1.
Glossary of vexillology
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Flag terminology is the nomenclature, or system of terms, used in vexillology, the study of flags, to describe precisely the parts, patterns, and other attributes of flags and their display. Badge A coat of arms or simple heraldic symbol, canton Any quarter of a flag, but commonly means the upper hoist quarter, such as the field of stars in the flag of the United States or the Union Jack in the Australian Flag. Charge A figure or symbol appearing in the field of a flag, emblem A device often used as a charge on a flag. It may be heraldic in origin or modern, for example the maple leaf on the Canadian Flag, field The background of a flag, the color behind the charges. Fimbriation A narrow edging or border, often in white or gold, for example the white and gold lines of the South African Flag. Fly The half or edge of a flag farthest away from the flagpole and this term also sometimes refers to the horizontal length of a flag. Hoist The half or edge of a flag nearest to the flagpole and this term also sometimes refers to the vertical width of a flag. Length The span of a flag along the side at right angles to the flagpole, width The span of a flag down the side parallel to the flagpole. Flags often inherit traits seen in traditional European heraldry designs and as a result patterns often share names, banderole or bannerol A small flag or streamer carried on the lance of a knight, or a long narrow flag flying from the mast-head of a ship. Banner Generically, a synonym for a flag of any kind, in heraldry, a flag whose design is the same as the shield in a coat of arms, but usually in a square or rectangular shape, also known as a banner of arms. Burgee A distinguishing flag of a recreational boating organisation, Civil ensign, merchant flag or merchant ensign A version of the national flag flown by civil ships to denote nationality. Civil flag A version of the flag flown by civilians on non-government installations or craft. Colour or color The flag of a military unit, courtesy flag or courtesy ensign A flag flown by a visiting ship in foreign waters as a token of respect. Ensign The flag of a ship or military unit, may also be used generically as a synonym for a flag of any kind. Fanion A small flag used by the French military, gonfalon, gonfanon or gonfalone A type of heraldic flag suspended from a crossbar. Guidon A small flag borne by a military unit, in Scots heraldry, a smaller version of the Standard. Pennon or pennant A flag larger at the hoist than at the fly, pipe banner A decorative flag for the Scottish Highland bagpipes. Prayer flag A type of flag found strung along mountain ridges and peaks in the Himalayas, rank flag or distinguishing flag The flag flown by a superior naval officer on his flagship or headquarters
Glossary of vexillology
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Contents
2.
National flag
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A national flag is a flag that symbolizes a country. The flag is flown by the government, but usually can also be flown by citizens of the country, historically, flags originate as military standards, used as field signs. The practice of flying flags indicating the country of origin outside of the context of warfare became common with the flag, introduced during the age of sail. Most countries of Europe adopted a flag in the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The specifications of the flag of Denmark were codified in 1748, the flag of Switzerland was introduced in 1889, also based on medieval war flags. The Netherlands introduced two national flags in 1813, the Ottoman flag was adopted in 1844. Other non-European powers followed the trend in the late 19th century, the flag of Japan being introduced in 1870, the Flag of the United States is not defined in the constitution but rather in a separate Flag Resolution passed in 1777. Minor design changes of national flags are passed on a legislative or executive level. A change in national flag is due to a change of regime. In such cases, the origins of the national flag. In such cases national flags acquire the status of a political symbol, the flag of Germany, for instance, was a tricolour of black-white-red under the German Empire, inherited from the North German Confederation. The Weimar Republic that followed adopted a black-red-gold tricolour, nazi Germany went back to black-white-red in 1933, and black-red-gold was reinstituted by the two successor states, West Germany and East Germany following World War II. Similarly the flag of Libya introduced with the creation of the Kingdom of Libya in 1951 was abandoned in 1969 with the coup led by Muammar Gaddafi. It was used again by National Transitional Council and by anti-Gaddafi forces during the Libyan Civil War in 2011 and officially adopted by the Libyan interim Constitutional Declaration. There are three types of national flag for use on land, and three for use at sea, though many countries use identical designs for several of these types of flag. On land, there is a distinction between civil flags, state flags, and war or military flags, state flags are those used officially by government agencies, whereas civil flags may be flown by anyone regardless of whether they are linked to government. War flags are used by organisations such as Armies, Marine Corps. In practice, many countries have identical flags for these three purposes, national flag is used as a vexillological term to refer to such a three-purpose flag
National flag
National flag
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The world's third tallest
flagpole flying a 270 kg (595 lb)
Flag of North Korea. It is 160 m (525 ft) in height, over
Kijŏng-dong ("Peace village") near
Panmunjom, the border of
North Korea and
South Korea.
National flag
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Distribution of colours in national flags
3.
National ensign
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Ensign is the national flag flown on a vessel to indicate nationality. The ensign is the largest flag, generally flown at the stern of the ship, the naval ensign, used on warships, may be different from the civil ensign or the yacht ensign. Large versions of naval ensigns called battle ensigns are used when a warship goes into battle, the ensign differs from the jack which is flown from a jackstaff at the bow of a vessel. In its widest sense, an ensign is just a flag or other standard, the European military rank of ensign, once responsible for bearing a units standard derives from it. In contrast, the Arab rank of ensign, liwa, derives from the command of a unit or units with an ensign, not the carrier of such a units ensign, and is a general officer. In Arab armies, ensign is a title equivalent to a Western brigade. In nautical use, the ensign is flown on a ship or boat to indicate its appartenance, while this includes its nationality, it may well indicate more information rather than being the national flag itself. This is particularly common for commonwealth and European countries, ensigns are usually at the stern flagstaff when in port, and may be shifted to a gaff or mast amidships when the ship is under way, becoming known as a steaming ensign. Vexillologists distinguish three varieties of a national flag used as an ensign, A civil ensign is worn by merchant. In some countries the yacht ensign, used on boats or ships instead of merchant vessels. A state ensign or government ensign is worn by government vessels, a naval ensign is used by a countrys navy. Such ensigns are strictly regulated and indicate if the vessel is a warship, a merchant ship, several Commonwealth countries national flags had their origin in the ensigns of their original colonising power, the United Kingdom. Most notable of these flags are those of Australia, New Zealand. It is also likely that the original design from which the flag of the United States developed was strongly influenced by the British Red Ensign or the flag of the East India Company. With the creation of independent air forces and the growth in aviation in the first half of the 20th century. These may be divided into air force ensigns and civil air ensigns, in heraldry, an ensign is the ornament or sign, such as the crown, coronet, or mitre, borne above the charge or arms. Distinguishing mark Maritime flag Znamierowski, Alfred, the world encyclopedia of flags, The definitive guide to international flags, banners, standards and ensigns
National ensign
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National civil ensign of New Zealand flown from the stern of
Hikitia
National ensign
National ensign
4.
Tricolour (flag)
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A tricolour or tricolor is a type of flag or banner design with a triband design which originated in the 16th century as a symbol of republicanism, liberty or indeed revolution. One of the most famous tricolour, known as Le Tricolore, is the flag of France adopted in the French Revolution. The green-white-red tricolour remained a symbol of republicanism throughout the 19th century and was adopted as national flag by a number of following the Revolutions of 1848. It was also adopted by the Kingdom of Sardinia and this flag was a symbol of opposition against the German Kleinstaaterei and the desire for German Unification. It was at first illegal in the German Confederation, but was adopted as the flag at the Frankfurt Parliament of 1848/9. The flag of Belgium was introduced in a context, in 1831. The first national flag of the New World inspired by this symbolism was the flag of Mexico, the Pan-Arab colors adopted in Arab nationalism 1916 are a comparable concept, even though they combine four, not three, colours. The Indian independence movement in 1931 also adopted a tricolour in the symbolism of national unification and republican self-rule. In 1999, a red, green, and blue tricolour was proposed as the Flag of Mars, the design symbolizes liberty, and also the terraforming of Mars by humanity from a red planet to a green one, and eventually an Earth-like blue one. List of countries by style of national flags Fin flash on military aircraft, sometimes in a tricolor form Triband
Tricolour (flag)
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The White flag of the
monarchy transformed into the Tricolore as a result of the
July Revolution, painting by
Léon Cogniet (1830).
