assert their formal independence from the Empire. On 10 December 1805, the prince-elector Duke of Bavaria proclaimed himself King, finally, on 12 December, the Margrave of Baden was given the title of Grand Duke. In addition, each of these new countries signed a treaty with France, the Treaty of Pressburg between France and Austria, signed in Pressburg on 26 December, enlarged the territory of Napoleons German allies at the expense of defeated Austria. Certain Austrian holdings in Germany were passed to French allies—the King of Bavaria, the King of Württemberg, Austrian claims on those German states were renounced without exception. On 12 July 1806, the Confederation of the Rhine was established, comprising 16 sovereigns and this confederation, under French influence, put an end to the Holy Roman Empire. On 6 August 1806, even Francis recognized the new state of things and proclaimed the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, as he did not want Napoleon to succeed him
7.
Carlo Cattaneo
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Carlo Cattaneo was an Italian philosopher and writer, famous for his role in the Five Days of Milan on March 1849, when he led the city council during the rebellion. Cattaneo was born in Milan, he died in Castagnola, close to Lugano in the Swiss canton of Ticino, a republican in his convictions, during his youth he had taken part in the Carbonari movement in Lombardy. He devoted himself to the study of philosophy, hoping to regenerate the Italian people by withdrawing them from romanticism and rhetoric, in this period, Cattaneo met philosopher Giandomenico Romagnosi and he was especially attracted by Romagnosis emphasis on practical solutions and interdisciplinary work. Developing some intuitions coming from his mentor, Cattaneo expounded his ideas in a review founded by him in Milan in 1839 and he resided at the Palazzo Gavazzi from 1840 until 1848. When the revolution of 1848 broke out, he threw himself heart and soul into the fray and he was second to none in self-sacrifice and heroic resolution. But, Cattaneo replied, The enemy having furnished us with munitions thus far, twenty-four hours of victuals and twenty-four hours of hunger will be many more hours than we shall need. This evening, if the plans we have just arranged should succeed, at any rate, even though we should lack bread, it is better to die of hunger than on the gallows. On the expulsion of the Austrians the question arose as to the government of Milan. Now we shall be our own masters, we shall fight a war, we shall chase the Austrians out of Italy. He strongly opposed Cavour for his views, and for the cession of Nice. In 1860 Garibaldi summoned him to Naples to take part in the government of the Neapolitan provinces, after the union of Italy he was frequently asked to stand for parliament, but always refused because he could not conscientiously take the oath of allegiance to the monarchy. In 1868 the pressure of friends overcame his resistance, and he agreed to stand, but at the last moment he drew back, still unable to take the oath, and returned to Lugano, where he died in 1869
8.
Luigi Torelli
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Luigi Torelli Luigi Torelli was born in Villa di Tirano, in the Valtellina of Lombardy, at the time part of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy. Torelli was a member of scientific and economic institutions. In 1860 he was made a Senator and in 1864 became Minister of Agriculture, Industry and he died at Tirano in 1887. The Marconi-class submarine Luigi Torelli fought for Italy in World War 2 and was named after him, the submarine was notable for serving under all three axis powers - Italy until it surrendered, later Germany until it was defeated and then finally Imperial Japan. Works by or about Luigi Torelli at Internet Archive
9.
Augusto Anfossi
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Augusto Anfossi Born in Nice, Kingdom of Sardinia, he received a Jesuit education. An education he disliked so much that he attacked his teachers, here he served in the French Army but returned to Piedmont after the accession of Charles Albert, only to be exiled again in 1831. He joined the Egyptian cause against the Turks, but the movements in 1848 Italy caused his return to Milan, during the Five Days of Milan, Anfossi was in personal command for the fight of Porta Nuova, and was victorious. On 21 March, the day of the revolt, he was mortally wounded and replaced by Luciano Manara
10.
