1.
Landscape
–
A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms and how they integrate with natural or man-made features. The character of a landscape helps define the self-image of the people who inhabit it and it is the dynamic backdrop to people’s lives. Landscape can be as varied as farmland, a landscape park, the activity of modifying the visible features of an area of land is referred to as landscaping. There are several definitions of what constitutes a landscape, depending on context, the term landscape emerged around the turn of the sixteenth century to denote a painting whose primary subject matter was natural scenery. Land may be taken in its sense of something to people belong. The suffix ‑scape is equivalent to the more common English suffix ‑ship, the roots of ‑ship are etymologically akin to Old English sceppan or scyppan, meaning to shape. The suffix ‑schaft is related to the verb schaffen, so that ‑ship, the word landscape, first recorded in 1598, was borrowed from a Dutch painters term. An example of this usage can be found as early as 1662 in the Book of Common Prayer, Could we but climb where Moses stood. Setting, In works of narrative, it includes the moment in time and geographic location in which a story takes place. Picturesque, The word literally means in the manner of a picture, fit to be made into a picture, and used as early as 1703, gilpin’s Essay on Prints defined picturesque as a term expressive of that peculiar kind of beauty, which is agreeable in a picture. A view, A sight or prospect of some landscape or extended scene, wilderness, An uncultivated, uninhabited, and inhospitable region. Cityscape, The urban equivalent of a landscape, in the visual arts a cityscape is an artistic representation, such as a painting, drawing, print or photograph, of the physical aspects of a city or urban area. Seascape, A photograph, painting, or other work of art depicts the sea. Geomorphology is the study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features created by physical or chemical processes operating at or near Earths surface. Geomorphology is practiced within physical geography, geology, geodesy, engineering geology, archaeology and this broad base of interests contributes to many research styles and interests within the field. The surface of Earth is modified by a combination of processes that sculpt landscapes, and geologic processes that cause tectonic uplift and subsidence. Many of these factors are strongly mediated by climate, the Earth surface and its topography therefore are an intersection of climatic, hydrologic, and biologic action with geologic processes. Desert, Plain, Taiga, Tundra, Wetland, Mountain, Mountain range, Cliff, Coast, Littoral zone, Glacier, Polar regions of Earth, Shrubland, Forest, Rainforest, Woodland, Jungle, Moors
Landscape
–
A
prairie:
Badlands National Park,
South Dakota, USA.
Landscape
–
Tropical
rainforest, Fatu Hiva Island,
Marquesas Islands,
French Polynesia.
Landscape
–
Tundra in
Siberia, Russia.
Landscape
–
Taiga (Boreal forest),
Alaska, US.
2.
Developed country
–
Which criteria are to be used and which countries can be classified as being developed are subjects of debate. Developed countries have post-industrial economies, meaning the sector provides more wealth than the industrial sector. They are contrasted with developing countries, which are in the process of industrialization, or undeveloped countries, which are pre-industrial and almost entirely agrarian. As of 2015, advanced economies comprise 60. 8% of global GDP based on values and 42. 9% of global GDP based on purchasing-power parity according to the International Monetary Fund. In 2015, the ten largest advanced economies by GDP in both nominal and PPP terms were Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The term industrialized country may be ambiguous, as industrialization is an ongoing process that is hard to define. The first industrialized country was the United Kingdom, followed by Belgium, later it spread further to Germany, United States, France and other Western European countries. According to some such as Jeffrey Sachs, however, the current divide between the developed and developing world is largely a phenomenon of the 20th century. Economic criteria have tended to dominate discussions, one such criterion is income per capita, countries with high gross domestic product per capita would thus be described as developed countries. Another economic criterion is industrialization, countries in which the tertiary and quaternary sectors of industry dominate would thus be described as developed. More recently another measure, the Human Development Index, which combines an economic measure, national income, with other measures, indices for life expectancy and this criterion would define developed countries as those with a very high rating. According to the United Nations Statistics Division, There is no established convention for the designation of developed, the UN HDI is a statistical measure that gauges a countrys level of human development. While there is a correlation between having a high HDI score and a prosperous economy, the UN points out that the HDI accounts for more than income or productivity. Unlike GDP per capita or per capita income, the HDI takes into account how income is turned into education and health opportunities, since 1990, Norway, Japan, Canada and Iceland have had the highest HDI score. The top 47 countries have scores ranging from 0.793 in Barbados to 0.955 in Norway, many countries listed by IMF or CIA as advanced, possess an HDI over 0.788. Many countries possessing an HDI of 0.788 and over are also listed by IMF or CIA as advanced, thus, many advanced economies are characterized by an HDI score of 0.9 or higher. Since April 2016, the IMF classifies Macau as an advanced economy, the latest index was released on 14 December 2015 and covers the period up to 2014. The following are the 49 countries in the top quartile - having an HDI above 0.8, = Increase = No increase or decrease = Decrease The number in parentheses represents the number of ranks the country has climbed relative to the ranking in 2014 report
Developed country
–
Very High
3.