Tricolour (flag)
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Indian tricolour, Tiranga with the
Emblem of India (above the flag) and
Ashoka Chakra (centre of the flag).
Tricolour (flag)
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Dutch tricolour, the oldest tricolour still in use
Tricolour (flag)
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Italian tricolour, the "Tricolore"
5.
Kufic
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Kufic is the oldest calligraphic form of the various Arabic scripts and consists of a modified form of the old Nabataean script. Kufic developed around the end of the 7th century in Kufa, Iraq, from which it takes its name, Kufic was prevalent in manuscripts from the 7th to 10th centuries. Until about the 11th century it was the script used to copy the Quran. Professional copyists employed a form of kufic for reproducing the earliest surviving copies of the Quran. Kufic is commonly seen on Seljuk coins and monuments and on early Ottoman coins and its decorative character led to its use as a decorative element in several public and domestic buildings constructed prior to the Republican period in Turkey. The current flag of Iraq includes a rendition of the takbir. Similarly, the flag of Iran has the takbir written in white square kufic script a total of 22 times on the fringe of both the green and red bands, Square or geometric Kufic is a very simplified rectangular style of Kufic widely used for tiling. In Iran sometimes entire buildings are covered with tiles spelling sacred names like those of God, Muhammad and Ali in square Kufic, christoph Brunner, Basel 2014, ISBN 978-3-906206-10-3. Square Kufic lectures, alphabet, examples, square designs Kufic manuscript alphabet On The Origins Of The Kufic Script Kufic Script Square Kufic Script Square Kufic Square Kufic explained
Kufic
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Kufic script, 8th or 9th century (Surah 48: 27–28)
Qur'an.
Kufic
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Kufic script used in a copy of the
Qur'an
Kufic
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Calligraphy
Kufic
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Page from a Qur'an in Kufic style, 8th century (Surah 15: 67–74)
6.
Arabic language
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
Arabic language
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The Galland Manuscript of
One Thousand and One Nights, 14th century
Arabic language
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al-ʿArabiyyah in written Arabic (
Naskh script)
Arabic language
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Bilingual traffic sign in
Qatar.
Arabic language
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Examples of how the Arabic root and form system works.
7.
Red
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Red is the color at the longer-wavelengths end of the spectrum of visible light next to orange, at the opposite end from violet. Red color has a predominant light wavelength of roughly 620–740 nanometers, light with a longer wavelength than red but shorter than terahertz radiation and microwave is called infrared. Red is one of the secondary colors, resulting from the combination of yellow. Traditionally, it was viewed as a primary colour, along with yellow and blue, in the RYB color space and traditional color wheel formerly used by painters. Reds can vary in shade from light pink to very dark maroon or burgundy. Red is the color of cyan. In nature, the red color of blood comes from hemoglobin, the red color of the Grand Canyon and other geological features is caused by hematite or red ochre, both forms of iron oxide. It also causes the red color of the planet Mars, the color of autumn leaves is caused by pigments called anthocyanins, which are produced towards the end of summer, when the green chlorophyll is no longer produced. One to two percent of the population has red hair, the color is produced by high levels of the reddish pigment pheomelanin. Since red is the color of blood, it has historically been associated with sacrifice, danger, modern surveys in the United States and Europe show red is also the color most commonly associated with heat, activity, passion, sexuality, anger, love and joy. In China, India and many other Asian countries it is the color of symbolizing happiness, since the 19th century, red has also been associated with socialism and communism. The word red is derived from the Old English rēad, the word can be further traced to the Proto-Germanic rauthaz and the Proto-Indo European root rewdʰ-. In Sanskrit, the word means red or blood. In the Akkadian language of Ancient Mesopotamia and in the modern Inuit language of Inuit, the words for colored in Latin and Spanish both also mean red. In Portuguese the word for red is vermelho, which comes from Latin vermiculus, in the Russian language, the word for red, Кра́сный, comes from the same old Slavic root as the words for beautiful—красивый and excellent—прекрасный. Thus Red Square in Moscow, named long before the Russian Revolution, in heraldry, the word gules is used for red. Red can vary in hue from orange-red to violet-red, and for each hue there is a variety of shades and tints. Red hematite powder was found scattered around the remains at a grave site in a Zhoukoudian cave complex near Beijing
Red
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Pure, or solid red, the color of most ripe
strawberries.
Red
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Red
Red
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Scarlet is one quarter of the way between the colors red and orange. It is the color worn by a
cardinal of the
Roman Catholic Church..
Red
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The
cardinal takes its name from the color worn by Roman Catholic
cardinals.
8.
White
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White is an achromatic color, a color without hue. An incoming light to the eye that stimulates all its three types of color sensitive cone cells in nearly equal amounts results in white. White is one of the most common colors in nature, the color of sunlight, snow, milk, chalk, limestone, in many cultures white represents or signifies purity, innocence, and light, and is the symbolic opposite of black, or darkness. According to surveys in Europe and the United States, white is the color most often associated with perfection, the good, honesty, cleanliness, the beginning, the new, neutrality, and exactitude. In ancient Egypt and ancient Rome, priestesses wore white as a symbol of purity, in the Middle Ages and Renaissance a white unicorn symbolized chastity, and a white lamb sacrifice and purity, the widows of kings dressed in white rather than black as the color of mourning. It was also used in 20th century modern architecture as a symbol of modernity, simplicity. White is an important color for almost all world religions, the Pope, the head of the Roman Catholic Church, has worn white since 1566, as a symbol of purity and sacrifice. In Islam, and in the Shinto religion of Japan, it is worn by pilgrims, in Western cultures and in Japan, white is the most common color for wedding dresses, symbolizing purity and virginity. In many Asian cultures, white is also the color of mourning, the white color on television screens and computer monitors is created with the RGB color model by mixing red, green and blue light at equal intensities. The word white continues Old English hwīt, ultimately from a Common Germanic *χwītaz also reflected in OHG wîz, ON hvítr, the root is ultimately from Proto-Indo-European language *kwid-, surviving also in Sanskrit śveta to be white or bright and Slavonic světŭ light. The Icelandic word for white, hvítur, is derived from the Old Norse form of the word hvítr. Common Germanic also had the word *blankaz, borrowed into Late Latin as *blancus, the antonym of white is black. Some non-European languages have a variety of terms for white. The Inuit language has seven different words for seven different nuances of white, Japanese has six different words, depending upon brilliance or dullness, or if the color is inert or dynamic. White was one of the first colors used in art, the Lascaux Cave in France contains drawings of bulls and other animals drawn by paleolithic artists between 18,000 and 17,000 years ago. Paleolithic artists used calcite or chalk, they sometimes as a background, sometimes as a highlight, along with charcoal and red, in ancient Egypt, white was connected with the goddess Isis. The priests and priestesses of Isis dressed only in white linen, in Greece and other ancient civilizations, white was often associated with mothers milk. In Greek mythology, the chief god Zeus was nourished at the breast of the nymph Amalthea, in the Talmud, milk was one of four sacred substances, along with wine, honey, and the rose
White
White
White
White
9.