Luciano Manara
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Luciano Manara was an Italian soldier and politician of the Risorgimento era, who took part in the Roman Republic. Manara was born in Milan in 1825, a friend of Carlo Cattaneo, in 1848 he participated in the Five Days of Milan and in the First Italian War of Independence with a group of volunteers he had organised himself. On the Austrians return, he fled to Piedmont, where he was put at the head of a corps of bersaglieri, with whom he fought on the Po and at La Cava. Fighting in defence of the Roman Republic and as Garibaldis chief of staff and his funeral was held at the church of San Lorenzo in Lucina, with the homily spoken by Don Ugo Bassi. For a short time his body remained in Rome, since his mother was unable to gain permission from the Austrian authorities in Vienna to have it taken to Milan. With the remains of Emilio Morosini and Enrico Dandolo, it was brought to Vezia. The inscription on his monument reads, Luciano Manara, leader of the legion of valiant men, gave his blood for the fatherland. His mother, worthy of envy and pity, places his beloved bones in this monument on which stands written a name and he died fighting in Rome on 30 June 1849 with a heros smile on his lips, an everlasting example to posterity. Inscription at Milan Inscription at Antegnate
11.
Joseph Radetzky von Radetz
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Johann Josef Wenzel Anton Franz Karl, Graf Radetzky von Radetz was an Austrian nobleman and field marshal. He served as chief of the staff during the later period of the Napoleonic Wars. Radetzky is best known for the victories at the Battles of Custoza and he retired at age 90 and was immortalized by Johann Strauss Is Radetzky March. Radetzky was born into a family of Czech origin at Chateau Třebnice near Sedlčany in Bohemia. Orphaned at an age, he was educated by his grandfather. The academy was dissolved during his first years residence in 1785, the following year he became an officer, and in 1787 was promoted to first lieutenant in a cuirassier regiment. He served as an adjutant to both Count von Lacy and Field Marshal von Laudon during the Austro-Turkish War of 1787–1791, in 1798 he married Countess Francesca von Strassoldo Grafenberg, from Tržič, Carniola. They had five sons and three daughters, Radetzky however also had a longstanding Italian mistress, named Meregalli, with whom he also had eight children, all of which he recognized as his. In 1795 Radetzky fought on the Rhine, promoted to major, he took part in Dagobert Wurmsers Siege of Mantua campaign, which ended in the fall of that fortress. As lieutenant-colonel and colonel he displayed bravery and skill in the battles of Trebbia, in 1801 Radetzky was made a Knight of the Military Order of Maria Theresa. In 1805, on the march to Ulm, he received news of his promotion to major-general and he thus took part in the failed campaign of Caldiero. Peace provided a respite, which he spent in studying and teaching the art of war. In 1809 he led a brigade in V Corps during the Battle of Eckmühl, promoted lieutenant field marshal, he commanded a division in IV Corps at the Battle of Wagram. In 1810 he was created a Commander of the Order of Maria Theresa, in 1813 he was Schwarzenbergs chief of staff and had considerable influence on the councils of the Allied sovereigns and generals. During the succeeding years of peace he disappeared from public view and he resumed his functions as chief of staff, but his ardent ideas for reforming the army came to nothing in the face of the general war-weariness and desire to let well enough alone. His zeal added to the number of his enemies, and in 1829, after twenty years as lieutenant field marshal, the emperor, unwilling to go so far as this, promoted him general of cavalry and shelved him by making him governor of a fortress. But very soon afterwards the Restoration settlement of Europe was shaken by fresh upheavals and he took part under Frimont in the campaign against the Papal States insurgents, and succeeded that general in the chief command of the Austrian army in Italy in 1834. In 1836, Radetzky was promoted to field marshal
12.
