1.
Dorothea Lange
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Dorothea Lange was an American documentary photographer and photojournalist, best known for her Depression-era work for the Farm Security Administration. Langes photographs humanized the consequences of the Great Depression and influenced the development of documentary photography, born of second generation German immigrants on May 26,1895, at 1041 Bloomfield Street, Hoboken, New Jersey, Dorothea Lange was named Dorothea Margaretta Nutzhorn at birth. She dropped her name and assumed her mothers maiden name after her father abandoned the family when she was 12 years old. The other was her contraction of polio at age seven which left her with a right leg. It formed me, guided me, instructed me, helped me and humiliated me, ive never gotten over it, and I am aware of the force and power of it. Lange graduated from the Wadleigh High School for Girls and was educated in photography at Columbia University in New York City and she was informally apprenticed to several New York photography studios, including that of the famed Arnold Genthe. In 1918, she left New York with a friend to travel the world. By the following year she had opened a portrait studio. She lived across the bay in Berkeley for the rest of her life, in 1920, she married the noted western painter Maynard Dixon, with whom she had two sons, Daniel, born in 1925, and John, born in 1930. With the onset of the Great Depression, Lange turned her camera lens from the studio to the street, in December 1935, she and Dixon divorced and she married economist Paul Schuster Taylor, Professor of Economics at the University of California, Berkeley. For the next five years they documented rural poverty and the exploitation of sharecroppers and migrant laborers – Taylor interviewing and gathering economic data, distributed free to newspapers across the country, her poignant images became icons of the era. One of Langes most recognized works is titled Migrant Mother, the woman in the photo is Florence Owens Thompson. In 1960, Lange spoke about her taking the photograph, I saw and approached the hungry and desperate mother. I do not remember how I explained my presence or my camera to her, I made five exposures, working closer and closer from the same direction. I did not ask her name or her history and she told me her age, that she was thirty-two. She said that they had been living on frozen vegetables from the surrounding fields and she had just sold the tires from her car to buy food. There she sat in that lean-to tent with her children huddled around her, and seemed to know that my pictures might help her, there was a sort of equality about it. After Lange returned home, she told the editor of a San Francisco newspaper about conditions at the camp, the editor informed federal authorities and published an article that included the photos
2.
Tahlequah, Oklahoma
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Tahlequah is a city in Cherokee County, Oklahoma, United States located at the foothills of the Ozark Mountains. The citys population was 15,753 at the 2010 census, the 2014 estimated population is 16,496. It is the county seat of Cherokee County, the main campus of Northeastern State University is located in the city. Tahlequah is the capital of the two federally recognized Cherokee tribes based in Oklahoma, the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians, many linguists believe the word Tahlequah and the word Teh-li-co are the same as di li gwa, the Cherokee word for grain or rice. Scholars report the Cherokee word di li gwa describes a type of grain with a red hue that grew in the flat open areas of east Tennessee. One area, Great Tellico, was named for the grass with the red seed tops, others interpret a word tel-i-quah as plains, however, there is no word for plains in the Cherokee lexicon, and the word tel-i-quah is not found in the lexicon. The idea that tahlequah means plains lends weight to the belief that the name refers to the open grassy areas of Great Tellico. Another explanation is the name Tahlequah came from the Cherokee words Ta-li, the story goes that when the Cherokee came to Tahlequah there were supposed to be 3 different Chiefs at the meeting. For whatever reason the 3rd Chief was delayed, the people said two is enough or ta-li-ye-li-quu which later became anglicanized to Tahlequah. When the Cherokee first arrived in the Tahlequah area, they noticed the native grasses that grew in the areas around the foothills of the Ozark Mountains. This reminded them of the grassy open areas of Tellico, so they called their new home di li gwa. Local legend states the name is derived from Cherokee words meaning just two or two is enough, supposedly three tribal elders had planned to meet to determine the location of the Cherokee Nations permanent capital. Two elders arrived and waited for the third, as dusk approached, they decided that two is enough. According to tribal elders and Cherokee County elders, this legend first began to circulate in the 1930s, Tahlequah was a settlement as early as 1832. After the Western Cherokee agreed in 1834 to let the newer migrants settle near them, Tahlequah was named long before it was chosen as the Cherokee capital. In 1839, Tahlequah was designated the capital of ancestors of both the Cherokee Nation and the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians, initially the government buildings were a complex of log or framed structures. Most of these buildings were destroyed during the Civil War, during which the Cherokee became divided into two opposing sides. After the war, a brick capitol was built and first occupied in 1870, in 1907, at the time of Oklahoma statehood, the building was converted into the Cherokee County courthouse
3.
Indian Territory
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In general, the tribes ceded land they occupied in exchange for land grants in an area purchased by the United States federal government from Napoleonic France, the Louisiana Purchase. The concept of an Indian Territory was an outcome of the 18th-, after the Civil War, the policy of the government was one of assimilation. The term Indian Reserve describes lands the British government set aside for indigenous tribes between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River in the time before the Revolutionary War. The borders of Indian Territory were reduced in size as various Organic Acts were passed by Congress to create incorporated territories of the United States. The 1907 Oklahoma Enabling Act created the state of Oklahoma by combining Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory. Indian Territory, also known as the Indian Territories and the Indian Country, was land within the United States of America reserved for the forced re-settlement of Native Americans, the general borders were set by the Indian Intercourse Act of 1834. The territory was located in the Midwest, while Congress passed several Organic Acts that provided a path for statehood for much of the original Indian Country, Congress never passed an Organic Act for the Indian Territory. Indian Territory was never an organized incorporated territory of the United States, in general, tribes could not sell land to non-Indians. The region never had a government until after the American Civil War. Therefore, the location commonly called Indian Territory was not a traditional territory. These re-written treaties included provisions for a legislature with proportional representation from various tribes. In time, the Indian Territory was reduced to what is now Oklahoma, the Organic Act of 1890 reduced Indian Territory to the lands occupied by the Five Civilized Tribes and the Tribes of the Quapaw Indian Agency. The remaining western portion of the former Indian Territory became the Oklahoma Territory, the Oklahoma organic act applied the laws of Nebraska to the incorporated territory of Oklahoma Territory, and the laws of Arkansas to the still unincorporated Indian Territory. The proclamation limited the settlement of Europeans to Crown-claimed lands east of the Appalachian Mountains, the territory remained active until the Treaty of Paris that ended the American Revolutionary War, and land was ceded to the United States. After the defeat of the British, the Americans twice invaded the Ohio Country and were twice defeated, the period after the American Revolutionary War was one of rapid western expansion. The areas occupied by Native Americans in the United States were called Indian country, in 1803 the United States of America agreed to purchase Frances claim to French Louisiana for a total of $15 million. President Thomas Jefferson doubted the legality of the purchase, however, the chief negotiator, Robert R. Livingston believed that the 3rd article of the treaty providing for the Louisiana Purchase would be acceptable to congress. Indian removal became the policy of the United States government with the passage of the 1830 Indian Removal Act
4.
Scotts Valley, California
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As of the 2010 census, the city population was 11,580. Principal access to the city is supplied by State Route 17 that connects San Jose, the city was incorporated in 1966. Approximately ten thousand years ago there was a lake in the lowest elevation of Scotts Valley, the lake receded to form a peat bog. Later, around 2000 BC, Ohlone people occupied areas along the creeks, spring and seep areas, along permanent and seasonal drainages. Therefore, areas along watercourses are considered likely locations for prehistoric cultural resources, several watercourses, including portions of Carbonera Creek, Bean Creek, MacKenzie Creek and the San Lorenzo River, are within the city. Permanent villages were placed on elevations above seasonal flood levels. Surrounding areas were used for hunting and seed, acorn, Scotts Valley was named after Hiram Scott, who purchased Rancho San Agustin, including the valley, in 1850 from Joseph Ladd Majors. Before Majors, the property was owned by José Bolcoff, Bolcoff was the original settler and first European to claim title and live in what was to be Scotts Valley. He was born Osip Volkov around 1794 in Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, Siberia, working as a fur trader around 1815, Bolcoff jumped ship on the Monterey Bay shoreline, quickly assimilated into the Spanish culture, and was well received by the Spanish authorities. Volkov had his Russian Orthodox Baptism validated in Mission Soledad in 1817, Bolcoff lived with and traveled with Alta Californias governor Pablo Vicente de Solá, acting as an interpreter. Becoming a Mexican citizen in 1833, Bolcoff moved his family to his 4, 400-acre land grant building, Bolcoff relinquished his interest in the Rancho San Augustin, selling and accepting $400 from Joseph Ladd Majors, also known as Don Juan José Mechacas. July 7,1846, marked the shift of power in the region from Mexico to the United States, Hiram Scott built the Greek revival style Scott House in 1853. Situated behind City Hall, it is a Santa Cruz County Historical Trust Landmark, the house originally stood on Scotts Valley Drive, near where a Bank of America branch is now located. From the 1840s, money-making activity in Scotts Valley centered on industries, lumber, grain, the milling of grain. Beginning in the 1930s, peat moss was removed from Scotts Valley, when the peat ran out, sand and gravel were quarried and sold. The area was the site of Santas Village, a Christmas-themed amusement park opened on May 30,1957, on a 25-acre site which was formerly Lawridge Farm. Residents of the park included Santa, Mrs. Santa, and elves and gnomes who operated the rides, there was a petting zoo, a bobsled ride, a whirling Christmas tree ride, and a train ride, as well as a Fairy Tale Land. The park was sold in 1966 but continued to be operated under lease by the Santas Village Corporation, when that corporation went bankrupt in 1977
5.
Cultural icon
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A cultural icon is an artifact that is recognised by members of a culture or sub-culture as representing some aspect of cultural identity. Icons are judged by their ability to be an authentic proxy, when individuals perceives a cultural icon, they compare it with their perceptions of the culture identity it attempts to mimic. Cultural Icons can also be identified as a representation of the practices of one culture by another. In the media, many items of culture have been called iconic despite their lack of durability. Some commentators believe that the word is overused or misused, a subset of cultural icons are national icons. Some examples are, Big Ben, Cup of tea, Red telephone box, Red AEC Routemaster London double decker bus, Spitfire, matryoshka dolls are seen internationally as cultural icons of Russia. Thus an apple pie is an icon of the United States. Religious icons can become cultural icons in societies where religion and culture are deeply entwined. Describing something as iconic or as an icon has become common in the popular media. This has drawn criticism from some, a writer in Liverpool Daily Post calls iconic a word that makes my flesh creep, category, Lists of cultural icons Pop icon Popular culture Biedermann, Hans. Dictionary of Symbolism, Cultural Icons and the Meanings Behind Them, batman Unmasked, Analysing a Cultural Icon. Edwards, Peter, Karl Enenkel, and Elspeth Graham, the Horse as Cultural Icon, The Real and the Symbolic Horse in the Early Modern World. CS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Foudy, Julie, Leslie Heywood, built to Win, The Female Athlete as Cultural Icon. Titanic Century, Media, Myth, and the Making of a Cultural Icon, titanic Century, Media, Myth, and the Making of a Cultural Icon. Cles Pour la France en 80 Icones Culturelles, the DNA Mystique, The Gene as a Cultural Icon. Reydams-Schils, Gretchen J. Platos Timaeus as Cultural Icon and our New Icons by The Daily Telegraph Nothing and no one are Off Limits in an Age of Iconomania by The Age British Postal Museum & Archive, Icons of England Culture24, Icons of England
6.
