1.
Glossary of vexillology
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Flag terminology is the nomenclature, or system of terms, used in vexillology, the study of flags, to describe precisely the parts, patterns, and other attributes of flags and their display. Badge A coat of arms or simple heraldic symbol, canton Any quarter of a flag, but commonly means the upper hoist quarter, such as the field of stars in the flag of the United States or the Union Jack in the Australian Flag. Charge A figure or symbol appearing in the field of a flag, emblem A device often used as a charge on a flag. It may be heraldic in origin or modern, for example the maple leaf on the Canadian Flag, field The background of a flag, the color behind the charges. Fimbriation A narrow edging or border, often in white or gold, for example the white and gold lines of the South African Flag. Fly The half or edge of a flag farthest away from the flagpole and this term also sometimes refers to the horizontal length of a flag. Hoist The half or edge of a flag nearest to the flagpole and this term also sometimes refers to the vertical width of a flag. Length The span of a flag along the side at right angles to the flagpole, width The span of a flag down the side parallel to the flagpole. Flags often inherit traits seen in traditional European heraldry designs and as a result patterns often share names, banderole or bannerol A small flag or streamer carried on the lance of a knight, or a long narrow flag flying from the mast-head of a ship. Banner Generically, a synonym for a flag of any kind, in heraldry, a flag whose design is the same as the shield in a coat of arms, but usually in a square or rectangular shape, also known as a banner of arms. Burgee A distinguishing flag of a recreational boating organisation, Civil ensign, merchant flag or merchant ensign A version of the national flag flown by civil ships to denote nationality. Civil flag A version of the flag flown by civilians on non-government installations or craft. Colour or color The flag of a military unit, courtesy flag or courtesy ensign A flag flown by a visiting ship in foreign waters as a token of respect. Ensign The flag of a ship or military unit, may also be used generically as a synonym for a flag of any kind. Fanion A small flag used by the French military, gonfalon, gonfanon or gonfalone A type of heraldic flag suspended from a crossbar. Guidon A small flag borne by a military unit, in Scots heraldry, a smaller version of the Standard. Pennon or pennant A flag larger at the hoist than at the fly, pipe banner A decorative flag for the Scottish Highland bagpipes. Prayer flag A type of flag found strung along mountain ridges and peaks in the Himalayas, rank flag or distinguishing flag The flag flown by a superior naval officer on his flagship or headquarters
2.
National flag
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A national flag is a flag that symbolizes a country. The flag is flown by the government, but usually can also be flown by citizens of the country, historically, flags originate as military standards, used as field signs. The practice of flying flags indicating the country of origin outside of the context of warfare became common with the flag, introduced during the age of sail. Most countries of Europe adopted a flag in the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The specifications of the flag of Denmark were codified in 1748, the flag of Switzerland was introduced in 1889, also based on medieval war flags. The Netherlands introduced two national flags in 1813, the Ottoman flag was adopted in 1844. Other non-European powers followed the trend in the late 19th century, the flag of Japan being introduced in 1870, the Flag of the United States is not defined in the constitution but rather in a separate Flag Resolution passed in 1777. Minor design changes of national flags are passed on a legislative or executive level. A change in national flag is due to a change of regime. In such cases, the origins of the national flag. In such cases national flags acquire the status of a political symbol, the flag of Germany, for instance, was a tricolour of black-white-red under the German Empire, inherited from the North German Confederation. The Weimar Republic that followed adopted a black-red-gold tricolour, nazi Germany went back to black-white-red in 1933, and black-red-gold was reinstituted by the two successor states, West Germany and East Germany following World War II. Similarly the flag of Libya introduced with the creation of the Kingdom of Libya in 1951 was abandoned in 1969 with the coup led by Muammar Gaddafi. It was used again by National Transitional Council and by anti-Gaddafi forces during the Libyan Civil War in 2011 and officially adopted by the Libyan interim Constitutional Declaration. There are three types of national flag for use on land, and three for use at sea, though many countries use identical designs for several of these types of flag. On land, there is a distinction between civil flags, state flags, and war or military flags, state flags are those used officially by government agencies, whereas civil flags may be flown by anyone regardless of whether they are linked to government. War flags are used by organisations such as Armies, Marine Corps. In practice, many countries have identical flags for these three purposes, national flag is used as a vexillological term to refer to such a three-purpose flag
3.
Civil ensign
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Civil ensign is the ensign used by civilian vessels to denote nationality. It can be the same or different from the state ensign and its also known as the merchant ensign or merchant flag. Some countries have civil ensigns for yachts, and even for specific yacht clubs. Most countries have one national flag and ensign for all purposes. In other countries, a distinction is made between the flag and the civil, state and naval ensigns. The civil ensigns that are different from the flag can be grouped into a number of categories. Several countries use red flags with, in most cases, either the national flag or the Union Flag in the canton. British overseas territories fly the plain Red Ensign or a Red Ensign with the colonial arms in the fly. Saudi Arabia puts its national flag in the canton of an otherwise-green flag, Ghana stopped using its Red Ensign in 2003 with the adoption of a new merchant shipping act, which made the Ghanaian flag the proper national colors for Ghana ships. Similarly, Sri Lanka stopped using its Red Ensign in 1969, several countries have civil ensigns that are very different from the national flag, for instance Malta and Luxembourg. Well-known examples are the Italian civil ensign showing the shield with the arms of the sea republics or the Polish civil ensign with the arms of Poland, most of these emblems were added to distinguish the ensign from similar flags of other countries or from other signal flags. In several countries there are two versions of the flag, a simpler one and a more elaborate one with the national arms. The simpler one is used as ensign, whereas the version with the arms is mainly used by the government. In Spain and Argentina the flag without the arms is only a variant for civil use, in El Salvador, the civil ensign also differs from the national flag in the proportions. France is a case, the overall proportion is the same. Civil and merchant ensigns Civil air ensign
4.
Tincture (heraldry)
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Tinctures constitute the limited palette of colours and patterns used in heraldry. The need to define, depict, and correctly blazon the various tinctures is therefore one of the most important aspects of heraldic art, the colours and patterns of the heraldic palette are divided into three groups, usually known as metals, colours, and furs. In its original sense, tincture refers only to the group referred to as colours. Thus, when consulting various heraldic authorities, care must be taken to determine which meaning each term is given, the basic scheme and rules of applying the heraldic tinctures dates to the formative period of heraldry, during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The practice of depicting certain charges as they appear in nature, in the English-speaking world, heraldic terminology is based largely on that of British armory, which in turn is based on Norman French. The metals are or and argent, representing gold and silver, respectively, although in practice they are depicted as yellow. Or derives its name from the Latin aurum, gold and it may be depicted using either yellow or metallic gold, at the artists discretion, yellow has no separate existence in heraldry, and is never used to represent any tincture other than or. Argent is similarly derived from the Latin argentum, silver, notwithstanding the widespread use of white for argent, some heraldic authorities have suggested the existence of white as a distinct heraldic colour. Five colours have been recognized since the earliest days of heraldry and these are, gules, or red, sable, or black, azure, or blue, vert, or green, and purpure, or purple. Two more were eventually acknowledged by most heraldic authorities, sanguine or murrey, a red or mulberry colour, and tenné. Gules is of uncertain derivation, outside of the heraldic context, Sable is named for a type of marten, known for its dark, luxuriant fur. Azure comes through the Arabic lāzaward, from the Persian lāžavard both referring to the mineral lapis lazuli, used to produce blue pigments. Vert is from Latin viridis, green, the alternative name in French, sinople, is derived from the ancient city of Sinope in Asia Minor, which was famous for its pigments. Purpure is from Latin purpura, in turn from Greek porphyra and this expensive dye, known from antiquity, produced a much redder purple than the modern heraldic colour, and in fact earlier depictions of purpure are far redder than recent ones. As a heraldic colour, purpure may have originated as a variation of gules. Sanguine or Murrey, from Latin sanguineus, blood red, and Greek morum, mulberry, although long shunned in the belief that it represented some dishonour on the part of the bearer, it has found some use in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Tenné or tenny, from Latin tannare, to tan, is the second of the so-called stains and it is most often depicted as orange, but sometimes as tawny yellow or brown. In earlier times it was used in continental heraldry
5.
Greenland
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Greenland is an autonomous constituent country within the Danish Realm between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Though physiographically a part of the continent of North America, Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with Europe for more than a millennium. The majority of its residents are Inuit, whose ancestors began migrating from the Canadian mainland in the 13th century, Greenland is the worlds largest island. Three-quarters of Greenland is covered by the permanent ice sheet outside Antarctica. With a population of about 56,480, it is the least densely populated country in the world, the Arctic Umiaq Line ferry acts as a lifeline for western Greenland, connecting the various cities and settlements. Greenland has been inhabited off and on for at least the last 4,500 years by Arctic peoples whose forebears migrated there from what is now Canada, Norsemen settled the uninhabited southern part of Greenland beginning in the 10th century, and Inuit peoples arrived in the 13th century. The Norse colonies disappeared in the late 15th century, soon after their demise, beginning in 1499, the Portuguese briefly explored and claimed the island, naming it Terra do Lavrador. In the early 18th century, Scandinavian explorers reached Greenland again, to strengthen trading and power, Denmark-Norway affirmed sovereignty over the island. Greenland was settled by Vikings more than a thousand years ago, Vikings set sail from Greenland and Iceland, discovering North America nearly 500 years before Columbus reached Caribbean islands. Though under continuous influence of Norway and Norwegians, Greenland was not formally under the Norwegian crown until 1262, the Kingdom of Norway was extensive and a military power until the mid-14th century. Thus, the two kingdoms resources were directed at creating Copenhagen, Norway became the weaker part and lost sovereignty over Greenland in 1814 when the union was dissolved. Greenland became a Danish colony in 1814, and was made a part of the Danish Realm in 1953 under the Constitution of Denmark, in 1973, Greenland joined the European Economic Community with Denmark. However, in a referendum in 1982, a majority of the population voted for Greenland to withdraw from the EEC which was effected in 1985, Greenland contains the worlds largest and most northernly national park, Northeast Greenland National Park. Greenland is divided into four municipalities - Sermersooq, Kujalleq, Qaasuitsup and it also retains control of monetary policy, providing an initial annual subsidy of DKK3.4 billion, which is planned to diminish gradually over time. Greenland expects to grow its economy based on increased income from the extraction of natural resources, the capital, Nuuk, held the 2016 Arctic Winter Games. At 70%, Greenland has one of the highest shares of renewable energy in the world, the early Viking settlers named the island as Greenland. In the Icelandic sagas, the Norwegian-born Icelander Erik the Red was said to be exiled from Iceland for manslaughter, along with his extended family and his thralls, he set out in ships to explore an icy land known to lie to the northwest. After finding an area and settling there, he named it Grœnland
6.
