1.
Southeast Asia
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Southeast Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. The region lies near the intersection of geological plates, with seismic and volcanic activity. Southeast Asia consists of two regions, Mainland Southeast Asia, also known historically as Indochina, comprising Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar. Maritime Southeast Asia, comprising Indonesia, East Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines, East Timor, Brunei, Cocos Islands, definitions of Southeast Asia vary, but most definitions include the area represented by the countries listed below. All of the states are members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the area, together with part of South Asia, was widely known as the East Indies or simply the Indies until the 20th century. Sovereignty issues exist over some territories in the South China Sea, Papua New Guinea has stated that it might join ASEAN, and is currently an observer. Southeast Asia is geographically divided into two subregions, namely Mainland Southeast Asia and Maritime Southeast Asia, Mainland Southeast Asia includes, Maritime Southeast Asia includes, The Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India are geographically considered part of Southeast Asia. Eastern Bangladesh and the Seven Sister States of India are culturally part of Southeast Asia, the eastern half of Indonesia and East Timor are considered to be biogeographically part of Oceania. Homo sapiens reached the region by around 45,000 years ago, homo floresiensis also lived in the area up until 12,000 years ago, when they became extinct. Austronesian people, who form the majority of the population in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, East Timor. Solheim and others have shown evidence for a Nusantao maritime trading network ranging from Vietnam to the rest of the archipelago as early as 5000 BC to 1 AD. The peoples of Southeast Asia, especially those of Austronesian descent, have been seafarers for thousands of years and their vessels, such as the vinta, were ocean-worthy. Magellans voyage records how much more manoeuvrable their vessels were, as compared to the European ships, Passage through the Indian Ocean aided the colonisation of Madagascar by the Austronesian people, as well as commerce between West Asia and Southeast Asia. Gold from Sumatra is thought to have reached as far west as Rome and this was later replaced by Hinduism. Theravada Buddhism soon followed in 525, in the 15th century, Islamic influences began to enter. This forced the last Hindu court in Indonesia to retreat to Bali, in Mainland Southeast Asia, Burma, Cambodia and Thailand retained the Theravada form of Buddhism, brought to them from Sri Lanka. This type of Buddhism was fused with the Hindu-influenced Khmer culture, very little is known about Southeast Asian religious beliefs and practices before the advent of Indian merchants and religious influences from the 2nd century BCE onwards. Prior to the 13th century CE, Hinduism and Buddhism were the religions in Southeast Asia
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Lesser Sunda Islands
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The Lesser Sunda Islands or Kepulauan Nusa Tenggara or Kepulauan Sunda Kecil are a group of islands in Maritime Southeast Asia, north of Australia. Together with the Greater Sunda Islands to the west they make up the Sunda Islands, the islands are part of a volcanic arc, the Sunda Arc, formed by subduction along the Sunda Trench in the Java Sea. The main Lesser Sunda Islands are, from west to east, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Sumba, Timor, Alor archipelago, Barat Daya Islands, and Tanimbar Islands. The Lesser Sundas comprise many islands, most of which are part of Indonesia and are administered as the provinces of Bali, West Nusa Tenggara, East Nusa Tenggara, the eastern half of Timor is part of East Timor. The Lesser Sunda Islands consist of two geologically distinct archipelagos, the northern archipelago, which includes Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores and Wetar, is volcanic in origin. A number of volcanoes, like Mount Rinjani on Lombok, are still active while others. The northern archipelago began to be formed during the Pliocene, about 15 million years ago, the islands of the southern archipelago, including Sumba, Timor and Babar, are non-volcanic and appear to belong to the Australian plate. The geology and ecology of the northern archipelago share a history, characteristics and processes with the southern Maluku Islands. Lying at the collision of two plates, the Lesser Sunda Islands comprise some of the most geologically complex and active regions in the world. There are a number of volcanoes located on the Lesser Sunda Islands, the Lesser Sunda Islands differ from the large islands of Java or Sumatra in consisting of many small islands, sometimes divided by deep oceanic trenches. Movement of flora and fauna between islands is limited, leading to the evolution of a rate of localized species. The islands east of the Lombok Strait are part of Wallacea and these islands have the driest climate in Indonesia. Thorn trees used to be common in coastal areas of the islands but have largely been cleared. These islands are home to species including seventeen endemic birds. More than half of the vegetation of the islands has been cleared for planting of rice and other crops, for settlement. Only Sumbawa now contains an area of intact natural forest, while Komodo, Rincah. While many ecological problems affect both small islands and large landmasses, small islands suffer their particular problems and are exposed to external forces. Development pressures on small islands are increasing, although their effects are not always anticipated, although Indonesia is richly endowed with natural resources, the resources of the small islands of Nusa Tenggara are limited and specialised, furthermore human resources in particular are limited
4.
East Nusa Tenggara
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East Nusa Tenggara is the southernmost province of Indonesia. It is located in the part of the Lesser Sunda Islands. It has an area of 48,718.1 km2, and the population at the 2010 Census was 4,683,827. The provincial capital is Kupang on West Timor, the province consists of more than 500 islands, the three largest being Flores, Sumba, and the western half of Timor. The eastern part of Timor is the independent country of East Timor, East Nusa Tenggara is the only province in Indonesia where Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion. Nusa Tenggara Timur, in Indonesian, means eastern southeastern islands, compare to Nusa Tenggara Barat, after the declaration of Indonesian independence in 1945, the eastern part of Indonesia declared the State of East Indonesia. The state was included in the United States of Indonesia as part of the agreement with the Dutch contained in the transfer its sovereignty to Indonesia in 1949. In 1950, United States of Indonesia dissolved itself into a unitary state, in 1958, by Indonesian law No. 64/1958, three provinces were established in the Lesser Sunda Islands, namely Bali, West Nusa Tenggara, the area of East Nusa Tenggara province included the western part of Timor island, Flores, Sumba and other several small islands in the region. The province was sub-divided into twelve regencies and the City of Kupang, following the fall of the Suharto regime in 1998 and the passage of a new regional autonomy law, there was a dramatic proliferation of regional governments across Indonesia. Several new regencies were created in East Nusa Tenggara by the division of existing regencies, In 1999, in 2002, Rote and Ndao Islands were split off from Kupang Regency, to form a new Rote Ndao Regency. In 2003, Manggarai Regency was split into two and a new West Manggarai Regency was established, in 2007, the administration of East Nusa Tenggara province was expanded by the establishment of four new regencies - Central Sumba and Southwest Sumba, Nagekeo and East Manggarai. In October 2008 a further regency - Sabu Raijua - was formed part of the remaining Kupang Regency. In December 2012 yet another regency - Malaka - was created out of the half of Belu Regency. Therefore, as of early 2013, there were twenty-one regencies plus the one city in the province. Located in the east of Lesser Sunda Islands, East Nusa Tenggara faces the Indian Ocean in the south, the province is bordered by other provinces, West Nusa Tenggara in the west. In the east, the province is bordered by East Timor, the province consists of about 566 islands, the largest and most dominant are Flores, Sumba, and the western part of Timor. The other is smaller islands include Adonara, Alor, Komodo, Lembata, Menipo, Raijua, Rincah, Rote Island, Savu, Semau, the highest point in the province is Mount Mutis in the South Central Timor Regency,2,427 meters above sea level
5.
Indonesian language
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Indonesian is the official language of Indonesia. It is a register of Malay, an Austronesian language that has been used as a lingua franca in the multilingual Indonesian archipelago for centuries. Indonesia is the fourth most populous nation in the world, of its large population, the majority speak Indonesian, making it one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. However, most formal education, and nearly all national mass media, governance, administration, judiciary, the Indonesian name for the language is Bahasa Indonesia or sometimes simplified as Bahasa. This term is occasionally found in English and other languages. Indonesian is a register of Riau Malay, which despite its common name is not the Malay dialect native to Riau. Originally spoken in Northeast Sumatra, Malay has been used as a lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago for half a millennium and it might be attributed to its ancestor, the Old Malay language. The Kedukan Bukit Inscription is the oldest surviving specimen of Old Malay, trade contacts carried on by various ethnic peoples at the time were the main vehicle for spreading the Old Malay language, which was the main communications medium among the traders. Ultimately, the Old Malay language became a lingua franca and was spoken widely by most people in the archipelago, Indonesian is essentially the same language as the official Malaysian, Singaporean and Brunei standards of Malay. However, it does differ from Malaysian in several respects, with differences in pronunciation and these differences are due mainly to the Dutch and Javanese influences on Indonesian. Indonesian was also influenced by the Melayu pasar, which was the lingua franca of the archipelago in colonial times, and thus indirectly by other spoken languages of the islands. Malaysian Malay claims to be closer to the classical Malay of earlier centuries, even though modern Malaysian has been influenced, in lexicon as well as in syntax. The question of whether High Malay or Low Malay was the parent of the Indonesian language is still in debate. Some linguists have argued that it was the more common Low Malay that formed the base of the Indonesian language, however, the language had never been dominant among the population of the Indonesian archipelago as it was limited to mercantile activity. The VOC adopted the Malay language as the language of their trading outpost in the east. Following the bankruptcy of the VOC the Dutch crown took control of the colony in 1799 and it was then that education in. Even then, Dutch administrators were reluctant to promote the use of Dutch compared to other colonial regimes. Dutch thus remained the language of a elite, in 1940
6.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
7.