Great Depression
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The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
7.
Library of Congress
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The Library of Congress is the research library that officially serves the United States Congress and is the de facto national library of the United States. It is the oldest federal cultural institution in the United States, the Library is housed in three buildings on Capitol Hill in Washington, D. C. it also maintains the Packard Campus in Culpeper, Virginia, which houses the National Audio-Visual Conservation Center. The Library of Congress claims to be the largest library in the world and its collections are universal, not limited by subject, format, or national boundary, and include research materials from all parts of the world and in more than 450 languages. Two-thirds of the books it acquires each year are in other than English. The Library of Congress moved to Washington in 1800, after sitting for years in the temporary national capitals of New York. John J. Beckley, who became the first Librarian of Congress, was two dollars per day and was required to also serve as the Clerk of the House of Representatives. The small Congressional Library was housed in the United States Capitol for most of the 19th century until the early 1890s, most of the original collection had been destroyed by the British in 1814, during the War of 1812. To restore its collection in 1815, the bought from former president Thomas Jefferson his entire personal collection of 6,487 books. After a period of growth, another fire struck the Library in its Capitol chambers in 1851, again destroying a large amount of the collection. The Library received the right of transference of all copyrighted works to have two copies deposited of books, maps, illustrations and diagrams printed in the United States. It also began to build its collections of British and other European works and it included several stories built underground of steel and cast iron stacks. Although the Library is open to the public, only high-ranking government officials may check out books, the Library promotes literacy and American literature through projects such as the American Folklife Center, American Memory, Center for the Book, and Poet Laureate. James Madison is credited with the idea for creating a congressional library, part of the legislation appropriated $5,000 for the purchase of such books as may be necessary for the use of Congress. And for fitting up an apartment for containing them. Books were ordered from London and the collection, consisting of 740 books and 3 maps, was housed in the new Capitol, as president, Thomas Jefferson played an important role in establishing the structure of the Library of Congress. The new law also extended to the president and vice president the ability to borrow books and these volumes had been left in the Senate wing of the Capitol. One of the only congressional volumes to have survived was a government account book of receipts and it was taken as a souvenir by a British Commander whose family later returned it to the United States government in 1940. Within a month, former president Jefferson offered to sell his library as a replacement
8.
Nipomo, California
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Nipomo is a census-designated place in San Luis Obispo County, California, United States. The population was 12,626 at the 2000 census, Nipomo is located at 35°1′48″N 120°29′24″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 14.9 square miles. This region experiences warm and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above 71.6 °F, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Nipomo has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated Csb on climate maps. The 2010 United States Census reported that Nipomo had a population of 16,714, the population density was 1,125.4 people per square mile. The racial makeup of Nipomo was 12,281 White,177 African American,200 Native American,421 Asian,33 Pacific Islander,2,821 from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 6,645 persons. The Census reported that 16,703 people lived in households,11 lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, there were 338 unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 49 same-sex married couples or partnerships. 807 households were made up of individuals and 346 had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 3.05. There were 4,365 families, the family size was 3.35. The median age was 37.0 years, for every 100 females there were 97.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.9 males, there were 5,759 housing units at an average density of 387.8 per square mile, of which 3,898 were owner-occupied, and 1,576 were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1. 7%, the vacancy rate was 3. 1%. 11,583 people lived in owner-occupied housing units and 5,120 people lived in housing units. As of the census of 2000, there were 12,626 people,4,035 households, the population density was 1,106.1 people per square mile. There were 4,146 housing units at a density of 363.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 75. 9% White,0. 60% African American,1. 3% Native American,1. 4% Asian,0. 1% Pacific Islander,16. 0% from other races, and 4. 7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 34. 6% of the population,13. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 6. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.13 and the family size was 3.42
9.
Oklahoma
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Oklahoma is a state located in the South Central United States. Oklahoma is the 20th-most extensive and the 28th-most populous of the 50 United States, the states name is derived from the Choctaw words okla and humma, meaning red people. The name was settled upon statehood, Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory were merged, on November 16,1907, Oklahoma became the 46th state to enter the union. Its residents are known as Oklahomans, or informally Okies, and its capital, a major producer of natural gas, oil, and agricultural products, Oklahoma relies on an economic base of aviation, energy, telecommunications, and biotechnology. In 2007, it had one of the economies in the United States, ranking among the top states in per capita income growth. Oklahoma City and Tulsa serve as Oklahomas primary economic anchors, with nearly two-thirds of Oklahomans living within their metropolitan statistical areas. With small mountain ranges, prairie, mesas, and eastern forests, most of Oklahoma lies in the Great Plains, Cross Timbers, interior Highlands—a region especially prone to severe weather. The name Oklahoma comes from the Choctaw phrase okla humma, literally meaning red people, equivalent to the English word Indian, okla humma was a phrase in the Choctaw language used to describe Native American people as a whole. Oklahoma later became the de facto name for Oklahoma Territory, and it was approved in 1890. Oklahoma is the 20th-largest state in the United States, covering an area of 69,898 square miles and it is one of six states on the Frontier Strip and lies partly in the Great Plains near the geographical center of the 48 contiguous states. It is bounded on the east by Arkansas and Missouri, on the north by Kansas, on the northwest by Colorado, on the far west by New Mexico, much of its border with Texas lies along the Southern Oklahoma Aulacogen, a failed continental rift. The geologic figure defines the placement of the Red River, the Oklahoma panhandles Western edge is out of alignment with its Texas border. The Oklahoma/New Mexico border is actually 2.1 to 2.2 miles east of the Texas line, the border between Texas and New Mexico was set first as a result of a survey by Spain in 1819. It was then set along the 103rd Meridian, in the 1890s, when Oklahoma was formally surveyed using more accurate surveying equipment and techniques, it was discovered the Texas line was not set along the 103rd Meridian. Surveying techniques were not as accurate in 1819, and the actual 103rd Meridian was approximately 2.2 miles to the east and it was much easier to leave the mistake than for Texas to cede land to New Mexico to correct the surveying error. The placement of the Oklahoma/New Mexico border represents the true 103rd Meridian, cimarron County in Oklahomas panhandle is the only county in the United States that touches four other states, New Mexico, Texas, Colorado and Kansas. Its highest and lowest points follow this trend, with its highest peak, Black Mesa, at 4,973 feet above sea level, situated near its far northwest corner in the Oklahoma Panhandle. The states lowest point is on the Little River near its far southeastern boundary near the town of Idabel, Oklahoma, which dips to 289 feet above sea level
10.
Cherokee
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The Cherokee language is part of the Iroquoian language group. The Cherokee were one of the first, if not the first, article 8 in the 1817 treaty with the Cherokee stated Cherokees may wish to become citizens of the United States. The Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma has around 300,000 tribal members, in addition, numerous groups claiming Cherokee lineage, some of which are state-recognized, have members who are among those 819, 000-plus people claiming Cherokee ancestry on the US census. Of the three federally recognized Cherokee tribes, the Cherokee Nation and the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians have headquarters in Tahlequah, the UKB are mostly descendants of Old Settlers, Cherokee who migrated to Arkansas and Oklahoma about 1817. They are related to the Cherokee who were relocated there in the 1830s under the Indian Removal Act. The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians is on the Qualla Boundary in western North Carolina, the Cherokee refer to themselves as Ani-Yunwiya, which means Principal People. Many theories—though none proven—abound about the origin of the name Cherokee and it may have originally been derived from the Choctaw word Cha-la-kee, which means people who live in the mountains, or Choctaw Chi-luk-ik-bi, meaning people who live in the cave country. The earliest Spanish rendering of the name Cherokee, from 1755, is Tchalaquei, Another theory is that Cherokee derives from a Lower Creek word, Cvlakke. The Iroquois in New York have historically called the Cherokee Oyata’geronoñ, Tsalagi is sometimes misused as a name for the people, Tsalagi is actually the Cherokee word for the Cherokee language. There are two theories of Cherokee origins. Another theory is that the Cherokee had been in the Southeast for thousands of years, researchers in the 19th century recorded conversations with elders who recounted an oral tradition of the Cherokee peoples migrating south from the Great Lakes region in ancient times. They may have moved south into Muscogee Creek territory and settled at the sites of mounds built by the Mississippian culture, in the 19th century, European-American settlers mistakenly attributed several Mississippian culture sites to the Cherokee, including Moundville and Etowah Mounds. However, the Cherokee did not reach this part of Georgia until the late 18th century, pre-contact Cherokee are considered to be part of the later Pisgah Phase of Southern Appalachia, which lasted from circa 1000 to 1500. During the late Archaic and Woodland Period, Indians in the region began to cultivate plants such as elder, lambsquarters, pigweed, sunflowers. People created new art forms such as shell gorgets, adopted new technologies, during the Mississippian Culture-period, local women developed a new variety of maize called eastern flint corn. It closely resembled modern corn and produced larger crops, the successful cultivation of corn surpluses allowed the rise of larger, more complex chiefdoms with several villages and concentrated populations during this period. Corn became celebrated among numerous peoples in ceremonies, especially the Green Corn Ceremony. Much of what is known about pre-18th-century Native American cultures has come from records of Spanish expeditions, the earliest ones of the mid-16th-century encountered people of the Mississippian culture, the ancestors to later tribes in the Southeast such as the Muscogee and Catawba
11.
