1.
Copper
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Copper is a chemical element with symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of copper has a reddish-orange color. Copper is one of the few metals that occur in nature in directly usable metallic form as opposed to needing extraction from an ore and this led to very early human use, from c.8000 BC. Copper used in buildings, usually for roofing, oxidizes to form a green verdigris, Copper is sometimes used in decorative art, both in its elemental metal form and in compounds as pigments. Copper compounds are used as agents, fungicides, and wood preservatives. Copper is essential to all living organisms as a trace dietary mineral because it is a key constituent of the enzyme complex cytochrome c oxidase. In molluscs and crustaceans, copper is a constituent of the blood pigment hemocyanin, replaced by the hemoglobin in fish. In humans, copper is found mainly in the liver, muscle, the adult body contains between 1.4 and 2.1 mg of copper per kilogram of body weight. The filled d-shells in these elements contribute little to interatomic interactions, unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in copper are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak. This observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of copper, at the macroscopic scale, introduction of extended defects to the crystal lattice, such as grain boundaries, hinders flow of the material under applied stress, thereby increasing its hardness. For this reason, copper is supplied in a fine-grained polycrystalline form. The softness of copper partly explains its high conductivity and high thermal conductivity. The maximum permissible current density of copper in open air is approximately 3. 1×106 A/m2 of cross-sectional area, Copper is one of a few metallic elements with a natural color other than gray or silver. Pure copper is orange-red and acquires a reddish tarnish when exposed to air, as with other metals, if copper is put in contact with another metal, galvanic corrosion will occur. A green layer of verdigris can often be seen on old structures, such as the roofing of many older buildings. Copper tarnishes when exposed to sulfur compounds, with which it reacts to form various copper sulfides. There are 29 isotopes of copper, 63Cu and 65Cu are stable, with 63Cu comprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper, both have a spin of 3⁄2
2.
Chemistry
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Chemistry is a branch of physical science that studies the composition, structure, properties and change of matter. Chemistry is sometimes called the science because it bridges other natural sciences, including physics. For the differences between chemistry and physics see comparison of chemistry and physics, the history of chemistry can be traced to alchemy, which had been practiced for several millennia in various parts of the world. The word chemistry comes from alchemy, which referred to a set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism. An alchemist was called a chemist in popular speech, and later the suffix -ry was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as chemistry, the modern word alchemy in turn is derived from the Arabic word al-kīmīā. In origin, the term is borrowed from the Greek χημία or χημεία and this may have Egyptian origins since al-kīmīā is derived from the Greek χημία, which is in turn derived from the word Chemi or Kimi, which is the ancient name of Egypt in Egyptian. Alternately, al-kīmīā may derive from χημεία, meaning cast together, in retrospect, the definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. The term chymistry, in the view of noted scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, in 1837, Jean-Baptiste Dumas considered the word chemistry to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces. More recently, in 1998, Professor Raymond Chang broadened the definition of chemistry to mean the study of matter, early civilizations, such as the Egyptians Babylonians, Indians amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but didnt develop a systematic theory. Greek atomism dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by such as Democritus and Epicurus. In 50 BC, the Roman philosopher Lucretius expanded upon the theory in his book De rerum natura, unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments. Work, particularly the development of distillation, continued in the early Byzantine period with the most famous practitioner being the 4th century Greek-Egyptian Zosimos of Panopolis. He formulated Boyles law, rejected the four elements and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms. Before his work, though, many important discoveries had been made, the Scottish chemist Joseph Black and the Dutchman J. B. English scientist John Dalton proposed the theory of atoms, that all substances are composed of indivisible atoms of matter. Davy discovered nine new elements including the alkali metals by extracting them from their oxides with electric current, british William Prout first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen. The inert gases, later called the noble gases were discovered by William Ramsay in collaboration with Lord Rayleigh at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table. Organic chemistry was developed by Justus von Liebig and others, following Friedrich Wöhlers synthesis of urea which proved that organisms were, in theory
3.