Kalaallisut language
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Greenlandic is an Eskimo–Aleut language spoken by about 57,000 Greenlandic Inuit in Greenland. It is closely related to the Inuit languages in Canada such as Inuktitut, the second variety is Tunumiit oraasiat or East Greenlandic. The Thule Inuit of Greenland, Inuktun or Polar Eskimo, is a recent arrival, Greenlandic is a polysynthetic language that allows the creation of long words by stringing together roots and suffixes. Its morphosyntactic alignment is ergative, meaning that it treats the argument of a verb like the object of a transitive verb. Nouns are inflected for one of the eight cases and for possession, verbs are inflected for one of the eight moods and for the number and person of its subject and object. Both nouns and verbs have complex derivational morphology, basic word order in transitive clauses is subject–object–verb. Subordination of clauses is done by the use of special subordinate moods, a so-called fourth-person category enables switch-reference between main clauses and subordinate clauses with different subjects. However, some linguists have suggested that Greenlandic does mark future tense obligatorily, another question is whether the language has noun incorporation, or whether the processes that create complex predicates that include nominal roots are derivational in nature. When adopting new concepts or technologies, Greenlandic usually constructs new words made from Greenlandic roots, the language has been written in the Latin script since Danish colonization began in the 1700s. The first orthography was developed by Samuel Kleinschmidt in 1851, an extensive orthographic reform undertaken in 1973 that made the script easier to learn resulted in a boost in Greenlandic literacy, which is now among the highest in the world. The Greenlandic language was brought to Greenland with the arrival of the Thule people in the 1200s and it is unknown which languages were spoken by the earlier Saqqaq and Dorset cultures in Greenland. The missionary Paul Egede wrote the first Greenlandic dictionary in 1750, from the Danish colonization in the 1700s to the beginning of Greenlandic home rule in 1979, Greenlandic experienced increasing pressure from the Danish language. In the 1950s, Denmarks linguistic policies were directed at replacing Greenlandic with Danish, of primary significance was that post-primary education and official functions were conducted in Danish. From 1851 to 1973, Greenlandic was written in a complicated orthography devised by the missionary linguist Samuel Kleinschmidt, in 1973, a new orthography was introduced, intended to bring the written language closer to the spoken standard, which had changed considerably since Kleinschmidts time. The reform was effective and in the following it, Greenlandic literacy received a boost. Another development that strengthened the Greenlandic language has been the policy of greenlandization of Greenlandic society which began with the agreement of 1979. This policy has worked to reverse the trend towards marginalization of the Greenlandic language by making it the official language of education. Today Greenlandic has several dedicated news media, the Greenlandic National Radio, Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa, before June 2009, Greenlandic shared its status as the official language in Greenland with Danish
7.
Flag of Denmark
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The Flag of Denmark is red with a white Scandinavian cross that extends to the edges of the flag, the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side. A banner with a cross is attested as having been used by the kings of Denmark since the 14th century. An origin legend with considerable impact on Danish national historiography connects the introduction of the flag to the Battle of Lyndanisse of 1219, the elongated Nordic cross reflects the use as maritime flag in the 18th century. The flag became popular as national flag in the early 19th century and its private use was outlawed in 1834, and again permitted in a regulation of 1854. The flag holds the record of being the oldest continuously used national flag. A red field charged with a white cross extending to the edges, in 1748, a regulation defined the correct lengths of the two last fields in the flag as 6⁄4. This regulation is still in effect today and thus the legal proportions of the National flag is today 3,1,3 in width, no official nuance definition of Dannebrog rød exists. The private company Dansk Standard, regulation number 359, defines the red colour of the flag as Pantone 186c, the white-on-red cross emblem originates in the age of the Crusades. In the 12th century, it was used as war flag by the Holy Roman Empire. In the Gelre Armorial, dated c, 1340–1370, such a banner is shown alongside the coat of arms of the king of Denmark. This is the earliest known undisputed colour rendering of the Dannebrog, at about the same time, Valdemar IV of Denmark displays a cross in his coat of arms on his Danælog seal. In this version, the lions are holding a Danebrog banner, the reason why the kings of Denmark in the 14th century begin displaying the cross banner in their coats of arms is unknown. Caspar Paludan-Müller suggested that it may reflect a banner sent by the pope to the Danish king in support of the Baltic countries, adolf Ditlev Jørgensen identifies the banner as that of the Knights Hospitaller, which order had a presence in Denmark from the later 12th century. The legend attributing the origin of the flag to the campaigns of Valdemar II of Denmark were recorded by Christiern Pedersen. The flag was lost in a defeat at the Battle of Hemmingstedt on 17 February 1500. In 1559, King Frederik II recaptured it during his own Dithmarschen campaign, in 1576, the son of Johan Rantzau, Henrik Rantzau, also writes about the war and the fate of the flag. He notes that the flag was in a condition when returned. In a letter dated 22 February 1500 to Oluf Stigsøn, King John describes the battle, in fact, the entire letter gives the impression that the lost battle was of limited importance
8.
Nordic Cross flag
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The Norwegian flag was the first Nordic cross flag with three colours. All Nordic flags may be flown as gonfalons as well, note that some of these flags are historical. Also, note that flag proportions may vary between the different flags and sometimes even between different versions of the same flag and these flags either do not have official status or represent various private entities. They have not been adopted and their use remains limited. Nordic flags in Germany were historically used to allude to the nations Germanic heritage, Nordic flag designs very similar to Denmarks, Swedens, and Norways national flags were proposed as Germanys national flags in both 1919 and 1948, after World War I and World War II, respectively. Today, the Nordic cross is a feature in some city, a number of flags for localities in the United Kingdom are based on Nordic cross designs, intended to reflect the Scandinavian heritage introduced to the British Isles during the Viking Age. The flag of the city of Wilmington, Delaware is also a Nordic Cross flag, flags of Central America Flag of Gran Colombia Pan-African colours Pan-Arab colours Pan-Slavic colours Southern Cross Flag Union Flag Tricolour Znamierowski, Alfred. The world encyclopedia of flags, The definitive guide to international flags, banners, standards, extensive compilation of official and non-official Nordic Cross flags
9.
Denmark
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The term Danish Realm refers to the relationship between Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland—three countries constituting the Kingdom of Denmark. The legal nature of the Kingdom of Denmark is fundamentally one of a sovereign state. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have been part of the Crown of Denmark since 1397 when the Kalmar Union was ratified, legal matters in The Danish Realm are subject to the Danish Constitution. Beginning in 1953, state law issues within The Danish Realm has been governed by The Unity of the Realm, a less formal name for The Unity of the Realm is the Commonwealth of the Realm. In 1978, The Unity of The Realm was for the first time referred to as rigsfællesskabet. The name caught on and since the 1990s, both The Unity of The Realm and The Danish Realm itself has increasingly been referred to as simply rigsfællesskabet in daily parlance. The Danish Constitution stipulates that the foreign and security interests for all parts of the Danish Realm are the responsibility of the Danish government, the Faroes received home rule in 1948 and Greenland did so in 1979. In 2005, the Faroes received a self-government arrangement, and in 2009 Greenland received self rule, the Danish Realms unique state of internal affairs is acted out in the principle of The Unity of the Realm. This principle is derived from Article 1 of the Danish Constitution which specifies that constitutional law applies equally to all areas of the Danish Realm, the Constitutional Act specifies that sovereignty is to continue to be exclusively with the authorities of the Realm. The language of Denmark is Danish, and the Danish state authorities are based in Denmark, the Kingdom of Denmarks parliament, with its 179 members, is located in the capital, Copenhagen. Two of the members are elected in each of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Government ministries are located in Copenhagen, as is the highest court, in principle, the Danish Realm constitutes a unified sovereign state, with equal status between its constituent parts. Devolution differs from federalism in that the powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government. The Self-Government Arrangements devolves political competence and responsibility from the Danish political authorities to the Faroese, the Faroese and Greenlandic authorities administer the tasks taken over from the state, enact legislation in these specific fields and have the economic responsibility for solving these tasks. The Danish government provides a grant to the Faroese and the Greenlandic authorities to cover the costs of these devolved areas. The 1948 Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands sets out the terms of Faroese home rule, the Act states. the Faroe Islands shall constitute a self-governing community within the State of Denmark. It establishes the government of the Faroe Islands and the Faroese parliament. The Faroe Islands were previously administered as a Danish county, the Home Rule Act abolished the post of Amtmand and these powers were expanded in a 2005 Act, which named the Faroese home government as an equal partner with the Danish government
10.
The unity of the Realm
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The term Danish Realm refers to the relationship between Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland—three countries constituting the Kingdom of Denmark. The legal nature of the Kingdom of Denmark is fundamentally one of a sovereign state. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have been part of the Crown of Denmark since 1397 when the Kalmar Union was ratified, legal matters in The Danish Realm are subject to the Danish Constitution. Beginning in 1953, state law issues within The Danish Realm has been governed by The Unity of the Realm, a less formal name for The Unity of the Realm is the Commonwealth of the Realm. In 1978, The Unity of The Realm was for the first time referred to as rigsfællesskabet. The name caught on and since the 1990s, both The Unity of The Realm and The Danish Realm itself has increasingly been referred to as simply rigsfællesskabet in daily parlance. The Danish Constitution stipulates that the foreign and security interests for all parts of the Danish Realm are the responsibility of the Danish government, the Faroes received home rule in 1948 and Greenland did so in 1979. In 2005, the Faroes received a self-government arrangement, and in 2009 Greenland received self rule, the Danish Realms unique state of internal affairs is acted out in the principle of The Unity of the Realm. This principle is derived from Article 1 of the Danish Constitution which specifies that constitutional law applies equally to all areas of the Danish Realm, the Constitutional Act specifies that sovereignty is to continue to be exclusively with the authorities of the Realm. The language of Denmark is Danish, and the Danish state authorities are based in Denmark, the Kingdom of Denmarks parliament, with its 179 members, is located in the capital, Copenhagen. Two of the members are elected in each of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Government ministries are located in Copenhagen, as is the highest court, in principle, the Danish Realm constitutes a unified sovereign state, with equal status between its constituent parts. Devolution differs from federalism in that the powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government. The Self-Government Arrangements devolves political competence and responsibility from the Danish political authorities to the Faroese, the Faroese and Greenlandic authorities administer the tasks taken over from the state, enact legislation in these specific fields and have the economic responsibility for solving these tasks. The Danish government provides a grant to the Faroese and the Greenlandic authorities to cover the costs of these devolved areas. The 1948 Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands sets out the terms of Faroese home rule, the Act states. the Faroe Islands shall constitute a self-governing community within the State of Denmark. It establishes the government of the Faroe Islands and the Faroese parliament. The Faroe Islands were previously administered as a Danish county, the Home Rule Act abolished the post of Amtmand and these powers were expanded in a 2005 Act, which named the Faroese home government as an equal partner with the Danish government
11.