Choctaw
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The Choctaw are Native American people originally from the Southeastern United States. The Choctaw language belongs to the Muskogean language family group, the Choctaw are descendants of the peoples of the Hopewell and Mississippian cultures, who lived throughout the east of the Mississippi River valley and its tributaries. About 1,700 years ago, the Hopewell people built Nanih Waiya, an earthwork mound. The early Spanish explorers of the mid-16th century encountered Mississippian-culture villages, the anthropologist John Swanton suggested that the Choctaw derived their name from an early leader. Henry Halbert, a historian, suggests that their name is derived from the Choctaw phrase Hacha hatak and these included the French, based on the Gulf Coast and in Louisiana, the English of the Southeast, and the Spanish of Florida and Louisiana during the colonial era. During the American Revolution, most Choctaw supported the Thirteen Colonies bid for independence from the British Crown and they never went to war against the United States prior to Indian Removal. In the 19th century, the Choctaw became known as one of the Five Civilized Tribes because they adopted numerous practices of their United States neighbors. The Choctaw and the United States agreed to nine treaties and and they were the first Native Americans forced under the Indian Removal Act. The Choctaw were exiled because the U. S. wanted to expand territory available for settlement by European Americans, to save the tribe from extinction, the Choctaw negotiated the largest area and most desirable lands in Indian Territory. Their early government had three districts, each with its own chief, who together with the town chiefs sat on the National Council and they appointed a Choctaw Delegate to represent them with the US government in Washington, DC. By the 1831 Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek, those Choctaw who chose to stay in the formed state of Mississippi were one of the first major non-European ethnic groups to become U. S. citizens. During the American Civil War, the Choctaw in both Oklahoma and Mississippi mostly sided with the Confederate States of America, the Confederacy suggested it would support a state under Indian control if it won the war. After the Civil War, the Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana Choctaw fell into obscurity for some time, in 1978, the United Supreme Court of the United states held that all remnants of the Choctaw Nation are entitled to all rights of the Nation. The Choctaw in Oklahoma struggled to build a nation, transferring the Choctaw Academy there, in the aftermath of the Dawes Act, the US dissolved tribal governments and appointed chiefs. During World War I, Choctaw soldiers served in the U. S. military as the first Native American codetalkers, after the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, the Choctaw reconstituted their government, and the Choctaw Nation had kept their culture alive despite years of pressure for assimilation. The third largest federally recognized tribe, since the century, they have created new institutions, such as a tribal college, housing authority. Federal Court of Appeals was upheld by the United States Supreme Court in 2002, many thousands of years ago groups classified by anthropologists as Paleo-Indians lived in what today is referred to as the American South. These groups were hunter-gatherers who hunted a wide range of animals, including a variety of megafauna, cushman wrote, the ancient Choctaw through their tradition they saw the mighty beasts of the forests, whose tread shook the earth
12.
Stone County, Missouri
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Stone County is a county located in the southwestern portion of the U. S. state of Missouri. As of the 2010 census, the population was 32,202, the county was officially organized on February 10,1851, and is named after William Stone, an English pioneer and an early settler in Maryland who also served as Taney County Judge. Stone County is part of the Branson, MO Micropolitan Statistical Area, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 511 square miles, of which 464 square miles is land and 47 square miles is water. The population density was 62 people per square mile, there were 16,241 housing units at an average density of 35 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 97. 64% White,0. 07% Black or African American,0. 61% Native American,0. 18% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,0. 25% from other races, and 1. 20% from two or more races. Approximately 1. 04% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race, among the major first ancestries reported in Stone County were 24. 3% American,20. 4% German,11. 3% English, and 10. 8% Irish ancestry. 21. 40% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 30% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.40 and the average family size was 2.76. In the county, the population was out with 21. 40% under the age of 18,6. 20% from 18 to 24,23. 80% from 25 to 44,29. 70% from 45 to 64. The median age was 44 years, for every 100 females there were 96.20 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.10 males, the median income for a household in the county was $40,487, and the median income for a family was $46,675. Males had an income of $26,224 versus $19,190 for females. The per capita income for the county was $21,813, about 8. 50% of families and 12. 80% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19. 00% of those under age 18 and 8. 10% of those age 65 or over. Of adults 25 years of age and older in Stone County,80. 4% possesses a school diploma or higher while 14. 2% holds a bachelors degree or higher as their highest educational attainment. The County Commission also oversees the Planning and Zoning Department, Senior Citizens Services Board, a Law Enforcement Restitution Board, all elected Officials in Stone County serve 4 year terms. The county employed 170 full-time employees and 10 part-time employees on December 31,2014. The Government primarily operates out of the County Seat of Galena, the Stone County Sheriffs office, Judiciary, Circuit Clerk, and Jail are all in the Stone County Judicial Center on the east side of the square. The Assessor and Planning and Zoning offices are located in buildings on the side of the square. The Republican Party completely controls politics at the level in Stone County. All current office holders are members of the Republican Party, elected Officials in Stone County on average have a long tenure one elected to office
13.
Oroville, California
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Oroville is the county seat of Butte County, California, United States. The population was 15,506 at the 2010 census, up from 13,004 in the 2000 census, Oroville is considered the gateway to Lake Oroville and Feather River recreational areas. The city of Oroville has recently annexed two locations in South Oroville, areas A and B, which have a population of 2,725 people. The U. S. Census Bureau estimated the population of the city to be 17,996 as of January 1,2016, the Berry Creek Rancheria of Maidu Indians of California is headquartered here. Oroville is located off of State Route 70, and is in proximity to State Route 99. Chico, California is located about 25 minutes north of the city, Oroville is situated at the base of the foothills on the banks of the Feather River where it flows out of the Sierra Nevada onto the flat floor of the Sacramento Valley. It was established as the head of navigation on the Feather River to supply miners during the California Gold Rush. The town was originally called Ophir City, but the name was changed to Oroville when the first post office opened in 1854, the City Of Oroville was incorporated on January 3,1906. Gold was found at Bidwell Bar, one of the first gold mining sites in California, Oroville would serve as an important stop for the famous California Zephyr during its 20-year run. In 1983, this became a part of the Union Pacific Railroad as their Feather River Canyon Subdivision, a major highway, State Route 70, roughly parallels the railroad line winding through the canyon. The Chinese Temple is another monument to Orovilles storied past, Chinese laborers from the pioneer era established the Temple as a place of worship for followers of Chinese Popular Religion and the three major Chinese religions, Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. The Chinese Temple and Garden, as it is now called, has a collection of artifacts. The olive-canning industry was founded in Oroville by Freda Ehmann, the mother of ripe olives and she built a large cannery in Oroville, and by 1900 was the president of the worlds largest canned olive factory. Ehmann was a believer in womens suffrage and a friend of Susan B, anthony Ishi, Orovilles most famous resident, was the last of the Yahi Indians and is considered the last Stone Age Indian to come out of the wilderness and into western civilization. When he appeared out of the hills in East Oroville in 1911, the Visitors Center at Lake Oroville has a thorough exhibit and documentary film on Ishi and his life in society. Archaeological finds place the border for the prehistoric Martis people in the Oroville area. On August 7,1881, beloved elderly pioneer Jack Crum was stomped to death by local bully Tom Noacks in Chico, California. The young Noacks was feared by the locals of Butte County, not only because of his size and strength, but because he was mentally unbalanced and enjoyed punching oxen in the head
14.
Shafter, California
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Shafter is a city in Kern County, California, United States. It is located 18 miles west-northwest of Bakersfield, the population was 16,988 at the 2010 census, up from 12,736 at the 2000 census. The city is located along State Route 43, suburbs of Shafter include Myricks Corner, North Shafter, Smiths Corner, and Thomas Lane. The city of Shafter began as a dock along the Santa Fe Railroad right-of-way. The community was named for General William Rufus Shafter who commanded US Forces in Cuba during the Spanish–American War, property was sold beginning in 1914 and the city incorporated in 1938. The first post office opened in 1898, moved in 1902, a new postal service started in 1914. Also of historical note, Shafter is home to Minter Field, approximately 7,000 troops were stationed at the airstrip which hosted up to 600 prisoners of war as well. Today it is owned and administered by the Minter Field Airport District and serves as an industrial center and airport for crop dusters. The Minter Field Museum is maintained on location as well, the first truly successful human powered airplane, the Gossamer Condor, piloted by Bryan Allen won the Kremer prize on August 23,1977 at Shafters Minter Field. A California State Monument is located at the Field for this event, the Shafter Historical Society also maintains two other museums. The Green Hotel and the Shafter Depot Museum emphasize various aspects of the lives of Shafter residents in years past. In 2009, a Shafter High School senior, Anna Jelmini and she also fell just short of meeting the standards for the 2008 Olympics. In 2013 Shafter celebrated the 100 year anniversary of its founding, the Centennial Celebration included several events highlighting the history of the town, including a flyover of a PT-13 Training Plane that was stationed at Minter Field during World War II. Historically, much of Shafters economy has been based on agriculture, local crops include almonds, pistachios, cotton, grapes and alfalfa as well as some carrots, potatoes and other vegetables. Cotton and potatoes have a historical significance for the town of Shafter as leading industries in different periods of the towns development. More recently Shafter has become a hub for a variety of endeavors including, manufacturing, logistics. Shafter is home to the Paramount Logistics Park, built to facilitate Central Valley access to ports in Long Beach, Shafter will likely continue to grow economically as the PLP builds out. Ross Dress for Less announced its plans to move into the PLP in 2013, American Tire Distributors signed a 20-year lease with Roll Real Estate to lease over 1 million square feet of distribution space
15.
Bakersfield, California
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Bakersfield is a city in California, United States, and the county seat of Kern County. It covers about 142 square miles near the end of the San Joaquin Valley. Bakersfields population is approximately 365,000, making it the ninth-most populous city in California, the Bakersfield–Delano Metropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Kern County, had a 2010 census population of 839,631, making it the 62nd largest metropolitan area in the United States. The more built-up urban area that includes Bakersfield and areas immediately around the city, such as East Bakersfield, the city is a significant hub for both agriculture and oil production. Kern County is the most productive oil producing county, and the fourth most productive county in the United States. Industries include natural gas and other energy extraction, aerospace, mining, petroleum refining, manufacturing, distribution, food processing, the city is also the birthplace of the country music genre known as the Bakersfield sound. Archaeological evidence indicates the presence of Native American settlements dating back thousands of years, the Yokuts lived in lodges along the branches of the Kern River Delta and hunted antelope, tule elk, deer, bear, fish, and game birds. In 1776, Spanish missionary Father Francisco Garcés became the first European to explore the area, following the discovery of gold in California in 1848, settlers flooded into the San Joaquin Valley. In 1851, gold was discovered along the Kern River in the southern Sierra Nevada, the Bakersfield area, once a tule-reed-covered marshland, was first known as Kern Island to the handful of pioneers who built log cabins there in 1860. The area was subject to flooding from the Kern River, which occupied what is now the downtown area. In 1862, disastrous floods swept away the original settlement founded in 1860 by the German-born Christian Bohna, among those attracted to the area by the California gold rush was Thomas Baker, a lawyer and former colonel in the militia of Ohio, his home state. Baker moved to the banks of the Kern River in 1863, at what became known as Bakers Field, by 1870, with a population of 600, what is now known as Bakersfield was becoming the principal town in Kern County. In 1873, Bakersfield was officially incorporated as a city, alexander Mills was hired as the city marshal, a man one historian would describe as. An old man by the time he became Marshal of Bakersfield, but he was a Kentuckian, a handy man with a gun, and not lacking in initiative and resource when the mood moved him. Businessmen and others began to resent Mills, who was cantankerous, wanting to fire him but fearing reprisals, they came up with a scheme to disincorporate, effectively leaving him without an employer. According to local historian Gilbert Gia, the city was also failing to collect the taxes it needed for services, in 1876, the city voted to disincorporate. For the next 22 years, a citizens council managed the community, by 1880, the town had a population of 801, and by 1890, it had a population of 2,626. Migration from Texas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Southern California brought new residents, the city reincorporated on January 11,1898
16.