Metal
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A metal is a material that is typically hard, opaque, shiny, and has good electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals are generally malleable—that is, they can be hammered or pressed permanently out of shape without breaking or cracking—as well as fusible and ductile, about 91 of the 118 elements in the periodic table are metals, the others are nonmetals or metalloids. Some elements appear in both metallic and non-metallic forms, astrophysicists use the term metal to collectively describe all elements other than hydrogen and helium, the simplest two, in a star. The star fuses smaller atoms, mostly hydrogen and helium, to larger ones over its lifetime. In that sense, the metallicity of an object is the proportion of its matter made up of all chemical elements. Many elements and compounds that are not normally classified as metals become metallic under high pressures, the atoms of metallic substances are typically arranged in one of three common crystal structures, namely body-centered cubic, face-centered cubic, and hexagonal close-packed. In bcc, each atom is positioned at the center of a cube of eight others, in fcc and hcp, each atom is surrounded by twelve others, but the stacking of the layers differs. Some metals adopt different structures depending on the temperature, atoms of metals readily lose their outer shell electrons, resulting in a free flowing cloud of electrons within their otherwise solid arrangement. This provides the ability of metallic substances to easily transmit heat, while this flow of electrons occurs, the solid characteristic of the metal is produced by electrostatic interactions between each atom and the electron cloud. This type of bond is called a metallic bond, Metals are usually inclined to form cations through electron loss, reacting with oxygen in the air to form oxides over various timescales. Examples,4 Na + O2 →2 Na2O2 Ca + O2 →2 CaO4 Al +3 O2 →2 Al2O3, the transition metals are slower to oxidize because they form a passivating layer of oxide that protects the interior. Others, like palladium, platinum and gold, do not react with the atmosphere at all, some metals form a barrier layer of oxide on their surface which cannot be penetrated by further oxygen molecules and thus retain their shiny appearance and good conductivity for many decades. The oxides of metals are generally basic, as opposed to those of nonmetals, exceptions are largely oxides with very high oxidation states such as CrO3, Mn2O7, and OsO4, which have strictly acidic reactions. Painting, anodizing or plating metals are good ways to prevent their corrosion, however, a more reactive metal in the electrochemical series must be chosen for coating, especially when chipping of the coating is expected. Water and the two form an electrochemical cell, and if the coating is less reactive than the coatee. Metals in general have high conductivity, high thermal conductivity. Typically they are malleable and ductile, deforming under stress without cleaving, in terms of optical properties, metals are shiny and lustrous. Sheets of metal beyond a few micrometres in thickness appear opaque, although most metals have higher densities than most nonmetals, there is wide variation in their densities, lithium being the least dense solid element and osmium the densest
4.
Chemical element
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A chemical element or element is a species of atoms having the same number of protons in their atomic nuclei. There are 118 elements that have identified, of which the first 94 occur naturally on Earth with the remaining 24 being synthetic elements. There are 80 elements that have at least one stable isotope and 38 that have exclusively radioactive isotopes, iron is the most abundant element making up Earth, while oxygen is the most common element in the Earths crust. Chemical elements constitute all of the matter of the universe. The two lightest elements, hydrogen and helium, were formed in the Big Bang and are the most common elements in the universe. The next three elements were formed mostly by cosmic ray spallation, and are rarer than those that follow. Formation of elements with from 6 to 26 protons occurred and continues to occur in main sequence stars via stellar nucleosynthesis, the high abundance of oxygen, silicon, and iron on Earth reflects their common production in such stars. The term element is used for atoms with a number of protons as well as for a pure chemical substance consisting of a single element. A single element can form multiple substances differing in their structure, when different elements are chemically combined, with the atoms held together by chemical bonds, they form chemical compounds. Only a minority of elements are found uncombined as relatively pure minerals, among the more common of such native elements are copper, silver, gold, carbon, and sulfur. All but a few of the most inert elements, such as gases and noble metals, are usually found on Earth in chemically combined form. While about 32 of the elements occur on Earth in native uncombined forms. For example, atmospheric air is primarily a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and argon, the history of the discovery and use of the elements began with primitive human societies that found native elements like carbon, sulfur, copper and gold. Later civilizations extracted elemental copper, tin, lead and iron from their ores by smelting, using charcoal, alchemists and chemists subsequently identified many more, almost all of the naturally occurring elements were known by 1900. Save for unstable radioactive elements with short half-lives, all of the elements are available industrially, almost all other elements found in nature were made by various natural methods of nucleosynthesis. On Earth, small amounts of new atoms are produced in nucleogenic reactions, or in cosmogenic processes. Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, those with atomic numbers 1 through 82 each have at least one stable isotope, Isotopes considered stable are those for which no radioactive decay has yet been observed. Elements with atomic numbers 83 through 94 are unstable to the point that radioactive decay of all isotopes can be detected, the very heaviest elements undergo radioactive decay with half-lives so short that they are not found in nature and must be synthesized
5.