Portuguese language
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Portuguese is a Romance language and the sole official language of Portugal, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Angola, and São Tomé and Príncipe. It also has co-official language status in East Timor, Equatorial Guinea, Portuguese is part of the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, and has kept some Celtic phonology. Portuguese is also termed the language of Camões, after Luís Vaz de Camões, one of the greatest literary figures in the Portuguese language and author of the Portuguese epic poem, the museum is the first of its kind in the world. In 2015 the museum was destroyed in a fire, but there are plans to reconstruct it, when the Romans arrived in the Iberian Peninsula in 216 BCE, they brought the Latin language with them, from which all Romance languages descend. Between 409 CE and 711 CE, as the Roman Empire collapsed in Western Europe, Portuguese evolved from the medieval language, known today by linguists as Galician-Portuguese, Old Portuguese or Old Galician, of the northwestern medieval Kingdom of Galicia. It is in Latin administrative documents of the 9th century that written Galician-Portuguese words and this phase is known as Proto-Portuguese, which lasted from the 9th century until the 12th-century independence of the County of Portugal from the Kingdom of León, by then reigning over Galicia. In the first part of the Galician-Portuguese period, the language was used for documents. For some time, it was the language of preference for poetry in Christian Hispania. Portugal became an independent kingdom in 1139, under King Afonso I of Portugal, in the second period of Old Portuguese, in the 15th and 16th centuries, with the Portuguese discoveries, the language was taken to many regions of Africa, Asia and the Americas. The language continued to be popular in parts of Asia until the 19th century, some Portuguese-speaking Christian communities in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Indonesia preserved their language even after they were isolated from Portugal. The end of the Old Portuguese period was marked by the publication of the Cancioneiro Geral by Garcia de Resende, Most literate Portuguese speakers were also literate in Latin, and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Portuguese. Portuguese is the language of the majority of people in Brazil and Portugal, perhaps 75% of the population of Angola speaks Portuguese natively, and 85% are fluent. Just over 40% of the population of Mozambique are native speakers of Portuguese, Portuguese is also spoken natively by 30% of the population in Guinea-Bissau, and a Portuguese-based creole is understood by all. No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost all the population is bilingual, there are also significant Portuguese speaking immigrant communities in many countries including Andorra, Bermuda, Canada, France, Japan, Jersey, Namibia, Paraguay, Macau, Switzerland, Venezuela. In some parts of former Portuguese India, namely Goa and Daman and Diu, in 2014, an estimated 1,500 students were learning Portuguese in Goa. Equatorial Guinea made an application for full membership to the CPLP in June 2010. In 2011, Portuguese became its official language and, in July 2014. Portuguese is a subject in The school curriculum in Uruguay
8.
Sumbawa
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Sumbawa is an Indonesian island, in the middle of the Lesser Sunda Islands chain, with Lombok to the west, Flores to the east, and Sumba further to the southeast. It is part of the province of West Nusa Tenggara, traditionally the island is known as the source of sappanwood used to make red dye, as well as honey and sandalwood. Its savanna-like climate and vast grassland is used to breed horses and cattle, Sumbawa has an area of 15,448 square kilometres or 5,965 square miles with a current population of around 1.39 million. It marks the boundary between the islands to the west, which were influenced by religion and culture spreading from India, in particular this applies to both Hinduism and Islam. The 14th-century Nagarakretagama mentioned several principalities identified to be on Sumbawa, Dompu, Bima, Sape, four principalities in western Sumbawa were dependencies of the Majapahit Empire of eastern Java. Because of Sumbawas natural resources, it was invaded by outside forces – from Javanese, Balinese, Makassarese, Dutch. The Dutch first arrived in 1605, but did not effectively rule Sumbawa until the early 20th century, the Balinese kingdom of Gelgel ruled western Sumbawa for a short period as well. Historical evidence indicates that people on Sumbawa island were known in the East Indies for their honey, horses, sappan wood for producing red dye, the area was thought to be highly productive agriculturally. In the 18th century the Dutch introduced coffee plantation on the slopes of Mount Tambora. Sumbawa is administratively divided into four regencies and one kota and they are, Islam was introduced via the Makassarese language of Sulawesi island. Sumbawa has historically had two major groups who spoke languages that were unintelligible to each other. One group centered in the side of the island speaks Basa Semawa which is similar to the Sasak language from Lombok. They were once separated by the Tambora culture, which spoke a related to neither. After the demise of Tambora, the kingdoms located in Sumbawa Besar and this division of the island into two parts remains today, Sumbawa Besar and Bima are the two largest towns on the island, and are the centers of distinct cultural groups that share the island. The population of the island was 1.33 million at the latest decennial census in 2010, there are a number of large surrounding islands, most notably are Moyo Island, volcanically active Sangeang Island, and the tourist Komodo Islands to the east. There are a number of offshore islands which fall within the regencies based on Sumbawa Island. It is an island, including Mount Tambora which exploded in April 1815. The eruption killed as many as 72,000 and it also apparently destroyed a small culture of Southeast Asian affinity, known to archaeologists as the Tambora culture
9.
Komodo (island)
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Komodo is one of the 17,508 islands that compose the Republic of Indonesia. The island is notable as the habitat of the Komodo dragon, the largest lizard on Earth. Komodo Island has an area of 390 square kilometres and a human population of over two thousand. The people of the island are descendants of convicts who were exiled to the island. The people are adherents of Islam but there are also Christian. Komodo is part of the Lesser Sunda chain of islands and forms part of the Komodo National Park, in addition, the island is a popular destination for diving. Administratively, it is part of the East Nusa Tenggara province, Komodo is part of the Lesser Sunda chain of islands and forms part of the Komodo National Park. It lies between the larger neighboring islands Sumbawa to the west and Flores to the east. The islands surface area covers 390 square kilometres, the earliest stories of a dragon existing in the region circulated widely and attracted considerable attention. The creature was allegedly a dragon which inhabited an island in the Lesser Sunda Islands. The Dutch sailors reported that the creature measured up to seven metres in length with a large body, hearing the reports, Lieutenant Steyn van Hensbroek, an official of the Dutch Colonial Administration in Flores, planned a trip to Komodo Island. He armed himself, and accompanied by a team of soldiers he landed on the island, after a few days, Hensbroek managed to kill one of the lizards. Van Hensbroek took the dragon to headquarters where measurements were taken and it was approximately 2.1 metres long, with a shape very similar to that of a lizard. More samples were then photographed by Peter A. Ouwens, the Director of the Zoological Museum and Botanical Gardens in Bogor, the records that Ouwens made are the first reliable documentation of details about what is now called the Komodo dragon. Ouwens was keen to obtain additional samples and he recruited hunters who killed two dragons measuring 3.1 metres and 3.35 metres as well as capturing two pups, each measuring less than one metre. Ouwens carried out studies on the samples and concluded that the Komodo dragon was not a flame-thrower but was a type of monitor lizard, research results were published in 1912. Ouwens named the giant lizard Varanus komodoensis, realizing the significance of the dragons on Komodo Island as an endangered species, the Dutch government issued a regulation on the protection of the lizards on Komodo Island in 1915. The Komodo dragon became something of a living legend, in the decades since the Komodo was discovered, various scientific expeditions from a range of countries have carried out field research on the dragons on Komodo Island
10.
Lembata
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Lembata is an island in the Lesser Sunda Islands, formerly known as Lomblen island, it is the largest island of the Solor Archipelago, in the Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia. It forms a separate regency of the province of Nusa Tenggara Timur, the length of the island is about 80 km from the southwest to the northeast and the width is about 30 km from the west to the east. It rises to a height of 1,533 metres, to the west lie the other islands in the archipelago, most notably Solor and Adonara, and then the larger island of Flores. To the east is the Alor Strait, which separates this archipelago from the Alor Archipelago. To the south across the Savu Sea lies the island of Timor, while to the north the western branch of the Banda Sea separates it from Buton and the other islands of Southeast Sulawesi. Ships frequently connect the towns and surrounding islands, but the only bigger harbour exists at Lewoleba in the north of the island. From Lewoleba there are connections to Larantuka, Flores. Like the other Lesser Sunda Islands, and indeed much of Indonesia and it has three volcanoes, Ililabalekan, Iliwerung, and Lewotolo. The south part of Lembata was the site of the state of Labala, the people of Lembata are, like many other inhabitants of Eastern Indonesia, famous for their handmade ikat weavings. The national language, Indonesian, is known by people of all ages. The most widespread of these is probably Lamaholot, Lamaholot is spoken as a native language on Eastern Flores and Western Solor, and is itself divided into ten or more sublanguages. It is spoken by 150.000 or more people in the region, on the South coast of Lembata, the village of Lamalera is known for its whale hunting. Lamalera and Lamakera are the last two remaining Indonesian whaling communities, the two species were the first to be found in Lamalera Sea, but similar types have been found near Bali before. The fish were found in seas with good coral reefs, although traces of bombing had been found around the coral reefs in the Lamalera Sea
11.
Alor Archipelago
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The Alor Archipelago is located at the eastern Lesser Sunda Islands. Alor is the largest island in the archipelago which is located at its eastern end, other islands in the archipelago include Pantar, Kepa, Buaya, Ternate, Pura and Tereweng. Administratively, the Alor archipelago forms its own regency within the province of East Nusa Tenggara, the Regency is divided into seventeen subdistricts and 158 villages, and has a population estimated in 2008 at 180,487. To the east of the archipelago is the Ombai Strait, which separates it from the islands of Wetar and Atauro, to the south, across the Strait of Alor, lies the western part of Timor. To the north lies the Banda Sea, to the west lies the rest of the Sunda Islands. Alor Archipelago travel guide from Wikivoyage Van Galens Memorandum on the Alor Islands in 1946, part 1 Van Galens Memorandum on the Alor Islands in 1946, part 2
12.