Modesto, California
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Modesto /məˈdɛstoʊ/, officially the City of Modesto, is the county seat and largest city of Stanislaus County, California, United States. With a population of approximately 201,165 at the 2010 census, it is the 18th largest city in the state of California, the Modesto Census County Division, which includes the cities of Ceres and Riverbank, had a population of 312,842 as of 2010. Modesto has been honored as a Tree City USA numerous times and it is surrounded by rich farmland, Stanislaus County ranks sixth among California counties in farm production. Led by milk, almonds, chickens, walnuts, and corn silage, the farm-to-table movement plays a central role in Modesto living as in the Central Valley. The citys annual Architectural Festival honors Modestos history as a ground for mid-century modern architecture during the 1940s and 50s. Modestos mid-century buildings have been featured four times in Museum of Modern Art publications, in December 2009, Forbes ranked Modesto 48th out of 100 among Best Bang-for-the-Buck Cities. In this ranking, Modesto ranked 8th in housing affordability and travel time, Modesto is the home of Gallo Family Winery, the largest privately owned winery in the world. Modesto was originally a stop on the railroad connecting Sacramento to Los Angeles, at its founding in 1870, it was to be named Ralston after financier William C. Ralstons modesty prompted him to ask that another name be found, Modesto was incorporated in 1884 with a population of over 1,000. With fields of grain, a river for grain barges, and railroad traffic. Irrigation water came from dams installed in the foothills, and irrigated fields of vegetables and fruit, by 1900, Modestos population was over 4,500. During World War II, the area provided canned goods, powdered milk, for the next few decades, Modestos population grew about two percent per year to over 100,000 in 1980, and over 200,000 in 2001. The citys official motto, Water Wealth Contentment Health, is emblazoned on the downtown Modesto Arch, the motto was selected in a contest held in 1911. Modestos motto is sometimes spoofed as The land gets the water, the bankers get the wealth, the cows get contentment, Modesto is known for the following tourist attractions and historical sites. McHenry Mansion – Built in the early 1880s by Robert McHenry, the mansion is included on the National Register of Historic Places. McHenry Museum – Across the street from the McHenry Mansion, filled with tidbits from Modestos history George Lucas Plaza – American Graffiti-inspired bronze statue made in honor of Modesto filmmaker George Lucas, located at Five Points. Gallo Center for the Arts – Center for the performing arts opened in 2007 and is located in downtown Modesto at 1000 I Street, Downtown Modesto – Known for having a variety of restaurants and night life. It also hosts a multi-venue Art Walk year around on the third Thursday of the month, the State Theatre – Dating back to the 1920s, it was recently renovated and serves as a local performance arts center and as a theater specializing in independent and foreign films
17.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
18.
Imperial Valley
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The Imperial Valley lies in Californias Imperial County. It is located in southeastern Southern California, and is the site of an area largely centered on the city of El Centro. The Valley is bordered by the Colorado River to the east and, in part, farther west lies the San Diego and Imperial County border. S. State of California and Baja California, the culture of the area blends those of the United States and Mexico, due to its regional history and geographic location along the international border. The Imperial Valley economy is based on agriculture, Imperial Valley was so named by the Imperial Land Company, in hopes of attracting settlers. Having done that it is now the home of the El Centro metropolitan area, locally, the terms Imperial Valley and Imperial County are used synonymously. The Imperial Valley extends southward for 50 miles from the end of the Salton Sea into Mexico. Part of a trough stretching from the Coachella Valley to the Gulf of California and its hot desert climate is characterized by daily temperature extremes. It was once part of the Gulf of California, from which it was cut off by the deposits of the Colorado River Delta Fan as it carved out the Grand Canyon. Bordered by sand dunes and barren mountains, it was uninhabited until 1901, flood-waters in 1905–07 destroyed the irrigation channels and created the Salton Sea now filled by the New River and irrigation run-off. The rivers in the part of the Salton Sea river basin flow south to north. The valley is bordered by the Colorado River to the east and, in part, farther west lies the border with San Diego County and to the south the international boundary between the US state of California and Baja California, Mexico. To the north is the boundary with the Inland Empires Riverside County and its Coachella Valley, during winter months the Valley averages more than eight hours of sunshine a day, receiving the most sunlight of any place in the United States. Historically, the lowest minimum temperature recorded in the Imperial Valley was 16 °F on January 22,1937. The highest maximum temperature recorded was 121 °F on July 28,1995. The lowest maximum temperature was 42 °F, recorded on January 24,1949, the highest monthly mean temperature was 95.9 °F, recorded in August 1969 and the lowest mean temperature was 42.3 °F in February 1939. The 85-year average annual rainfall is 2.93 inches with June being the driest month, the only recorded snowfall in the Valley occurred on December 12,1932. Snow began falling at 8,45 p. m. in the southwest portion of Imperial Valley,4 inches of snow was reported that day
19.
U.S. Route 101
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U. S. Route 101, or U. S. Highway 101 is a north–south United States Numbered Highway that runs through the states of California, Oregon, and Washington, on the West Coast of the United States. It is also known as El Camino Real where its route along the southern and central California coast approximates the old trail which linked the Spanish missions, pueblos and it merges at some points with California State Route 1. US101 is a major parallel freeway or highway between Los Angeles and San Francisco, and is an alternative to the Interstate for most of its length, in 1964, California truncated US 101s southern terminus in Los Angeles, as I-5 replaced it. The old road is known as County Route S21 or Historic Route 101 in northern San Diego County, the southern terminus of US101 is in Los Angeles at the East Los Angeles Interchange, the worlds busiest freeway interchange. However, the principal routes were assigned numbers ending in 1. Thus, US101 is treated as a primary, two-digit route with a first digit of 10, rather than a spur of US1, thus US101, not US99, is the westernmost north-south route in the U. S. Highway System. US101 is called the Oregon Coast Highway in Oregon, and it is also called The 101 by Southern Californians or simply 101 by residents of Northern California, Oregon, and Washington. From north of San Francisco and continuing almost to Oregon it is signed as the Redwood Highway though not often spoken of as such outside organizations responsible for tourism marketing. Urban portions of the route in Southern California are named the Santa Ana Freeway, Hollywood Freeway, in 2003, the portion of US101 in Ventura County was named Screaming Eagles Highway in honor of the US Army 101st Airborne Division. Urban portions of the route in the Bay Area are called the James Lick Freeway, Bayshore Freeway, a portion of the route between Cochrane Road in Morgan Hill and SR85 in San Jose is named the Sig Sanchez Freeway. The section of highway between SR-85 in Mountain View and Embarcadero Road in Palo Alto is officially known as the Fredrick E. Terman Highway, Street routings in San Francisco are more commonly referred to by their street names rather than the route number. Portions of the route between Southern California and the Bay Area are named El Camino Real or El Camino Real Freeway, but such names are used colloquially. In Northern California the section of US101 between Sonoma and Marin counties is referred to as the Novato Narrows because of the reduction from four lanes to two. The route is the Santa Ana Freeway from East Los Angeles to Downtown Los Angeles and it becomes the Hollywood Freeway north of Downtown Los Angeles through the Cahuenga Pass, before turning west and becoming the Ventura Freeway. It is one of two major routes connecting the South Bay and Silicon Valley with San Francisco and the North Bay. It serves as an urban alternative to the rural I-280, as US101 runs through Peninsula cities closer to the Bay and I-280 runs closer to the Santa Cruz Mountains. Through northern San Francisco, US101 remains routed on congested city streets due to freeway revolts and it then departs the immediate coast and continues through wine country and Redwood forests until it re-emerges coast-side at Eureka. In areas where US101 turns inland, SR1 branches off to serve the coastal communities, unlike Washington, California does not sign the long east–west section of US101 between Gaviota and its junction with SR134 and SR170 in North Hollywood as west and east
20.
Watsonville, California
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Watsonville is a city in Santa Cruz County, California, United States. The population was 51,199 according to the 2010 census, located on the central coast of California, the economy centers predominantly around the farming industry. It is known for growing strawberries, apples, lettuce and a host of other vegetables, Watsonville is home to people of varied ethnic backgrounds. There is a large Hispanic population, a group of Croats, Portuguese, Filipino, Caucasian, Sikhs and Japanese population that live, the Pajaro Valley, wherein Watsonville is located, has a climate that is usually pleasant — around 60 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit throughout the year. This climate makes Watsonville an attractive environment for the neighboring inland communities with very hot summers. The Pajaro Valley Unified School District has an attendance of about 18,000 students kindergarten through 12th grades, there are several private religious-based schools in Watsonville such as Notre Dame School, Monte Vista Christian, Salesian Sisters and St. Francis. There are also charter schools and the non-religious independent Pre-K through 12th grade Mount Madonna School. These schools provide a range of educational options for local families. Watsonville is generally conservative on the spectrum and average in relationship to the neighboring communities of Salinas, Castroville. The larger coastal town north of Watsonville is the city of Santa Cruz. Santa Cruz is a draw for young college students who attend Cabrillo College or University of California. Because Watsonville and Santa Cruz are beach towns, they draw many visitors from San Jose, like neighboring Salinas in Monterey County, Watsonville produces a variety of fruits and vegetables, primarily apples, strawberries, blackberries, raspberries, and table mushrooms. Watsonvilles land was first inhabited by an Indian tribe called the Costanoans and this tribe settled along the Pajaro Dunes since the land was fertile and useful for the cultivation of their plants and animals. This river that runs along the boundaries of the city divides the Santa Cruz County, in 1847, the second wave of European explorers was presented to this land where they finally decided to settle. Forty of these explorers officially lived in the city and had animals, the community was incorporated as the Town of Watsonville on or about March 30,1868 and named after Judge John Watson. The town changed its name to the City of Watsonville about 1889, the voters adopted a charter in 1903. Many of the soldiers were suffering from scurvy, so progress was slow. While the sick recuperated, scouts led by Sergeant Ortega went ahead to find the best way forward, on the fifth day, Franciscan missionary Juan Crespi, traveling with the expedition, noted in his diary that, This afternoon the explorers returned
21.