Flame
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A flame is the visible, gaseous part of a fire. It is caused by a highly exothermic reaction taking place in a thin zone, very hot flames are hot enough to have ionized gaseous components of sufficient density to be considered plasma. Color and temperature of a flame are dependent on the type of fuel involved in the combustion, as, for example, the applied heat causes the fuel molecules in the candle wax to vaporize. In this state they can readily react with oxygen in the air. As the combustion temperature of a flame increases, so does the average energy of the radiation given off by the flame. Other oxidizers besides oxygen can be used to produce a flame, hydrogen burning in chlorine produces a flame and in the process emits gaseous hydrogen chloride as the combustion product. Another of many possible combinations is hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide which is hypergolic. Fluoropolymers can be used to supply fluorine as an oxidizer of metallic fuels, the chemical kinetics occurring in the flame are very complex and typically involve a large number of chemical reactions and intermediate species, most of them radicals. For instance, a well-known chemical kinetics scheme, GRI-Mech, uses 53 species and 325 elementary reactions to describe combustion of biogas, there are different methods of distributing the required components of combustion to a flame. In a diffusion flame, oxygen and fuel diffuse into each other, in a premixed flame, the oxygen and fuel are premixed beforehand, which results in a different type of flame. Candle flames operate through evaporation of the fuel which rises in a flow of hot gas which then mixes with surrounding oxygen. In a laboratory under normal gravity conditions and with an oxygen valve. This is due to incandescence of very fine particles that are produced in the flame. The colder part of a flame will be red, transitioning to orange, yellow. For a given region, the closer to white on this scale. The transitions are often apparent in fires, in which the color emitted closest to the fuel is white, with a section above it. Specific colors can be imparted to the flame by introduction of species with bright emission spectrum lines. In analytical chemistry, this effect is used in tests to determine presence of some metal ions
6.
Atomic absorption spectroscopy
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Atomic absorption spectroscopy is a spectroanalytical procedure for the quantitative determination of chemical elements using the absorption of optical radiation by free atoms in the gaseous state. In analytical chemistry the technique is used for determining the concentration of an element in a sample to be analyzed. AAS can be used to determine over 70 different elements in solution or directly in solid samples used in pharmacology, biophysics, the modern form of AAS was largely developed during the 1950s by a team of Australian chemists. They were led by Sir Alan Walsh at the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Division of Chemical Physics, in Melbourne, the technique makes use of absorption spectrometry to assess the concentration of an analyte in a sample. It requires standards with known content to establish the relation between the measured absorbance and the analyte concentration and relies therefore on the Beer-Lambert Law. In short, the electrons of the atoms in the atomizer can be promoted to higher orbitals for a period of time by absorbing a defined quantity of energy. This amount of energy, i. e. wavelength, is specific to an electron transition in a particular element. In general, each corresponds to only one element, and the width of an absorption line is only of the order of a few picometers. In order to analyze a sample for its constituents, it has to be atomized. The atomizers most commonly used nowadays are flames and electrothermal atomizers, the atoms should then be irradiated by optical radiation, and the radiation source could be an element-specific line radiation source or a continuum radiation source. The atomizers most commonly used nowadays are flames and electrothermal atomizers, other atomizers, such as glow-discharge atomization, hydride atomization, or cold-vapor atomization might be used for special purposes. The latter flame, in addition, offers a more reducing environment, liquid or dissolved samples are typically used with flame atomizers. This conditioning process is responsible that only about 5% of the sample solution reaches the flame. On top of the chamber is a burner head that produces a flame that is laterally long. The radiation beam passes through this flame at its longest axis, the burner height may also be adjusted, so that the radiation beam passes through the zone of highest atom cloud density in the flame, resulting in the highest sensitivity. Each of these includes the risk of interference in case the degree of phase transfer is different for the analyte in the calibration standard. Ionization is generally undesirable, as it reduces the number of atoms that are available for measurement, in flame AAS a steady-state signal is generated during the time period when the sample is aspirated. This technique is used for determinations in the mg L−1 range
7.