Simple suspension bridge
–
A simple suspension bridge is a primitive type of bridge that is supported entirely from anchors at either end and has no towers or piers. In such bridges, the deck of the bridge follows the downward and upward arc of the load-bearing cables, alternatively, stout handrail cables supported on short piers at each end may be the primary load-bearing element, with the deck suspended below. Suspended well from two locations over a river or canyon, simple suspension bridges follow a shallow downward catenary arc and are not suited for modern roads and railroads. Owing to practical limitation in the grade and the response to loads of the bridge deck. This type of bridge is considered the most efficient and sustainable design in developing countries, however, in some contexts the term simple suspension bridge refers not to this type of bridge but rather to a suspended deck bridge that is simple in that its deck is not stiffened. Although simple suspension bridges and simple suspended deck bridges are similar in many respects, on a simple suspension bridge, the main cables follow a hyperbolic curve, the catenary. This is because the cables are free hanging. In contrast, on a deck bridge the main cables follow a parabolic curve. This is because the cables are tied at uniform intervals to the bridge deck below. The differences between two curves was a question of importance in the 17th century, worked on by Isaac Newton among others. A stressed ribbon bridge also has one or more catenary curves, unlike a simple suspension bridge however, a stressed ribbon bridge has a stiff deck, usually due to the addition of compression elements laid over the main cables. This stiffness allows the bridge to be heavier, wider. These were simple suspension bridges of three or more cables made from vines, where people walked directly on the ropes to cross, later, they also used decking made from planks resting on two cables. In South America, Inca rope bridges predate the arrival of the Spanish in the Andes in the 16th century, the oldest known suspension bridge, reported from ruins, dates from the 7th century in Central America. Simple suspension bridges using iron chains are also documented in Tibet, one bridge on the upper Yangtze dates back to the 7th century. Several are attributed to Tibetan monk Thang Tong Gyalpo, who built several in Tibet and Bhutan in the 15th century, including Chakzam Bridge. Another example, the Luding Bridge, dates from 1703, spanning 100 m using 11 iron chains, development of wire cable suspension bridges dates to the temporary simple suspension bridge at Annonay built by Marc Seguin and his brothers in 1822. However, simple suspension bridge designs were largely obsolete by the 19th century invention
Simple suspension bridge
–
A simple suspension footbridge in the Zillertal Alps
Simple suspension bridge
–
Lynn creek suspension hires
Simple suspension bridge
–
18th-century rope bridge in
Srinagar,
Garhwal Kingdom
Simple suspension bridge
–
Jurong Bird Park -rope bridge
4.
Sustainability
–
In ecology, sustainability is the property of biological systems to remain diverse and productive indefinitely. Long-lived and healthy wetlands and forests are examples of biological systems. In more general terms, sustainability is the endurance of systems, the organizing principle for sustainability is sustainable development, which includes the four interconnected domains, ecology, economics, politics and culture. Sustainability science is the study of development and environmental science. Sustainability can also be defined as a process characterized by the pursuit of a common ideal. An ideal is by definition unattainable in a time and space. However, by persistently and dynamically approaching it, the results in a sustainable system. Healthy ecosystems and environments are necessary to the survival of humans, ways of reducing negative human impact are environmentally-friendly chemical engineering, environmental resources management and environmental protection. Information is gained from green chemistry, earth science, environmental science, Ecological economics studies the fields of academic research that aim to address human economies and natural ecosystems. Moving towards sustainability is also a challenge that entails international and national law, urban planning and transport, local and individual lifestyles. The name sustainability is derived from the Latin sustinere, sustain can mean “maintain, support, or endure”. ”The 2005 World Summit on Social Development identified sustainable development goals, such as economic development, social development and environmental protection. This view has been expressed as an illustration using three overlapping ellipses indicating that the three pillars of sustainability are not mutually exclusive and can be mutually reinforcing, in fact, the three pillars are interdependent, and in the long run none can exist without the others. The three pillars have served as a ground for numerous sustainability standards and certification systems in recent years. Standards which today explicitly refer to the bottom line include Rainforest Alliance, Fairtrade. Some sustainability experts and practitioners have illustrated four pillars of sustainability, one such pillar is future generations, which emphasizes the long-term thinking associated with sustainability. There is also an opinion that considers resource use and financial sustainability as two pillars of sustainability. Sustainable development consists of balancing local and global efforts to meet human needs without destroying or degrading the natural environment. The question then becomes how to represent the relationship between those needs and the environment, a study from 2005 pointed out that environmental justice is as important as sustainable development
Sustainability
–
Achieving sustainability will enable the Earth to continue supporting human life.