Pajaro River
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Flowing roughly east to west, the river empties into Monterey Bay, west of Watsonville, California. The first European land exploration of Alta California, the Spanish Portolà expedition, the party continued north the next day toward Santa Cruz. Expedition soldiers called it Pajaro because the natives they saw there had a stuffed bird. Franciscan missionary Juan Crespi, traveling with the expedition, noted in his diary that, the Pajaro River has had many names. Early Spanish maps had the name Rio de San Antonio and Rio del Pajaro, alternate names included Pigeon River, Rio de La Senora La Santa Ana, Rio del Paxaro, Rio de Santa Ana, San Antonio River and Sanjon del Tequesquite. In 1953 the State Water Resource Control Board determined that the Pajaro Valley Watershed suffered from saltwater intrusion due to groundwater overdraft, in the 1970s, the groundwater basin consistently fell below sea level, and was identified in 1980 as critically over-drafted. By the 21st century,54 square miles of the Pajaro Watersheds groundwater supply was overdrawn and as a result, the Pajaro River has a recurring history of flooding. The towns of Pajaro and Watsonville were built on the natural floodplain. Before the Army Corps of Engineers built the levees, flooding devastated homes, businesses, since the $748,000 levees were constructed in 1949, there have been several instances of flooding from severe weather events and failed levees. In 1963, the USACE acknowledged poor planning in levee design, following the 1995 floods, several lawsuits were issued against the different counties and cities by farmers and homeowners affected. Santa Cruz County, Monterey County, and the California Department of Transportation were all responsible for failing to maintain the Pajaro River during floods. Plaintiffs held the counties responsible because in 1944, both counties made promises to maintain the levees implemented by the Army Corps of Engineers, the San Andreas Fault line crosses the Pajaro River at the Pajaro Gap near Aromas, California and California State Route 129. The Salinian Block rests above the Pacific Plate which slips north along the San Andres Fault and it is made up of granitic material, and marine sediments. The Pajaro River has a history of changing its course due to the San Andreas fault slippage between the Pacific plate and the North American Plate, the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake in the Santa Cruz Mountains deformed the Pajaro levee system. Other faults within the watershed are the Zayante fault, Sargent Fault, wilson Granite Rock quarry is located by the Pajaro gap adjacent to the river in San Benito county. Due to the geology in the area, the geomorphology of the watershed is unique, the river begins at Diablo range in the east. In the south, from the Gabilan mountains flows another tributary northward, from the north, tributaries flow from the Santa Cruz mountains southward to meet with the Pajaro. Climate in the region is Mediterranean, Watsonville annual high temps reach 68 °F and lows of 47 °F
22.
Pea-pickers
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A pea-picker is a derogatory reference to poor, migrant workers during the Great Depression. These people were unskilled, poorly educated workers, employable only in menial jobs, such as harvesting crops and, as such, some of these people were photographed by Dorothea Lange. The term pea picker is used to distinguish a group as a social class from some other similar group, such as the pea-picking Smiths. This mass deportation, known as the Mexican Repatriation, took place from 1929 to 1939 and was empowered by panic of a low unemployment rate sweeping over the United States at this time. The Dust Bowl was the given to the Great Plains region devastated by drought in 1930s depression-ridden America. This triggered the migration of men women and children seeking work, food and shelter made their way to the California in hope to find opportunity and a better life. Most of the migrants moving west were not farmers and most of them had lived in a town or city doing some kind of blue-collar. Unaware of the living conditions and only seasonal work, that largely depend on the weather. The term pea-picker was used to describe these particular group migrant workers in a negative context, the workers who picked these peas before the Dust Bowl migration and Mexican Repatriation had taken place were mostly Mexicans, Filipinos, and single white males before the Depression. This new work force of unskilled migrant families from the Dust bowl now took their place, tennessee Ernie Ford, who was nicknamed The Ol Pea-Picker Himself White trash The Grapes of Wrath Schwinn Peapicker
23.
Hudson Motor Car Company
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The Hudson Motor Car Company made Hudson and other brand automobiles in Detroit, Michigan, from 1909 to 1954. In 1954, Hudson merged with Nash-Kelvinator Corporation to form American Motors, the Hudson name was continued through the 1957 model year, after which it was discontinued. A total of eight Detroit businessmen formed the company on February 20,1909, one of the chief car men and organizer of the company was Roy D. Chapin, Sr. a young executive who had worked with Ransom E. Olds. The company quickly started production, with the first car out of a small factory in Detroit on July 3,1909 at Mack Avenue and Beaufait Street. The new Hudson Twenty was one of the first low-priced cars on the American market, the land was the former farm of D. J. Campau. On 1 July 1926, Hudsons new $10 million body plant was completed where the automaker could now build the all-steel closed bodies for both the Hudson and Essex models. It was designed by the firm of renowned industrial architect Albert Kahn with 223,500 square feet, production in 1911 increased to 6,486. For 1914 Hudsons for the American market were now left hand drive, the Super Six was the first engine built by Hudson, previously Hudson had developed engine designs and then had them manufactured by Continental Motors Company. Most Hudsons until 1957 had straight-6 engines, Hudson transmissions also used an oil bath and cork clutch mechanism that proved to be as durable as it was smooth. Hudson was the third largest U. S. car maker that year, after Ford Motor Company and Chevrolet. The Essex found great success by offering one of the first affordable sedans, in 1932, Hudson began phasing out its Essex nameplate for the modern Terraplane brand name. The new line was launched on July 21,1932, with a promotional christening by Amelia Earhart, for 1932 and 1933, the restyled cars were named Essex-Terraplane, from 1934 as Terraplane, until 1938 when the Terraplane was renamed the Hudson 112. Hudson also began assembling cars in Canada, contracting Canada Top and Body to build the cars in their Tilbury, Ontario, in England Terraplanes built at the Brentford factory were still being advertised in 1938. This took the place of the shift lever, but required conventional clutch actions. Cars equipped with Electric Hand also carried a conventional shift lever in clips under the dash, Hudson was also noted for offering an optional vacuum-powered automatic clutch, starting in the early 1930s. For the 1930 model year Hudson debuted a new flathead inline eight cylinder engine with block and Crankcase cast as a unit and fitted with two cylinder heads. A2.75 inch bore and 4.5 inch stroke displaced 218.8 cubic inches developing 80 HP at 3,600 RPM with the standard 5.78,1 Compression ratio. The 5 Main bearing Crankshaft had 8 integral counterweights, an industry first, four rubber blocks were used at engine mount points
24.
San Francisco Call
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The San Francisco Call was a newspaper that served San Francisco, California. Between December 1856 and March 1895 The San Francisco Call was named The Morning Call, in the period from 1863 to 1864 Mark Twain worked as one of the papers writers. In December of that year, Hearst merged The San Francisco Call with the Evening Post, on 29 August 1929, the newspaper name was changed again to the San Francisco Call-Bulletin, when the San Francisco Call & Post merged with the San Francisco Bulletin. In 1959 the San Francisco Call-Bulletin merged with Scripps-Howards San Francisco News becoming the News-Call Bulletin, in 1965 the paper merged with the San Francisco Examiner. San Francisco, CA, at the Library of Congress Chronicling America Project, Images provided by, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA Browse Issues by Calendar, The Morning Call. San Francisco, CA, at the Library of Congress Chronicling America Project, Images provided by, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA
25.
Resettlement Administration
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Roosevelt established the RA under Executive Order 7027, as one of the New Deals alphabet agencies, and Tugwell became its first and only head. The new organization had four divisions, Rural Rehabilitation, Rural Resettlement, Land Utilization, however, Tugwells goal of moving 651,000 people from 100,000,000 acres of agriculturally exhausted, worn-out land was unpopular among the majority in Congress. This goal seemed socialistic to some and threatened to deprive influential farm owners of their tenant workforce, the main focus of the RA was to now build relief camps in California for migratory workers, especially refugees from the drought-struck Dust Bowl of the Southwest. This move was resisted by a share of Californians, who did not want destitute migrants to settle in their midst. After facing enormous criticism for his management of the RA. On January 1,1937, with hopes of making the RA more effective, the Weedpatch Camp now on the National Register of Historic Places, was built in 1936 south of Bakersfield, California, not by the RA but the FSA. The camp inspired John Steinbecks 1939 novel, The Grapes of Wrath, a 1940 film adaptation directed by John Ford, a Tony Award-winning play and an opera. In the face of Congressional criticism, in September 1937 it was folded into a new body, the Farm Security Administration, Farm Security Administration Dust Bowl Meriam, Lewis. Relief and Social Security The Brookings Institution, presented by the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center and Mills Music Library Special Collections
26.
Roy Stryker
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Roy Emerson Stryker was an American economist, government official, and photographer. He is most famous for heading the Information Division of the Farm Security Administration during the Great Depression, after serving in the infantry in World War I, Stryker went to Columbia University where he studied economics. He used his photography to illustrate his economics texts and lectures, at Columbia, he worked with Rexford Tugwell, and when Tugwell became part of the Resettlement Administration, Stryker followed him. Tugwell and Stryker refocused the attention of the Resettlement Administration to document the problems of the heartland, the RA was renominated the Farm Security Administration, and Stryker set up the photodocumentary project. Strykers greatest contribution to the FSAs photographic project was as a manager, the photographers involved attested to the fact that Stryker was expert at getting good work out of them. He made sure that the photographers were well briefed on their assigned areas before being sent out, however, Stryker has been criticized for his heavy-handed editing methodology, which involved physically defacing negatives by punching holes in them. Stryker also made sure that mainstream publications had access to FSA photographs and this both helped focus public attention on the plight of the rural poor and set up the commercial careers of his photographers. Overall, from 164,000 developed negatives some 77,000 different finished photographic prints were made for the press, plus 644 color images. During World War II, the unit of the FSA was reassigned to the Office of War Information and put to more propagandistic uses for one year. At the same time, the US Congress disbanded the FSA, Stryker resigned and went to work for Standard Oil in its public relations documentary project from 1943 to 1950. After suggesting topics he wanted documented, Stryker gave his photographers the freedom to pursue their individual approaches to their subjects, as with all his projects, Stryker was adamant that his staff understand their subjects and their context before going out on an assignment. From 1950 to 1952, Stryker worked to establish the Pittsburgh Photographic Library, in 1960, the collection was transferred to the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh. After leaving the PPL, Stryker directed a project at Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation. Thereafter, he accepted consulting jobs on occasion and conducted seminars on photo-journalism at the University of Missouri, Stryker eventually returned to the west in the 1960s. He died in Grand Junction, Colorado, the Standard Oil Collection – A digital collection of photographs from the documentary project directed by Roy E. Stryker
27.