Consensus decision-making
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Consensus decision-making is a group decision-making process in which group members develop, and agree to support a decision in the best interest of the whole. Consensus may be defined professionally as a resolution, one that can be supported. Consensus is defined by Merriam-Webster as, first, general agreement and it has its origin in the Latin word cōnsēnsus, which is from cōnsentiō meaning literally feel together. It is used to both the decision and the process of reaching a decision. Consensus decision-making is thus concerned with the process of deliberating and finalizing a decision, as a decision-making process, consensus decision-making aims to be, Agreement Seeking, A consensus decision making process attempts to generate as much agreement as possible. Collaborative, Participants contribute to a proposal and shape it into a decision that meets the concerns of all group members as much as possible. Cooperative, Participants in a consensus process should strive to reach the best possible decision for the group and all of its members. Egalitarian, All members of a consensus decision-making body should be afforded, as much as possible, All members have the opportunity to present, and amend proposals. Inclusive, As many stakeholders as possible should be involved in the consensus decision-making process, participatory, The consensus process should actively solicit the input and participation of all decision-makers. Consensus decision-making is an alternative to commonly practiced group decision-making processes, roberts Rules of Order, for instance, is a guide book used by many organizations. This book allows the structuring of debate and passage of proposals that can be approved through majority vote and it does not emphasize the goal of full agreement. Critics of such a process believe that it can involve adversarial debate and these dynamics may harm group member relationships and undermine the ability of a group to cooperatively implement a contentious decision. Consensus decision-making attempts to address the beliefs of such problems, proponents claim that outcomes of the consensus process include, Better decisions, Through including the input of all stakeholders the resulting proposals may better address all potential concerns. Better implementation, A process that includes and respects all parties, Better group relationships, A cooperative, collaborative group atmosphere can foster greater group cohesion and interpersonal connection. The level of agreement necessary to finalize a decision is known as a decision rule and these groups use the term consensus to denote both the discussion process and the decision rule. Other groups use a process to generate as much agreement as possible. In this case, someone who has a strong objection must live with the decision, Giving consent does not necessarily mean that the proposal being considered is one’s first choice. Group members can vote their consent to a proposal because they choose to cooperate with the direction of the group, sometimes the vote on a proposal is framed, “Is this proposal something you can live with. ”This relaxed threshold for a yes vote can achieve full consent
12.
Post office
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A post office is a customer service facility forming part of a national postal system. Post offices offer mail-related services such as acceptance of letters and parcels, provision of post office boxes, and sale of stamps, packaging. In addition, many post offices offer services, providing and accepting government forms, processing government services and fees. The chief administrator of a post office is a postmaster, prior to the advent of postal and ZIP codes, postal systems would route items to a specific post office for receipt or delivery. The term post office or post-office has been in use since the 1650s, in early Modern England, post riders – mounted couriers – were placed every few hours along post roads at posting houses or post houses between major cities. These stables or inns permitted important correspondence to travel without delay, in early America, post offices were also known as stations. This term and post house fell from use as horse and coach service was replaced by railways, aircraft, today, post office usually refers to postal facilities providing customer service. The term General Post Office is sometimes used for the headquarters of a postal service. A postal facility that is used exclusively for processing mail is known as sorting office or delivery office. Integrated facilities combining mail processing with railway stations or airports are known as mail exchanges, there is evidence of corps of royal couriers disseminating the decrees of the Egyptian pharaohs as early as 2,400 BC and the service may greatly precede even that date. Similarly, organized systems of posthouses providing swift mounted courier service seems quite ancient, certainly, by the time of the Persian Empire, a system of Chapar-Khaneh existed along the Royal Road. The 2nd-Century BC Mauryan and Han dynasties established similar systems in India, suetonius credited Augustus with regularizing the Roman network, the cursus publicus. Local officials were obliged to provide couriers who would be responsible for their messages entire course, locally maintained post houses privately owned rest houses were obliged or honored to care for them along their way. Diocletian later established two parallel systems, one providing fresh horses or mules for urgent correspondence and another providing sturdy oxen for bulk shipments, procopius, though not unbiased, records that this system remained largely intact was dismantled in the surviving empire by Justinian in the 6th Century. The Princely House of Thurn and Taxis initiated regular mail service from Brussels in the 16th century, the British Postal Museum claims that the oldest functioning post office in the world is on High Street in Sanquhar, Scotland. This post office has functioned continuously since 1712, an era in which horses, in parts of Europe, special postal censorship offices existed to intercept and censor mail. In France, such offices were known as cabinets noirs, in many jurisdictions, mail boxes and post office boxes have long been in widespread use for dropoff and pickup of mail and small packages outside of post offices or when offices are closed. Deutsche Post introduced the Packstation for package delivery in 2001, in the 2000s, the United States Postal Service began to install Automated Postal Centers in many locations both in post offices and in retail locations
13.
Postage stamp
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Postage stamp may also refer to a formatting artifact in the display of film or video, Windowbox. A postage stamp is a piece of paper that is purchased and displayed on an item of mail as evidence of payment of postage. Typically, stamps are printed on special paper, show a national designation and a denomination on the front. They are sometimes a source of net profit to the issuing agency, stamps are usually rectangular, but triangles or other shapes are occasionally used. The stamp is affixed to an envelope or other postal cover the customer wishes to send, the item is then processed by the postal system, where a postmark, sometimes known as a cancellation mark, is usually applied in overlapping manner to stamp and cover. This procedure marks the stamp as used to prevent its reuse, in modern usage, postmarks generally indicate the date and point of origin of the mailing. The mailed item is delivered to the address the customer has applied to the envelope or parcel. Postage stamps have facilitated the delivery of mail since the 1840s, before then, ink and hand-stamps, usually made from wood or cork, were often used to frank the mail and confirm the payment of postage. The first adhesive postage stamp, commonly referred to as the Penny Black, was issued in the United Kingdom in 1840, there are varying accounts of the inventor or inventors of the stamp. The postage stamp resolved this issue in a simple and elegant manner, concurrently with the first stamps, the UK offered wrappers for mail. S. Postal service for priority or express mailing, the postage stamp afforded convenience for both the mailer and postal officials, more effectively recovered costs for the postal service, and ultimately resulted in a better, faster postal system. With the conveniences stamps offered, their use resulted in greatly increased mailings during the 19th and 20th centuries, as postage stamps with their engraved imagery began to appear on a widespread basis, historians and collectors began to take notice. The study of stamps and their use is referred to as philately. Stamp collecting can be both a hobby and a form of study and reference, as government-issued postage stamps. The postage for the item was prepaid by the use of a hand-stamp to frank the mailed item. Though this stamp was applied to a letter instead of a piece of paper it is considered by many historians as the worlds first postage stamp. Rowland Hill The Englishman Sir Rowland Hill began interest in postal reform in 1835, in 1836, a Member of Parliament, Robert Wallace, provided Hill with numerous books and documents, which Hill described as a half hundred weight of material. Hill commenced a study of these documents, leading him to the 1837 publication of a pamphlet entitled Post Office Reform its Importance
14.
Glacier
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A glacier is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight, it forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. Glaciers slowly deform and flow due to stresses induced by their weight, creating crevasses, seracs and they also abrade rock and debris from their substrate to create landforms such as cirques and moraines. Glaciers form only on land and are distinct from the much thinner sea ice, between 35°N and 35°S, glaciers occur only in the Himalayas, Andes, Rocky Mountains, a few high mountains in East Africa, Mexico, New Guinea and on Zard Kuh in Iran. Glaciers cover about 10 percent of Earths land surface, continental glaciers cover nearly 13,000,000 km2 or about 98 percent of Antarcticas 13,200,000 km2, with an average thickness of 2,100 m. Greenland and Patagonia also have huge expanses of continental glaciers, Glacial ice is the largest reservoir of fresh water on Earth. Within high altitude and Antarctic environments, the temperature difference is often not sufficient to release meltwater. A large piece of compressed ice, or a glacier, appears blue as large quantities of water appear blue and this is because water molecules absorb other colors more efficiently than blue. The other reason for the color of glaciers is the lack of air bubbles. Air bubbles, which give a color to ice, are squeezed out by pressure increasing the density of the created ice. The word Glaceon is a loanword from French and goes back, via Franco-Provençal, to the Vulgar Latin glaciārium, derived from the Late Latin glacia, the processes and features caused by or related to glaciers are referred to as glacial. The process of establishment, growth and flow is called glaciation. The corresponding area of study is called glaciology, Glaciers are important components of the global cryosphere. Glaciers are categorized by their morphology, thermal characteristics, and behavior, cirque glaciers form on the crests and slopes of mountains. A glacier that fills a valley is called a valley glacier, a large body of glacial ice astride a mountain, mountain range, or volcano is termed an ice cap or ice field. Ice caps have a less than 50,000 km2 by definition. Glacial bodies larger than 50,000 km2 are called ice sheets or continental glaciers, several kilometers deep, they obscure the underlying topography. Only nunataks protrude from their surfaces, the only extant ice sheets are the two that cover most of Antarctica and Greenland. They contain vast quantities of water, enough that if both melted, global sea levels would rise by over 70 m
15.
Ocean
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An ocean is a body of saline water that composes much of a planets hydrosphere. On Earth, an ocean is one of the major divisions of the World Ocean. These are, in descending order by area, the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern, the word sea is often used interchangeably with ocean in American English but, strictly speaking, a sea is a body of saline water partly or fully enclosed by land. The ocean contains 97% of Earths water, and oceanographers have stated that less than 5% of the World Ocean has been explored, the total volume is approximately 1.35 billion cubic kilometers with an average depth of nearly 3,700 meters. As the world ocean is the component of Earths hydrosphere, it is integral to all known life, forms part of the carbon cycle. The world ocean is the habitat of 230,000 known species, but because much of it is unexplored, the origin of Earths oceans remains unknown, oceans are thought to have formed in the Hadean period and may have been the impetus for the emergence of life. Extraterrestrial oceans may be composed of water or other elements and compounds, the only confirmed large stable bodies of extraterrestrial surface liquids are the lakes of Titan, although there is evidence for the existence of oceans elsewhere in the Solar System. Early in their histories, Mars and Venus are theorized to have had large water oceans. The Mars ocean hypothesis suggests that nearly a third of the surface of Mars was once covered by water, compounds such as salts and ammonia dissolved in water lower its freezing point so that water might exist in large quantities in extraterrestrial environments as brine or convecting ice. Unconfirmed oceans are speculated beneath the surface of many planets and natural satellites, notably. The Solar Systems giant planets are thought to have liquid atmospheric layers of yet to be confirmed compositions. Oceans may also exist on exoplanets and exomoons, including surface oceans of water within a circumstellar habitable zone. Ocean planets are a type of planet with a surface completely covered with liquid. The concept of Ōkeanós has an Indo-European connection, Greek Ōkeanós has been compared to the Vedic epithet ā-śáyāna-, predicated of the dragon Vṛtra-, who captured the cows/rivers. Related to this notion, the Okeanos is represented with a dragon-tail on some early Greek vases, though generally described as several separate oceans, these waters comprise one global, interconnected body of salt water sometimes referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean. This concept of a body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography. The major oceanic divisions – listed below in descending order of area and volume – are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos, Oceans are fringed by smaller, adjoining bodies of water such as seas, gulfs, bays, bights, and straits. The Mid-Oceanic Ridge of the World are connected and form the Ocean Ridge, the continuous mountain range is 65,000 km long, and the total length of the oceanic ridge system is 80,000 km long
16.