Aluminium
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Aluminium or aluminum is a chemical element in the boron group with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal, Aluminium metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare and limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite, Aluminium is remarkable for the metals low density and its ability to resist corrosion through the phenomenon of passivation. Aluminium and its alloys are vital to the industry and important in transportation and structures, such as building facades. The oxides and sulfates are the most useful compounds of aluminium, despite its prevalence in the environment, no known form of life uses aluminium salts metabolically, but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of these salts abundance, the potential for a role for them is of continuing interest. Aluminium is a soft, durable, lightweight, ductile. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite, a fresh film of aluminium serves as a good reflector of visible light and an excellent reflector of medium and far infrared radiation. The yield strength of aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel and it is easily machined, cast, drawn and extruded. Aluminium atoms are arranged in a cubic structure. Aluminium has an energy of approximately 200 mJ/m2. Aluminium is a thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the conductivity of copper. Aluminium is capable of superconductivity, with a critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin. Aluminium is the most common material for the fabrication of superconducting qubits, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper. This corrosion resistance is reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals. In highly acidic solutions, aluminium reacts with water to form hydrogen, primarily because it is corroded by dissolved chlorides, such as common sodium chloride, household plumbing is never made from aluminium
8.
Boron
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Boron is a chemical element with symbol B and atomic number 5. Produced entirely by cosmic ray spallation and supernovae and not by stellar nucleosynthesis, it is an element in the Solar system. Boron is concentrated on Earth by the water-solubility of its more common naturally occurring compounds and these are mined industrially as evaporites, such as borax and kernite. The largest known deposits are in Turkey, the largest producer of boron minerals. Elemental boron is a metalloid that is found in small amounts in meteoroids, industrially, very pure boron is produced with difficulty because of refractory contamination by carbon or other elements. Several allotropes of boron exist, amorphous boron is a powder, crystalline boron is silvery to black, extremely hard. The primary use of boron is as boron filaments with applications similar to carbon fibers in some high-strength materials. Boron is primarily used in chemical compounds, about half of all consumption globally, boron is used as an additive in glass fibers of boron-containing fiberglass for insulation and structural materials. The next leading use is in polymers and ceramics in high-strength, lightweight structural, borosilicate glass is desired for its greater strength and thermal shock resistance than ordinary soda lime glass. Boron compounds are used as fertilizers in agriculture and in sodium perborate bleaches, a small amount of boron is used as a dopant in semiconductors, and reagent intermediates in the synthesis of organic fine chemicals. A few boron-containing organic pharmaceuticals are used or are in study, natural boron is composed of two stable isotopes, one of which has a number of uses as a neutron-capturing agent. In biology, borates have low toxicity in mammals, but are toxic to arthropods and are used as insecticides. Boric acid is mildly antimicrobial, and several natural boron-containing organic antibiotics are known, small amounts of boron compounds play a strengthening role in the cell walls of all plants, making boron a necessary plant nutrient. Boron is involved in the metabolism of calcium in both plants and animals and it is considered an essential nutrient for humans, and boron deficiency is implicated in osteoporosis. The word boron was coined from borax, the mineral from which it was isolated, by analogy with carbon, marco Polo brought some glazes back to Italy in the 13th century. Agricola, around 1600, reports the use of borax as a flux in metallurgy, in 1777, boric acid was recognized in the hot springs near Florence, Italy, and became known as sal sedativum, with primarily medical uses. The rare mineral is called sassolite, which is found at Sasso, Sasso was the main source of European borax from 1827 to 1872, when American sources replaced it. Boron compounds were relatively rarely used until the late 1800s when Francis Marion Smiths Pacific Coast Borax Company first popularized and produced them in volume at low cost
9.