Black
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Black is the darkest color resulting from the absence or complete absorption of light. Like white and grey, it is a color, literally a color without hue. It is one of the four colors in the CMYK color model, along with cyan, yellow. Black is often used to represent darkness, it is the symbolic opposite of white, Black was one of the first colors used by artists in neolithic cave paintings. In the 14th century, it began to be worn by royalty and it became the color worn by English romantic poets, businessmen and statesmen in the 19th century, and a high fashion color in the 20th century. In the Roman Empire, it became the color of mourning, according to surveys in Europe and North America, it is the color most commonly associated with mourning, the end, secrets, magic, force, violence, evil, and elegance. More distant cognates include Latin flagrare, and Ancient Greek phlegein, the Ancient Greeks sometimes used the same word to name different colors, if they had the same intensity. Kuanos could mean both dark blue and black, the Ancient Romans had two words for black, ater was a flat, dull black, while niger was a brilliant, saturated black. Ater has vanished from the vocabulary, but niger was the source of the country name Nigeria the English word Negro, old High German also had two words for black, swartz for dull black and blach for a luminous black. These are parallelled in Middle English by the terms swart for dull black, swart still survives as the word swarthy, while blaek became the modern English black. In heraldry, the used for the black color is sable, named for the black fur of the sable. Black was one of the first colors used in art, the Lascaux Cave in France contains drawings of bulls and other animals drawn by paleolithic artists between 18,000 and 17,000 years ago. They began by using charcoal, and then made more vivid black pigments by burning bones or grinding a powder of manganese oxide, for the ancient Egyptians, black had positive associations, being the color of fertility and the rich black soil flooded by the Nile. It was the color of Anubis, the god of the underworld, who took the form of a black jackal, and offered protection against evil to the dead. For the ancient Greeks, black was also the color of the underworld, separated from the world of the living by the river Acheron and those who had committed the worst sins were sent to Tartarus, the deepest and darkest level. In the center was the palace of Hades, the king of the underworld, Black was one of the most important colors used by ancient Greek artists. In the 6th century BC, they began making pottery and later red figure pottery. In black-figure pottery, the artist would paint figures with a clay slip on a red clay pot
Black
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Outer space seen from Mars (Image taken by
NASA 's
MER Spirit rover)
Black
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Neolithic paintings of bulls in the
Lascaux Cave, more than 17,000 years old
Black
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Statue of Anubis, guardian of the underworld, from the tomb of
Tutankhamun.
Black
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Greek
Black-figure pottery.
Ajax and
Achilles playing a game, about 540-530 BC. (Vatican Museums).
10.
Pan-Arab colors
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The Pan-Arab colours are black, white, green, and red. Individually, each of the four Pan-Arab colours were intended to represent a certain Arab dynasty, or era. The four colours derived their potency from a verse by 14th century Iraqi poet Safi Al-Din Al-Hilli, « White are our acts, black our battles, green our fields, Pan-Arab colours were first combined in 1916 in the flag of the Arab Revolt. It may be noted that while Libya is an Arab country and has a flag with the four colours. From the 1950s onwards, a sub-set of the Pan-Arab colours and these consist of a tricolour of red, white and black bands, with green given less prominence. The Arab Liberation colours were inspired by the use of the Arab Liberation Flag in the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, list of Arab flags Pan-Arabism Tricolour Pan-Slavic colors Pan-African colours Pan-Arab colors Evolution of the Arab Flag, by Dr. Mahdi Abdul-Hadi
Pan-Arab colors
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Flag of the Arab Revolt
11.
Takbir
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The Takbīr, also transliterated Tekbir or Takbeer, is the Arabic phrase Allāhu akbar, usually translated as God is greatest. The form Allāhu is the nominative of Allah, meaning God, in the context of Islam, it is the proper name of God. The form akbar is the elative of the adjective kabīr, meaning great, as used in the Takbīr it is usually translated as greatest, but some authors prefer greater. The phrase is often transliterated less accurately as Allah akbar, the term Takbīr itself is the stem II verbal noun of the triliteral root k-b-r, meaning great, from which Akbar greater is derived. The phrase is known in the West for its common use as a battle cry in Islamic extremism. This phrase is recited by Muslims in many different situations, the phrase is not found in the Quran, which does not refer to God as Akbar, but uses the name Al-Kabir or Kabir, commonly translated as Most Great. The phrase is said during each stage of both obligatory prayers, and supererogatory prayers, the Muslim call to prayer by the muezzin and to commence prayer also contains the phrase. This phrase is used in times of distress. Just before a Garuda Airbus A300B-4 crashed into the jungle near Medan, Indonesia and it was suspected that the crash may have been due to either disorientation or engine failure caused by local dense smog resulting from forest fires. As a multi-purpose phrase, it is used by Arab football commentators as an expression of amazement. The phrase is used after the birth of a child as a means of praising God, in the hadith, Muhammad is reported to have spoken the Takbīr after a funeral. During the festival of Eid al-Adha and the days preceding it and this is particularly the case on the Day of Arafa. The phrase is known in the West for its common use as a battle cry in Islamist protests, Islamic extremism. It included a checklist of final reminders for the 9/11 hijackers, an excerpt reads, When the confrontation begins, strike like champions who do not want to go back to this world. Shout, Allahu Akbar, because this strikes fear in the hearts of the non-believers. and giving out boxes of halva, imam Samudra, who was sentenced to death for his role in the 2002 Bali bombings that killed 202 people, chanted the phrase upon hearing his sentence. In the video of Nick Berg being beheaded in Iraq in 2004, in 2008, Aafia Siddiqui is alleged to have fired at US interrogators while yelling Allah Akbar. During the 2009 Fort Hood shooting, witnesses reported that gunman Nidal Malik Hasan shouted Allahu Akbar before opening fire, killing 13 people, times Square bomber Faisal Shahzad smiled and said Allahu Akbar after receiving a life sentence in 2010 for his attempted bombing. During the incident aboard American Airlines Flight 1561 in 2011, the person attempting to bash his way into the cockpit was heard shouting Allahu Akbar, mohammed Merah recorded himself shouting Allahu Akbar as he killed three French paratroopers in the 2012 Midi-Pyrénées shootings
Takbir
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Allah Jalla Jalālah in
Arabic calligraphy
Takbir
–
A
Muslim raises both of his hands to recite the Takbīr in prayer.
12.
Kingdom of Iraq
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The Kingdom of Iraq was founded on 23 August 1921 under British administration following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the Mesopotamian campaign of World War I. The kingdom of Iraq was granted independence in 1932, following the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty. The independent Iraqi Kingdom under the Hashemite rulers underwent a period of turbulence through its entire existence, establishment of Sunni religious domination in Iraq was followed by Assyrian, Yazidi and Shia unrests, which were all brutally suppressed. In 1936, the first military coup took place in the Kingdom of Iraq, multiple coups followed in a period of political instability, peaking in 1941. During World War II, the Iraqi regime of Regent Abd al-Ilah was overthrown in 1941 by the Golden Square officers, the short-lived pro-Nazi government of Iraq was defeated in May 1941 by the allied forces in the Anglo-Iraqi War. Iraq was later used as a base for allied attacks on the Vichy-French-held Mandate of Syria, at the same time, the Kurdish leader Mustafa Barzani led a rebellion against the central government in Baghdad. After the failure of the uprising Barzani and his followers fled to the Soviet Union, in 1945, during the final stages of World War II, Iraq joined the United Nations and became a founding member of the Arab League. In 1948, massive violent protests, known as the Al-Wathbah uprising broke out across Baghdad as a demand against the government treaty with the British. More protests continued in spring, but were interrupted in May, with the martial law, in February 1958, King Hussein of Jordan and Abd al-Ilāh proposed a union of Hāshimite monarchies to counter the recently formed Egyptian-Syrian union. The resulting Arab Federation, formed on 14 February 1958 was short-lived and it ended in 1958, when the monarchy was overthrown in a military coup, led by Abd al-Karim Qasim. The territory of Iraq was under Ottoman dominance until the end of World War I, Faisal ibn Husayn, who had previously been proclaimed King of Syria by a Syrian National Congress in Damascus in March 1920, was ejected by the French in July of the same year. The civil government of postwar Iraq was headed originally by the High Commissioner, Sir Percy Cox, British reprisals after the murder of a British officer in Najaf failed to restore order. British administration had yet to be established in the mountains of north Iraq, the most striking problem facing the British was the growing anger of the nationalists. With the signing of the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty and the settling of the Mosul Question, thus, despite a constitution and an elected assembly, Iraqi politics was more a shifting alliance of important personalities and cliques than a democracy in the Western sense. The absence of broadly based political institutions inhibited the early nationalist movements ability to make inroads into Iraqs diverse social structure. The new Anglo-Iraqi Treaty was signed in June 1930 and it provided for a close alliance, for full and frank consultations between the two countries in all matters of foreign policy, and for mutual assistance in case of war. Iraq granted the British the use of air bases near Basra and at Al Habbaniyah, the treaty, of twenty-five years duration, was to come into force upon Iraqs admission to the League of Nations. This occurred on October 3,1932, in 1932, the Kingdom of Iraq was granted independence under King Faisal I
Kingdom of Iraq
–
Flag
13.