Edward Steichen
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Edward Jean Steichen was a Luxembourgish American photographer, painter, and art gallery and museum curator. Steichen was the most frequently featured photographer in Alfred Stieglitz groundbreaking magazine Camera Work during its run from 1903 to 1917, together Stieglitz and Steichen opened the Little Galleries of the Photo-Secession, which eventually became known as 291 after its address. His photos of gowns for the magazine Art et Décoration in 1911 are regarded as the first modern fashion photographs ever published. From 1923 to 1938, Steichen was a photographer for the Condé Nast magazines Vogue, during these years, Steichen was regarded as the best known and highest paid photographer in the world. In 1944, he directed the war documentary The Fighting Lady, after World War II, Steichen was Director of the Department of Photography at New Yorks Museum of Modern Art until 1962. While at MoMA, he curated and assembled the exhibit The Family of Man, Steichen was born Éduard Jean Steichen in Bivange, Luxembourg, the son of Jean-Pierre and Marie Kemp Steichen. Jean-Pierre Steichen initially immigrated to the United States in 1880, Marie Steichen brought the infant Edward along once Jean-Pierre had settled in Chicago, in 1881. The family, with the addition of Eduards younger sister Lilian, moved to Milwaukee in 1889, in 1894, at the age of fifteen, Steichen began a four-year lithography apprenticeship with the American Fine Art Company of Milwaukee. After hours, he would sketch and draw, and began to teach himself to paint. Having come across a shop near to his work, he visited frequently with curiosity until he persuaded himself to buy his first camera. The group also hired Richard Lorenz and Robert Schade for occasional lectures. Steichen was naturalized as a U. S. citizen in 1900 and signed the papers as Edward J. Steichen, however. Steichen married Clara Smith in 1903 and they had two daughters, Katherine and Mary. In 1914, Clara accused her husband of having an affair with artist Marion H. Beckett, the Steichens left France just ahead of invading German troops. In 1915, Clara Steichen returned to France with her daughter Kate, Steichen returned to France with the Photography Division of the American Army Signal Corps in 1917, whereupon Clara returned to the United States. In 1919, Clara Steichen sued Marion Beckett for having an affair with her husband, Clara and Edouart Steichen eventually divorced in 1922. Steichen married Dana Desboro Glover in 1923 and she died of leukemia in 1957. In 1960, aged 80, Steichen married Joanna Taub and remained married to her until his death, Joanna Steichen died on July 24,2010, in Montauk, New York, aged 77
28.
The Modesto Bee
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The Modesto Bee is a California newspaper, founded in 1884 as the Daily Evening News and published continuously as a daily under a variety of names. Prior to its purchase by Charles K, McClatchy and McClatchy Newspapers in 1924, it merged in the same year with the Modesto News-Herald, adopting that name as part of a consolidation. In 1933 it changed its name to the Modesto Bee and News-Herald and its current owner is the descendant firm, McClatchy Company, an American newspaper corporation. The Modesto Bee has about 150 employees and is delivered throughout central California, reaching places such as Manteca, Merced, Patterson and it currently serves 56,723 morning subscribers and 68,145 on Sundays. McClatchy Company The Modesto Bee official website The Modesto Bee official mobile website The Modesto Bee RSS feeds The McClatchy Companys subsidiary profile of The Modesto Bee
29.
Associated Press
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The Associated Press is an American multinational nonprofit news agency headquartered in New York City that operates as a cooperative, unincorporated association. The AP is owned by its contributing newspapers and radio and television stations in the United States, all of which stories to the AP. Most of the AP staff are members and are represented by the Newspaper Guild, which operates under the Communications Workers of America. As of 2007, news collected by the AP was published and republished by more than 1,700 newspapers, in addition to more than 5,000 television, the photograph library of the AP consists of over 10 million images. The AP operates 243 news bureaus in 120 countries and it also operates the AP Radio Network, which provides newscasts twice hourly for broadcast and satellite radio and television stations. Many newspapers and broadcasters outside the United States are AP subscribers, as part of their cooperative agreement with the AP, most member news organizations grant automatic permission for the AP to distribute their local news reports. The AP employs the inverted pyramid formula for writing that enables the news outlets to edit a story to fit its available publication area without losing the storys essentials. Cutbacks at rival United Press International in 1993 left the AP as the United States primary news service, although UPI still produces and distributes stories and photos daily. Other English-language news services, such as the BBC, Reuters, some historians believe that the Tribune joined at this time, documents show it was a member in 1849. The New York Times became a member shortly after its founding in September 1851, initially known as the New York Associated Press, the organization faced competition from the Western Associated Press, which criticized its monopolistic news gathering and price setting practices. The revelations led to the demise of the NYAP and in December 1892, when the AP was founded, news became a salable commodity. The invention of the press allowed the New York Tribune in the 1870s to print 18,000 papers per hour. During the Civil War and Spanish–American War, there was a new incentive to print vivid, Melville Stone, who had founded the Chicago Daily News in 1875, served as AP General Manager from 1893 to 1921. He embraced the standards of accuracy, impartiality, and integrity, the cooperative grew rapidly under the leadership of Kent Cooper, who built up bureau staff in South America, Europe and, the Middle East. He introduced the telegraph typewriter or teletypewriter into newsrooms in 1914, in 1935, AP launched the Wirephoto network, which allowed transmission of news photographs over leased private telephone lines on the day they were taken. This gave AP a major advantage over other media outlets. While the first network was only between New York, Chicago, and San Francisco, eventually AP had its network across the whole United States, in 1945, the Supreme Court of the United States held in Associated Press v. The decision facilitated the growth of its main rival United Press International, AP entered the broadcast field in 1941 when it began distributing news to radio stations, it created its own radio network in 1974
30.
Public domain
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The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
31.
San Jose, California
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San Jose, officially the City of San José, is the economic, cultural, and political center of Silicon Valley and the largest city in Northern California. With an estimated 2015 population of 1,026,908, it is the third most populous city in California and the tenth most populous in United States. Located in the center of the Santa Clara Valley, on the shore of San Francisco Bay. San Jose is the county seat of Santa Clara County, the most affluent county in California. San Jose is the largest city in both the San Francisco Bay Area and the San Jose-San Francisco-Oakland Combined Statistical Area, which contain 7.7 million and 8.7 million people respectively. Before the arrival of the Spanish, the area around San Jose was inhabited by the Ohlone people, San Jose was founded on November 29,1777, as the Pueblo of San José de Guadalupe, the first civilian town founded in Spanish Alta California. When California gained statehood in 1850, San Jose became the states first capital, following World War II, San Jose experienced an economic boom, with a rapid population growth and aggressive annexation of nearby cities and communities carried out in the 1950s and 60s. The rapid growth of the high-technology and electronics industries further accelerated the transition from a center to an urbanized metropolitan area. Results of the 1990 U. S. Census indicated that San Jose had officially surpassed San Francisco as the most populous city in Northern California, by the 1990s, San Jose and the rest of Silicon Valley had become the global center for the high tech and internet industries. San Jose is considered to be a city, notable for its affluence. San Joses location within the high tech industry, as a cultural, political. San Jose is one of the wealthiest major cities in the United States and the world, and has the third highest GDP per capita in the world, according to the Brookings Institute. Major global tech companies including Cisco Systems, eBay, Adobe Systems, PayPal, Brocade, Samsung, Acer, Prior to European settlement, the area was inhabited by several groups of Ohlone Native Americans. The first lasting European presence began with a series of Franciscan missions established from 1769 by Junípero Serra, San Jose came under Mexican rule in 1821 after Mexico broke with the Spanish crown. It then became part of the United States, after it capitulated in 1846, on March 27,1850, San Jose became the second incorporated city in the state, with Josiah Belden its first mayor. San Jose was Californias first state capital, and hosted the first, today the Circle of Palms Plaza in downtown is the historical marker for the first state capital. The city was a station on the Butterfield Overland Mail route, in the period 1900 through 1910, San Jose served as a center for pioneering invention, innovation, and impact in both lighter-than-air and heavier-than-air flight. These activities were led principally by John Montgomery and his peers, the City of San Jose has established Montgomery Park, a Monument at San Felipe and Yerba Buena Roads, and John J. Montgomery Elementary School in his honor
32.
United States Postal Service
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The United States Postal Service, is an independent agency of the United States federal government responsible for providing postal service in the United States. It is one of the few government agencies explicitly authorized by the United States Constitution, Mail traces its roots to 1775 during the Second Continental Congress, where Benjamin Franklin was appointed the first postmaster general. The USPS as of February 2015 has 617,254 active employees, the USPS is the operator of the largest civilian vehicle fleet in the world. The USPS is legally obligated to serve all Americans, regardless of geography, at uniform price, the USPS has exclusive access to letter boxes marked U. S. The USPS lost $5.5 billion in fiscal year 2014 and $5.1 billion in 2015, in the early years of the North American colonies, many attempts were made to initiate a postal service. These early attempts were of small scale and usually involved a colony, Massachusetts Bay Colony for example, for example, informal independently-run postal routes operated in Boston as early as 1639, with a Boston to New York City service starting in 1672. A central postal organization came to the colonies in 1691, when Thomas Neale received a 21-year grant from the British Crown for a North American Postal Service, the patent included the exclusive right to establish and collect a formal postal tax on official documents of all kinds. The tax was repealed a year later, Neale appointed Andrew Hamilton, Governor of New Jersey, as his deputy postmaster. The first postal service in America commenced in February 1692, rates of postage were fixed and authorized, and measures were taken to establish a post office in each town in Virginia. Massachusetts and the other colonies soon passed laws, and a very imperfect post office system was established. Neales patent expired in 1710, when Parliament extended the English postal system to the colonies, the chief office was established in New York City, where letters were conveyed by regular packets across the Atlantic. Before the Revolution, there was only a trickle of business or governmental correspondence between the colonies, most of the mail went back and forth to counting houses and government offices in London. The Revolution made Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, News, new laws, political intelligence, and military orders circulated with a new urgency, and a postal system was necessary. Journalists took the lead, securing post office legislation that allowed them to reach their subscribers at very low cost, overthrowing the London-oriented imperial postal service in 1774-1775, printers enlisted merchants and the new political leadership, and created a new postal system. The United States Post Office was created on July 26,1775, the official post office was created in 1792 as the Post Office Department. It was based on the Constitutional authority empowering Congress To establish post offices, the 1792 law provided for a greatly expanded postal network, and served editors by charging newspapers an extremely low rate. The law guaranteed the sanctity of personal correspondence, and provided the country with low-cost access to information on public affairs. Rufus Easton was appointed by Thomas Jefferson first postmaster of St. Louis under the recommendation of Postmaster General Gideon Granger, Rufus Easton was the first postmaster and built the first post office west of the Mississippi
33.