Iceberg
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An iceberg or ice mountain is a large piece of freshwater ice that has broken off a glacier or an ice shelf and is floating freely in open water. It may subsequently become frozen into pack ice, as it drifts into shallower waters, it may come into contact with the seabed, a process referred to as seabed gouging by ice. Almost 91% of an iceberg is below the surface of the water, the word iceberg is a partial loan translation from Dutch ijsberg, literally meaning ice mountain, cognate to Danish isbjerg, German Eisberg, Low Saxon Iesbarg and Swedish isberg. Because the density of ice is about 920 kg/m³. The shape of the underwater portion can be difficult to judge by looking at the portion above the surface and this has led to the expression tip of the iceberg, for a problem or difficulty that is only a small manifestation of a larger problem. Icebergs generally range from 1 to 75 metres above sea level, the largest known iceberg in the North Atlantic was 168 metres above sea level, reported by the USCG icebreaker East Wind in 1958, making it the height of a 55-story building. These icebergs originate from the glaciers of western Greenland and may have a temperature of −15 to −20 °C. Icebergs are usually confined by winds and currents to move close to the coast, the largest icebergs recorded have been calved, or broken off, from the Ross Ice Shelf of Antarctica. Iceberg B-15, photographed by satellite in 2000, measured 295 by 37 kilometres and this iceberg was larger than Belgium. When a piece of ice melts, it makes a fizzing sound called Bergie Seltzer. This sound is made when the water-ice interface reaches compressed air trapped in the ice. As this happens, each bubble bursts, making a popping sound, the bubbles contain air trapped in snow layers very early in the history of the ice, that eventually got buried to a given depth and pressurized as it transformed into firn then to glacial ice. About a month later, this split into two pieces upon crashing into Joe Island in the Nares Strait next to Greenland. In June 2011, large fragments of the Petermann Ice Islands were observed off the Labrador coast, iceberg B-17B140 km2,1999, shipping alert issued December 2009. In addition to classification, icebergs can be classified on the basis of their shape. The two basic types of forms are tabular and non-tabular. Tabular icebergs have steep sides and a top, much like a plateau. This type of iceberg, also known as an ice island, can be quite large, Antarctic icebergs formed by breaking off from an ice shelf, such as the Ross Ice Shelf or Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf, are typically tabular
17.
Sun
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The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is a perfect sphere of hot plasma, with internal convective motion that generates a magnetic field via a dynamo process. It is by far the most important source of energy for life on Earth. Its diameter is about 109 times that of Earth, and its mass is about 330,000 times that of Earth, accounting for about 99. 86% of the total mass of the Solar System. About three quarters of the Suns mass consists of hydrogen, the rest is mostly helium, with smaller quantities of heavier elements, including oxygen, carbon, neon. The Sun is a G-type main-sequence star based on its spectral class and it formed approximately 4.6 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of matter within a region of a large molecular cloud. Most of this matter gathered in the center, whereas the rest flattened into a disk that became the Solar System. The central mass became so hot and dense that it eventually initiated nuclear fusion in its core and it is thought that almost all stars form by this process. The Sun is roughly middle-aged, it has not changed dramatically for more than four billion years and it is calculated that the Sun will become sufficiently large enough to engulf the current orbits of Mercury, Venus, and probably Earth. The enormous effect of the Sun on Earth has been recognized since prehistoric times, the synodic rotation of Earth and its orbit around the Sun are the basis of the solar calendar, which is the predominant calendar in use today. The English proper name Sun developed from Old English sunne and may be related to south, all Germanic terms for the Sun stem from Proto-Germanic *sunnōn. The English weekday name Sunday stems from Old English and is ultimately a result of a Germanic interpretation of Latin dies solis, the Latin name for the Sun, Sol, is not common in general English language use, the adjectival form is the related word solar. The term sol is used by planetary astronomers to refer to the duration of a solar day on another planet. A mean Earth solar day is approximately 24 hours, whereas a mean Martian sol is 24 hours,39 minutes, and 35.244 seconds. From at least the 4th Dynasty of Ancient Egypt, the Sun was worshipped as the god Ra, portrayed as a falcon-headed divinity surmounted by the solar disk, and surrounded by a serpent. In the New Empire period, the Sun became identified with the dung beetle, in the form of the Sun disc Aten, the Sun had a brief resurgence during the Amarna Period when it again became the preeminent, if not only, divinity for the Pharaoh Akhenaton. The Sun is viewed as a goddess in Germanic paganism, Sól/Sunna, in ancient Roman culture, Sunday was the day of the Sun god. It was adopted as the Sabbath day by Christians who did not have a Jewish background, the symbol of light was a pagan device adopted by Christians, and perhaps the most important one that did not come from Jewish traditions
18.
Flag of the Faroe Islands
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The flag of the Faroe Islands is an offset cross, representing Christianity. It is similar in design to other Nordic flags – a tradition set by the Dannebrog of Denmark, the flag is called Merkið, which means the banner or the mark. It resembles the flags of neighbouring Norway and Iceland, the design of the flag incorporates a red Nordic cross, which is offset to the left. The red cross is fimbriated azure and is set on a white field, the flag design closely resembles that of the Norwegian flag, with the fimbriated cross. The flag proportion is usually 5,7, the modern Faroese flag was devised in 1919 by Jens Oliver Lisberg and others while they were studying in Copenhagen. The first time Merkið was raised in the Faroe Islands was on 22 June that year in Fámjin on the occasion of a wedding. On 25 April,1940, the British occupation government approved the flag for use by Faroese vessels, britain did not want the same flag as German occupied Denmark to be used. April 25 is still celebrated as Flaggdagur and it is a national holiday, with the Home Rule Act of 23 March,1948, the flag was recognized by the Danish Government as the national flag of the Faroes. The original flag is displayed in the church of Fámjin in Suðuroy, in the music video for singer Björks song Declare Independence, the flag of the Faroe Islands are featured on the uniforms of those who appear in the video. Flag of Denmark Flag of Greenland List of flags of Denmark Nordic Cross flag Raven banner Faroe Islands at Flags of the World
19.
Raven banner
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The raven banner was a flag, possibly totemic in nature, flown by various Viking chieftains and other Scandinavian rulers during the 9th, 10th and 11th centuries. The flag, as depicted in Norse artwork, was roughly triangular and it bore a resemblance to ornately carved weather-vanes used aboard Viking longships. Scholars conjecture that the flag was a symbol of Odin. Its intent may have been to strike fear in enemies by invoking the power of Odin. The raven is an iconic figure in Norse mythology. The highest god Odin had two ravens named Huginn and Muninn who flew around the world bringing back tidings to their master, therefore, one of Odins many names was the raven god. It is consequently likely that they were regarded as manifestations of the Valkyries, goddesses who chose the valiant dead for military service in Valhalla. A further connection between ravens and Valkyries was indicated in the abilities of goddesses and Valkyries, who could appear in the form of birds. The raven appears in almost every skaldic poem describing warfare, to make war was to feed and please the raven. In black flocks, the ravens hover over the corpses and the skald asks where they are heading, the raven goes forth in the blood of those fallen in battle. He flies from the field of battle with blood on his beak, human flesh in his talons, two curses in the Poetic Edda say may ravens tear your heart asunder. and the ravens shall tear out your eyes in the high gallows. Ravens are thus seen as instruments of divine justice, despite the violent imagery associated with them, early Scandinavians regarded the raven as a largely positive figure, battle and harsh justice were viewed favorably in Norse culture. Many Old Norse personal names referred to the raven, such as Hrafn, Hrafnkel, the raven banner was used by a number of Viking warlords regarded in Norse tradition as the sons of Ragnar Lodbrok. The first mention of a Viking force carrying a banner is in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. There also was taken the war-flag, which they called Raven and he was the brother of Iware, he was buried by the vikings in a very big mound in Devonshire, called Ubbelawe. In the 10th century, the raven seems to have been adopted by Norse-Gaelic kings of Dublin. Many of the Norse-Gaelic dynasts in Britain and Ireland were of the Uí Ímair clan, a triangular banner appearing to depict a bird appears on a penny minted by Olaf Cuaran around 940. The coin features a roughly right isosceles triangular standard, with the two equilateral sides situated at the top and staff, respectively, along the hypotenuse are a series of five tabs or tassels
20.
Nordic Council
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The Nordic Council is a geo-political inter-parliamentary forum for co-operation between the Nordic countries. It was formed after the Second World War in 1952 to promote co-operation between the five Nordic countries and its first concrete result was the introduction in 1952 of a common labour market and free movement across borders without passports for the countries citizens. The Council consists of 87 representatives from Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden as well as the areas of the Faroe Islands, Greenland. The representatives are members of parliament in their respective country/area and are elected by those parliaments, the Council holds ordinary sessions each year in October/November and usually one extra session per year with a specific theme. Since 1991 Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania participate with observer status, in 1971, the Nordic Council of Ministers, an intergovernmental forum, was established to complement the Council. During World War II, Denmark and Norway were occupied by Germany, Finland fought a war with the Soviet Union, while Sweden, though neutral. Following the war, the Nordic countries pursued the idea of a Scandinavian defence union to ensure their mutual defence, however, Finland, due to its Paasikivi-Kekkonen policy of neutrality and FCMA treaty with the USSR, could not participate. It was proposed that the Nordic countries would unify their foreign policy and defence, remain neutral in the event of a conflict and not ally with NATO, which some were planning at the time. As Denmark and Norway sought US aid for their post-war reconstruction, further Nordic co-operation, such as an economic customs union, also failed. This led Danish Prime Minister Hans Hedtoft to propose, in 1951 and this proposal was agreed by Denmark, Iceland, Norway and Sweden in 1952. The Councils first session was held in the Danish Parliament on 13 February 1953, when Finnish-Soviet relations thawed following the death of Joseph Stalin, Finland joined the council in 1955. On 2 July 1954, the Nordic labour market was created and in 1958, building upon a 1952 passport-free travel area and these two measures helped ensure Nordic citizens free movement around Scandinavia. A Nordic Convention on Social Security was implemented in 1955, there were also plans for a single market but they were abandoned in 1959 shortly before Denmark, Norway and Sweden joined the European Free Trade Area. Finland became a member of EFTA in 1961 and Denmark. This move towards the EEC led to desire for a formal Nordic treaty, further advancements on Nordic cooperation were made in the following years, a Nordic School of Public Health, a Nordic Cultural Fund and Nordic House in Reykjavík. Danish Prime Minister Hilmar Baunsgaard proposed full economic cooperation in 1968, nordek was agreed in 1970, but Finland then backtracked, stating that its ties with the Soviet Union meant it could not form close economic ties with potential members of the EEC. As a consequence, Denmark and Norway applied to join the EEC, in 1970 representatives of the Faroe Islands and Åland were allowed to take part in the Nordic Council as part of the Danish and Finnish delegations. Norway turned down EEC membership in 1972 while Denmark acted as a builder between the EEC and the Nordics
21.