Timor
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Timor is an island at the southern end of Maritime Southeast Asia, north of the Timor Sea. The island is divided between the states of East Timor, on the eastern part, and Indonesia, on the western part. The Indonesian part, also known as West Timor, constitutes part of the province of East Nusa Tenggara, within West Timor lies an exclave of East Timor called Oecusse District. The island covers an area of 30,777 square kilometres, the name is a variant of timur, Malay for east, it is so called because it lies at the eastern end of the Lesser Sunda Islands. Anthropologists identify eleven distinct ethno-linguistic groups in Timor, the largest are the Atoni of western Timor, and the Tetum of central and eastern Timor. Most indigenous Timorese languages belong to the Timor–Babar branch of the Austronesian languages spoken throughout the Indonesian archipelago, the non-Austronesian languages are thought to be related to languages spoken on Halmahera and in Western New Guinea. Some are so mixed it is difficult to tell which family they descend from, the official languages of East Timor are Tetum and Portuguese, while in West Timor it is Indonesian. Indonesian is also spoken and understood in East Timor. Islam and Animism make up most of the remainder at about 5% each across the island, Timor is located north of Australia, and is one of the easternmost Sunda Islands. Timor is the island of the Outer Banda Arc, which has been upthrust by collision with the Australian continent. Timor has older geology and lacks the volcanic nature of the northern Lesser Sunda Islands, the orientation of the main axis of the island also differs from its neighbors. These features have been explained as the result of being on the edge of the Indo-Australian Plate as it meets the Eurasian Plate. The climate includes a dry season with hot winds blowing over from Australia. Rivers on the island include the Southern and Northern Laclo Rivers in East Timor, the largest towns on the island are the provincial capital of Kupang in West Timor, Indonesia and the Portuguese colonial towns of Dili the capital, and Baucau in East Timor. Poor roads make transport to inland areas difficult, in East Timor especially, East Timor is a poor country, with health issues including malaria and dengue fever. Sources of revenue include gas and oil in the Timor Sea, coffee growing, the natural vegetation was tropical dry broadleaf forests with an undergrowth of shrubs and grasses supporting a rich wildlife. However much of the original forest has been cleared for farming, especially on the coasts of Timor, apart from one large block in the centre of Timor only patches remain. This ecoregion is part of the Wallacea area with a mixture of plants and animals of Asian and Australasian origin, it lies in the part of Wallacea
13.
Sumba
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Sumba is an island in eastern Indonesia. It is one of the Lesser Sunda Islands and is in the province of East Nusa Tenggara, Sumba has an area of 11,153 square kilometres, and the population was 656,259 at the 2010 Census. Before colonization by western Europeans in the 1500s, Sumba was inhabited by Melanesian and Austronesian people, in 1522, through the Portuguese, the first ships from Europe arrived. By 1866 Sumba belonged to the Dutch East Indies, although the island did not come under real Dutch administration until the 20th century, jesuits opened a mission in Laura, West Sumba in 1866. Historically, this island exported sandalwood and was known as Sandalwood Island, despite contact with western cultures, Sumba is one of the few places in the world where megalithic burials are used as a living tradition to inter prominent individuals when they die. Burial in megaliths is a practice that was used in parts of the world during the Neolithic. It has survived to this day in Sumba and has raised significant interest from scholars, at Anakalang, for instance, quadrangular adzes have been unearthed. Another long-lasting tradition is the sometimes lethal game of pasola, in teams of often several hundred horse-riders fight with spears. On August 19,1977, an earthquake measuring 7.0 on the Richter scale occurred and caused a tsunami,316 people were killed on the island and islands off the west coast. The largest town on the island is the port of Waingapu. The landscape is low, limestone hills, rather than the steep volcanoes of many Indonesian islands, there is a dry season from May to November and a rainy season from December to April. The western side of the island is fertile and more heavily populated than the east. Due to its flora and fauna Sumba has been categorised by the World Wildlife Fund as the Sumba deciduous forests ecoregion. Although generally thought to be part of the Gondwana southern hemisphere supercontinent, recent research suggests that it might have detached from the South East Asia margin. Sumba is in the Wallacea ecozone, having a mixture of plants, most of the island was originally covered in deciduous monsoon forest while the south-facing slopes, which remain moist during the dry season, were evergreen rainforest. Saltwater crocodiles can still be found in some areas, the Sumba hornbill or Julang Sumba is under increasing threat of extinction. Indiscriminate deforestation is threatening their survival, the population is estimated at less than 4,000 with an average density of six individuals per square kilometer. A hornbill can fly to and fro over an area of up to 100 square kilometers, most of the original forest has been cleared for the planting of maize, cassava, and other crops so only small isolated patches remain
14.
Flores Sea
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The Flores Sea covers 240,000 square kilometres of water in Indonesia. The seas that border the Flores Sea are the Bali Sea, Java Sea, the Indian Ocean and Savu Sea lie to the south, but are separated from the Flores Sea by various islands. Islands that border this sea are the Lesser Sunda Islands and Celebes, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the Flores Sea as being one of the waters of the East Indian Archipelago. The IHO defines its limits as follows, On the North, the South coast of Celedes from the West point of Laikang Bay to Tanjong Lassa. The Western limit of the Banda Sea between Flores and Celebes, the North coasts of Flores, Komodo, Banta and a line to Tanjong Naroe the Northeast point of Soembawa, thence along its North coast to Tanjong Sarokaja. A line from Tg Sarokaja to the Western Paternoster island thence to the Northeastern Postiljon Island and to the West point of Laikang Bay, Celebes
15.
Sulawesi
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Sulawesi, formerly known as Celebes, is an island in Indonesia. One of the four Greater Sunda Islands, and the worlds eleventh-largest island, within Indonesia, only Sumatra, Borneo and Papua are larger in territory, and only Java and Sumatra have larger populations. The landmass of Sulawesi includes four peninsulas, the northern Minahasa Peninsula, the East Peninsula, the South Peninsula, the Strait of Makassar runs along the western side of the island and separates the island from Borneo. The name Sulawesi possibly comes from the words sula and besi, the term sula also means tines, horn or spikes, derived from Sanskrit, as trishula refer to trident. Thus sulawesi means iron spikes, which suggested that the island was also a producer of iron edged weapons, the name came into common use in English following Indonesian independence. The name Celebes was originally given to the island by Portuguese explorers and it is widely considered a Portuguese rendering of the native name Sulawesi. Sulawesi is the worlds eleventh-largest island, covering an area of 174,600 km2, the central part of the island is ruggedly mountainous, such that the islands peninsulas have traditionally been remote from each other, with better connections by sea than by road. The three bays that divide Sulawesis peninsulas are, from north to south, the Tomini, the Tolo and these separate the Minahassa or Northern Peninsula, the East Peninsula, the Southeast Peninsula and the South Peninsula. The Strait of Makassar runs along the side of the island. The island is surrounded by Borneo to the west, by the Philippines to the north, by Maluku to the east, the Selayar Islands make up a peninsula stretching southwards from Southwest Sulawesi into the Flores Sea are administratively part of Sulawesi. All the above-mentioned islands, and many smaller ones, are part of Sulawesis six provinces. The island slopes up from the shores of the seas surrounding the island to a high, mostly non-volcanic. Active volcanoes are found in the northern Minahassa Peninsula, stretching north to the Sangihe Islands, the northern peninsula contains several active volcanoes such as Mount Lokon, Mount Awu, Soputan and Karangetang. Because of its several tectonic origin, faults scar the land, as a result, Sulawesi, in contrast to most of the other islands in the biogeographical region of Wallacea, is not truly oceanic, but a composite island at the centre of the Asia-Australia collision zone. Parts of the island were attached to either the Asian or Australian continental margin. In the west, the opening of the Makassar Strait separated West Sulawesi from Sundaland in the Eocene c.45 Mya. Before October 2014, the settlement of South Sulawesi by modern humans had been dated to c.30,000 BC on the basis of dates obtained from rock shelters in Maros. Initial settlement was probably around the mouth of the Sadan river, on the northwest coast of the peninsula, although the south coast has also been suggested
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Java
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Java is an island of Indonesia. With a population of over 141 million or 145 million as of 2015 Census released in December 2015, the Indonesian capital city, Jakarta, is located on western Java. Much of Indonesian history took place on Java and it was the center of powerful Hindu-Buddhist empires, the Islamic sultanates, and the core of the colonial Dutch East Indies. Java was also the center of the Indonesian struggle for independence during the 1930s and 1940s, Java dominates Indonesia politically, economically and culturally. Formed mostly as the result of eruptions, Java is the 13th largest island in the world. A chain of mountains forms an east–west spine along the island. Three main languages are spoken on the island, Javanese, Sundanese, of these, Javanese is the dominant, it is the native language of about 60 million people in Indonesia, most of whom live on Java. Furthermore, most residents are bilingual, speaking Indonesian as their first or second language, while the majority of the people of Java are Muslim, Java has a diverse mixture of religious beliefs, ethnicities, and cultures. Java is divided into four provinces, West Java, Central Java, East Java, and Banten, the origins of the name Java are not clear. One possibility is that the island was named after the plant, which was said to be common in the island during the time. There are other sources, the word jaú and its variations mean beyond or distant. And, in Sanskrit yava means barley, a plant for which the island was famous, Yawadvipa is mentioned in Indias earliest epic, the Ramayana. Sugriva, the chief of Ramas army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa and it was hence referred to in India by the Sanskrit name yāvaka dvīpa. Java is mentioned in the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai by Chithalai Chathanar that states that Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram, another source states that the Java word is derived from a Proto-Austronesian root word, Iawa that meaning home. The great island of Iabadiu or Jabadiu was mentioned in Ptolemys Geographia composed around 150 CE Roman Empire, Iabadiu is said to mean barley island, to be rich in gold, and have a silver town called Argyra at the west end. The name indicate Java, and seems to be derived from Hindu name Java-dvipa, Java lies between Sumatra to the west and Bali to the east. Borneo lies to the north and Christmas Island is to the south and it is the worlds 13th largest island. Java is surrounded by the Java Sea to the north, Sunda Strait to the west, Java is almost entirely of volcanic origin, it contains thirty-eight mountains forming an east–west spine that have at one time or another been active volcanoes