Celebrate the Century
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Celebrate the Century is the name of a series of postage stamps made by the United States Postal Service featuring images recalling various important events in the 20th century in the United States. Ten of these sheets were issued, with each sheet depicting events of one decade of the 20th century, fifteen stamps were embedded into each sheet. For the first eight sheets of the fifteen stamps, one stamp of each sheet was printed using the intaglio process, all the sheets were printed by the Ashton-Potter USA printing company. These gummed souvenir sheets had a large format of 7½x9. The stamps were arranged on the sheets in four rows, an area was devoted to the description of the decade as depicted by the stamps on it. The description of each stamp was printed on the side of the sheet. The words Arts, Sports, Historical Events ran on the left edge, Technology, Entertainment, Science ran on the top edge, Political Figures. The stamp images for the first five sheets were selected by Citizens Stamp Advisory Committee, the CTC stamp program was publicised through an award winning travelling railway museum tour, named Celebrate the Century Express commissioned by the USPS consisting of a locomotive and three cars. This train travelled for eighteen months from 11 March 1999 through fall 19 November 2000 throughout the continental US to showcase the mail to the US public. During its journey it travelled through 100 cities in 42 states and had more that 111,000 visitors including 6,000 children, the CTC Express received the U. S. Transportation Departments Design for Transportation National Awards 2000, and the TRANNY Award of Excellence from the Transportation Marketing, on 25 May 2000 the US Congress commended the USPS for receiving these awards. The program kits were created for students from grades 3 to 6, in a survey taken in 1999 of 20,000 educators, it was revealed that the program was a big success. Title, Dawn of the Twentieth Century, du Bois, The Gibson Girl,1903 World Series, Robie House Background image, The Wright brothers stand beside their Flyer II, near Dayton, Ohio. Intaglio stamp, The Gibson Girl created by illustrator Charles Dana Gibson, inspired by the teddy bear stamp on this sheet, the USPS in 2002 issued a set of four teddy bear stamps. Title, America Looks Beyond its Borders, date of issue,3 February 1998. The stamp commemorating Carver was the second issued by the US Postal Service, date of issue,28 May 1998. Title, Depression, Dust Bowl, and a New Deal, date of issue,9 October 1998. Denomination, 32¢ No of stamps in sheet,15 The stamps, 1st row, the photo of Florence Owens Thompson, taken by photographer Dorothea Lange and titled Migrant Mother, is an iconic image of the Great Depression
34.
Sotheby's
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Sothebys /ˈsʌðəbiz/ is a British multinational corporation headquartered in New York City. One of the worlds largest brokers of fine and decorative art, jewelry, real estate, the company’s services range from corporate art services to private sales. Sothebys is the fourth oldest auction house in continuous operation. As of December 2011, the company had 1,446 employees worldwide and it is the worlds largest art business with global sales in 2011 totalling $5.8 billion. Sothebys was established on 11 March 1744 in London, the American holding company was initially incorporated in August 1983 in Michigan. In June 2006, Sothebys Holdings, Inc. reincorporated in the State of Delaware and was renamed Sothebys, in July 2016, Chinese insurance giant Taikang Life became Sothebys largest shareholder. Three Swedish auction houses are older and Sothebys great rival in London and then New York. The current business dates back to 1804, when two of the partners of the business left to set up their own book dealership. After Baker’s death in 1778, his estate was divided between Leigh and John Sotheby, George Leigh died unmarried in 1816, but not before endeavouring to secure his succession by recruiting Samuel E Leigh into the business. Under the Sotheby family, the house extended its activities to auctioning prints, medals. John Wilkinson, Sothebys Senior Accountant, became the company’s new CEO, the business did not seek to auction fine arts in general until much later, their first major success in this field being the sale of a Frans Hals painting for nine thousand guineas as late as 1913. In 1917, Sothebys relocated from 13 Wellington Street to 34-35 New Bond Street and they soon came to rival Christies as leaders of the London auction market, which had become the most important for art. In 1955, Sothebys opened an office at Bowling Green, New York City, in 1964, Sothebys purchased Parke-Bernet, then the largest auctioneer of fine art in the United States. In the following year, Sothebys moved to 980 Madison Avenue, Sothebys became a U. K. public company in 1977. The auction house closed its Madison Avenue galleries at East 76th Street, the Los Angeles galleries were sold and auctions of West Coast material moved to New York. In the following year, a group of investors purchased and privatized Sothebys, Sothebys was initially incorporated as Sothebys Holdings, Inc. in Michigan in August 1983. Taubman took Sothebys public in 1988, listing the shares on the New York Stock Exchange. In June 2006, Sothebys Holdings, Inc. reincorporated in the State of Delaware and was renamed Sothebys shortly after, with private transactions constituting an essential and increasingly profitable business segment, through the years Sothebys has bought art galleries and helped dealers finance purchases
35.
Christie's
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Christies is a historic British auction house. It was founded in 1766 by James Christie and its main premises are in King Street, St. Jamess, in London, and on Rockefeller Plaza in New York City in the United States. The company is owned by Groupe Artémis, the company of François-Henri Pinault. Sales in 2015 totalled £4.8 billion, however, other sources note that James Christie rented auction rooms from 1762, and newspaper advertisements of Christies sales dating from 1759 have also been traced. Christies soon established a reputation as an auction house. From 1859, the company was called Christie, Manson & Woods, in 1958, it established its first overseas office, by placing a representative in Rome. The first overseas salesroom opened in Geneva, where Christies holds jewellery auctions, Christies was a public company, listed on the London Stock Exchange from 1973 to 1999. In 1974, Jo Floyd was appointed chairman of Christies and he served as chairman of Christies International plc. from 1976 to 1988, until handing over to Lord Carrington, and later was a non-executive member of the board of directors until 1992. The auction houses subsidiary Christies International Inc. held its first sale in the United States in 1977,13 years later than Sothebys, Christies growth was slow but steady since 1989, when it had 42 percent of the auction market. In 1990, the company reversed a policy and guaranteed a minimum price for a collection of artworks in its May auctions. In 1996, the auction houses sales eclipsed Sothebys for the first time since 1954. In 1993, Christies paid $10.9 million for the London gallery Spink & Sons, which specialised in Oriental art and British paintings, the company bought Leger Gallery for $3.3 million in 1996, and merged it with Spink to become Spink-Leger. The company has not been reporting profits, though it gives sale totals twice a year. Its policy, in line with U. K. accounting standards, is to convert non-U. K, results using an average exchange rate weighted daily by sales throughout the year. In 2002, Christies France held its first auction in Paris, like Sothebys, Christies became increasingly involved in high-profile private transactions. Under the original deal, the gallery was meant to be the channel for all of Christies private-client business as well as the focus of its primary trade. Also, the house originally announced that Haunch employees could not bid at auction because of conflicts of interest or issues of market manipulation. Today, the continues to operate as an independent company in London and New York
36.
Hughson, California
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Hughson is a city in Stanislaus County, California, United States. It is part of the Modesto Metropolitan Statistical Area, the population was 6,640 at the 2010 census, up from 3,980 at the 2000 census. Hughson is surrounded by orchards and has been a farming community. Initially, it was known for its enormous production of peaches, peaches are no longer the primary crop in the area, and have been replaced for the most part by almond trees. Almond production in the area is one of the largest in the world, the crops grown in Hughson include almonds, peaches, walnuts, nectarines, cherries, apples, and the occasional vineyard. In recent years, many orchards have been torn down due to development, Hughson is located at 37°36′11″N 120°52′1″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 1.8 square miles. The 2010 United States Census reported that Hughson had a population of 6,640, the population density was 3,658.0 people per square mile. The racial makeup of Hughson was 5,125 White,55 African American,74 Native American,97 Asian,13 Pacific Islander,982 from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2,871 persons. The Census reported that 6,621 people lived in households,17 lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, there were 103 unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 20 same-sex married couples or partnerships. 367 households were made up of individuals and 219 had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 3.20. There were 1,628 families, the family size was 3.64. The median age was 32.8 years, for every 100 females there were 93.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.9 males, there were 2,234 housing units at an average density of 1,230.7 per square mile, of which 1,388 were owner-occupied, and 681 were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1. 5%, the vacancy rate was 13. 1%. 4,558 people lived in owner-occupied housing units and 2,063 people lived in housing units. As of the census of 2000, there were 3,980 people,1,223 households, the population density was 3,554.3 people per square mile. There were 1,252 housing units at a density of 1,118.1 per square mile
37.
Smithsonian Institution
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The Smithsonian Institution, established in 1846 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, is a group of museums and research centers administered by the Government of the United States. Originally organized as the United States National Museum, that ceased to exist as an administrative entity in 1967. Additional facilities are located in Arizona, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York City, Texas, Virginia, more than 200 institutions and museums in 45 states, Puerto Rico, and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates. The Institutions thirty million annual visitors are admitted without charge and its annual budget is around $1.2 billion with 2/3 coming from annual federal appropriations. Other funding comes from the Institutions endowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines. The British scientist James Smithson left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford, Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation, and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1,1836. The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest, Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns. Once the money was in hand, eight years of Congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithsons rather vague mandate for the increase, unfortunately, the money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas which soon defaulted. The United States Exploring Expedition by the U. S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842, in 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation, in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research. The Institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, the Smithsonian played a critical role as the U. S. partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba. The Smithsonian Institution Building began construction in 1849, designed by architect James Renwick Jr. its interiors were completed by general contract Gilbert Cameron and the building opened in 1855. The Smithsonians first expansion came with construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881, Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Smithsonians Department of Living Animals and this structure was designed by the D. C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall. More than 40 years would pass before the museum, the Museum of History. It was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration, the National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building on October 7,1968. The first new building to open since the National Museum of Natural History was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
38.