Flag of the Arab Revolt
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The Flag of the Arab Revolt was a flag used by the Arab nationalists during the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire during World War I. The flag was designed by the British diplomat Sir Mark Sykes, the horizontal colors stand for the Abbasid, Umayyad and Fatimid Caliphates. The red triangle refers to the Hashemite dynasty, the Hashemites were allies of the British in the conflict against the Ottoman Empire. After the war ended, the Hashemites achieved or were granted rule in the Hejaz region of Arabia, Jordan, formally known as the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, briefly in Greater Syria, Greater Syria was dissolved after only a few months of existence, in 1920. The Hashemites were overthrown in the Hejaz in 1925 by the House of Saud, and in Iraq in 1958 by a coup detat, but retained power in Jordan. A 60m x 30m version of the flag flies from the Aqaba Flagpole, currently the sixth tallest freestanding flagpole in the world, located in Aqaba. The flag contains the four Pan-Arab Colors, black, white, green, there is also a red triangle on the hoist side of the flag. Pan-Arab colors Flag of Saudi Arabia Kingdom of Hejaz Palestinian flag https, //www. britannica. com/topic/Arab-Revolt-Flag
Flag of the Arab Revolt
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The flag of the Arab revolt- Aqaba 2006
Flag of the Arab Revolt
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Flag ratio: 2:3
Flag of the Arab Revolt
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Soldiers in the Arab Army during the Arab Revolt of 1916-1918. They are carrying the Arab Flag of the Arab Revolt and pictured in the Arabian Desert
14.
Hashemite
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The House of Hashim, better known as the Hashemites Hashmi, are the royal family of the Hejaz, Iraq, and Jordan. Their eponymous ancestor is Hashim ibn Abd Manaf, great-grandfather of the Islamic prophet and his sons Abdullah and Faisal assumed the thrones of Jordan and Iraq in 1921. The dynasty is the oldest ruling dynasty in the Islamic World, the early history of the Hashemites saw them in a continuous struggle against the Umayyads for control over who would be the caliph or successor to Muhammad. The Umayyads were of the tribe as the Hashemites, but a different clan. After the overthrow of the Umayyads, the Abbasids would present themselves as representatives of the Hashemites, as they claimed descent from Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib, an uncle of Muhammad. Muhammads father had died before he was born, and his mother died while he was a child, so Muhammad was raised by his uncle Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib, chief of the Hashemites. From the 10th century onwards, the sharif of Mecca and its Emir was, by traditional agreement, before World War I, Hussein bin Ali of the Hashemite Dhawu-Awn clan ruled the Hejaz on behalf of the Ottoman sultan. For some time it had been the practice of the Sublime Porte to appoint the Emir of Mecca from among a group of candidates. In 1908, Hussein bin Ali was appointed to the Emirate of Mecca and he found himself increasingly at odds with the Young Turks in control at Istanbul, while he strove to secure his familys position as hereditary Emirs. Sharif Hussein bin Ali rebelled against the rule of the Ottomans during the Arab Revolt of 1916. Between 1917 and 1924, after the collapse of Ottoman power, Hussein bin Ali ruled an independent Hejaz, of which he proclaimed himself king and his supporters are sometimes referred to as Sharifians or the Sharifian party. Hussein bin Alis chief rival in the Arabian Peninsula, the king of the Najd, Ibn Saud, annexed the Hejaz in 1925 and established his own son, Faysal bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, the region was later incorporated into Saudi Arabia. Hussein bin Ali had five sons, Ali, who succeeded to the throne of Hejaz before its loss to the Saud family in 1925. Abdullah, became the amir of Transjordan in 1921 and king of Jordan in 1946, Faisal, briefly proclaimed King of the Arab Kingdom of Syria in 1920, became King of Iraq in 1921. Prince Zeid bin Hussein, who moved to Jordan when his brothers grandson, King Faisal II of Iraq, was overthrown, hassan, died at a young age. Line of succession to the Jordanian throne Line of succession to the Iraqi throne Hashemite Lineage
Hashemite
Hashemite
–
Coats of arms of Jordan, Iraq, and Hejaz
Hashemite
–
The Hashemite banner used ceremoniously by the Kingdom Of Jordan
15.
Hejaz
–
The Hejaz, also Al-Hijaz, is a region in the west of present-day Saudi Arabia. The region is so called as it separates the land of the Najd in the east from the land of Tihamah in the west and it is also known as the Western Province. It is bordered on the west by the Red Sea, on the north by Jordan, on the east by the Najd and its main city is Jeddah, but it is probably better known for the Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina. As the site of Islams holiest places, the Hejaz has significance in the Arab, historically, the Hejaz has always seen itself as separate from the rest of Saudi Arabia. The Hejaz is the most populated region in Saudi Arabia,35 % of all Saudis live in Hejaz, hejazi Arabic is the most widely spoken dialect in the region. Saudi Hejazis are of diverse origins. The Hejaz is the most cosmopolitan region in the Arabian Peninsula, people of Hejaz have the most strongly articulated identity of any regional grouping in Saudi Arabia. Their place of origin alienates them from the Saudi state, which invokes different narratives of the history of the Arabian Peninsula, thus, Hejazis experienced tensions with people of Najd. One or possibly two megalithic dolmen have been found in Al-Hijaz, the Hejaz includes both the Mahd adh-Dhahab and a water source, now dried out, that used to flow 600 miles north east to the Persian Gulf via the Wadi Al-Rummah and Wadi Al-Batin system. Archaeological research led by of Boston University and the University of Qassim indicates that the system was active in 8000 BCE. The northern part of the Hejaz was part of the Roman province of Arabia Petraea, Saudi Arabias first World Heritage Site that was recognized by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is that of Al-Hjir. The name Al-Hijr occurs in the Qur’an, and the site is known for having structures carved into rocks, construction of the structures is credited to the people of Thamud. Despite their rather Polytheistic nature, a member of folk was a Monotheistic preacher called Salih. After the disappearance of Thamud from Mada’in Saleh, it came under the influence of people, such as the Nabataeans. Later, it would lie in a used by Muslim Pilgrims going to Mecca. According to Islamic sources, the civilization of Mecca started after Ibrahim brought his son Isma‘il and wife Hajar here and it was during such an occasion that Muhammad met some Medinans who would allow him to migrate to Medina, to escape persecution by his opponents in Mecca. Given that he had followers and enemies here, a number of battles or expeditions were carried out in this area, like those of Badr. They involved both Meccan companions, such as Hamzah ibn ‘Abdul-Muttalib, Ubaydah ibn al-Harith and Sad ibn Abi Waqqas, the Hijaz fell under Muhammads influence as he emerged victorious over his opponents, and was thus a part of his empire
Hejaz
–
Map with the Saudi region outlined in red and the 1923
Kingdom in green
Hejaz
–
Mountains of Hejaz
16.
Arabian Peninsula
–
The Arabian Peninsula, simplified Arabia is a peninsula of Western Asia situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian plate. From a geological perspective, it is considered a subcontinent of Asia and it is the largest peninsula in the world, at 3,237,500 km2. The Arabian Peninsula consists of the countries Yemen, Oman, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, the Arabian Peninsula plays a critical geopolitical role in the Middle East and the Arab world due to its vast reserves of oil and natural gas. Before the modern era, it was divided into four regions, Hejaz, Najd, Southern Arabia. Hejaz and Najd make up most of Saudi Arabia, Southern Arabia consists of Yemen and some parts of Saudi Arabia and Oman. Eastern Arabia consists of the coastal strip of the Persian Gulf. The most prominent feature of the peninsula is desert, but in the southwest there are mountain ranges, harrat ash Shaam is a large volcanic field that extends from the northwestern Arabian Peninsula into Jordan and southern Syria. The peninsulas constituent countries are Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the island nation of Bahrain lies off the east coast of the peninsula. Six countries form the Gulf Cooperation Council, however, this is a disputed term. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia covers the part of the peninsula. The majority of the population of the live in Saudi Arabia. The peninsula contains the worlds largest reserves of oil, Saudi Arabia and the UAE are economically the wealthiest in the region. Qatar, a peninsula in the Persian Gulf on the larger peninsula, is home of the Arabic-language television station Al Jazeera. Kuwait, on the border with Iraq, is an important country strategically, though historically lightly populated, political Arabia is noted for a high population growth rate - as the result of both very strong inflows of migrant labor as well as sustained high birth rates. The population tends to be young and heavily skewed gender ratio dominated by males. In many states, the number of South Asians exceeds that of the local citizenry, the four smallest states, which have their entire coastlines on the Persian Gulf, exhibit the worlds most extreme population growth, roughly tripling every 20 years. In 2014, the population of the Arabian Peninsula was 77,983,936. Listed here are the human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups in Arabia Haplogroup J is the most abundant component in the Arabian peninsula and its two main subclades, show opposite latitudinal gradients in the Middle East
Arabian Peninsula
–
A map of the Arabian peninsula made in 1720 by the German publisher
Christoph Weigel
Arabian Peninsula
–
Arabia
Arabian Peninsula
–
Africa, Arabian subcontinent (Asia), and Eurasia
Arabian Peninsula
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A caravan crossing the
ad-Dahna Desert in central Saudi Arabia
17.