History of Greenland
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The history of Greenland is a history of life under extreme Arctic conditions, currently, an ice cap covers about 80 percent of the island, restricting human activity largely to the coasts. The first humans are thought to have arrived in Greenland around 2500 BC and their descendants apparently died out and were succeeded by several other groups migrating from continental North America. The ancestors of the Inuit Greenlanders who live there today appear to have migrated there later, around 1200 AD, when the missionaries found no descendants of the Norse Greenlanders, they baptized the Inuit Greenlanders they found living there instead. Denmark-Norway then developed trading colonies along the coast and imposed a trade monopoly, during World War II, when Germany invaded Denmark, Greenlanders became socially and economically less connected to Denmark and more connected to the United States and Canada. After the war, Denmark resumed control of Greenland and in 1953, although Greenland is still a part of the Kingdom of Denmark, it has enjoyed home rule since 1979. In 1985, the decided to leave the European Union, which it had joined as a part of Denmark in 1973. The prehistory of Greenland is a story of repeated waves of Paleo-Eskimo immigration from the north of the North American mainland. Because of Greenlands remoteness and climate, survival there was difficult, over the course of centuries, one culture succeeded another as groups died out and were replaced by new immigrants. Archaeology can give only approximate dates for the cultures that flourished before the Norse exploration of Greenland in the 10th century, the earliest known cultures in Greenland are the Saqqaq culture and the Independence I culture in northern Greenland. The practitioners of two cultures are thought to have descended from separate groups that came to Greenland from northern Canada. Around 800 BCE, the so-called Independence II culture arose in the region where the Independence I culture had previously existed and it was originally thought that Independence II was succeeded by Dorset culture, but some Independence II artefacts date from as recently as the 1st century BCE. Artefacts associated with early Dorset culture in Greenland have been found as far north as Inglefield Land on the west coast, after the Early Dorset culture disappeared around 200 AD, the island was uninhabited for several centuries. The next immigrants to arrive from Canada, perhaps as early as 800, settled the northwest part of the island, bringing them the so-called Late Dorset culture. The Norse arrived and settled in the part of the island in 980. During the 980s, explorers led by Erik the Red set out from Iceland and reached the southwest coast of Greenland, found the region uninhabited, Erik named the island Greenland in effect as a marketing device. Both the Book of Icelanders and the Saga of Eric the Red state He named the land Greenland, the Norse established their settlements along fjords. Because this was during the so-called Medieval Warm Period, the vegetation there was different from what it is today. Excavations have shown that the fjords at that time were surrounded by forests of 4 to 6 metre tall birch trees and by hills covered with grass and willow brush
22.
Dorset culture
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The Dorset culture was a Paleo-Eskimo culture that preceded the Inuit in the Arctic of North America. It is named after Cape Dorset in Nunavut, Canada where the first evidence of its existence was found, the culture has been defined as having four phases due to the distinct differences in the technologies relating to hunting and tool making. Artifacts include distinctive triangular end-blades, soapstone lamps, and burins, the Dorset were first identified as a separate culture in 1925. Archaeology has been critical to adding to knowledge about them because the Dorset were essentially extinct by 1500 due to difficulties in adapting to the Medieval Warm Period, the Thule people, who began migrating east from Alaska in the 11th century, began the displacement of the Dorset. Modern genetic studies show the Dorset population were distinct from later groups, Inuit legends recount them driving away people they called the Tuniit or Sivullirmiut First Inhabitants. According to legend, the First Inhabitants were giants, taller and stronger than the Inuit, scholars now believe the Dorset and the later Thule people were the peoples encountered by Norsemen who visited the area. The Norse called these indigenous peoples skræling, in 1925 anthropologist Diamond Jenness received some odd artifacts from Cape Dorset. As they were different from those of the Inuit, he speculated that they were indicative of an ancient. Jenness named the culture Dorset after the location of the find and these artifacts showed a consistent and distinct cultural pattern that included sophisticated art distinct from that of the Inuit. For example, the carvings featured uniquely large hairstyles for women, much research since then has revealed many details of the Dorset people and their culture. The origins of the Dorset people are not well understood and they may have developed from the previous cultures of Pre-Dorset, Saqqaq or Independence I. There are, however, problems with this theory, these cultures had bow and arrow technology which the Dorsets lacked. Possibly due to a shift from terrestrial to aquatic hunting, the bow and arrow became lost to the Dorset, another piece of technology that is missing from the Dorset are drills, there are no drill holes in Dorset artifacts. Instead, the Dorset gouged lenticular holes, for example, bone needles are common in Dorset sites, but they have long and narrow holes that have been painstakingly carved or gouged. Both the Pre-Dorset and Thule had drills, Dorset culture and history is divided into four periods, the Early, Middle, Late, and Terminal phases. The Terminal phase was already in progress when the Thule entered the Canadian Arctic and it is probably closely related to the onset of the Medieval Warm Period, which started to warm the Arctic considerably around AD800. With the warmer climates, the sea ice became less predictable and was isolated from the High Arctic, the Dorset were highly adapted to living in a very cold climate, and much of their food came from hunting sea mammals through holes in the ice. The massive decline in sea-ice which the Medieval Warm Period produced would have had an impact upon their way of life
23.
Thule people
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The Thule or proto-Inuit were the ancestors of all modern Inuit. They developed in coastal Alaska by 1000 and expanded eastwards across Canada, in the process, they replaced people of the earlier Dorset culture that had previously inhabited the region. The appellation Thule originates from the location of Thule in northwest Greenland, facing Canada, the links between the Thule and the Inuit are biological, cultural, and linguistic. Evidence supports the idea that the Thule were in contact with the Vikings, in Viking sources, these peoples are called the Skræling. Some Thule migrated southward, in the Second Expansion or Second Phase, by the 13th or 14th century, the Thule had occupied an area currently inhabited by the Central Inuit, and by the 15th century, the Thule replaced the Dorset. Intensified contacts with Europeans began in the 18th century, compounded by the already disruptive effects of the Little Ice Age, the Thule communities broke apart, and the people were henceforward known as the Eskimo, and later, Inuit. The Thule Tradition lasted from about 200 B. C. to 1600 A. D. around the Bering Strait, Thule culture was mapped out by Therkel Mathiassen, following his participation as an archaeologist and cartographer of the Fifth Danish Expedition to Arctic America in 1921–1924. There are three stages of development leading up to Thule culture, they are Okvik/Old Bering Sea, Punuk, Birnirk and these groups of peoples have been referred to as “Neo-Eskimo” cultures, which are differentiated from the earlier Norton Tradition. There are several stages of the Thule tradition, Old Bering Sea Stage, Punuk Stage and these stages represent variations of the Thule Tradition as it expanded over time. And spread across the coasts of Labrador and Greenland and it is the most recent “neo-Eskimo” culture. Jenness identified the Bering Sea culture as a highly developed Inuit culture of northeastern Asiatic origin, a strong maritime adaptation is characteristic of the Thule, and the OBS stage, and then can be seen in the archaeological evidence. Both Kayaks and umiaks appear in the record for the first time. The toolkits of the people of the time are dominated by polished-slate rather than flaked-stone artifacts, including knives, projectile heads. There are many important innovations that emerged that allowed hunting to be more efficient, harpoon mounted ice picks were used for seal hunting, as well as ivory plugs and mouthpieces for inflating harpoon line floats, which enabled them to recover larger sea mammals when dispatched. These people relied heavily on seal and walrus for subsistence and it is easy to pick out OBS technology because of the artistic curvilinear dots, circles, and shorter lines that were used to decorate their tools. The chronological relationship between the Okvik and Old Bering Seas cultures has been the subject of debate and remains largely undecided, based mainly on art styles. The Punuk stage is a development of Old Bering Sea stage, with distribution along the major Strait islands, the Punuk culture was initially defined by Henry Collins in 1928 from a 16 ft deep midden on one of the Punuk Islands. Punuk is differentiated with Old Bering Sea through its artifact styles and house forms, as well as harpoon styles, Punuk settlements were larger and more common than earlier villages
24.
Norse colonization of North America
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The Norse colonization of North America began as early as the 10th century AD when Norsemen explored and settled areas of the North Atlantic including the northeastern fringes of North America. Viking houses were found at L’Anse aux Meadows near the tip of Newfoundland in 1960. This discovery aided the reignition of archaeological exploration for the Vikings in the north Atlantic, the Norse colony in Greenland lasted for almost 500 years. Continental North American settlements were small and did not develop into permanent colonies, while voyages, for example to collect timber, are likely to have occurred for some time, there is no evidence of any lasting Norse settlements on mainland North America. According to the Sagas of Icelanders, Norsemen from Iceland first settled Greenland in the 980s, Erik the Red, having been banished from Iceland for manslaughter, allegedly explored the uninhabited southwestern coast of Greenland during the three years of his banishment. The inner reaches of one long fjord, named Eiriksfjord after him, was where he established his estate Brattahlid. He issued tracts of land to his followers, at its peak the colony consisted of two settlements. The Eastern was at the tip of Greenland, while the Western Settlement was about 500 km up the west coast. A smaller settlement near the Eastern Settlement is sometimes considered the Middle Settlement, the combined population was around 2, 000–3,000. At least 400 farms have been identified by archaeologists, Norse Greenland had a bishopric and exported walrus ivory, furs, rope, sheep, whale or seal blubber, live animals such as polar bears, and cattle hides. In 1126, the population requested a Bishop, and in 1261 and they continued to have their own law and became almost completely independent after 1349, the time of the Black Death. In 1380, the Norwegian Kingdom entered into a union with the Kingdom of Denmark. There is evidence of Norse trade with the natives, the Norse would have encountered both Native Americans and the Thule, the ancestors of the Inuit. The Dorset had withdrawn from Greenland before the Norse settlement of the island, a small ivory statue that appears to represent a European has also been found among the ruins of an Inuit community house. The colony began to decline in the 14th century, the Western Settlement was abandoned around 1350, and the last bishop at Garðar died in 1377. After a marriage was recorded in 1408, no written records mention the settlers and it is probable that the Eastern Settlement was defunct by the late 15th century. The most recent radiocarbon date found in Norse settlements as of 2002 was 1430, several theories have been advanced to explain the decline. In addition, Greenlandic ivory may have been supplanted in European markets by cheaper ivory from Africa, despite the loss of contact with the Greenlanders, the Norwegian-Danish crown continued to consider Greenland a possession
25.
Eastern Settlement
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The Eastern Settlement was the first and largest of the three areas of Norse Greenland, settled c. AD985 by Norsemen from Iceland, at its peak, it contained approximately 4,000 inhabitants. The last written record from the Eastern Settlement is of a wedding solemnized in 1408, approximately 500 groups of ruins of Norse farms are found in the area, including 16 church ruins, including Brattahlíð, Dyrnæs, Garðar, Hvalsey and Herjolfsnes. The Vatnahverfi district to the southeast of Einarsfjord had some of the best pastoral land in the colony, the economy of the medieval Norse settlements was based on livestock farming - mainly sheep and cattle, with significant supplement from seal hunting. A climate deterioration in the 14th century may have increased the demand for winter fodder, isotope analysis of bones excavated at archaeological investigations in the Norse settlements have found that fishing played an increasing economic role towards the end of the settlements life. While the diet of the first settlers consisted of 80% agricultural products and 20% marine food, in the Greenlandic Inuit tradition, there is a legend about Hvalsey. According to this legend, there was war between the Norse chief Ungortoq and the Inuit leader Kaissape. The Inuit made an attack on Hvalsey and burned down the Norse inside their houses. Kaissape conquered him after a pursuit, which ended near Cape Farewell. However, according to studies, there is no sign of a conflagration. Other explanations have also offered including soil erosion due to overgrazing. History of Greenland Norse colonization of the Americas Western Settlement Ivittuut, the scene of a smaller Middle Settlement Danish colonization of the Americas
26.