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Sumatra
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Sumatra is a large island in western Indonesia that is part of the Sunda Islands. It is the largest island that is entirely in Indonesia and the sixth-largest island in the world at 473,481 km2, Sumatra is an elongated landmass spanning a diagonal northwest-southeast axis. The Indian Ocean borders the west, northwest, and southwest sides of Sumatra with the chain of Simeulue, Nias. On the northeast side the narrow Strait of Malacca separates the island from the Malay Peninsula, on the southeast the narrow Sunda Strait separates Sumatra from Java. The northern tip of Sumatra borders the Andaman Islands, while on the eastern side are the islands of Bangka and Belitung, Karimata Strait. The Bukit Barisan mountains, which several active volcanoes, form the backbone of the island, while the northeast sides are outlying lowlands with swamps, mangrove. The equator crosses the island at its center on West Sumatra, the climate of the island is tropical, hot and humid with lush tropical rain forest once dominating the landscape. Sumatra was known in ancient times by the Sanskrit names of Swarnadwīpa and Swarnabhūmi, the first word mentioning the name of Sumatra was the name of Srivijayan Haji Sumatrabhumi, who sent an envoy to China in 1017. Arab geographers referred to the island as Lamri in the tenth through thirteenth centuries, late in the 14th century the name Sumatra became popular in reference to the kingdom of Samudra Pasai, which was a rising power until it was replaced by Sultanate of Aceh. Sultan Alauddin Shah of Aceh, on letters written in 1602 addressed to Queen Elizabeth I of England, referred to himself as king of Aceh, the word itself is from Sanskrit Samudra, meaning gathering together of waters, sea or ocean. European writers in the 19th century found that the inhabitants did not have a name for the island. The Melayu Kingdom was absorbed by Srivijaya, Srivijaya was a Buddhist monarchy centred in what is now Palembang. Dominating the region trade and conquest throughout the 7th to 9th centuries. The empire was a thalassocracy or maritime power that extended its influence from island to island, Palembang was a center for scholarly learning, and it was there the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim I Ching studied Sanskrit in 671 CE before departing for India. On his journey to China, he spent four years in Palembang translating Buddhist texts, Srivijayan influence waned in the 11th century after it was defeated by the Chola Empire of southern India. At the same time, Islam made its way to Sumatra through Arabs, by the late 13th century, the monarch of the Samudra kingdom had converted to Islam. Marco Polo visited the island in 1292, and Ibn Battuta visited twice during 1345–1346, Samudra was succeeded by the powerful Aceh Sultanate, which survived to the 20th century. With the coming of the Dutch, the many Sumatran princely states fell under their control
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Borneo
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Borneo is the third-largest island in the world and the largest island in Asia. At the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia, in relation to major Indonesian islands, it is located north of Java, west of Sulawesi, the island is politically divided among three countries, Malaysia and Brunei in the north, and Indonesia to the south. Approximately 73% of the island is Indonesian territory, in the north, the East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak make up about 26% of the island. Additionally, the Malaysian federal territory of Labuan is situated on an island just off the coast of Borneo. The sovereign state of Brunei, located on the north coast, antipodal to an area of Amazon rainforest, Borneo is itself home to one of the oldest rainforests in the world, and to Bornean orangutans. The island is known by names, internationally it is known as Borneo, after Brunei. The name Brunei possibly was derived from the Sanskrit word váruṇa, meaning either ocean or the mythological Varuna. Indonesian natives called it Kalimantan, which was derived from the Sanskrit word Kalamanthana, prior to that the island was also known by other names. In 977 Chinese records began to use the term Po-ni to refer to Borneo or Brunei, in 1225 it was also mentioned by the Chinese official Chau Ju-Kua. The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Majapahit court poet Mpu Prapanca in 1365, mentioned the island as Nusa Tanjungnagara, to the west of Borneo are the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. To the south and east are islands of Indonesia, Java and Sulawesi, to the northeast are the Philippine Islands. With an area of 743,330 square kilometres, it is the third-largest island in the world and its highest point is Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysia, with an elevation of 4,095 m. The largest river system is the Kapuas in West Kalimantan, with a length of 1,143 km, other major rivers include the Mahakam in East Kalimantan, the Barito in South Kalimantan, and Rajang in Sarawak. Clearwater Cave, for example, has one of the worlds longest underground rivers, deer Cave is home to over three million bats, with guano accumulated to over 100 metres deep. The South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand now submerge the former low-lying areas of the peninsula, the Borneo rainforest is 140 million years old, making it one of the oldest rainforests in the world. There are about 15,000 species of flowering plants with 3,000 species of trees,221 species of mammals and 420 species of resident birds in Borneo. There are about 440 freshwater fish species in Borneo and it is the centre of the evolution and distribution of many endemic species of plants and animals. The Borneo rainforest is one of the few remaining habitats for the endangered Bornean orangutan
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Kalimantan
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Kalimantan is the Indonesian portion of the island of Borneo. It comprises 73% of the islands area, the non-Indonesian parts of Borneo are Brunei and East Malaysia. In Indonesian, the term Kalimantan refers to the island of Borneo. It consists of the two words kal and manthan, the word Kalamanthana is spelled Kalmantan, and then the indigenous people fixed it into Klemantan. The Indonesian territory makes up 73% of the island by area, the non-Indonesian parts of Borneo are of Brunei and East Malaysia, the latter comprising the states of Sabah, Sarawak and the federal territory of Labuan. The region within Indonesia is also known as Indonesian Borneo, kalimantans total area is 544,150 square kilometres. Kalimantan is divided into five provinces, 1)North Kalimantan split off East Kalimantan with resulting population, languages of Kalimantan Kalimantan travel guide from Wikivoyage
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New Guinea
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New Guinea is a large Island in the South West Pacific region. It is the worlds second-largest island, after Greenland, covering an area of 785,753 km2. The island is divided between two countries, Papua New Guinea to the east, and Indonesia to the west, the island has been known by various names. The name Papua was used to refer to parts of the island before contact with the West and its etymology is unclear, one theory states that it is from Tidore, the language used by the Sultanate of Tidore, which controlled parts of the islands coastal region. The name came from papo and ua, which means not united or, ploeg reports that the word papua is often said to derive from the Malay word papua or pua-pua, meaning frizzly-haired, referring to the highly curly hair of the inhabitants of these areas. When the Portuguese and Spanish explorers arrived in the island via the Spice Islands, when the Dutch colonized it as part of Netherlands East Indies, they called it Nieuw Guinea. The name Irian was used in the Indonesian language to refer the island and Indonesian province, the name was promoted in 1945 by Marcus Kaisiepo, brother of the future governor Frans Kaisiepo. It is taken from the Biak language of Biak Island, and means to rise and this name of Irian is the name used in the Biak language and other languages such as Serui, Merauke and Waropen. The name was used until 2001, when the name Papua was again used for the island, the name Irian, which was originally favored by natives, is now considered to be a name imposed by the authority of Jakarta. New Guinea is an island to the north of Australia, and it is isolated by the Arafura Sea to the west and the Torres Strait and Coral Sea to the east. A spine of east–west mountains, the New Guinea Highlands, dominates the geography of New Guinea, stretching over 1,600 km from the head to the tail of the island. The western half of the island of New Guinea contains the highest mountains in Oceania, rising up to 4,884 m high, the tree line is around 4,000 m elevation and the tallest peaks contain permanent equatorial glaciers—which have been retreating since at least 1936. Various other smaller mountain ranges occur both north and west of the central ranges, except in high elevations, most areas possess a warm humid climate throughout the year, with some seasonal variation associated with the northeast monsoon season. At 4,884 metres, Puncak Jaya makes New Guinea the worlds fourth highest landmass, Puncak Mandala, located in Papua, is the second highest peak on the island at 4,760 metres. Puncak Trikora, also in Papua, is 4,750 metres, mount Wilhelm is the highest peak on the PNG side of the border at 4,509 metres. Its granite peak is the highest point of the Bismarck Range, mount Giluwe 4,368 metres is the second highest summit in PNG. It is also the highest volcanic peak in Oceania, another major habitat feature is the vast southern and northern lowlands. Stretching for hundreds of kilometres, these include lowland rainforests, extensive wetlands, savanna grasslands, the southern lowlands are the site of Lorentz National Park, also a UNESCO World Heritage Site
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Bali