Barium
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Barium is a chemical element with symbol Ba and atomic number 56. It is the element in Group 2, a soft silvery metallic alkaline earth metal. Because of its chemical reactivity, barium is never found in nature as a free element. Its hydroxide, known in history as baryta, does not occur as a mineral. The most common naturally occurring minerals of barium are barite and witherite, the barium name originates from the alchemical derivative baryta, from Greek βαρύς, meaning heavy. Baric is the form of barium. Barium was identified as a new element in 1774, but not reduced to a metal until 1808 with the advent of electrolysis, historically, it was used as a getter for vacuum tubes. It is a component of YBCO and electroceramics, and is added to steel, Barium compounds are added to fireworks to impart a green color. Barium sulfate is used as an additive to oil well drilling fluid, as well as in a purer form. The soluble barium ion and soluble compounds are poisonous, and have used as rodenticides. Barium is a soft, silvery-white metal, with a slight golden shade when ultrapure, the silvery-white color of barium metal rapidly vanishes upon oxidation in air yielding a dark gray oxide layer. Barium has a specific weight and good electrical conductivity. Ultrapure barium is very difficult to prepare, and therefore properties of barium have not been accurately measured yet. At room temperature and pressure, barium has a cubic structure, with a barium–barium distance of 503 picometers. It is a soft metal with a Mohs hardness of 1.25. Its melting temperature of 1,000 K is intermediate between those of the strontium and heavier radium, however, its boiling point of 2,170 K exceeds that of strontium. The density is again intermediate between those of strontium and radium, Barium is chemically similar to magnesium, calcium, and strontium, but even more reactive. It always exhibits the oxidation state of +2, except in a few rare, reactions with chalcogens are highly exothermic, the reaction with oxygen or air occurs at room temperature, and therefore barium is stored under oil or in an inert atmosphere
10.
Cerium
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Cerium is a soft, ductile, silvery-white metallic chemical element with symbol Ce and atomic number 58. Cerium tarnishes when exposed to air, and it is enough to be cut with a knife. Cerium is the element in the lanthanide series, and while it often shows the +3 state characteristic of the series. It is also considered to be one of the rare earth elements. Cerium has no role, and is not very toxic. It is the most common of the lanthanides, followed by neodymium, lanthanum and it is the 26th most abundant element, making up 66 ppm of the Earths crust, half as much as chlorine and five times as much as lead. The first of the lanthanides to be discovered, cerium was discovered in Bastnäs, Sweden by Jöns Jakob Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger in 1803 and it was first isolated by Carl Gustaf Mosander in 1839. Today, cerium and its compounds have a variety of uses, for example, cerium metal is used in ferrocerium lighters for its pyrophoric properties. Cerium is the element of the lanthanide series. In the periodic table, it appears between the lanthanides lanthanum to its left and praseodymium to its right, and above the actinide thorium and it is a ductile metal with a hardness similar to that of silver. Its 58 electrons are arranged in the configuration 4f15d16s2, of which the four electrons are valence electrons. The stable form below 726 °C to approximately room temperature is γ-cerium, the dhcp form of β-cerium is the equilibrium structure approximately from room temperature to −150 °C. The fcc α-cerium exists below about −150 °C, it has a density of 8.16 g/cm3, other solid phases occurring only at high pressures are shown on the phase diagram. Both γ and β forms are stable at room temperature. Cerium has an electronic structure. This gives rise to dual valency states, for example, a volume change of about 10% occurs when cerium is subjected to high pressures or low temperatures. It appears that the changes from about 3 to 4 when it is cooled or compressed. At lower temperatures the behavior of cerium is complicated by the rates of transformation
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