Western Settlement
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The Western Settlement was a group of farms and communities established by Norsemen from Iceland around 985 in medieval Greenland. Despite its name, the Western Settlement was more north than west of its companion Eastern Settlement and was located at the head of the long Nuup Kangerlua fjord. Much less is known about the Western Settlement than the Eastern Settlement, as there is little mention. At its peak, the Western Settlement probably had about 1,000 inhabitants, about a fourth the size of the Eastern Settlement, the largest of the Western Settlement farms was Sandnæs. Ruins of almost 95 farms have been found in the area, the Western Settlement was last mentioned by Ivar Bardarson, a Norwegian cleric who was sent to Greenland in 1341 to serve as superintendent of the bishops seat at Gardar in the Eastern Settlement. After the death of Bishop Árni in 1347, Greenland was without a Bishop until Bishop Álfur was ordained in 1368, Ivar Bardsson served as principal of the diocese during the interim period. In his voyage to the Western Settlement, he found only vacant farms and he subsequently wrote to the Bishop of Bergen to describe conditions he observed. By 1360 he had returned to Bergen to serve as a Canon of Bergen Cathedral, the demise of the Western Settlement coincides with a decrease in summer and winter temperatures commonly known as the Little Ice Age. The study also found that the lowest winter temperatures of the last 2000 years occurred in the late 14th century, climate, History and the Modern World ISBN 978-0415127356 Mowat, Farley Westviking, The Ancient Norse in Greenland and North America ISBN 978-0771065798 Seaver, Kirsten A. The Frozen Echo, Greenland and the Exploration of North America, Ca
27.
Greenlandic Norse
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Greenlandic Norse is an extinct North Germanic language that was spoken in the Norse settlements of Greenland until their demise in the late 15th century. The language is attested through some 80 runic inscriptions, many of which are difficult to date and it is difficult to identify specifically Greenlandic linguistic features in the limited runic material. Nevertheless, there are inscriptions showing the use of t for historical þ in words such as rather than þorir. This linguistic innovation has parallels in West Norwegian in the medieval period. On the other hand, Greenlandic appears to have retained some features which changed in other types of Scandinavian and this includes initial hl and hr, otherwise only preserved in Icelandic, and the long vowel œ, which merged with æ in Icelandic but was preserved in Norwegian. Greenlandic Norse is believed to have been in contact with Greenlandic, the language of the indigenous Kalaallit. In particular, the Greenlandic word Kalaaleq, meaning Greenlander, is believed to be derived from the word Skrælingr and it has also been suggested that the word kona, meaning woman, is of Norse origin. The available evidence does not establish the presence of language attrition, a main characteristic of Greenlandic Norse was that it was very conservative. The older forms of speaking, which had come from Iceland, in keeping with this conservatism, the Greenlanders likewise maintained the older runic characteristics, most of which had fallen out of use in other countries. Notwithstanding this, they created new designs for the ð-, b-, p-, the Kingittorsuaq Runestone dates from c. 1300, discovered near Upernavik, far north of the Norse settlements and it was presumably carved by Norse explorers. The patronymic Tortarson shows the change from þ to t while the word hloþu shows the retention of initial hl, the Nordic Languages, An International Handbook of the History of the North Germanic Languages, Volume 2. Language in A Companion to Old Norse-Icelandic Literature and Culture, ed. by Rory McTurk, jahr, Ernst Håkon and Ingvild Broch. Language Contact in the Arctic, Northern Pidgins and Contact Languages, Old Norse List of extinct languages of Europe List of extinct languages of North America Runic inscription from Greenland
28.
Hans Egede
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Hans Poulsen Egede was a Dano-Norwegian Lutheran missionary who launched mission efforts to Greenland, which led him to be styled the Apostle of Greenland. He established a mission among the Inuit and is credited with revitalizing Dano-Norwegian interest in the island after contact had been broken for hundreds of years. He founded Greenlands capital Godthåb, now known as Nuuk, Hans Egede was born into the home of a civil servant in Harstad, Norway, nearly 150 miles north of the Arctic Circle. His paternal grandfather had been a vicar in Vester Egede on southern Zealand, Hans was schooled by an uncle, a clergyman in a local Lutheran Church. In 1704 he traveled to Copenhagen to enter the University of Copenhagen and he returned to Hinnøya Island after graduation, and in April 1707 he was ordained and assigned to a parish on the equally remote archipelago of Lofoten. Also in 1707 he married Gertrud Rasch, who was 13 years his senior, four children were born to the marriage - two boys and two girls. At Lofoten, Egede heard stories about the old Norse settlements on Greenland, frederick gave consent at least partially to re-establish a colonial claim to the island. Egede established the Bergen Greenland Company with $9,000 in capital from Bergen merchants, $200 from the Danish king, haabet and two smaller ships departed Bergen on 2 May 1721 bearing Egede, his wife and four children, and forty other colonists. On July 3, they reached Nuup Kangerlua and established Hope Colony with the erection of a house on Kangeq Island. Searching for months for descendants of the old Norse colonists, he found only the local Inuit people and began studying their language. Missionizing among them required some imagination as, for instance, the Inuit had no bread nor any idea of it, by the end of the first winter, many of the colonists had been stricken with scurvy and most returned home as soon as they could. Egede and his family remained with a few others and in 1722 welcomed two supply ships the king had funded with the imposition of a new tax. In fact, his 1723 expedition found the churches and ruins of the Eastern Settlement, at the end of the year, he turned north and helped establish a whaling station on Nipisat Island. In 1724 he baptized his first child converts, two of whom would travel to Denmark and there inspire Count Zinzendorf to begin the Moravian missions. In 1728, an expedition under Major Claus Paarss arrived with four supply ships and relocated the Kangeq colony to the mainland opposite, establishing a fort named Godt-Haab. The extra supplies also allowed Egede to build a chapel within the main house. More scurvy led to forty deaths and abandonment of the not only by the Danes. Egede, encouraged by his wife Gertrud, remained with his family, a supply ship in 1733 brought three missionaries and news that the king had granted 2000 rixdollars a year to establish a new company for the colony under Jacob Severin
29.
Treaty of Kiel
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Specifically excluded from the exchange were the Norwegian dependencies of Greenland, Iceland and the Faroe Islands, which remained in the union with Denmark. Norway unsuccessfully contested the Danish claim to all of Greenland in the East Greenland case of 1931–1933, however, not all provisions of the treaty would come into force. Norway declared its independence, adopted a Constitution and elected Crown Prince Christian Frederik as its own king, Sweden therefore refused to hand over Swedish Pomerania, which instead passed to Prussia after the Congress of Vienna in 1815. After a short war with Sweden, Norway accepted entering into a union with Sweden at the Convention of Moss. King Christian Frederik abdicated after convening an extraordinary Storting, which revised the Constitution to allow for the Union and it was formally established when the Storting elected Charles XIII as king of Norway on 4 November 1814. In the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars, Denmark-Norway and the Kingdom of Sweden tried to maintain neutrality, the United Kingdom, which had declared war on France in 1803, paid subsidies to Sweden. Before Gustav IV Adolf marched his forces out of Swedish Pomerania, in 1807, Napoleonic forces seized Swedish Pomerania and forced Prussia and Russia to sign the Treaty of Tilsit. Sweden could no longer uphold her anti-French foreign policy, and French Marshal Jean Baptiste Bernadotte was elected heir to the Swedish throne in 1810, Denmark-Norway entered an alliance with France after the second British bombardment of Copenhagen in 1807. In 1812, Napoleons forces were decimated in their attempt to subdue Russia. Sweden allied with Russia on 30 August 1812, with the United Kingdom on 3 March 1813, previously, on 23 March 1813, she had declared war on Napoleon. Bernadottes condition for entering the anti-Napoleonic alliance was the gain of Norway, Prussia however did not acknowledge this claim at first. Thus, Bernadotte hesitated to enter the war with full force, when Prussia finally accepted the Swedish claim to Norway on 22 July, Sweden joined the alliance of Reichenbach concluded between Russia, the United Kingdom and Prussia on 14/15 June. With three armies, the allies subsequently cleared Northern Germany of French forces, Denmark, who had maintained the alliance with Napoleon because of the Swedish claim to Norway, was isolated and, as a consequence of the war, bankrupt. It consisted of 14 articles, to two articles were added in Brussels on 7 April. In article III, the United Kingdom was obliged to return all occupied Danish possessions to the Danish king, excepted was the island of Heligoland, where the British king was granted full and unlimited sovereignty. Article VIII was concerned with the abolishment of slave trade, in article X, the British king promised the Danish king to negotiate further compensation for Denmarks territorial cessions to Sweden in a pending final peace. In article XIII, older Dano-British treaties were confirmed, the treaty between the Kingdom of Denmark and the Kingdom of Sweden was negotiated by Danish diplomat Edmund Bourke and Swedish envoy Baron Gustaf af Wetterstedt with British mediation. It consisted of 28 articles and one separate article, in article IV, the Danish king in his and his successors name irrevocably and forever renounced claims to the Kingdom of Norway in favor of the Swedish king
30.
Erik the Red's Land
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Erik the Reds Land was the name given by Norwegians to an area on the coast of eastern Greenland occupied by Norway in the early 1930s. It was named after Erik the Red, the founder of the first Norse settlements in Greenland in the 10th century, the Permanent Court of International Justice ruled against Norway in 1933 and the country subsequently abandoned its claims. The first European settlement in Greenland was established by Norse colonists from Iceland around the year 1000, there were two main Norse settlements on Greenland, but both were on the southwestern coast of the island, far away from the area that later became Erik the Reds Land. From the 1260s the Norse colony in Greenland recognized the King of Norway as its overlord, when Norway was under Danish rule as part of Denmark-Norway, from the Middle Ages until 1814, official documents made it clear that Greenland was part of Norway. However, contact with the settlements there was lost in the Late Middle Ages, centuries later a Dano-Norwegian evangelist, Hans Egede, heard about the Viking colony on Greenland. Egede reached Greenland in 1721 and, finding no Norse population there and this led to his becoming known as the Apostle of Greenland and he was appointed Bishop of Greenland. He founded the current capital of Greenland, called Godthaab, in 1723 The Bergen Greenland Company received a concession for all trade with Greenland. For the remainder of the union between Norway and Denmark, the relationship between Greenland and the state was organised in different ways, modern historians disagree as to what point in history Greenland went from being a Norwegian possession to being a Danish one. However, the Treaty of Kiel, signed in 1814, indicates that Greenland was at least politically regarded as having been Norwegian. the Kingdom of Norway, shall for the future belong to. His Majesty the King of Sweden, Norway never recognised the validity of the Treaty of Kiel. In 1919 Denmark claimed the whole of Greenland as its territory, Norway claimed that the area was terra nullius, it had no permanent inhabitants and was for the most part used by Norwegian whalers and trappers. The area was defined as situated between Carlsberg Fjord in the South and Bessel Fjord in the North, extending from latitude 71°30 to latitude 75°40N. Although it was not explicitly stated in the proclamation itself, it was assumed that the area was limited to the eastern coast, so that the Inland Ice constituted its western limit. Norway and Denmark agreed to settle their dispute over Eastern Greenland in what known as the Greenland case at the Permanent Court of International Justice in 1933. Norway lost and after the ruling it abandoned its claim, during the 1940–1945 German occupation of Norway in World War II, the territorial claim was briefly revived by the puppet Quisling regime, which extended it to cover all of Greenland. Cartographic expeditions to Greenland King Christian X Land Full Text of the PCIJ Judgment, no.53 Eirik the Red’s Land, the land that never was Aftenposten article Karmøybladet article
31.