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Bali is an island and province of Indonesia. The province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller neighbouring islands, notably Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan and it is located at the westernmost end of the Lesser Sunda Islands, between Java to the west and Lombok to the east. Its capital, Denpasar, is located in the part of the island. With a population of 3,890,757 in the 2010 census, and 4,225,000 as of January 2014, the island is home to most of Indonesias Hindu minority. According to the 2010 Census,83. 5% of Balis population adhered to Balinese Hinduism, followed by 13. 4% Muslim, Christianity at 2. 5%, Bali is a popular tourist destination, which has seen a significant rise in tourists since the 1980s. Tourism-related business makes up 80% of its economy and it is renowned for its highly developed arts, including traditional and modern dance, sculpture, painting, leather, metalworking, and music. The Indonesian International Film Festival is held every year in Bali, in March 2017, Tripadvisor named the island the worlds top destination in its Travelers choice award. Bali is part of the Coral Triangle, the area with the highest biodiversity of marine species, in this area alone over 500 reef building coral species can be found. For comparison, this is about 7 times as many as in the entire Caribbean, most recently, Bali was the host of the 2011 ASEAN Summit,2013 APEC and Miss World 2013. Bali is the home of the Subak Irrigation System, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Bali was inhabited around 2000 BC by Austronesian people who migrated originally from Southeast Asia and Oceania through Maritime Southeast Asia. Culturally and linguistically, the Balinese are closely related to the people of the Indonesian archipelago, Malaysia, stone tools dating from this time have been found near the village of Cekik in the islands west. In ancient Bali, nine Hindu sects existed, namely Pasupata, Bhairawa, Siwa Shidanta, Waisnawa, Bodha, Brahma, Resi, Sora, each sect revered a specific deity as its personal Godhead. Inscriptions from 896 and 911 dont mention a king, until 914 and they also reveal an independent Bali, with a distinct dialect, where Buddhism and Sivaism were practiced simultaneously. Mpu Sindoks great-granddaughter, Mahendradatta, married the Bali king Udayana Warmadewa around 989 and this marriage also brought more Hinduism and Javanese culture to Bali. Suradhipa reigned from 1115 to 1119, and Jayasakti from 1146 until 1150, jayapangus appears on inscriptions between 1178 and 1181, while Adikuntiketana and his son Paramesvara in 1204. Balinese culture was influenced by Indian, Chinese, and particularly Hindu culture. The name Bali dwipa has been discovered from inscriptions, including the Blanjong pillar inscription written by Sri Kesari Warmadewa in 914 AD. It was during this time that the people developed their complex irrigation system subak to grow rice in wet-field cultivation, some religious and cultural traditions still practiced today can be traced to this period
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Madura Island
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Madura is an Indonesian island off the northeastern coast of Java. The island comprises an area of approximately 4,078.67 km², Madura is administered as part of the East Java province. It is separated from Java by the narrow Strait of Madura, the administered area has a density of 702 people per km², while the island itself is higher at 817/km². In 1624, Sultan Agung of Mataram conquered Madura and the government was brought under the Cakraningrats. The Cakrangingrat family opposed Central Javanese rule and often conquered large parts of Mataram, following the First Javanese War of Succession between Amangkurat III and his uncle, Pangeran Puger, the Dutch gained control of the eastern half of Madura in 1705. However, while Amangkurat was arrested and exiled to Ceylon, Puger took the title of Pakubuwono I, the Cakraningrats agreed to help the Dutch quash the 1740 rebellion in Central Java after the Chinese massacre in 1740. In a 1743 treaty with the Dutch, Pakubuwono I ceded full sovereignty of Madura to the Dutch, Cakraningrat fled to Banjarmasin, took refuge with the English, was robbed and betrayed by the sultan, and captured by the Dutch and exiled to the Cape of Good Hope. The Dutch continued Maduras administrative divisions of four states each with their own regent, Madura has a population of about 3.65 million, most of whom are ethnically Madurese. The main language of Madura is Madurese, one of a family of Austronesian languages, the Madurese are a large ethnic population in Indonesia, numbering around 7 million inhabitants. They come from the island of Madura as well as surrounding islands, such as Gili Raja, Sapudi, Raas, in addition, many Madurese live in the eastern part of East Java, commonly called the Horseshoe, from Pasuruan to the north of Banyuwangi. Madurese are found in Situbondo and Bondowoso, and east of Probolinggo, Jember, Madura has a mix of Sunni majority and large Shia minority. The UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs has provided details of such attacks in 2013, the mainland covers 1,146.93 km2 consisting of 17 districts, while the islands are 946.53 km2, comprising 9 districts, of 128 islands,46 inhabited. Source,2014 estimates On the whole, Madura is one of the poorest regions of the East Java province, unlike Java, the soil is not fertile enough to make it a major agricultural producer. Limited economic opportunities have led to unemployment and poverty. These factors have led to emigration from the island, such that most ethnically Madurese people do not now live on Madura. People from Madura were some of the most numerous participants in government transmigration programs, subsistence agriculture is a mainstay of the economy. Maize is a key crop, on islands many small landholdings. Cattle-raising is also a part of the agricultural economy, providing extra income to peasant farmer families
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Lombok
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Lombok is an island in West Nusa Tenggara province, Indonesia. It forms part of the chain of the Lesser Sunda Islands, with the Lombok Strait separating it from Bali to the west and it is roughly circular, with a tail to the southwest, about 70 kilometres across and a total area of about 4,514 square kilometres. The provincial capital and largest city on the island is Mataram and it is somewhat similar in size and density with neighboring Bali and shares some cultural heritage, but is administratively part of Nusa Tenggara Barat along with sparsely populated Sumbawa. It is surrounded by a number of smaller islands locally called Gili, the island was home to some 3.17 million Indonesians as recorded in the decennial 2010 census, the latest estimate gives the population as 3,311,044. Lombok is under the administration of the Governor of the province of West Nusa Tenggara, the province is administered from the provincial capital of Mataram in West Lombok. The island is divided into four kabupaten and one kota. They are as follows, with their areas and populations at the 2010 Census and according to the latest official estimates, before this time it was made up of numerous competing and feuding petty states each of which were presided over by a Sasak prince. This disunity was taken advantage of by the neighbouring Balinese who took control of western Lombok in the seventeenth century. The Makassarese meanwhile invaded eastern Lombok from their colonies in neighbouring Sumbawa, the Dutch had first visited Lombok in 1674 and the Dutch East India Company concluded its first treaty with the Sasak Princess of Lombok. The Balinese had managed to take over the island by 1750. In 1838, the Mataram kingdom brought its rivals under control, relations between the Sasak and Balinese in western Lombok were largely harmonious and intermarriage was common. In the islands east, however, relations were less cordial, while Sasak village government remained in place, the village head became little more than a tax collector for the Balinese. Villagers became a kind of serf and Sasak aristocracy lost much of its power, during one of the many Sasak peasant rebellions against the Balinese, Sasak chiefs sent envoys to the Dutch in Bali and invited them to rule Lombok. In June 1894, the general of the Dutch East Indies, Van der Wijck. He sent an army to Lombok and the Balinese raja capitulated to Dutch demands. The younger princes however overruled the raja and attacked and routed the Dutch, the Dutch counterattacked overrunning Mataram and the raja surrendered. The entire island was annexed to the Netherlands East Indies in 1895, the Dutch ruled over Lomboks 500,000 people with a force of no more than 250 by cultivating the support of the Balinese and Sasak aristocracy. The Dutch are remembered in Lombok as liberators from Balinese hegemony, during World War II a Japanese invasion force comprising elements of the 2nd Southern Expeditionary Fleet invaded and occupied the Lesser Sunda Islands, including the island of Lombok
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Delonix regia
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Delonix regia is a species of flowering plant in the bean family Fabaceae, subfamily Caesalpinioideae. It is noted for its leaves and flamboyant display of flowers. In many tropical parts of the world it is grown as an ornamental tree and it is also one of several trees known as flame tree. This species was placed in the genus Poinciana, named for Phillippe de Longvilliers de Poincy. It is a non nodulating legume and they appear in corymbs along and at the ends of branches. The naturally occurring variety flavida has yellow flowers, the pods are green and flaccid when young and turn dark-brown and woody. They can be up to 60 cm long and 5 cm wide, the seeds are small, weighing around 0.4 g on average. The compound leaves have an appearance and are a characteristic light, bright green and are doubly pinnate. Each leaf is 30–50 cm long with 20 to 40 pairs of leaflets or pinnae. Delonix regia is endemic to the Madagascars dry deciduous forests but has been introduced into tropical and sub-tropical regions worldwide, in the wild it is endangered, but it is widely cultivated elsewhere. The royal poinciana requires a tropical or near-tropical climate, but can tolerate drought and it prefers an open, free-draining sandy or loamy soil enriched with organic matter. The tree does not like heavy or clay soils and flowers more profusely when kept slightly dry. In addition to its value, it is also a useful shade tree in tropical conditions, because it usually grows to a modest height but spreads widely. In areas with a dry season, it sheds its leaves during the drought. In the continental United States, it grows in South Florida, Central Florida and it is much loved in the Caribbean and is featured in many Dominican & Puerto Rican paintings. It is the flower of St. Kitts and Nevis. In Mauritius and La Réunion it announces the coming of the new year and it is very widely grown in the Northern Australia, Hong Kong, Paraguay, Peru, Spain the valencian coast and on all Canary Islands, Thailand, Philippines, Sri Lanka and southern China. It is the tree in Vietnam, Tainan, Taiwan, Xiamen, Fujian Province, Peoples Republic of China
25.
Ende, East Nusa Tenggara
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Ende is the seat capital of the Ende Regency, East Nusa Tenggara province of Indonesia. Ende is located on the southern coast of Flores Island, the city has a population of 60,000 residents. Ende was the site of a kingdom existed around the end of 18th century. The people of the area known as Lio-Ende people. For many decades Ende has been a center of government, trade, education, rebellion against the Dutch was led by a certain Nipa Do known as the wars of Watu Api and Mari Longa. In 1934, the nationalist leader, Soekarno, who later became Indonesias first president was exiled to eastern Indonesia by the Dutch colonial government, the Bung Karno Museum is the old house occupied by Soekarno during his years of exile in Ende. Most of the old furniture are still there, while he was exiled in Ende, Soekarno wrote and held several plays, together with Tonel Kelimutu Theatre Group. Among the plays were Rendorua Ola Nggera Nusa and Doctor Satan, near the football field in Ende stands a big breadfruit tree. Under the tree, Soekarno often sat, working on ideas to lead Indonesia to independence. Those reflections contributed to the opening of Pancasila concept, which is now the state philosophy of Indonesia, today, the Pancasila Birth Monument stands on this place. Another attraction is Christ the King Cathedral is the seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Ende, the well-known tourist spot of Mount Kelimutu with three coloured volcanic lakes is about 50 km to the east of Ende. While in Ende there is an opportunity to tryout the local type of coffee Kopi Ende, coffee beans and ginger toasted together and brewed as normal. H. Hasan Aroeboesman Airport or Ende airport Ende travel guide from Wikivoyage
26.