Arab Revolt
–
Contrarily, Turks accused rebelling tribes of betraying the Muslim Caliphate during a campaign against imperialist powers which were trying to divide and govern the Muslim lands. The rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire dates from at least 1821, Arab nationalism has its roots in the Mashriq, particularly in countries of Sham. The political orientation of Arab nationalists in the prior to the Great War was generally moderate. The Young Turk Revolution began on 3 July 1908 and quickly spread throughout the empire, as a result, sultan Abdul Hamid II was forced to announce the restoration of the 1876 constitution and the reconvening of the Ottoman parliament. This period is known as the Second Constitutional Era, in the elections held in 1908, the Young Turks through their Committee of Union and Progress managed to gain the upper hand against the Liberal Union led by Prince Sabahaddin. The CUP preached a message that was a mixture of Pan-Islamism, Ottomanism, and Pan-Turkicism, at its heart, the CUP were Turkish nationalists who wanted to see the Turks as the dominant group within the Ottoman Empire. The new parliament was composed of 142 Turks,60 Arabs,25 Albanians,23 Greeks,12 Armenians,5 Jews,4 Bulgarians,3 Serbs, the CUP in the parliament gave more emphasis to centralization and a modernization program. At this stage, Arab nationalism was not yet a mass movement, many Arabs gave their primary loyalty to their religion or sect, their tribe, or their own particular governments. The ideologies of Ottomanism and Pan-Islamism provided strong competition for Arab nationalism, in the Ottoman Empire, Sunni Islam was the state religion, and the sultan-caliph was the supreme religious-political leader, thus making the crown and the faith one and the same. Before 1914, of the ten million or so Arabs living under Ottoman rule, only a mere 350 were involved in various feuding nationalist groups, most of whom wanted only autonomy rather than independence. Arab members of the parliament supported the countercoup of 1909, which aimed to dismantle the constitutional system, in 1913, intellectuals and politicians from the Arab Mashriq met in Paris at the First Arab Congress. They produced a set of demands for autonomy within the Ottoman Empire. They again demanded that Arab conscripts to the Ottoman army should not be required to serve in other regions except in time of war. Hussein saw himself as the founder of a new empire, and looked down upon his fellow Ottoman Arabs as backward and it is estimated that the Arab forces involved in the revolt numbered around 5,000 soldiers. E. On a few occasions, particularly during the campaign into Syria. Many Arabs joined the Revolt sporadically, often as a campaign was in progress or only when the fighting entered their home region. During the Aqaba raid, for instance, while the initial Arab force numbered only a few hundred, estimates of Faisals effective forces vary, but through most of 1918 at least, they may have numbered as high as 30,000 men. The Bedouin would not fight unless paid in advance with gold coin, and by the end of 1916, by September 1918, the British were spending £220, 000/month to subsidize the revolt
Arab Revolt
–
Soldiers of the
Arab Army in the
Arabian Desert carrying the
Flag of the Arab Revolt.
Arab Revolt
–
Lawrence of Arabia after the Battle of Aqaba.
Arab Revolt
–
Lawrence at Rabegh, north of
Jeddah, 1917
Arab Revolt
–
The flag of the Arab revolt;
Aqaba Flagpole, 2006
18.
Flag of Jordan
–
The flag of Jordan, officially adopted on 18 April 1928, is based on the flag of the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire during World War I. The flag consists of black, white, and green bands that are connected by a red chevron. The colors stand are the Pan-Arab Colors, representing the Abbasid, Umayyad, the red chevron is for the Hashemite dynasty, and the Arab Revolt. In addition to the bands and chevron, a star with seven points is featured on the hoist side of the red chevron. The star stands for the unity of the Arab people and it is also said to stand for the seven verses of the first surah in the Quran, or refer to the seven hills on which Amman, the capital, was built. The seven points represent faith in one God, humanity, humility, national spirit, virtue, social justice, flag of the Arab Revolt Palestinian flag Kingdom of Hejaz Jordan at Flags of the World
Flag of Jordan
–
Jordan
19.
British Mandate of Mesopotamia
–
The British Mandate for Mesopotamia was a Mandate proposed to be entrusted to Britain at the San Remo, Italy-based conference, in accordance with the Sykes–Picot Agreement. The proposed mandate was awarded on April 25,1920, at the San Remo conference in Italy and it was to be a Class A mandate under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations. A draft mandate document was prepared by the British Colonial Office in June 1920, the Mandate with British administration was enacted via the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty. The civil government of postwar Iraq was headed originally by the High Commissioner, Sir Percy Cox, British reprisals after the murder of a British officer in Najaf failed to restore order. British administration had yet to be established in the mountains of north Iraq, the most striking problem facing the British was the growing anger of the nationalists, who felt betrayed at being accorded mandate status. British Mandate for Palestine Kingdom of Iraq Mandatory Iraq Ottoman Iraq Dodge, Toby Inventing Iraq Fieldhouse, western Imperialism in the Middle East, 1914–1958 Fisk, Robert. The Great War for Civilisation, The Conquest of the Middle East, Simons, Iraq, From Sumer to Saddam Sluglett, Peter. Britain in Iraq, Contriving King and Country, 1914–1932 This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http, //lcweb2. loc. gov/frd/cs/
British Mandate of Mesopotamia
–
Draft mandates for Mesopotamia and Palestine as submitted for the approval of the
League of Nations on December 7, 1920
British Mandate of Mesopotamia
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Map presented by TE Lawrence to the Eastern Committee of the War Cabinet in November 1918
British Mandate of Mesopotamia
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British Cabinet map showing boundaries of the proposed mandates in early 1921, including those areas not yet delimited
20.
Flag of the Arab Federation
–
In 1958, in response to the merger of Egypt and Syria in the United Arab Republic, the two Hashemite kingdoms of Iraq and Jordan established the Arab Federation, a confederation of the two states. The flag of the union was essentially that of Jordan but without seven pointed star in the red chevron and this flag is identical to the Flag of Palestine adopted in 1964, and almost identical the flag of the Baath Party. The union lasted less than six months, being terminated by the Iraqi Revolution of 1958 in July, the flag is a tricolor of three equal horizontal stripes overlaid by a red triangle issuing from the hoist. Prior to being the flag of Palestine, it was the flag of the short lived Arab Federation of Iraq, the flag of the Arab Revolt had the same graphic form, but the colours were arranged differently
Flag of the Arab Federation
–
Arab Federation
21.
Egypt
–
Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
Egypt
–
The
Giza Necropolis is the oldest of the
ancient Wonders and the only one still in existence.
Egypt
–
Flag
Egypt
–
The Greek Ptolemaic queen
Cleopatra VII and her son by Julius Caesar,
Caesarion at the
Temple of Dendera.
Egypt
–
The 1803
Cedid Atlas, showing
Ottoman Egypt.
22.