Eduard Clam-Gallas
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Count Eduard Clam-Gallas was an Austrian General. He was the eldest son of Count Christian Christoph Clam-Gallas, patron of Beethoven, in 1823 Clam-Gallas joined the Army, at first as a Rittmeister of the 1st Cavalry Regiment in 1831, then Commander, Colonel and General in Prague. In 1848, called to Italy under the orders of General Joseph Radetzky, he commanded a brigade which distinguished itself at Santa Lucia, Vicenza and he was decorated with the Military Order of Maria Theresa and promoted to Field Marshal Lieutenant. In April 1849 he became commander of the Transylvanian Army Corps which needed to return to Turkey, at the beginning of July he was moving into Hungary to Hungarian, Brassó, to support Alexander von Lüders on the right flank. In this month there were a few battles between Lüders, Józef Bem and Sándor Gál, during the Transylvanian summer campaign, Clam-Gallas was defeated by Bem, but after that was able to defeat Sándor Gál and his Székels Army. After occupying Székely Land he joined Lüders and together they defeated Bem at Segesvár, in 1850, he was head of the I Army Corps of Bohemia in Vienna, and in the Second Italian War of Independence took part in the Battle of Magenta and the Battle of Solferino. This army corps was one of the first to be repelled, but this failure had no consequences for Clam-Gallas. In 1861 he was admitted to the Aulic Council before becoming, in 1865, in the course of the Austro-Prussian War, he suffered a humiliating defeat at Jičín, for which he was court-martialled, but he was acquitted because of his position in society. He spent his years in retirement in Frýdlant and Liberec in Bohemia. They had one son, Franz and two daughters, Eduardine and Clotilde, josef Kriehuber und die Wiener Gesellschaft seiner Zeit. Vienna, Walter Krieg Verlag. von Wurzbach, Constantin, cS1 maint, Uses editors parameter Kiszling, Rudolf. CS1 maint, Uses editors parameter Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, the summer campaign. In, The Hungarian revolution and the War of independence
13.
Ferenc Gyulay
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Gyulay was born on 1 September 1799 in Pest, Hungary to parents Ignác Gyulay von Maros-Németh und Nádaska and Maria Freiin von Edelsheim. At the age of seventeen in 1816 he served as a leutnant in the 60th Ignác Gyulay infantry battalion, in 1820 he was transferred to the Hesse-Homburg hussar brigade as an oberleutnant and just a year after he was promoted to hauptmann of the Imperial uhlans. In 1826 he was appointed the head of the Württemberg hussar brigade, in 1831 he was promoted to the rank of oberst and in 1838 to generalmajor. In 1846 he was already the generalleutnant of the 33rd infantry battalion, in 1847 he was the abteilungsführer and military captain of the vicinity of Triest. Gyulays first war-time assignment came in 1848 when the Revolutions of 1848 broke out, first he had to face the Italian states menace at Pola. He had to defend the fleet stationed in Pola of being seized by its insurgent crew. He immediately relieved the Italian-born sailors of their duties and warned the ships already in sail to do the same and he put the cities of Triest and Pola on defense, armed the ships and filled up their missing Italian crew with people from the local commercial ships. He organized an ad hoc boat squadron as well, Gyulay regrouped the troops retreating from Venice at Isonzo. His efforts prevented a joint Napolitan-Sardinian fleet from ambushing the key ports in the Istria, the Battle of Custoza eased the pressure on the Adriatic coast and Gyulays precautionary measures secured the area. He was moved to Milan to take charge of the 5th army division, in 1857, following the resign of Joseph Radetzky, Gyulay was named Governor of Lombardy-Venetia, residing at Milan. In early 1859, the Kingdom of Sardinia/Piedmont, having allied with France, began mobilizing its army, on 23 April, Austria issued an ultimatum to the Sardinians, demanding they demobilize. When the Sardinians refused, the Second Italian War of Independence began, in response, French forces under Patrice MacMahon were dispatched to defend their Sardinian allies. On 20 May, an Austrian force under Count Stadion was defeated at the Battle of Montebello and he then suffered another defeat at the Battle of Palestro. The French army then crossed the Ticino into Austrian territory and captured the village of Boffalora sopra Ticino after a small battle, finally, on 5 June, the main Austrian and French armies met at the Battle of Magenta. The Austrians under Gyulay were defeated, leading to his recall to Vienna, emperor Franz Josef took personal command of the Austrian army in Lombardy-Venetia, and would go on to lose the subsequent Battle of Solferino. In one of his last military engagements he was reduced to a Regimentskommandeur and was sent to defend Mantua from the Piedmontese invasion, unsuccessful in doing so he surrendered the city in 1866 eventually leading to its annexation to the newly formed Italy. Beyond Nationalism, A Social & Political History of the Habsburg Officer Corps 1848-1918, one Hundred Years of Conflict Between the Nations of Europe, The Causes and Issues of the Great War
14.