Portugal
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Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, to the west and south it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east and north by Spain. The Portugal–Spain border is 1,214 kilometres long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union, the republic also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, both autonomous regions with their own regional governments. The territory of modern Portugal has been settled, invaded. The Pre-Celts, Celts, Carthaginians and the Romans were followed by the invasions of the Visigothic, in 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Moors, making Portugal part of Muslim Al Andalus. Portugal was born as result of the Christian Reconquista, and in 1139, Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King of Portugal, in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal established the first global empire, becoming one of the worlds major economic, political and military powers. Portugal monopolized the trade during this time, and the Portuguese Empire expanded with military campaigns led in Asia. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established, democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974. Shortly after, independence was granted to almost all its overseas territories, Portugal has left a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today. Portugal is a country with a high-income advanced economy and a high living standard. It is the 5th most peaceful country in the world, maintaining a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and it has the 18th highest Social Progress in the world, putting it ahead of other Western European countries like France, Spain and Italy. Portugal is a pioneer when it comes to drug decriminalization, as the nation decriminalized the possession of all drugs for use in 2001. The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe, the name of Portugal derives from the joined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale. Other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of Alan settlements, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra, the region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula. These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, a few small, semi-permanent, commercial coastal settlements were also founded in the Algarve region by Phoenicians-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC, during the last days of Julius Caesar, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Romes adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies and it suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north
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Larantuka
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Larantuka is a kecamatan and seat capital of East Flores Regency, on the eastern end of Flores Island, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. Like much of the region, Larantuka has a strong a colonial Portuguese influence and this overwhelmingly Roman Catholic area enjoys some international renown for its Holy Week celebrations. Larantuka Malay, a local dialect over 80% cognate with Indonesian, is used as a lingua franca in this area, Portuguese is used in certain Catholic religious rituals. Briefly before 1600 Portuguese traders left Solor and settled in Larantuka, the traders were in conflict with the Dominicans in Solor, because they were more interested in trade than in Christianization. In 1613 the Dutch occupied Solor and the Dominicans moved to Larantuka, Larantuka was a nexus for the trade of sandalwood from Timor and became the Portuguese trading center of South East Indonesia. It was also a refuge for deserters of the Dutch East India Company, two waves of immigration brought additional population. As the Dutch conquered Malacca in 1641, many Portuguese moved to Larantuka, two villages, Wureh and Konga, accommodated the new arrivals. As the Dutch attacked Makassar in 1660, most of the Portuguese from there came to Larantuka. The Portuguese took indigenous wives, but they wrote down the Portuguese ancestry. This new population group was called Topasses, but they called themselves Larantuqueiros, the Dutch called them also Zwarte Portugeesen. The Larantuqueiros turned out a loose, but mighty power in the region, the core cell was the federation of Larantuka, Wureh and Konga. Theoretically they were subordinated to Portugal, but in practice they were free. They had no Portuguese administration and they did not pay taxes, letters of the Lisbon government were ignored. For long years there was a struggle for power between the families da Costa and de Hornay. At the end they shared the power, the Larantuqueiros made alliances with the indigenous people of Flores and Timor. They followed a strategy, the most notable raja was converted to Catholicism by military pressure. He had to take an oath of allegiance to the king of Portugal, the raja was allowed to rule his folk autonomous, but in war he had to supply auxiliary forces. The Larantuqueiros were the rulers and established Portuguese as the language to distance themselves from the natives
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Sikka Regency
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Sikka is a regency within East Nusa Tenggara province, Indonesia, on the island of Flores. It covers an area of 1,731.9 km² and had a population of 300,301 at the 2010 Census, the regency is divided into 21 districts, tabulated below with their 2010 Census population. Palu island Rokatenda Maumere 1992 Flores earthquake Babi Island
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Dominican Order
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Members of the order, who are referred to as Dominicans, generally carry the letters O. P. after their names, standing for Ordinis Praedicatorum, meaning of the Order of Preachers. Membership in the order includes friars, nuns, active sisters, the order is famed for its intellectual tradition, having produced many leading theologians and philosophers. The Dominican Order is headed by the Master of the Order, in the year 2000, there were 5,171 Dominican friars in solemn vows,917 student brothers, and 237 novices. By the year 2013 there were 6,058 Dominican friars, a number of other names have been used to refer to both the order and its members. In England and other countries the Dominican friars are referred to as Black Friars because of the black cappa or cloak they wear over their white habits, Dominicans were Blackfriars, as opposed to Whitefriars or Greyfriars. They are also distinct from the Augustinian Friars who wear a similar habit and their identification as Dominicans gave rise to the pun that they were the Domini canes, or Hounds of the Lord. The Dominican Order came into being in the Middle Ages at a time when religion began to be contemplated in a new way, men of God were no longer expected to stay behind the walls of a cloister. Instead, they travelled among the people, taking as their examples the apostles of the primitive Church. Out of this emerged two orders of mendicant friars, one, the Friars Minor, was led by Francis of Assisi, the other. Dominics new order was to be an order, trained to preach in the vernacular languages. Rather than earning their living on vast farms as the monasteries had done, at the same time, Dominic inspired the members of his order to develop a mixed spirituality. They were both active in preaching, and contemplative in study, prayer and meditation, the brethren of the Dominican Order were urban and learned, as well as contemplative and mystical in their spirituality. While these traits affected the women of the order, the nuns especially absorbed the latter characteristics, in England, the Dominican nuns blended these elements with the defining characteristics of English Dominican spirituality and created a spirituality and collective personality that set them apart. The orders origins in battling heterodoxy influenced its development and reputation. Many later Dominicans battled heresy as part of their apostolate, indeed, many years after St. Dominic reacted to the Cathars, the first Grand Inquistor of Spain, Tomás de Torquemada, would be drawn from the Dominican Order. As an adolescent, he had a love of theology. During his studies in Palencia, Spain, he experienced a famine, prompting Dominic to sell all of his beloved books. At the age of twenty-four or twenty-five, he was ordained to the priesthood, at that time the south of France was the stronghold of the Cathar or Albigensian heresy, named after the Duke of Albi, a Cathar sympathiser and opponent to the subsequent Albigensian Crusade
30.
Solor
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Solor is a volcanic island located off the eastern tip of Flores island in the Lesser Sunda Islands of Indonesia, in the Solor Archipelago. The island supports a population that has been whaling for hundreds of years. They speak the languages of Adonara and Lamaholot, there are at least five volcanoes on this island which measures only 40 kilometres by 6 kilometres. The islands area is 222 square kilometres, in 1520, the Portuguese established a trading post in the village of Lamakera on the eastern side of the island as a transit harbor between Maluku and Portuguese Malacca. In 1562, Dominican priests built a fortress which Javanese Muslims burned down the following year. The fort was rebuilt from more durable materials and the Dominicans commenced the Christianisation of the local population, by 1590 the Portuguese and Christian population numbered about 25,000. At this time, there was a conflict between the traders and the priests, so the traders left Solor and settled in Larantuka at Flores island, when the Dutch came in 1613, the priests surrendered at the first attack and were brought to Larantuka, too. The Dutch kept the fort, but did not make a close to the Portuguese port. After two commanders defected to the Portuguese, they gave up Solor, in 1636 the Portuguese were attacked by the Dutch and had to abandon the fort. In 1646 the Dutch occupied the fort again, the first of the new commanders was suspended, because he married an indigenous woman. The second commander challenged the Portuguese commander to a duel and was slain, in 1648 the Dutch left and the Dominican priests returned
31.
Topasses
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Topasses were found in the various places of South Asia and Southeast Asia which were frequented by the Portuguese, such as Goa, Malacca and Batavia. In particular they are associated with the ethnically mixed Portuguese group that dominated politics on Timor in the 17th and 18th centuries, the etymology of the name is obscure. It might come from the Tamil term tuppasi, bilingual or interpreter, but it has also been associated with the Hindi word topi which refers to the characteristic hat worn by the men of this community as a marker of their cultural attachment to the European community. Hence, they are referred to as gente de chapeo in Portuguese accounts or as gens à chapeau in French accounts. It partly overlapped with the Dutch concept mardijker, free men, who usually had a Portuguese cultural background. While the mardijkers served under the Dutch colonial authorities, the Topasses of Timor were staunchly opposed to the Dutch, when the Dutch East India Company conquered Solor in 1613, the Portuguese community moved to Larantuka on Flores. They were able to defeat Dutch military expeditions on Timor with the help of Timorese allies, the peace treaty between the Kingdom of Portugal and the Dutch Republic in 1663 removed the acute threat from the latter. By this time the Topasses consisted of a mix of Portuguese, Florenese, Timorese, Indians, Dutch deserters. Through their military skills they were able to large parts of Timor. The Topass community was led by their own appointed captains, and had contact with the Viceroy of Portuguese India. They pressed Timorese princes to deliver sandalwood to the coast, which was sold to merchants from the Portuguese colony of Macau or to the Dutch. In 1641, their leader Francisco Fernandes led a Portuguese military expedition to weaken the power of the Muslim Makassarese who had made inroads on Timor. His small army of musketeers settled on Timor, extending Portuguese influence into the interior, after 1664 the Topasses were governed by the Hornay and Costa families, who held the titles captain-major or lieutenant general in turn. The Portuguese appointed an administrator to Lifau in 1656 and in 1702 the Portuguese authorities installed a governor in Lifau. The Topasses had become a law unto themselves, and drove out the Portuguese governor António Coelho Guerreiro in 1705, after more attacks from the Topasses in Lifau, the colonial base was moved east to Dili in eastern Timor in 1769. For long periods up to 1785, a state of warfare existed between the two Portuguese groups, in 1749 a political crisis involving Topass leader Gaspar da Costa resulted in another war with the Dutch. When he marched on Kupang with a force he was routed and killed at the Battle of Penfui. Many Timorese princedoms which had hitherto been subordinated to Topass authority now fell away, the Topass still managed to hang on in Oecussi, and killed the Dutch commander Hans Albrecht von Plüskow in 1761, when he attempted to expand the Dutch sphere on Timor
32.