Syria
–
Syrias capital and largest city is Damascus. Religious groups include Sunnis, Christians, Alawites, Druze, Mandeans, Shiites, Salafis, Sunni Arabs make up the largest religious group in Syria. Its capital Damascus and largest city Aleppo are among the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, in the Islamic era, Damascus was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt. The post-independence period was tumultuous, and a number of military coups. In 1958, Syria entered a union with Egypt called the United Arab Republic. Syria was under Emergency Law from 1963 to 2011, effectively suspending most constitutional protections for citizens, Bashar al-Assad has been president since 2000 and was preceded by his father Hafez al-Assad, who was in office from 1970 to 2000. Mainstream modern academic opinion strongly favours the argument that the Greek word is related to the cognate Ἀσσυρία, Assyria, in the past, others believed that it was derived from Siryon, the name that the Sidonians gave to Mount Hermon. However, the discovery of the inscription in 2000 seems to support the theory that the term Syria derives from Assyria. The area designated by the word has changed over time, since approximately 10,000 BC, Syria was one of centers of Neolithic culture where agriculture and cattle breeding appeared for the first time in the world. The following Neolithic period is represented by houses of Mureybet culture. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gyps, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations. Cities of Hamoukar and Emar played an important role during the late Neolithic, archaeologists have demonstrated that civilization in Syria was one of the most ancient on earth, perhaps preceded by only those of Mesopotamia. The earliest recorded indigenous civilisation in the region was the Kingdom of Ebla near present-day Idlib, gifts from Pharaohs, found during excavations, confirm Eblas contact with Egypt. One of the earliest written texts from Syria is an agreement between Vizier Ibrium of Ebla and an ambiguous kingdom called Abarsal c.2300 BC. The Northwest Semitic language of the Amorites is the earliest attested of the Canaanite languages, Mari reemerged during this period, and saw renewed prosperity until conquered by Hammurabi of Babylon. Ugarit also arose during this time, circa 1800 BC, close to modern Latakia, Ugaritic was a Semitic language loosely related to the Canaanite languages, and developed the Ugaritic alphabet. The Ugarites kingdom survived until its destruction at the hands of the marauding Indo-European Sea Peoples in the 12th century BC, Yamhad was described in the tablets of Mari as the mightiest state in the near east and as having more vassals than Hammurabi of Babylon. Yamhad imposed its authority over Alalakh, Qatna, the Hurrians states, the army of Yamhad campaigned as far away as Dēr on the border of Elam
Syria
–
Female figurine, 5000 BC.
Ancient Orient Museum.
Syria
–
Flag
Syria
–
God head, the kingdom of
Yamhad (c. 1600 BC)
Syria
–
Ebla royal palace c. 2400 BC
23.
United Arab Republic
–
The United Arab Republic, alternatively referred to, mostly in Israel in the 1960s-70s, as the United Arab Commonwealth was a short-lived political union between Egypt and Syria. The union began in 1958 and existed until 1961, when Syria seceded from the union after the 1961 Syrian coup détat, Egypt continued to be known officially as the United Arab Republic until 1971. The president was Gamal Abdel Nasser and it was a member of the United Arab States, a loose confederation with North Yemen which in 1961 dissolved along with the Republic. Pan-Arab sentiment traditionally was very strong in Syria, and Nasser was a popular hero-figure throughout the Arab world following the Suez War of 1956, there was thus considerable popular support in Syria for union with Nassers Egypt. The Arab Socialist Baath Party was the advocate of such a union. This caused the Syrian Crisis of 1957 after which Syrians intensified their efforts to unite with Egypt, according to Abdel Latif Boghdadi, Nasser initially resisted a total union with Syria, favoring instead a federal union. However, Nasser was more afraid of a Communist takeover and agreed on a total merger, Syria had had a democratic government since the overthrow of Adib al-Shishaklis military regime in 1954, and popular pressure for Arab unity was reflected in the composition of parliament. When on 11 January 1958 al-Bizri led a Syrian delegation composed of officers to Cairo. Nassers final terms for the union were decisive and non-negotiable, a plebiscite, the dissolution of parties, while the plebiscite seemed reasonable to most Syrian elites, the latter two conditions were extremely worrisome. They believed it would destroy life in Syria. Despite these concerns, the Syrian officials knew it was too late to turn back. The members of the elite in Syria viewed the merger with Egypt as the lesser of two evils. They believed that Nassers terms were unfair, but given the pressure that their government was undergoing. Egyptian and Syrian leaders signed the protocols, although Azem did so reluctantly, Nasser became the republics president and very soon carried out a crackdown against the Syrian Communists and opponents of the union which included dismissing Bizri and Azem from their posts. Advocates of the believed that Nasser would use the Baath Party for ruling Syria. Unfortunately for the Baathists, it was never Nassers intention to share a measure of power. Nasser gave each of the provinces two vice-presidents, assigning Boghdadi and Abdel Hakim Amer to Egypt and Sabri al-Assali and Akram El-Hourani—a leader of the Baath—to Syria, the new constitution of 1958 was adopted. Though Nasser allowed former Baath Party members to hold prominent political positions, during the winter and the spring of 1959–60, Nasser slowly squeezed prominent Syrians out of positions of influence. In the Syrian Ministry of Industry, for example, seven of the top thirteen positions were filled by Egyptians, in the General Petroleum Authority, four of the top six officials were Egyptian
United Arab Republic
–
Nasser shaking hands with al-Bizri
United Arab Republic
–
Flag
United Arab Republic
–
Nasser signing unity pact with
Syrian president
Shukri al-Quwatli, forming the United Arab Republic, February 1958
United Arab Republic
–
Nasser addressing the masses in
Damascus, 1960
24.
Arab Federation
–
The Arab Federation of Iraq and Jordan was a short-lived country that was formed in 1958 from the union of Iraq and Jordan. Although the name implies a federal structure, it was de facto a confederation, the union lasted only six months, being officially dissolved on 2 August 1958, after Faisal was deposed by a military coup on 14 July. From the 1930s on the Hashemite dynasty tried to promote Arab unity, as witnessed by the efforts of Iraq, from the Iraqi perspective, Jordan had little to offer, either economically or strategically, to counterbalance its numerous liabilities. Regardless of the issues, the two countries first attempted unification in 1946 and 1947 and was introduced by King Abdallah Stemming from his promotion of the Greater Syria Scheme. The second time was in 1951 and 1952 and resulted from the attempt to rescue Jordan, in 1958 was the third alliance, which came out of the shared regional interests between Iraq and Jordan against the expansion of the United Arab Republic. During the post-colonial years in the Arab world many forces argued for the creation of a single Arab state, popular under the name of Arab nationalism, it became increasingly popular among young intellectuals throughout the Middle East and in Iraq during the 1950s. Many different versions of Arab nationalism arose, which developed into an Arab Cold War, the movements were led by many different leaders, the most famous being that espoused by Gamal Abdel Nasser, the president of Egypt. His vision of a state was one that was free of foreign and specifically European interference, with land reform, socialist sympathies. For royalist and pro-European Iraq and Jordan, Nassers vision was incompatible with their existence, led by Prime Minister Nuri al-Said under King Faisal II, Iraq and Jordan were Hashemite monarchies since their establishment in 1922 at the bequest of the British. Further complicating the relationship with pan-Arabism was Iraqs relationship with the West, in 1955, Iraq entered the short-lived Baghdad Pact at the urging of the United Kingdom and the United States. It aligned Iraq with Turkey, Pakistan, Iran and the United Kingdom, in early 1958, the formation the United Arab Republic between Syria and Egypt brought Nassers pan-Arab ideals that threatened the existence of both Hashemite regimes, to the Western borders of Iraq. To counter Nassers pan-Arabism, as-Said approached the Hashemite government of Jordan to discuss the formation of a union while also appeasing Arab nationalists within Iraq and that overthrew him and Iraqi government and ended the Arab Union in the summer of 1958. Tension between the UAR and the Arab Union resulted in the fall of as-Said, the Union, during the summer of 1958, UAR troop movements to the Syrian border instigated the Arab Union to mobilize troops to counter this move. In July 1958, troops led by Abd al-Karim Qasim travelling through Iraq, took a chance to overthrow the King and his government in Baghdad. With the fall and resulting deaths of Saed, King Faisal II, the revolution and downfall of the Hashemite dynasty in Iraq would not be the end of relations between Iraq and Jordan. In 1975 Jordan turned away from their relationship with Syria. Iraq offered Jordan a strong economy, oil money, a large market, with Iraqs financial aid, Jordan made some economic gains. In fact, by 1990 Iraq was Jordans largest market, it was repaying trade credit debts in oil, iraq–Jordan relations Pan-Arabism United Arab Republic United Arab Emirates
Arab Federation
–
Flag
25.