Greenland in World War II
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In 1940, Greenland was a Danish colony. The fall of Denmark to German invasion in April 1940 left Greenland an unoccupied territory of an occupied nation, to forestall this, the United States acted to guarantee Greenlands position. However, with the entrance of the United States into the war in December 1941, the U. S. Coast Guard also provided a considerable portion of the civilian resupply task up and down both coasts. Before the war, Greenland was a tightly controlled colony of Denmark, after the Invasion of Denmark on 9 April 1940, Greenland was left on its own, because the Royal Navy seized any ships arriving from Axis-controlled Europe. Britain and Canada initially laid plans to occupy points of interest on the island and this step was taken in coordination with the Danish envoy to Washington D. C. Henrik de Kauffmann, and the U. S. State Department and this diplomatic stance was seen as an extension of the Monroe Doctrine. Although the Danish government continued in power and still considered itself neutral, Kauffmann immediately recognized that his government was unable to exercise its full sovereignty, and therefore began to act in an independent capacity. On 13 April he took council with the Greenland sheriffs, the Danish Government continued to send orders to the colony via radio and through Portugal, but these messages were ignored. In this decision they were influenced by their determination to avoid becoming subject to a Canadian occupation, the Greenlanders were also aware of the heavy Norwegian presence in Canada. In the event that Canada attempted to occupy the colony, they were worried that Free Norwegian Forces would be stationed in the area. This was a cause for concern, as the Norwegians had been vying for control over part of the territory until the Permanent Court of International Justice settled the dispute in 1933. Accepting the protection of the Americans, a party, was seen as less of a threat to Greenlands sovereignty. Comanche arrived at Ivigtut on 20 May, and Godthaab on 22 May, Canada sent a consul and vice-consul to Godthaab two weeks later. In 1940, the concern of all interested parties was to secure the strategically important supply of cryolite from the mine at Ivigtut. Cryolite was a key component used in the production of aluminum, three-inch naval deck guns were supplied by Campbell and the recently arrived USCGC Northland along with eight machine guns, fifty rifles, and thousands of rounds of ammunition. In this way the United States maintained neutrality and still preempted British-Canadian plans for the island, Brun decided that Greenland should untertake its own measures to ensure its sovereignty. He made an appeal to the Greenlands guides and hunters to join a unit tasked with patrolling the most remote areas of the colony. Using the rifles left by the Americans, he directed the creation of what became the Sirius Sledge Patrol, the 15 man volunteer team was made up of native Inuit, Danish colonists, and Norwegian expatriates
32.
1968 Thule Air Base B-52 crash
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On 21 January 1968, an aircraft accident involving a United States Air Force B-52 bomber occurred near Thule Air Base in the Danish territory of Greenland. Six crew members ejected safely, but one who did not have a seat was killed while trying to bail out. The United States and Denmark launched an intensive clean-up and recovery operation, USAF Strategic Air Command Chrome Dome operations were discontinued immediately after the accident, which highlighted the safety and political risks of the missions. Safety procedures were reviewed and more stable explosives were developed for use in nuclear weapons, Workers involved in the clean-up program have been campaigning for compensation for radiation-related illnesses they experienced in the years after the accident. The flights were scheduled to ensure that twelve bombers were aloft at all times and these bombers gave SAC offensive capability in the event of a Soviet first strike, and provided a significant Cold War nuclear deterrent. Beginning in 1961, B-52 bombers also flew as part of the Hard Head mission over Thule Air Base. SAC and the Joint Chiefs of Staff opposed the plan, so a compromise was reached whereby a smaller force of four bombers would be on each day. Despite the reduced program and the highlighted by the 1966 Palomares B-52 crash. This assignment was without the knowledge of authorities in the United States. The bomber crew consisted of five crew members, including Captain John Haug. Also aboard were a substitute navigator and a third pilot. Before take-off, DMario placed three cloth-covered foam cushions on top of a vent under the instructor navigators seat in the aft section of the lower deck. Shortly after take-off, another cushion was placed under the seat, the flight was uneventful until the scheduled mid-air refueling from a KC-135 Stratotanker, which had to be conducted manually because of an error with the B-52Gs autopilot. About one hour after refueling, while the aircraft was circling above its designated area and his seat was taken by the spare pilot, DMario. Because of a malfunction, the air barely cooled as it traveled from the engine manifold to the cabins heating ducts. During the next half-hour, the temperature became uncomfortably hot. After one crew member reported smelling burning rubber, they looked for a fire, the navigator searched the lower compartment twice before discovering the fire behind a metal box. He attempted to fight it with two fire extinguishers, but could not put it out, at 15,22 EST, about six hours into the flight and 90 miles south of Thule Air Base, Haug declared an emergency
33.
Greenlandic self-government referendum, 2008
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A non-binding referendum on Greenlands autonomy was held on 25 November 2008. It was passed with 75% approval and a 72% turnout, the referendum was announced by Prime Minister Hans Enoksen on 2 January 2008. Enoksen also announced the launch of an information and discussion campaign on the issue of self-government and this included town hall meetings throughout the country. Greenland became a Danish colony in 1775 and was made a province of Denmark in 1953, in 1979, it was made an autonomous country within the Kingdom of Denmark, with a parliament and local control of health care, schools, and social services. In 1985, it withdrew from the European Economic Community to maintain control of fishing in its territorial waters, there has been some movement towards independence, encouraged by Denmark but held back by Greenlands need for economic subsidies. A2003 report from the Commission on Self-Governance outlined six possibilities for the future of Greenland, federation Increased self-government for Greenland, beyond what is guaranteed today by the home rule. Complete integration Although the referendum was non-binding upon the Danish parliament, under the proposal, Greenlands subsidies from Copenhagen would be phased out. If enacted, Greenlanders would become a people under international law. The referendum passed and the results took effect on 21 June 2009, the Greenlandic government has stated that this is a major step towards independence. The referendum gives Greenland control of the force, coastguard. In addition, Greenlandic will become the official language once the referendum is enacted. Oil revenues will be divided differently, as well, the first 75 million kroner will go to Greenland, and the remaining revenue will be split evenly with Denmark. The result was met some skepticism by Danish politicians. Per Ørum Jørgensen, who helped negotiate the agreement, said that it may be 30–40 years before Greenland is ready to charge of itself
34.
Coat of arms of Greenland
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The coat of arms of Greenland is a blue shield featuring a silver polar bear. This symbol was first introduced in the coat of arms of Denmark in 1666, in a Danish context, the bear was originally shown walking naturally, but an upright position was specified in 1819. The 1470 London Roll shows an arms captioned Le Roy de Greneland featuring a shield depicting a polar bear surrounded by three birds and this royal title did not reflect any official title, but merely that the arms could be used by anyone controlling Greenland. The version currently used by the government of Greenland was designed by Greenlandic artist Jens Rosing, the polar bear symbolizes the fauna of Greenland and the blue colour designates the Atlantic and the Arctic Ocean Greenland is washed by. A similar arms is used by the official Danish government representative in Greenland, in this case, the bear raises its right paw, and the shield is crowned with the royal crown. The official Danish specification of the arms does not specify which forepaw is raised, the adherents of the full independence of Greenland use a green background. A blazon in heraldic terms is, Azure, a bear rampant argent
35.
Geography of Greenland
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Greenland is located between the Arctic Ocean and the North Atlantic Ocean, northeast of Canada and northwest of Iceland. The territory comprises the island of Greenland–the largest island in the more than a hundred other smaller islands. As an island, Greenland has no boundaries and 44,087 km of coastline. A sparse population is confined to small settlements along certain sectors of the coast, Greenland possesses the worlds second largest ice sheet. Greenland sits atop the Greenland plate, a subplate of the North American plate, the Greenland craton is made up of some of the oldest rocks on the face of the earth. The Isua greenstone belt in southwestern Greenland contains the oldest known rocks on Earth, the vegetation is generally sparse, with the only patch of forested land being found in Nanortalik Municipality in the extreme south near Cape Farewell. The climate is arctic to subarctic, with summers and cold winters. The terrain is mostly a flat but gradually sloping icecap that covers all land except for a narrow, mountainous, barren, the lowest elevation is sea level and the highest elevation is the summit of Gunnbjørn Fjeld, the highest point in the Arctic at 3,694 meters. The northernmost point of the Island of Greenland is Cape Morris Jesup, natural resources include zinc, lead, iron ore, coal, molybdenum, gold, platinum, uranium, hydropower and fish. Continuous ice sheet covers 84% of the country, the rest is permafrost, protection of the Arctic environment, climate change, pollution of the food chain, excessive hunting of endangered species. The Greenland ice sheet is 3 kilometers thick and broad enough to blanket an area the size of Mexico, if the ice melted, the interior bedrock below sea level would be covered by water. It is not clear whether this water would be at sea level or a lake above sea level, if it would be at sea level it could connect to the sea at Ilulissat Icefjord, in Baffin Bay and near Nordostrundingen, creating three large islands. But it is most likely that it would be a lake with one drain and it is thought that before the Ice Age Greenland had mountainous edges, and a lowland center which drained to the sea by one big river flowing out westwards past where Disko Island is now. There is concern about sea level caused by ice loss on Greenland. Between 1997 and 2003 ice loss was 68–92 km3/a, compared to about 60 km3/a for 1993/4-1998/9, half of the increase was from higher summer melting, with the rest caused by velocities of some glaciers exceeding those needed to balance upstream snow accumulation. A complete loss of ice on Greenland would cause a sea rise of as much as 6.40 meters. Researchers at NASAs Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the University of Kansas reported in February 2006 that the glaciers are melting twice as fast as they were five years ago, the increased ice loss may be partially offset by increased snow accumulation due to increased precipitation. These are the Jakobshavn Isbræ at Ilulissat on the edge of Greenland
36.
Climate of the Arctic
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The climate of the Arctic is characterized by long, cold winters and short, cool summers. There is an amount of variability in climate across the Arctic. Some parts of the Arctic are covered by ice year-round, average January temperatures range from about −34 °C to 0 °C, and winter temperatures can drop below −50 °C over large parts of the Arctic. Average July temperatures range from about −10 to +10 °C, with land areas occasionally exceeding 30 °C in summer. The Arctic consists of ocean that is surrounded by land. As such, the climate of much of the Arctic is moderated by the ocean water, in summer, the presence of the nearby water keeps coastal areas from warming as much as they might otherwise. There are different definitions of the Arctic, the most widely used definition, the area north of the Arctic Circle, where, on the June solstice, the sun does not set is used in astronomical and some geographical contexts. This definition of the Arctic can be divided into four different regions. The Canadian Arctic Archipelago includes the large and small islands, except Greenland, on the Canadian side of the Arctic, the entire island of Greenland, although its ice sheet and ice-free coastal regions have different climatic conditions. Due to the lack of population centres in the Arctic, weather and climate observations from the region tend to be widely spaced and of short duration compared to the midlatitudes. Much of the exploration of the Arctic was motivated by the search for the Northwest and Northeast Passages. Sixteenth- and seventeenth-century expeditions were largely driven by traders in search of these shortcuts between the Atlantic and the Pacific and these forays into the Arctic did not venture far from the North American and Eurasian coasts, and were unsuccessful at finding a navigable route through either passage. National and commercial expeditions continued to expand the detail on maps of the Arctic through the eighteenth century and these early explorations did provide a sense of the sea ice conditions in the Arctic and occasionally some other climate-related information. By the early 19th century some expeditions were making a point of collecting more detailed meteorological, oceanographic, and geomagnetic observations, beginning in the 1850s regular meteorological observations became more common in many countries, and the British navy implemented a system of detailed observation. As a result, expeditions from the half of the nineteenth century began to provide a picture of the Arctic climate. The first major effort by Europeans to study the meteorology of the Arctic was the First International Polar Year in 1882 to 1883, eleven nations provided support to establish twelve observing stations around the Arctic. The observations were not as widespread or long-lasting as would be needed to describe the climate in detail, in 1884 the wreckage of the Jeanette, a ship abandoned three years earlier off Russias eastern Arctic coast, was found on the coast of Greenland. This caused Fridtjof Nansen to realize that the sea ice was moving from the Siberian side of the Arctic to the Atlantic side
37.