William Dampier
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William Dampier was an English explorer and navigator who became the first Englishman to explore parts of what is today Australia, and the first person to circumnavigate the world three times. He has also described as Australias first natural historian, as well as one of the most important British explorers of the period between Sir Walter Raleigh and James Cook. On a later voyage he rescued Alexander Selkirk, a former crewmate who may have inspired Daniel Defoes Robinson Crusoe, others influenced by Dampier include James Cook, Horatio Nelson, Charles Darwin, and Alfred Russel Wallace. William Dampier was born at Hymerford House in East Coker, Somerset and he was baptised on 5 September, but his precise date of birth is not recorded. He was educated at Kings School, Bruton, Dampier sailed on two merchant voyages to Newfoundland and Java before joining the Royal Navy in 1673. He took part in the two Battles of Schooneveld in June of that year, Dampiers service was cut short by a catastrophic illness, and he returned to England for several months of recuperation. For the next years he tried his hand at various careers, including plantation management in Jamaica and logging in Mexico. Returning to England, he married Judith around 1679, only to leave for the sea a few months later. This led to his first circumnavigation, during which he accompanied a raid across the Isthmus of Darién in Panama, the pirates then raided Spanish settlements in Peru before returning to the Caribbean. Dampier made his way to Virginia, where in 1683 he was engaged by the privateer John Cooke, Cooke entered the Pacific via Cape Horn and spent a year raiding Spanish possessions in Peru, the Galápagos Islands, and Mexico. This expedition collected buccaneers and ships as it went along, at one time having a fleet of ten vessels, Cooke died in Mexico, and a new leader, Edward Davis, was elected captain by the crew. Dampier transferred to the privateer Charles Swans ship, Cygnet, and on 31 March 1686 they set out across the Pacific to raid the East Indies, calling at Guam, Spanish witnesses saw the predominantly English crew as not only pirates and heretics but also cannibals. Leaving Swan and 36 others behind on Mindanao, the rest of the privateers sailed on to Manila, Poulo Condor, China, the Spice Islands, and New Holland. On 5 January 1688, Cygnet anchored two miles from shore in 29 fathoms on the northwest coast of Australia, near King Sound. Dampier and his ship remained there until March 12, and while the ship was being careened Dampier made notes on the fauna and flora, among his fellows were a significant number of Spanish sailors, most notably Alonso Ramírez, a native of San Juan, Puerto Rico. Later that year, by agreement, Dampier and two shipmates were marooned on one of the Nicobar Islands and they obtained a small canoe which they modified after first capsizing and then, after surviving a great storm at sea, called at Acheen in Sumatra. Dampier returned to England in 1691 via the Cape of Good Hope, penniless and he also had as a source of income a slave known as Prince Jeoly, from Miangas, who became famous for his tattoos. Dampier exhibited Jeoly in London, thereby also generating publicity for a book based on his diaries, the publication of the book, A New Voyage Round the World, in 1697 was a popular sensation, creating interest at the Admiralty
33.
Dutch guilder
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The Dutch guilder or fl. was the currency of the Netherlands from the 17th century until 2002, when it was replaced by the euro. Between 1999 and 2002, the guilder was officially a national subunit of the euro, however, physical payments could only be made in guilder, as no euro coins or banknotes were available. The Netherlands Antillean guilder is still in use in Curaçao and Sint Maarten, in 2004, the Surinamese guilder was replaced by the Surinamese dollar. The Dutch name gulden was a Middle Dutch adjective meaning golden, the symbol ƒ or fl. for the Dutch guilder was derived from another old currency, the florin, called the florin in English. The exact exchange rate, still relevant for old contracts and for exchange of the old currency for euros at the bank, is 2.20371 Dutch guilders for 1 euro. Inverted, this gives EUR0.453780 for NLG1, before the introduction of the first guilder, there were regional and foreign golden coins that were likely referred to as gulden in Dutch. The first internationally accepted Dutch coin called gulden dates from 1517, even before that, the County of Holland had minted golden coins since 1378. An early guilder, a 10. 61-gram.910 silver coin, was minted by the States of Holland and this guilder was divided into 20 stuivers, each of 8 duiten or 16 penningen. The guilder gradually replaced other silver coin circulating in the United Netherlands, the florijn, the daalder, the rijksdaalder, the silver ducat. Between 1810 and 1814, the Netherlands was annexed to France, after the Napoleonic wars, the Kingdom of the Netherlands readopted the guilder. In 1817 it became decimalised, with one guilder equal to 100 cents, until 1948, the plural of cent used on coins was centen, after that it was cent. The Netherlands was initially on a standard, with the guilder equal to 605.61 milligrams of fine gold or 9.615 grams of fine silver. In 1840, the standard was adjusted to 9.45 grams. In 1875, the Netherlands adopted a standard with 1 guilder equal to 604.8 milligrams of fine gold. The gold standard was suspended between 1914 and 1925 and was abandoned in 1936, following the German occupation, on 10 May 1940, the guilder was pegged to the Reichsmark at a rate of 1 guilder =1.5 Reichsmark. This rate was reduced to 1.327 on 17 July of the same year, the liberating Allied forces set an exchange rate of 2.652 guilders =1 U. S. dollar, which became the peg for the guilder within the Bretton Woods system. In 1949, the peg was changed to 3.8 guilders =1 dollar, in 1961, the guilder was revalued to 3.62 guilders =1 dollar, a change approximately in line with that of the German mark. After 1967 guilders were made from nickel instead of silver, in 2002, the guilder was replaced by the euro at an exchange rate of 2.20371 guilders =1 Euro
34.
Dutch East Indies
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The Dutch East Indies was a Dutch colony. It was formed from the colonies of the Dutch East India Company. During the 19th century, Dutch possessions and hegemony were expanded and this colony was one of the most valuable European colonies under the Dutch Empires rule, and contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and cash crop trade in the 19th to early 20th century. The colonial social order was based on racial and social structures with a Dutch elite living separate from. The term Indonesia came into use for the location after 1880. In the early 20th century, local intellectuals began developing the concept of Indonesia as a nation state, Japans World War II occupation dismantled much of the Dutch colonial state and economy. Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Indonesian nationalists declared independence which they fought to secure during the subsequent Indonesian National Revolution, the word Indies comes from Latin, Indus. The original name Dutch Indies was translated by the English as the Dutch East Indies, the name Dutch Indies is recorded in the Dutch East India Companys documents of the early 1620s. Scholars writing in English use the terms Indië, Indies, the Dutch East Indies, the Netherlands Indies, centuries before Europeans arrived, the Indonesian archipelago supported various states, including commercially oriented coastal trading states and inland agrarian states. The first Europeans to arrive were the Portuguese in the late 15th century, following disruption of Dutch access to spices in Europe, the first Dutch expedition set sail for the East Indies in 1595 to access spices directly from Asia. When it made a 400% profit on its return, other Dutch expeditions soon followed, recognising the potential of the East Indies trade, the Dutch government amalgamated the competing companies into the United East India Company. The VOC was granted a charter to wage war, build fortresses, a capital was established in Batavia, which became the centre of the VOCs Asian trading network. Smuggling, the expense of war, corruption, and mismanagement led to bankruptcy by the end of the 18th century. The company was dissolved in 1800 and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago were nationalised under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies. From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th century, to the declaration of independence in 1945, although Java was dominated by the Dutch, many areas remained independent throughout much of this time, including Aceh, Bali, Lombok and Borneo. Piracy remained a problem until the mid-19th century, finally in the early 20th century, imperial dominance was extended across what was to become the territory of modern-day Indonesia. In 1811, British forces occupied several Dutch East Indies ports including Java, Dutch control was restored in 1816. Under the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty, the Dutch secured British settlements such as Bengkulu in Sumatra, in exchange for ceding control of their possessions in the Malay Peninsula, the resulting borders between British and Dutch possessions remain between Malaysia and Indonesia
35.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
36.
1992 Flores earthquake and tsunami
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The 1992 Flores earthquake occurred on December 12 on the island of Flores in Indonesia. With a magnitude of 7.8 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII, it was the largest, the quake hit at 05.29 UTC and was followed by several serious aftershocks. At least 2,500 people were killed or missing near Flores, more than 500 people were injured and 90,000 were left homeless. Nineteen people were killed and 130 houses were destroyed on Kalaotoa, damage was assessed at exceeding US$100 million. Electricity in the area and the port of Maumere was shut down. Maumeres hospital was destroyed, and patients were treated in tents. Damage also occurred on Sumba and Alor, the tsunami on Flores ran inland as far as 300 meters with wave heights of 25 meters. The Indonesian government sent rescue and relief missions to earthquake-stricken areas, the Indonesian air force provided assistance, mostly transporting medicine and clothing. Malaria and influenza rose significantly after the disaster, Babi Island survivors were evacuated since all the houses on the island were demolished. International relief efforts were hindered by the onset of the rainy season
37.