Sustainability
Sustainability
–
Batad
rice terraces, The Philippines —UNESCO World Heritage site
Sustainability
–
Urban sustainability analysis of the greater urban area of the city of Sao Paulo using the ‘Circles of Sustainability' method of the UN and Metropolis Association. For more information see
James, Paul; with Magee, Liam; Scerri, Andy; Steger, Manfred B. (2015). Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability. London: Routledge.
5.
Skyway
–
A skyway, skybridge, or skywalk is a type of pedway consisting of an enclosed or covered bridge between two or more buildings in an urban area. This protects pedestrians from the weather, in North America skyways are usually owned by businesses, and are therefore not public spaces. Skyways usually connect on the first few floors above the floor, though they are sometimes much higher. The space in the buildings connected by skyways is often devoted to retail business, non-commercial areas with closely associated buildings, such as university campuses, can often have skyways and/or tunnels connecting buildings. The worlds largest discontinuous skyway network – Calgary, Albertas +15 Walkway system – has a length of 18 km. The Minneapolis Skyway System is the worlds largest continuous system and spans 8 miles connecting 69 blocks in downtown Minneapolis, on a smaller scale, terminals of large airports are often connected by skywalk systems, as at Manchester Airport, United Kingdom. Some cities have the equivalent of an underground, and there are also mixed subway/skyway systems. A number of cities have given intricate analysis to systems employing computer models to optimize skywalk layout. There is debate about the impact on urban areas of skyways. Robertson noted the negative impacts to street activities, and reductions to the property value at ground level, woo found that skywalk systems could be negatively associated with promoting consumerism. Cui called for research into the impact of skyways in developing countries. There are significant skyway networks in cities in the US Midwest, such as Saint Paul, Des Moines, Cedar Rapids, Rochester. Most networks in North America are privately owned, a notable exception in are the Saint Paul skyways, which are publicly owned. In Bangkok, Thailand there are more than 5.4 km of covered wide dedicated elevated skywalks with lighting and these were developed due to lack of proper sidewalks as well as street hawkers and local merchants taking advantage of any sidewalk space as makeshift commercial real estate. Most skywalks connect to a BTS station and utilize space underneath the rail line and these skywalks have connector ramps which connect stations to malls seamlessly and are paid for by the malls themselves, otherwise the city and BTS fund walkway development. A 50km long extension project was shelved in 2011 due to funding issues, in Hong Kong, China there are numerous foot bridge networks across the city. Particularly large networks exists around elevated or at grade MTR stations and connections between malls and housing estates in new town centers, the Central–Mid-Levels walkway system is the longest outdoor covered escalator system in the world according to Guinness World Records. Other large systems exist in Tsuen Wan and Mong Kok, the Mumbai Skywalk Project is a planned discontinuous network of over 50 km of skywalks in Mumbai Metropolitan Region, India
Skyway
–
A
Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) Chinese miniature model of two residential towers joined by a skyway
Skyway
–
Bridge of Sighs in
Venice,
Italy.
Skyway
–
Skybridge in
Covent Garden,
London.
Skyway
–
A three-storey bridge at
The Core Shopping Centre in
Calgary.
6.
Pedestrian separation structure
–
A pedestrian separation structure is any structure that removes pedestrians from a roadway, street or railway track. This creates a road junction where vehicles and pedestrians do not interact and this can be considered a type of grade separation structure on the road. These structures can be located either above the roadway or below the roadway, in the U. S. access under the Americans with Disabilities Act requirements means that stairs cannot be the only access to these structures. An elevator must be provided or a ramp built that conforms to the requirements under the ADA regulations. In the broadest sense, building codes that limit the number of driveways that cross sidewalks may be viewed as making the sidewalks a separation structure, in many areas, wildlife crossings are provided in wilderness areas to allow wildlife to cross roadways without risking accidents. While not specifically built for people, they could be used by people in those areas, many of the early forms of these structures were provided to cross limited-access highways in areas that were built up and lacked intersections. By allowing pedestrians and bicycles to cross over the highway, these bridges were viewed as low-cost alternatives to intersections. In 1999, Las Vegas, Nevada began an effort to install pedestrian bridges at major intersections along the Las Vegas Strip, to reduce traffic congestion
Pedestrian separation structure
–
This bridge allows pedestrians over I-64 in St. Louis, Missouri, United States
Pedestrian separation structure
–
This tunnel at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology allows pedestrians to get between buildings on either side of Ames Street
7.