Climate change in the Arctic
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The effects of global warming in the Arctic include rising temperatures, loss of sea ice, and melting of the Greenland ice sheet. Potential methane release from the region, especially through the thawing of permafrost, because of the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming, it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming. The melting of Greenlands ice sheet is linked to polar amplification, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, warming in the Arctic, as indicated by daily maximum and minimum temperatures, has been as great as in any other part of the world. The period of 1995-2005 was the warmest decade in the Arctic since at least the 17th century, some regions within the Arctic have warmed even more rapidly, with Alaska and western Canadas temperature rising by 3 to 4 °C. This warming has caused not only by the rise in greenhouse gas concentration. The authors conclude that anthropogenic increases in greenhouse gases have led to unprecedented regional warmth, the poles of the Earth are more sensitive to any change in the planets climate than the rest of the planet. In the face of ongoing global warming, the poles are warming faster than lower latitudes, the primary cause of this phenomenon is ice-albedo feedback, whereby melting ice uncovers darker land or ocean beneath, which then absorbs more sunlight, causing more heating. The loss of the Arctic sea ice may represent a point in global warming, when runaway climate change starts. Sea ice is currently in decline in area, extent, and volume and may cease to exist sometime during the 21st century. Sea ice area refers to the area covered by ice, whereas sea ice extent is the area of ocean with at least 15% sea ice. Reliable measurement of sea ice edges began with the era in the late 1970s. Before this time, sea ice area and extent were monitored less precisely by a combination of ships, buoys, the data show a long-term negative trend in recent years, attributed to global warming, although there is also a considerable amount of variation from year to year. Some of this variation may be related to such as the arctic oscillation. The Arctic sea ice September minimum extent reached new lows in 2002,2005,2007. The 2007 melt season let to a minimum 39% below the 1979-2000 average, and for the first time in human memory, the dramatic 2007 melting surprised and concerned scientists. From 2008 to 2011, Arctic sea ice minimum extent was higher than 2007, in 2012 however, the 2007 record low was broken in late August with 3 weeks still left in the melt season. The rate of the decline in entire ice coverage is accelerating. From 1979–1996, the average per decade decline in entire ice coverage was a 2. 2% decline in ice extent, for the decade ending 2008, these values have risen to 10. 1% and 10. 7%, respectively
38.
Geology of Greenland
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Greenland is the largest island on Earth. Only one-fifth of its area is exposed bedrock, the rest being covered by ice. The exposed surface is approximately 410,000 km2, the geology of Greenland is dominated by crystalline rocks of the Precambrian Shield. The crystalline rocks of the Nuuk/Qeqertarsuatsiaat area comprise some of the oldest bedrock in Greenland which covers most of western Greenland, the surface has been altered several times and has an appearance as though it were shaped billions of years ago. The bedrock around Nuuk consists of two major lithologic packages, the dark melanocratic Amitsoq gneiss, which is intruded by and complexly folded into the younger leucocratic Nuuk gneiss and this western gneiss complex is approximately 3600 million years old. The Isua Greenstone Belt in the Isukasia area, southwest Greenland, is extraordinary in that it some of the oldest bedrock on the planet. The bedrock is not nearly as metamorphosed as the surrounding bedrock and is therefore of interest for answering how the earths surface appeared billions of years ago. There is a massive magnetite resource in this area, there are large deposits of rare earth oxides at Kvanefjeld. Greenlands first gold mine is the Nalunaq mine, which opened in 2004, Nalunaq is located 33 km northeast of Nanortalik, in the Ketilidian Orogenic Belt of southern Greenland. Quartz-gold mineralization has been dated to 1.77 to 1.80 billion years ago, the Skaergaard intrusion is a layered mafic intrusion in eastern Greenland formed 55 million years ago during the opening of the North Atlantic ocean. Skaergaard is one of the worlds foremost examples of a layered intrusion which exhibits exceptionally well-developed cumulate layering
39.
Greenland ice sheet
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The Greenland ice sheet is a vast body of ice covering 1,710,000 square kilometres, roughly 80% of the surface of Greenland. It is the second largest ice body in the world, after the Antarctic ice sheet, the ice sheet is almost 2,400 kilometres long in a north-south direction, and its greatest width is 1,100 kilometres at a latitude of 77°N, near its northern margin. The mean altitude of the ice is 2,135 metres, the thickness is generally more than 2 km and over 3 km at its thickest point. It is not the only ice mass of Greenland – isolated glaciers, if the entire 2,850,000 cubic kilometres of ice were to melt, it would lead to a global sea level rise of 7.2 m. The Greenland Ice Sheet is sometimes referred to under the term inland ice, or its Danish equivalent and it is also sometimes referred to as an ice cap. From about 11 million years ago to 10 million years ago, the Greenland Ice Sheet formed in the middle Miocene by coalescence of ice caps and glaciers. There was an intensification of glaciation during the Late Pliocene, Ice sheet formation occurred in connection to uplift of the West Greenland and East Greenland uplands. The Western and Easter Greenland mountains constitute passive continental margins that were uplifted in two phases,10 and 5 million years ago, in the Miocene epoch, computer modelling shows that the uplift would have enabled glaciation by producing increased orographic precipitation and cooling the surface temperatures. The oldest known ice in the current ice sheet is as old as 110,000 years, if the ice suddenly disappeared, Greenland would most probably appear as an archipelago, at least until isostasy lifted the land surface above sea level once again. The ice surface reaches its greatest altitude on two elongated domes, or ridges. The southern dome reaches almost 3,000 metres at latitudes 63°–65°N, the crests of both domes are displaced east of the centre line of Greenland. The unconfined ice sheet does not reach the sea along a broad front anywhere in Greenland, the ice margin just reaches the sea, however, in a region of irregular topography in the area of Melville Bay southeast of Thule. The best known of these outlet glaciers is Jakobshavn Glacier, which, at its terminus, on the ice sheet, temperatures are generally substantially lower than elsewhere in Greenland. The lowest mean annual temperatures, about −31 °C, occur on the part of the north dome. During winter, the ice sheet takes on a clear blue/green color, during summer, the top layer of ice melts leaving pockets of air in the ice that makes it look white. The ice sheet, consisting of layers of compressed snow from more than 100,000 years, in the past decades, scientists have drilled ice cores up to 4 kilometres deep. This variety of climatic proxies is greater than in any other natural recorder of climate, many scientists who study the ice melt in Greenland consider that a two or three °C temperature rise would result in a complete melting of Greenland’s ice. Positioned in the Arctic, the Greenland ice sheet is especially vulnerable to climate change, Arctic climate is believed to be now rapidly warming and much larger Arctic shrinkage changes are projected
40.
Northeast Greenland National Park
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Northeast Greenland National Park is the worlds largest and most northerly national park. It is the largest protected area in the world. It was the first national park to be created in the Kingdom of Denmark, the large interior of the park is part of the Greenland Ice Sheet, but there are also large ice-free areas along the coast and on Peary Land in the north. Besides Peary land, the park includes the King Frederick VIII Land, the area is subject to larger loss of ice than expected. In January 1977 it was designated a biosphere reserve. The park is overseen by the Greenland Department of Environment and Nature, the historical research camps on the ice sheet−Eismitte and North Ice−fall within the boundaries of the present-day park. The park has no permanent human population, in 1986, the permanent population of the park was 40, living at Mestersvig, although 400 sites saw occasional summertime use. These 40 were involved in cleanup and closeout operations at mining exploration sites, since then censuses have recorded zero permanent human population. The research station ZERO 74°28′11″N 20°34′15″W can cater for over 20 scientists, an estimated 5,000 to 15,000 musk oxen, as well as numerous polar bears and walrus, can be found near the coastal regions of the park. This is claimed to be 40% of the population of musk ox. Other mammals include Arctic fox, stoat, collared lemming and Arctic hare, other marine mammals include ringed seal, bearded seal, harp seal and hooded seal as well as narwhal and Beluga whale. Species of birds breed in the park include great northern diver, barnacle goose, pink-footed goose, common eider, king eider, gyrfalcon, snowy owl, sanderling, ptarmigan
41.
Flora and fauna of Greenland
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Although the bulk of its area is covered by ice caps inhospitable to most forms of life, Greenlands terrain and waters support a wide variety of plant and animal species. The northeastern part of the country is the worlds largest national park, the flora and fauna of Greenland are strongly susceptible to changes associated with climate change. 310 species of plants were said to be found in Greenland in 1911. Although individual plants can be profuse in favourable situations, relatively few plant species tend to be represented in a given place, except for in Qinngua Valley, Greenland has no native forests, although 9 stands of conifers had been cultivated by 2007. In northern Greenland, the ground is covered with a carpet of mosses and low-lying shrubs such as dwarf willows, common flowering plants in the north include bog rosemary, yellow poppy, Pedicularis, and Pyrola. Plant life in southern Greenland is more abundant, and certain plants, such as the birch and willow. The only natural forest in Greenland is found in the Qinngua Valley, the forest consists of mainly of downy birch and grey-leaf willow, growing up to 7–8 metres tall. Horticulture shows a degree of success. Over the last decade, the season has lengthened by as much as three weeks. In the 13th-century Konungs skuggsjá, it is stated that the old Norsemen tried in vain to raise barley, among the large land mammals are the musk ox, the reindeer, the polar bear and the white Arctic wolf. Other familiar mammals in Greenland include the Arctic hare, collared lemming, ermine, reindeer hunting is of considerable cultural importance to the people of Greenland. As many as two million seals are estimated to inhabit Greenlands coasts, species include the seal as well as the grey seal. Whales frequently pass very close to Greenlandic shores in the late summer, species represented include the beluga whale, blue whale, Greenland whale, fin whale, humpback whale, minke whale, narwhal, pilot whale, sperm whale. Whaling was formerly a major industry in Greenland, by the turn of the 20th century, however, walruses are to be found primarily in the north and east of the country, like narwhal, they have at times suffered from overhunting for their tusks. As of 1911,61 species of birds were known to breed in Greenland, certain birds such as the eider duck, guillemot and ptarmigan are hunted for food in the winter. Of the many species of fish inhabiting Greenlands waters, several have been of importance, including cod, caplin, halibut, rockfish, nipisak. The Greenland shark is used for the oil in its liver, as well as fermented and eaten as hákarl, fauna List of mammals of Nunavut List of Nunavut birds Flora List of Canadian plants by family
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