Skirmish of Pastrengo (1848)
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The Skirmish of Pastrengo was fought between the Piedmontese and Austrian army on 30 April 1848, in the course of the First Italian War of Independence. The Austrian forces were deployed in a way that threatened any Piedmontese attack against the fortress of Peschiera del Garda, among the troops at Pastrengo, there were recorded,1,000 volunteers from Parma,150 volunteers from Piacenza and 400 students from Pavia and Turin. Despite attempts by the Austrian commander to delay it, the offensive proceeded up to the pontoon-bridge on the river Adige, after this success, however, the Piedmontese stopped and did not advance further. The end proposed was to occupy Bussolengo, Pastrengo, and Piovezzana, the affair commenced at half-past eleven, A. m. The Italian troops succeeded in driving the Austrians from all the positions which they occupied at Pastrengo, and in gaining the heights which command the Adige. As documented by the New monthly magazine, Vol.83,1848, During the night of the 30th, Bussolengo was taken by the Sardinians, storia militare del risorgimento, guerre e insurrezioni
15.
Battle of Goito
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The Battle of Goito was fought between the Piedmontese and the Austrian army on 30 May 1848, in the course of the First Italian War of Independence. The Piedmontese army won the battle, as the Austrians were unable to break through to relieve the siege of Peschiera and prevent its surrender which happened on the day before the battle. The Piedmontese army advanced across Lombardy, brushing aside the covering forces under major general Wohlgemuth guarding the bridge over the Mincio at Goito during an engagement on 9 April 1848, the Austrians tried but failed to destroy the Goito bridge. Once across the Mincio, the Piedmontese forces fanned out towards the north and south, on 10 April 1848, the Piedmontese army started to blockade the fortress of Peschiera, garrisoned by ca.1,700 Austrian troops. Until the siege train arrived, the lack of siege guns hampered the effectiveness of the bombardment, out of food after 34 days of blockade and 16 days under siege, the Austrians surrendered the fortress on 29 May 1848, just prior to the battle of Goito. Meanwhile, Piedmontese and Austrian forces clashed in the battle of Pastrengo on 30 April 1848 on the Rivoli plateau, the first big test of arms occurred just outside Verona during the battle of Santa Lucia on 6 May 1848 where the Piedmontese army failed to defeat the Austrians. With a bloody nose, the Piedmontese army retired to the Mincio, unable to dislodge the Papal forces at Vicenza, field marshal Radetzky decided to concentrate his forces against the Piedmontese army. On 28 May 1848, he marched his army towards Mantua where a Tuscan Division was warily observing the fortress, many of the defeated and disillusioned Tuscan volunteers returned home, marking the end of the Tuscan division as a fighting force. Both the Piedmontese and the Austrian armies were now concentrated on the Mincio side of the Quadrilatero, the Piedmontese south of Peschiera, Radetzky sent his troops north to relieve Peschiera. From Mantua, Radetzky sent his First and Reserve Corps towards Goito, while his Second Corps, the Piedmontese forces were deployed in two lines. The first line stretched from the banks of the Mincio at Goito westwards, the second line occupied heights above Goito. At around 14,00 on 30 May 1848, the cavalry vedettes of both sides established contact, Brigade Benedek leading First Corps advanced from Sacca towards Goito, coming under artillery fire from the Italian guns on the Somenzari heights at 15,30. The Austrians deployed their own artillery but were unable to break the Italian artillery superiority, charles Albert, King of Sardinia, displayed personal bravery by exposing himself to the enemy artillery fire, gaining a scratch wound in the process. While Brigade Benedek remained pinned before Goito, Brigades Wohlgemuth and Strassoldo advanced on his left, to stem the Austrian progress, General Bava sent forward the Guards Brigade and Aosta Brigade at 17,00. The progress of the Guards Brigade was checked by Brigade Gyulai of the Second Corps which was in the process of linking up with the First Corps, Aosta Brigade pressured Brigade Wohlgemuth to withdraw. Brigade Benedek retired too when it was attacked by Neapolitan reinforcements, with darkness approaching at 19,00, both sides withdrew to their initial positions. Around this time, the King of Sardinia received the message about the Austrian surrender of Peschiera, intense rainfall prevented all combat operations during the next day. Informed about the surrender of Peschiera and unable to overcome the Piedmontese army, the Piedmontese lost 46 killed,260 wounded and 55 missing in action at the battle of Goito
16.