The Fresno Bee
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The Fresno Bee is a daily newspaper serving Fresno, California, and surrounding counties in that U. S. states San Joaquin Valley. It is owned by The McClatchy Company and ranks fourth in circulation among the companys newspapers, the Fresno Bee was founded in 1922 by the McClatchy brothers Charles Kenny and Valentine Stuart, sons of The Sacramento Bees second editor James McClatchy. C. K. s only son Carlos McClatchy became The Fresno Bees first editor, the two Central Valley newspapers, closely linked by family ownership and editorial philosophy, formed the core of what later grew into The McClatchy Company. In 1926, the McClatchys purchased an older Fresno newspaper, The Republican, the Fresno Republican had been founded in 1876, by Dr. Chester A. Rowell and a group of investors that included inventor and entrepreneur Frank Dusy. In 1932, The Bee took over the lists of The Fresno Republican. The paper launched its website in 1996, in November 2005, the Bee was following the example of The New York Times and other newspapers hoping to combine the creative strengths of the worlds of digital and print journalism. California portal Journalism portal FresnoBee. com official website FresnoBee. com official mobile website Fresno Bee Latest to Merge Online, Print Units, a November 2005 article from Editor & Publisher
39.
Tampa Bay Times
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The Tampa Bay Times, previously named the St. Petersburg Times through 2011, is an American newspaper published in St. Petersburg, Florida. It has won twelve Pulitzer Prizes since 1964, and in 2009, many issues are available through Google News Archive. A daily electronic version is available for the Amazon Kindle. The newspaper traces its origins to the West Hillsborough Times, a newspaper established in Dunedin. At the time, neither St. Petersburg nor Pinellas County existed, the paper was published weekly in the back of a pharmacy and had a circulation of 480. It subsequently changed ownership six times in seventeen years, in December 1884 it was bought by A. C. Turner, who moved it to Clear Water Harbor. In 1892 it moved to St. Petersburg, and by 1898 it was renamed the St. Petersburg Times. The Times became bi-weekly in 1907, and began six days a week in 1912. Paul Poynter, an originally from Indiana, bought the paper in September 1912 and converted to a seven-day paper. Pauls son, Nelson Poynter, became editor in 1939 and took majority control of the paper in 1947, Nelson Poynter controlled the paper until his death in 1978, when he willed the majority of the stock to the non-profit Poynter Institute. In November 1986, the Evening Independent was merged into the Times, Poynter was succeeded by Eugene Patterson, Andrew Barnes, Paul Tash and Neil Brown. On January 1,2012, the St, as the newly rechristened Tampa Bay Times, the papers weekday tabloid tbt*, a free daily publication and which used as its subtitle, became just tbt when the name change took place. The St. Pete Times name lives on as the name for the Times neighborhood news sections in southern Pinellas County, serving communities from Largo southward. The Times has also been an opponent to the Church of Scientology, since the churchs acquisition of the Fort Harrison Hotel in 1975. The Times has published reports and series critical of the church and its current leader. The newspaper operates PolitiFact. com, a project in which its reporters and editors fact-check statements by members of Congress, the site also includes an Obameter, tracking U. S. President Barack Obamas performance with regard to his campaign promises. List of newspapers in Florida Media in the Tampa Bay Area James F. Tracy, strikebusting in St. Petersburg, Nelson Poynters Postwar Assault on Union Printers. What will happen to the Tampa Bay Times, official website Todays Tampa Bay Times front page at the Newseum website PolitiFact. com website
40.
San Francisco Chronicle
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It was founded in 1865 as The Daily Dramatic Chronicle by teenage brothers Charles de Young and Michael H. de Young. The paper is owned by the Hearst Corporation, which bought it from the de Young family in 2000. The paper benefited from the growth of San Francisco and was the largest circulation newspaper on the West Coast of the United States by 1880. Like many other newspapers, it has experienced a fall in circulation in the early 21st century. The newspaper publishes two web sites, SFGate, which has a mixture of news and web features. Between World War II and 1971, new editor Scott Josephine Newhall took a bold, the newspaper grew in circulation to become the citys largest, overtaking the rival San Francisco Examiner. The demise of other San Francisco dailies through the late 1950s and early 1960s left the Examiner, from 1965 on the two papers shared a single classified-advertising operation. This arrangement stayed in place until the Hearst Corporation took full control of the Chronicle, beginning in the early 1990s, the Chronicle started to face competition beyond the borders of San Francisco. The Chronicle launched five zoned sections to appear in the Friday edition of the paper, the sections covered San Francisco, and four different suburban areas. They each featured a unique columnist, enterprise pieces and local news specific to the community, the newspaper added 40 full-time staff positions to work in the suburban bureaus. The de Young family controlled the paper, via the Chronicle Publishing Company, until July 27,2000, following the sale, the Hearst Corporation transferred the Examiner to the Fang family, publisher of the San Francisco Independent and AsianWeek, along with a $66-million subsidy. Under the new owners, the Examiner became a free tabloid, in 1949, the de Young family founded KRON-TV, the Bay Areas third television station. Until the mid-1960s, the station, operated from the basement of the Chronicle Building, KRON moved to studios at 1001 Van Ness Avenue. The frequent bold-faced, all-capital-letter headlines typical of the Chronicles front page were eliminated, editor Ward Bushees note heralded the issue as the start of a new era for the Chronicle. On July 6,2009, the paper unveiled some alterations to the new design that included yet newer section fronts and wider use of color photographs and graphics. In a special section publisher Frank J. Vega described new, the newer look was accompanied by a reduction in size of the broadsheet. On November 9,2009, the Chronicle became the first newspaper in the nation to print on high-quality glossy paper, the high-gloss paper is used for some section fronts and inside pages. As of 2013 the publisher of the Chronicle is Jeffrey Johnson, audrey Cooper was named editor-in-chief in January 2015 and is the first woman to hold the position
41.
Tulsa World
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It was founded in 1905, and for its first 108 years, it was locally owned. For the last 96 of those years, it was owned by the Lorton family of Tulsa, the newspapers circulation has dropped slightly in recent years and the staff reduced. The newspaper shares some content with The Oklahoman. In February 2013 the paper announced that it would be sold to Berkshire Hathaways BH Media Group, in the early 1900s, the World fought an editorial battle in favor of building a reservoir on Spavinaw Creek, in addition to opposing the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s. The paper was jointly operated with the Tulsa Tribune from 1941 to 1992, Republican activist James F. McCoy and Kansas journalist J. R. Brady had bought the Indian Republican in 1905 and fired Boyle in the following year. Boyle borrowed $500 from Dr. S. G. Kennedy, charles Page was among those who opposed the Spavinaw plan, he advocated a plan in his own newspaper to sell water from the Shell Creek water system, which Page owned. Pages newspaper, the Morning News, closed in 1919 after Tulsans approved an issue to pipe the water from Spavinaw. He sold a companion paper, Tulsa Democrat, to Richard Lloyd Jones, in the 1920s, the Tulsa World was known for its opposition to the Ku Klux Klan, which had risen to local prominence in the wake of the Tulsa Race Riot in the spring of 1921. Lorton was active in Republican Party politics until he was defeated by William B, Pine, in the 1924 primary election for the US Senate, Pine went on to win the general election. Lorton then supported Democrats Alfred E. Smith in the 1928 Presidential election, however, Lorton refused to support Roosevelts third term bid in 1940, he returned to the Republicans and remained a GOP supporter for the rest of his life. The Tulsa Tribune and Tulsa World entered a joint operating agreement in June 1941, eugene Lorton died in 1949, leaving majority interest in the newspaper to his wife Maude and smaller shares to four daughters and 20 employees. Eugenes presumed successor, Robert Lorton, had died at age 24 in 1939, in the 1950s, Maude Lorton transferred one-fourth of the company to attorney Byron Boone, who became publisher in 1959. Upon her death, she left the rest of her shares to her grandson Robert, in 1964, Robert Lorton became director of the News Publishing Corporation, which oversaw the non-editorial operations of both the Tulsa Tribune and Tulsa World. In 1968, he became president of the Tulsa World and publisher upon Boones death in 1988, the Tulsa Tribune ceased operations in 1992 and Tulsa World acquired its assets. Robert Lorton reacquired the Worlds outstanding shares and made the newspaper entirely family-owned once again, in May 2005, he passed the title of publisher to his son Robert E. Lorton III. During the same year, World Publishing Company had 700 employees, in February 2013 the paper announced that it would be sold to Berkshire Hathaways BH Media Group, controlled by Warren Buffett. In 2015, BH Media bought six weekly papers and the daily Tulsa Business & Legal News from Community Publishers Inc, in February 2013 the paper announced that it would be sold to Berkshire Hathaways BH Media Group, controlled by Warren Buffett. As of September 2012, weekday circulation was 95,003, Saturday circulation was 104,602, in April 2011, the World introduced a metered model to its digital products that limits the amount of locally produced articles that a non-subscriber can view at no charge
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The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
43.
United Press International
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At its peak, it had more than 6,000 media subscribers. It was headed by Hugh Baillie from 1935 to 1955, at the time of his retirement, UP had 2,900 clients in the United States, and 1,500 abroad. In 1958 it became United Press International after absorbing the International News Service, at its peak, UPI had more than 2,000 full-time employees, and 200 news bureaus in 92 countries, it had more than 6,000 media subscribers. With the rising popularity of news, the business of UPI began to decline as the circulation of afternoon newspapers, its chief client category. Its decline accelerated after the 1982 sale of UPI by the Scripps company, the E. W. Scripps Company controlled United Press until its absorption of William Randolph Hearsts smaller competing agency, INS, in 1958 to form UPI. With the Hearst Corporation as a minority partner, UPI continued under Scripps management until 1982, since its sale in 1982, UPI has changed ownership several times and was twice in Chapter 11 bankruptcy reorganization. With each change in ownership came deeper service and staff cutbacks and changes of focus, since the 1999 sale of its broadcast client list to its one-time major rival, the AP, UPI has concentrated on smaller information market niches. It no longer services media organizations in a major way, in 2000, UPI was purchased by News World Communications, an international news media company founded in 1976 by Unification Church leader Sun Myung Moon. It now maintains a website and photo service and electronically publishes several information product packages. It also sells a premium service, which has deeper coverage and analysis of emerging threats, the security industry, UPIs content is presented in text, video and photo formats, in the English, Spanish and Arabic languages. UPIs main office is in the Miami metropolitan area and it maintains office locations in five countries and uses freelance journalists in other major cities. Beginning with the Cleveland Press, publisher E. W. Scripps created the first chain of newspapers in the United States, Scripps also hoped to make a profit from selling that news to papers owned by others. At that time and until World War II, most newspapers relied on news agencies for stories outside their geographic areas. Despite strong newspaper industry opposition, UP started to sell news to the new and competitive radio medium in 1935, years before competitor AP, controlled by the newspaper industry, Scripps United Press was considered a scrappy alternative news source to the AP. UP reporters were called Unipressers and were noted for their aggressive and competitive streak. UP became a training ground for generations of journalists. Walter Cronkite, who started with United Press in Kansas City, gained fame for his coverage of World War II in Europe and that was part of the spirit. But we knew we could do a good job despite that