Flag of Palestine
–
The Palestinian flag is based on the Flag of the Arab Revolt, and is used to represent the State of Palestine and the Palestinian people. The flag is a tricolor of three horizontal stripes overlaid by a red triangle issuing from the hoist. Prior to being the flag of the Palestinian people, it was the flag of the short lived Arab Federation of Iraq, the flag of the Arab Revolt had the same graphic form, but the colours were arranged differently. The flag used by the Arab Palestinian nationalists in the first half of the 20th century is the flag of the 1916 Arab Revolt, the origins of the flag are the subject of dispute and mythology. Yet another version is that the flag was designed by Sir Mark Sykes of the British Foreign Office, whatever the correct story, the flag was used by Sharif Hussein by 1917 at the latest and quickly became regarded as the flag of the Arab national movement in the Mashriq. On October 18,1948, the flag of the Arab Revolt was adopted, a modified version has been used in Palestine at least since the late 1930s and was officially adopted as the flag of the Palestinian people by the Palestine Liberation Organization in 1964. On November 15,1988 the PLO adopted the flag as the flag of the State of Palestine, on the ground the flag became widely used since the Oslo Agreements, with the establishment of the Palestinian Authority in 1993. Today the flag is flown widely by Palestinians and their supporters, in 1967, immediately following the Six Day War, the State of Israel banned the Palestinian flag in the occupied Gaza Strip and West Bank. A1980 law forbidding artwork of political significance banned artwork composed of its four colours, since the signing of the Oslo Peace Accords in 1993, the ban has been abolished
Flag of Palestine
–
Palestinian flag over the Alhambra Cinema,
Jaffa, 1937
Flag of Palestine
–
Palestine
26.
14 July Revolution
–
King Faisal II, Prince Abd al-Ilah, and Prime Minister Nuri al-Said were executed during this coup. This coup laid the foundations of Iraq that were to last until 2003. A result of the overthrow of the Iraqi Hashemite dynasty, the coup established the Republic of Iraq. This coup was followed by the overthrow of Abd al-Karim Qasim, during World War II, Iraq was home to a growing number of Arab nationalists. The Arab nationalists aimed, in part, to remove British imperial influence in Iraq and this sentiment grew from a politicised educational system in Iraq and an increasingly assertive and educated middle class. The two directors of the system in Iraq, Sami Shawkat and Fadhil al-Jamal, employed teachers who were political refugees from Palestine. These exiles fled to Iraq because of their roles in anti-British and anti-French protests, the growing general awareness of Arab identity led to anti-imperialism. Similarly, Pan-Arab sentiment grew across the Arab world and was promoted by Egypts Gamel Abdel Nasser, Hashemite Iraq faced and confronted these sentiments as well. Nuri al-Said, the Iraqi Prime Minister, was interested in pursuing the idea of a federation of Arab States of the Fertile Crescent, but was less enthusiastic about a pan-Arab state. Al-Said brought Iraq into the Arab League in 1944, seeing it as providing a forum for bringing together the Arab states while leaving the open for a possible future federation. The charter of the League enshrined the principle of autonomy for each Arab state, the Iraqi economy fell into a recession and then a depression following World War II, inflation was uncontrolled and the Iraqi standard of living was dropping. Al-Said and the Arab Nationalist regent, Abd al-Ilah, were continually in opposition to each other, in 1950, Nuri al-Said persuaded the Iraqi Petroleum Company to increase the royalties paid to the Iraqi government. Al-Said looked to Iraqs growing oil revenues to fund and propel development and this foreign presence provoked popular disapproval towards al-Saids policy because of its reliance on decision-making by foreigners. Salter continued to make suggestions as to how to implement development projects regardless of massive Iraqi dislike of his presence, during World War II, the British reoccupied Iraq and in 1947, through the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1948 on 15 January, Salih Jabr negotiated British withdrawal from Iraq. However, this agreement included a joint British and Iraqi joint defence board that oversaw Iraqi military planning, additionally, the British continued to control Iraqi foreign affairs. Iraq was still tied to Great Britain for military supplies and training and this treaty was to last until 1973—a 25-year period that Arab nationalists in Iraq could not accept. As a strong reaction to the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1948, Arab nationalists led the Wathbah Rebellion a year later in protest at the continued British presence in Iraq, al-Said repudiated the Portsmouth Treaty as a concession he offered to the rebellious Iraqi and Arab nationalists. In 1955, Iraq entered into the Baghdad Pact with Iran, Pakistan, the pact was a defence agreement between the four nations and was endorsed by the UK and the United States as a anti-communist Cold War strategy, but was greatly resented by Iraqis in general
14 July Revolution
–
Leaders of the 14 July 1958 revolution in Iraq, including Khaled al-Naqshabendi (front row, left),
Abd as-Salam Arif (back row, second from left),
Abd al-Karim Qasim (back row, third from left) and
Muhammad Najib ar-Ruba'i (back row, fifth from left). Also included is
Michel Aflaq (front row, first from right).
14 July Revolution
–
Abdul Salam Arif and
Abd al-Karim Qasim, the leaders of the revolution.
14 July Revolution
–
The mutilated corpse of Crown Prince
'Abd al-Ilah of Hejaz.
27.
Abdul Karim Qassim
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Abd al-Karim Qasim, was a nationalist Iraqi Army brigadier who seized power in a 1958 coup détat, wherein the Iraqi monarchy was eliminated. He ruled the country as Prime Minister until his downfall and death during the 1963 Ramadan Revolution, during his rule, Qasim was popularly known as al-za‘īm or, The Leader. Abd al-Karim Qasims father was an Iraqi Muslim of Arabic descent who died shortly after his sons birth during World War I, Qasims mother was a Shiite Kurd and the daughter of a farmer from Baghdad. When Qasim was six years of age his family moved to Suwayra, Qasim was an excellent student, he entered secondary school on a government scholarship. After graduation in 1931, he taught at Shamiyya Elementary School from 22 October of that year until 3 September 1932, in 1934, he graduated as a second lieutenant. Qasim then attended al-Arkan College and graduated with honours in December 1941, in 1951, he completed a senior officers’ course in Devizes, Wiltshire. Militarily, he participated in the suppression of the disturbances in the Middle Euphrates region in 1935, during the Anglo-Iraqi War in May 1941. Qasim also served during the Iraqi military involvement in the Arab-Israeli War from May 1948 to June 1949, toward the latter part of the mission, he commanded a battalion of the First Brigade, which was situated in the Kafr Qasem area south of Qilqilya. In 1956-57, he served with his brigade at Mafraq in Jordan in the wake of the Suez Crisis, by 1957 Qasim had assumed leadership of several opposition groups that had formed in the army. On 14 July 1958, Qasim and his followers used troop movements planned by the government as an opportunity to seize control of Baghdad. This resulted in the killing of members of the royal family and their close associates. The coup was discussed and planned by the Free Officers, but was executed by Qasim. It was triggered when King Hussein of Jordan, fearing that a revolt in Lebanon might spread to Jordan. Instead of moving towards Jordan, however, Colonel Arif led a battalion into Baghdad and immediately proclaimed a new republic, the 14 July Revolution met virtually no opposition. Prince Abdul Ilah did not want any resistance to the forces besieged the Royal Rihab Palace. The commander of the Royal Guards battalion on duty, Col. Taha Bamirni, King Faisal II and Princess Hiyam were wounded. The King died later before reaching the hospital, Princess Hiyam was not recognized at the hospital and managed to receive treatment. Later she left for Saudi Arabia where her family lived and then moved to Egypt until her death, in the wake of the successful coup, the new Iraqi Republic was headed by a Revolutionary Council
Abdul Karim Qassim
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Qasim in 1937.