Battle of Custoza (1848)
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In March 1848, the city of Milan launched an uprising against Austrian occupation. Charles Albert supported the Milanese revolt and declared war on Austria, venice also declared its independence from Austria. The Austrian Field Marshal Radetzky withdrew his forces from Milan to the defensive positions based on the four known as the Quadrilateral, Verona, Mantua, Peschiera. The Piedmontese took Peschiera after a siege, but Radetzky received substantial reinforcements. Around the 15th July, the Piedmontese Army was widely dispersed on the war theater, however, this lulled the Sardinian commanders into a false sense of complacency, and spurred Radetzki to stop his advance beyond the Mincio and march on these enemy forces. Battle of Custoza, Encyclopædia Britannica Pieri, Piero, storia militare del Risorgimento, guerre e insurrezioni
17.
Battle of Mestre
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The sortie on Mestre occurred during the revolutionary year of 1848 on October 27. 12 in the fort of Malghera, observed the movement of three columns, which contained in all about 2000 bayonets and these boats, with their artillery, were intended to facilitate the landing of our men in Fuseria. The Colonel had instructions to occupy that post, and afterwards the part of Boaria which adjoins the city of Mestre, the centre column was stopped by the fire of the muskets, and by the artillery of the enemy. They were stopped a second time, but in spite of the resistance they encountered. The enemy, after losing part of their artillery, defended themselves from the houses, part of the loot taken from Mestre, included the official Austrian war correspondence
18.
Battle of Novara (1849)
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Lasting the whole day of 22 March 1849 and ending at dawn on 23 March, it resulted in a severe defeat and retreat of the Piedmontese army. An uneasy armistice made in 1848 between Austria and Sardinia lasted less than seven months, before Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, the Austrian army took the military initiative in Lombardy. Under the command of Field Marshal Joseph Radetzky von Radetz, it seized the town of Mortara. The seizure of Mortara led to a battle between Austrian and Piedmontese troops at Novara,28 miles west of Milan. 70,000 Austrian troops, more disciplined than the 45,000 Piedmontese, piedmont also suffered from a lack of support from the smaller Italian states. General Girolamo Ramorino was accused of disobeying orders before the Battle of Novara, and, a Piedmontese Republic was not created, though a Roman Republic had already been proclaimed in February, and there existed a Venetian Republic as well. Charles Albert exiled himself to Oporto, Portugal, and died shortly thereafter, a peace treaty was signed on 9 August. Piedmont was forced to pay an indemnity of 65 million francs to Austria, a reenactment of the battle occurs every year. The Austrian frigate Novara, which went on a scientific expedition between 1857 and 1859, was named after this Austrian victory. Battle of Novara, Forces in the Field, lastoria. org
19.
Ten Days of Brescia
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The Ten Days of Brescia was a revolt which broke out in the northern Italian city of that name, which lasted from March 23 to April 1,1849. In the early 19th century Brescia was part of the Austrian puppet state called Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, the revolt, headed by the patriot Tito Speri, began on the same day as the Battle of Novara. The Austrian troops under general Nugent, were surprised and retired to the castle, from which they heavily cannonaded the city. A total encirclement of Brescia was established by the Austrians beginning on the 8th day of the revolt, the following day General Haynau, later nicknamed The Hyena of Brescia, came and demanded the unconditioned surrender of the Bresciani. As the latter refused, the fighting continued until late night, the following day, however, the Austrian troops sacked the city and massacred numerous inhabitants before the surrender could be signed. Some 1,000 citizens were killed during the battle, for its fierce resistance, the city of Brescia earned the surname Leonessa dItalia
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Sicilian revolution of 1848
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The Sicilian revolution of independence of 1848 occurred in a year replete with revolutions and popular revolts. It commenced on 12 January 1848, and therefore was the very first of the revolutions to occur that year. Three revolutions had previously occurred on the island of Sicily starting from 1800 against Bourbon rule, the constitution that survived the 16 months was quite advanced for its time in liberal democratic terms, as was the proposal of an Italian confederation of states. The former kingdoms of Naples and Sicily were formally reunited following the 1815 Congress of Vienna to become the Bourbon kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Both kingdoms had previously comprised the single Kingdom of Sicily during the 12th and 13th centuries, the seeds of the revolution of 1848 were sown prior to the Congress of Vienna, in 1814. This was during the tumultuous Napoleonic period when the Bourbon court was forced to escape from Naples, however, post Congress of Vienna, Ferdinand IV of