Richter magnitude scale
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The Richter magnitude scale assigns a magnitude number to quantify the size of an earthquake. As measured with a seismometer, an earthquake that registers 5.0 on the Richter scale has a shaking amplitude 10 times greater than an earthquake that registered 4.0 at the same distance. This means that, for instance, an earthquake of magnitude 5 releases 31.6 times as energy as an earthquake of magnitude 4. In the United States, the Richter scale was succeeded in the 1970s by the moment magnitude scale, the moment magnitude scale is now the scale used by the United States Geological Survey to estimate magnitudes for all modern large earthquakes. Richter derived his earthquake-magnitude scale from the apparent magnitude scale used to measure the brightness of stars and that fixed measure was chosen to avoid negative values for magnitude, given that the slightest earthquakes that could be recorded and located at the time were around magnitude 3.0. The Richter magnitude scale itself has no limit, and contemporary seismometers can register, record. M L was not designed to be applied to data with distances to the hypocenter of the earthquake that were greater than 600 km. Later, to express the size of earthquakes around the planet, Gutenberg and Richter developed a surface wave magnitude scale and these are types of waves that are recorded at teleseismic distances. The two scales were adjusted such that they were consistent with the M L scale and that adjustment succeeded better with the M s scale than with the M b scale. Each scale saturates when the earthquake is greater than magnitude 8.0, because of this, researchers in the 1970s developed the moment magnitude scale. The older magnitude-scales were superseded by methods for calculating the seismic moment, about the origins of the Richter magnitude scale, C. F. Richter said, I found a paper by Professor K. Wadati of Japan in which he compared large earthquakes by plotting the maximum ground motion against distance to the epicenter. I tried a similar procedure for our stations, but the range between the largest and smallest magnitudes seemed unmanageably large, dr. Beno Gutenberg then made the natural suggestion to plot the amplitudes logarithmically. I was lucky, because logarithmic plots are a device of the devil, the particular instrument used would become saturated by strong earthquakes and unable to record high values. The scale was replaced in the 1970s by the moment magnitude scale, for earthquakes adequately measured by the Richter scale, anything above 5 is classified as a risk by the USGS. Several scales have historically described as the Richter scale, especially the local magnitude M L. In addition, the body wave magnitude, m b, a couple of new techniques to measure magnitude are in the development stage by seismologists. All magnitude scales have been designed to give similar results
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Manggarai people
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The Manggarai are an ethnic group found in western Flores in the East Nusa Tenggara province, Indonesia. Manggarai people are spread across three districts in the province, namely the West Manggarai Regency, Manggarai Regency and East Manggarai Regency. According to historical records, they have been occupied alternately by other such as the Bima people from the island of Sumbawa. As of the late 20th century, there are about 500,000 Manggarai people and their political system is clan-based, led by a chief clan called Todo. This people practices patrilineal descent system, and historically they live in villages of which consists at least two clans, the Manggarai people are known to have series of ritual as a thanksgiving for the life that has been given to them to live in a certain time period. Among others are, - Penti Manggarai, a ceremony of harvest thanksgiving celebration, barong Lodok, a ritual that invites the guardian spirit to the center of Lingko. Barong Wae, a ritual to invite ancestral spirits to be a watcher over springs, barong Compang, a ceremony of summoning a village guardian spirit at night. Wisi Loce, this ceremony is conducted so that all spirits who are invited are able to wait a moment before the climax of the Penti ceremony, libur Kilo, a ceremony of thanksgiving for the welfare of each family in their homes. Caci performance usually begins with Danding dance performances, before the caci warriors display their abilities to hit, the dance is commonly referred to as Tandak Manggarai, a dance performed on stage to predict the outcome of the Caci competition. Mbehel, a West Mangarrai mountain tribe Rangko trive from Sulawesi island Joshua Project — Manggarai Ethnic People in all countries Manggarai Map — Satellite Images of Manggarai
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Regency (Indonesia)
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This is the list of regencies and cities of Indonesia. Both regencies and cities are second-level administrative subdivision in Indonesia, immediately below the provinces, in Indonesia, both regency and city are at the same administration level, each having their own local government and legislative body. The difference between a regency and a city lies in demography, size and economy, generally, a regency comprises a rural, larger area than a city. A city usually has non-agricultural economic activities, a regency is headed by a regent, known locally as bupati, while a city is headed by a mayor. All regents, mayors and members of legislatures are elected via elections to serve for a five year term which can be renewed once. Each regency or city is divided further into districts more commonly known as kecamatan, an administrative city is a city without its own local legislatures. The mayor of a city is directly appointed by the Governor. This type of city in Indonesia is only found in Jakarta which consisted of 5 administrative cities and 1 administrative regency, following the implementation of decentralization beginning on 1 January 2001, regencies and municipalities became the key administrative units responsible for providing most governmental services. The list below groups regencies and cities in Indonesia by provinces, each regency has an administrative centre, the regency seat. The Indonesian title of bupati is originally a loanword from Sanskrit originating in India, related titles which were also used in precolonial Indonesia are adipati and senapati. A regency is a subdivision of a province in Indonesia. The Indonesian term kabupaten is also translated as municipality. Regencies and cities are divided into Districts, the English name regency comes from the Dutch colonial period, when regencies were ruled by bupati and were known as regentschap. Bupati had been regional lords under the pre-colonial monarchies of Java, when the Dutch abolished or curtailed those monarchies, the bupati were left as the most senior indigenous authority. They were not strictly speaking native rulers because the Dutch claimed full sovereignty over their territory, regencies in Java territorial units were grouped together into Residencies headed by exclusively European Residents. After the independence of Indonesia in 1945, the terms bupati, since the start of Reformasi in 1998 a remarkable secession of district governments has arisen in Indonesia. This process has become known as pemekaran, following the surge of support for decentralisation across Indonesia which occurred following the end of the Soeharto era in 1998, key new decentralisation laws were passed in 1999. Subsequently, there was a jump in the number of regencies from around 300 at the end of 1998 to over 490 in 2008 ten years later, the agreement will be forwarded on for government approval
40.
West Manggarai Regency
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West Manggarai Regency is one of the eight regencies which divide the island of Flores, located in the province of East Nusa Tenggara in Indonesia. The regencys capital is the town of Labuan Bajo, the total area of West Manggarai Regency is 9,450 square kilometres, with a land area of 2,947 square kilometres and a sea area of 7,052 square kilometres. The population as at the 2010 Census was 220,430 inhabitants, West Manggarai Regency is divided into seven districts, tabulated below with their 2010 Census population. Rural development The West Manggarai Regency, along with other nearby regencies on Flores, has a long, programs of tree-planting have been initiated in recent years which are helping improve the local environment. These activities include efforts to promote continued attention to the cultivation of sugar palms, Education Education facilities in the region are limited, especially in the outlying areas. Some non-government organisations help, for example, with the provision of books for children to isolated villages, details for Treking in the Mt Mbeliling area. List of places to visit in West Maggarai
41.
East Manggarai Regency
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East Manggarai Regency is a regency in East Nusa Tenggara province of Indonesia. Established in 2007, the regency has its seat in Borong, the population in 2010 was slightly over 250,000. An additional feature of interest in the regency is the Pota Komodo dragon which has similar traits to the more well-known Komodo dragon found in neighbouring West Manggarai Regency. The population of the Pota Komodo dragon has been declining and there is now concern about conservation of the local dragon population, international visitors travel through various parts of the district, sometimes liaising with local groups such as village Catholic communities. In late 2012, one visiting Polish couple took the decision to be married in Lait valley in the Kota Komba area
42.
Ngada Regency
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Ngada Regency is one of the regencies which divide the island of Flores, East Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia. Bajawa is the capital of Ngada Regency, the population of Ngada Regency was 142,254 at the 2010 Census. The Ngada Regency is one of the regencies in East Nusa Tenggara. The regency was split into two in 2007, with part being formed into a new Nagekeo Regency, as is the case with other regencies across Indonesia, local events sometimes seize the headlines. For example, in December 2013 a row broke out when the Ngada regent head, Marianus Sae, on Saturday 21 December 2013 Marianus Sae was apparently unable to obtain a seat on a local flight in East Nusa Tenggara. Angered by the situation, Sae is reported to have ordered his subordinates to blockade the runway of the Turelelo airport in Soa district, the incident attracted national attention leading to a formal investigation of Saes actions. Under current arrangements the Ngada Regency is divided into nine districts, the language in Ngada is Ngadha. Ngada regency is one of the poorest regions in Indonesia but there is increasing in popularity among international tourists which is providing help to the local economy. The two most visited areas in the Ngada region are Bena and Wogo, both unique megalithic complexes with traditional housing, to Ngadha society, the traditional houses occupy an important role as organizational units, as villagers must each belong to a house, thereby a clan. Clan totems can be ornately crafted symbols of social organization. The megalithic sites in Ngada region were added to the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List on October 19,1995 in the Cultural category, in 1968 stegodon fossil and stone artefacts were found in the Soa Valley north of Bajawa. In 1991 excavations were carried out but no significant discoveries were found, in excavations in 1994 researchers found 12 sites of artefacts and the fossils. The age of the Soa Valley is put at around 650,000 to 1.02 million years during which there were at least two devastating volcanic events. So far, researchers have not found human fossils but it is believed that human fossils may yet be found, stone artefacts suggesting hominin activity have been found in caves such as Mata Menge in the area. If human fossils are indeed found, this may contribute to knowledge about migration into eastern Indonesia, Research at nearby Liang Bua cave to the west near Ruteng has also contributed to expanding knowledge about early human activity in the area. Ngada traditional house and megalithic complex - UNESCO World Heritage Centre Accessed 2009-02-27, phillimore, J. & Lisa Goodson, Qualitative Research in Tourism, Ontologies, Epistemologies and Methodologies, Routledge,2004
43.
Nagekeo Regency
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Nagekeo Regency is a regency in East Nusa Tenggara province of Indonesia. Established in 2007, the regency has its seat in Mbay, the Regency is divided into seven districts, tabulated below with their 2010 Census population. Besides pink beach in Komodo National Park area, the other beach is in Rii Taa Island. The island is one hour by traditional boat from Maropokot small port. In high tide, the area only 30 meters square. Popular for local people, but only a few foreign tourists, no shade at all, good for sunbathing in the morning and afternoon
44.
Ende Regency
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Ende Regency is one of the regencies which divide the island of Flores, within East Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia. The town of Ende is the capital of Ende Regency, the area of Ende Regency is 2,046.62 km2, and at the 2010 Census it had a population of 260,428. The Kelimutu National Park which contains the well-known tourist attraction of Mount Kelimutu with three coloured lakes is in Ende Regency, the Ende Regency is divided into twenty districts, tabulated below with their 2010 Census population
. PMID 23874886.
Media related to Flores, Indonesia at Wikimedia Commons