Abdul Karim Qassim
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Abd al-Karim Qasim
Abdul Karim Qassim
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Qasim (back row, centre) and other leaders of the revolution, including
Abdul Salam Arif (back row, second from left) and
Muhammad Najib ar-Ruba'i (back row, fifth from left). Also included is
Ba'athist ideologue
Michel Aflaq (front row, first from right).
Abdul Karim Qassim
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Qasim with future president of
Iraqi Kurdistan,
Massoud Barzani.
28.
Iraq (1958-1968)
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The Iraqi Republic was a state forged in 1958 under the rule of President Muhammad Najib ar-Rubai and Prime Minister Abd al-Karim Qasim. Ar-Rubai and Qasim first came to power through the 14 July Revolution in which the Kingdom of Iraqs Hashemite monarchy was overthrown, as a result, the Kingdom and the Arab Federation were dissolved and the Iraqi republic established. The era ended with the Baathist rise to power in 1968, Iraq reverted to control over the territory of the former Kingdom of Iraq and Jordan again became an independent entity. The Qasim government held an irredentist claim to Khuzestan and it held irredentist claims to Kuwait. he recognition of Kurdish nationalism by Arabs proves clearly that we are associated in the country, that we are Irakians first, Arabs and Kurds later. Qassims initial policies towards Kurds were very popular amongst Kurds across the Middle East whom in support of his policies called Qassim the leader of the Arabs, ali was eventually ousted by the British and Abd al-Ilah and al-Said retook power. Regional rivalries played a role in the 14 July Revolution. Pan-Arab and Arab Nationalist sentiment circulated in the Middle East and was proliferated by an anti-imperialist revolutionary, during and after World War II, the Kingdom of Iraq was home to a number of Arab nationalist sympathizers. Arab nationalists viewed the Hashemite Monarchy as too beholden to British and this anti-Hashemite sentiment grew from a politicized educational system in Iraq and an increasingly assertive and educated bourgeoisie. Al-Said joined the Arab league in 1944 on Iraq’s behalf seeing it as a providing a forum for bringing together the Arab states, the charter of the League enshrined the principle of the autonomy for each Arab state and referenced pan-Arabism only rhetorically. Iraq was just coming out of World War II, and as much of the rest of the world, was war torn, the war had caused a huge increase in inflation and a drop in the quality of life of the Iraqi people. Prime Minister Nuri Al-Said and the Arab Nationalist regent, Abd al-Ilah, instead of cooperating to improve the quality of life for the Iraqi people and cut inflation, the Prime Minister and the regent could not agree on a cohesive economic policy. Educated elites in Iraq began dabbling in the ideals espoused by Nasser’s pan-Arabism movement, within the officer corps of the Iraqi military, pan-Arab nationalism began to take root. On 14 July 1958, a group identified as the “Free Officers”. This group was markedly Pan-Arab in character, king Faisal II, the Regent and Crown Prince Abd al-Ilah, and Nuri al-Said were all killed. The Revolution brought Muhammad Najib ar-Rubai and Abd al-Karim Qasim to power, Qasims regime implemented a number of domestic changes to Iraqi society. Opposition to Qasim from Arab Nationalist forces within the army culminated in the 1959 Mosul Uprising, on 8 February 1963, Qasim was overthrown by a coup led by a mixture of the Baath Party and sympathetic Arab Nationalist groups in the Iraqi Armed Forces. Conflict between Qasim and certain officers of the Iraqi Armed Forces made them sympathetic to the idea of a coup, following Qasims overthrow and execution members of the Baath Party engaged in a house to house hunt for communists. Total deaths from the communist purge and the coup were around 5,000, a plan was eventually hatched and was put into action on 3 July 1963
Iraq (1958-1968)
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Flag
29.
Pan-Arab colours
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The Pan-Arab colours are black, white, green, and red. Individually, each of the four Pan-Arab colours were intended to represent a certain Arab dynasty, or era. The four colours derived their potency from a verse by 14th century Iraqi poet Safi Al-Din Al-Hilli, « White are our acts, black our battles, green our fields, Pan-Arab colours were first combined in 1916 in the flag of the Arab Revolt. It may be noted that while Libya is an Arab country and has a flag with the four colours. From the 1950s onwards, a sub-set of the Pan-Arab colours and these consist of a tricolour of red, white and black bands, with green given less prominence. The Arab Liberation colours were inspired by the use of the Arab Liberation Flag in the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, list of Arab flags Pan-Arabism Tricolour Pan-Slavic colors Pan-African colours Pan-Arab colors Evolution of the Arab Flag, by Dr. Mahdi Abdul-Hadi
Pan-Arab colours
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Flag of the Arab Revolt
30.
Pan-Arabism
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Pan-Arabism or Arabism is an ideology espousing the unification of the countries of North Africa and West Asia from the Atlantic Ocean to the Arabian Sea, referred to as the Arab world. It is closely connected to Arab nationalism, which asserts that the Arabs constitute a single nation and its popularity was at its height during the 1950s and 1960s. Advocates of pan-Arabism have often espoused socialist principles and strongly opposed Western political involvement in the Arab world and it also sought to empower Arab states from outside forces by forming alliances and – to a lesser extent – economic co-operation. The origins of pan-Arabism are often attributed to Jurji Zaydan and his Nahda movement and he also popularized through his historical novels certain heroes from Arab history. A more formalized pan-Arab ideology than that of Hussein was first espoused in the 1930s, notably by Syrian thinkers such as Constantin Zureiq, Sati al-Husri, Zaki al-Arsuzi and it has been said that Arsuzi was fascinated with the Nazi ideology of racial purity and impacted Aflaq. Abdullah I of Jordan dreamed of uniting Syria, Palestine, and he unsuccessfully proposed a plan to this effect to the United Kingdom, which controlled Palestine at that time. The plan was not popular among the majority of Arabs and fostered distrust among the leaders of the other Middle Eastern countries against Abdallah, the distrust of Abdallahs expansionist aspirations was one of the principal reasons for the founding of the Arab League in 1945. Once Abdallah was assassinated by a Palestinian nationalist in 1951, the vision of Greater Syria was dropped from the Jordanian agenda, the pan-Arabist ideology has been accused of inciting prejudice against or downplaying the role of ethnic minorities such as the Berbers. Although pan-Arabism began at the time of World War I, Egypt was not interested in pan-Arabism prior to the 1950s, thus, in the 1930s and 1940s, Egyptian nationalism – not pan-Arabism – was the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian political activists. James Jankowski wrote about Egypt at the time, What is most significant is the absence of an Arab component in early Egyptian nationalism, the thrust of Egyptian political, economic, and cultural development throughout the nineteenth century worked against, rather than for, an Arab orientation. This situation—that of divergent political trajectories for Egyptians and Arabs—if anything increased after 1900, there have been several attempts to bring about a pan-Arab state by many well-known Arab leaders, all of which ultimately resulted in failure. It lasted until 1961, when Syrian army officers carried out a coup détat, by 1961, Egypt had become the only remaining member but continued to call itself the UAR, but it eventually renamed itself the Arab Republic of Egypt in 1973. Also in 1958, a Hashemite-led rival, the Arab Federation, was founded between Jordan and Iraq, tensions with the UAR and the 14 July Revolution made the Arab Federation collapse after only six months. Another attempt, the United Arab States, existed as a confederation between the United Arab Republic, Arab Federation and the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen, but it dissolved in 1961. Two later attempts represented the enthusiasm of Libyas Muammar Gaddafi, the Federation of Arab Republics, which lasted five years, and the Arab Islamic Republic, which never emerged in practice. The current Syrian government is and the government of Iraq was led by rival factions of the Baath Party. The Arab defeat by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War and the inability of pan-Arabist governments to generate economic growth severely damaged the credibility of pan-Arabism as a relevant ideology, Egyptians attachment to pan-Arabism was particularly questioned after the Six-Day War. Nasser had overplayed his hand in trying to form a pan-Arab hegemony under himself, thousands of Egyptians had lost their lives, and the country became disillusioned with Arab politics
Pan-Arabism
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Under Egyptian
President Gamal Abdel Nasser, pan-Arabism dominated politics in the 1950s and 1960s
Pan-Arabism
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States and Territories of the Arab League
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Proposed flag, 2004 (later abandoned)
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