Naples immediately abolished the constitution upon returning the royal court to Naples. The 1848 revolution was organized from, and centered in. The popular nature of the revolt is evident in the fact that posters, the timing was deliberately planned to coincide with the birthday of Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies, himself born in Palermo in 1810. Vincenzo Fardella was elected president of Sicilian Parliament, the idea was also put forward for a confederation of all the states of Italy. At this point it should be mentioned that the Sicilian Parliament was never able to control the well fortified city of Messina, similarly, it was the city of Messina that held out the longest against Garibaldi’s attack on the island in 1860. Thus Sicily survived as a quasi-independent state for sixteen months, with the Bourbon army taking back control of the island on 15 May 1849 by force. The effective head of state during this period was Ruggero Settimo, on capitulating to the Bourbons, Settimo escaped to Malta where he was received with the full honours of a head of state. He remained exiled there for the rest of his life and died there in 1863, nevertheless, this invitation provides more than a casual hint as to the nexus the existed between the events of 1848 and 1860-61 in the History of Italy. The Revolution which began in Palermo was one of a series of events in Italy. It quickly spread across the island and throughout Italy, where it prompted Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, to follow the example of Ferdinand II and issue a hastily written constitution. In imitation of these events, riots and revolutions followed around Europe at the same time, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies Revolutions of 1848 Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states Correnti, Santo A Short History of Sicily, Les Editions Musae, Montreal
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Republic of San Marco
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The Republic of San Marco, an Italian revolutionary state, existed for 17 months in 1848–1849. Based on the Venetian Lagoon, it extended into most of Venetia, or the Terraferma territory of the Venetian Republic, suppressed 51 years earlier in the French Revolutionary Wars. After declaring independence from the Habsburg Austrian Empire, the later joined the Kingdom of Sardinia in an attempt, led by the latter. But the First Italian War of Independence ended in the defeat of Sardinia and this was confirmed by the 1815 Congress of Vienna. Austrian rule, after realising that mutually-agreeable home rule would not be possible, exploited Venetian resources, economically and politically, favouring Trieste as the imperial seaport. Across Italy, discomfort with foreign domination and with absolute monarchy had led to all Italian states becoming parliamentary monarchies with much of the led by Pope Pius IX. Heavy-handed policing in response to a boycott of state monopolies in Austrian-held Milan led to the popular expulsion of the Austrian garrison in the city for five days in March 1848. Shortly after, the news of revolt in Vienna spreading to Venice lead the city to revolt against the Austrian rule, two days previously, Daniele Manin entered the Venetian Arsenal with a number of public-spirited Venetians, in a direct challenge to Austrian rule. As the Arsenalotti detested the Austrian overseers and the Italians in Austrian military service were pro-Venetian, Manin and his supporters moved about at will, believing that the timing was favourable, Manin led his followers out of the compound with the cry Viva San Marco. —the motto of the defunct Republic of Venice, Venetians, if not Austrian officials, accepted this to mean restoration of the old republic. Unfortunately, however, Manin did not have the qualities that might have led to enduring independence. King Charles Albert of Sardinia had occupied Milan and other Austrian territories with his army, despite enthusiastic support for Sardinia by the revolutionaries, the Austrians started to regain ground. But the Austrian government was distracted by the Vienna Uprising, the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, so Radetzky was instructed to seek a truce, an order he ignored. While Austria was pressed on every front, the Italians allowed her time to regroup and to reconquer Venice, the Austrian fleet was atationed in the formerly-Venetian port of Pola, in Istria. Despite Venice having much sympathy there, they made no effort to seize the fleet, similarly, had the Venetians encouraged the desertion of Lombard-Venetian soldiers from the Austrian army, such trained and disciplined troops might have bolstered the Venetian army. The Venetian revolutionaries also failed to incorporate the terra ferma into the lagoon-based republic effectively, while revolutionary reform generated some popular support for the new régime, the revolutionaries recruited few troops there. Mainlanders were mistrustful of Venetian power, probably as a result of old assumptions about the earlier Mariner Republic and this combined with destructive foraging and other damage, which might have been avoided had the revolutionaries recruited across terra ferma. While most of the middle and upper classes supported the fight for independence
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Milanese rebels[1]
Austrian Empire[2]
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