Sustainable transport
–
Components for evaluating sustainability include the particular vehicles used for road, water or air transport, the source of energy, and the infrastructure used to accommodate the transport. Another component for evaluation is pipelines for transporting liquid or gas materials, Transport operations and logistics as well as transit-oriented development are also involved in evaluation. Transportation sustainability is largely being measured by transportation system effectiveness and efficiency as well as the environmental, the entire life cycle of transport systems is subject to sustainability measurement and optimization. Sustainable transport systems make a contribution to the environmental, social. The advantages of increased mobility need to be weighed against the environmental, social, Transport systems have significant impacts on the environment, accounting for between 20% and 25% of world energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions. The majority of the emissions, almost 97%, came from burning of fossil fuels. Greenhouse gas emissions from transport are increasing at a faster rate than any other energy using sector, road transport is also a major contributor to local air pollution and smog. The United Nations Environment Programme estimates that each year 2.4 million premature deaths from air pollution could be avoided. The social costs of transport include road crashes, air pollution, physical inactivity, time taken away from the family while commuting, many of these negative impacts fall disproportionately on those social groups who are also least likely to own and drive cars. Traffic congestion imposes economic costs by wasting time and by slowing the delivery of goods. Traditional transport planning aims to improve mobility, especially for vehicles, communities which are successfully improving the sustainability of their transport networks are doing so as part of a wider programme of creating more vibrant, livable, sustainable cities. There are many definitions of the transport, and of the related terms sustainable transportation. Is Affordable, operates fairly and efficiently, offers a choice of transport mode, Sustainability extends beyond just the operating efficiency and emissions. A Life-cycle assessment involves production, use and post-use considerations, a cradle-to-cradle design is more important than a focus on a single factor such as energy efficiency. Most of the tools and concepts of sustainable transport were developed before the phrase was coined, walking, the first mode of transport, is also the most sustainable. Public transport dates back at least as far as the invention of the bus by Blaise Pascal in 1662. The first passenger tram began operation in 1807 and the first passenger service in 1825. Pedal bicycles date from the 1860s and these were the only personal transport choices available to most people in Western countries prior to World War II, and remain the only options for most people in the developing world
Sustainable transport
–
A subtopic of
sustainability
Sustainable transport
–
An 1889 Japanese print shows various forms of transportation
Sustainable transport
–
The
Bus Rapid Transit of
Metz uses a
diesel-electric hybrid driving system, developed by Belgian
Van Hool manufacturer.
8.
Clapper bridge
–
A clapper bridge is an ancient form of bridge found on the moors of Devon and in other upland areas of the United Kingdom including Snowdonia and Anglesey, Cumbria, Yorkshire and Lancashire. It is formed by large slabs of stone, often granite or schist, supported on stone piers. Although often credited with prehistoric origin, most were erected in medieval times and they are often situated close to a ford where carts could cross. A fine example, the Postbridge Clapper Bridge, can be found at Postbridge and its slabs are over four metres long, two metres wide and weigh over eight tons each, making the bridge passable to a small cart. It was first recorded in 1380 and was built to facilitate the transportation of Dartmoor tin by pack horses to the town of Tavistock. Other surviving examples include the Tarr Steps over the River Barle in Exmoor, some larger clapper bridges, such as at Dartmeet and Bellever, have collapsed – their slabs swept away by floods, or raided for building or wall construction. However, there are other smaller examples in existence on Dartmoor and still in use, such as those at Teignhead Farm, Scorhill. While the term clapper bridge is typically associated with the United Kingdom, one example is the Anping Bridge in China, which is over two kilometres long
Clapper bridge
–
Tarr Steps, Exmoor, Somerset, England
Clapper bridge
–
The clapper bridge at Postbridge
Clapper bridge
–
Clapper bridge at Wycoller, Pendle, East Lancashire
9.
Moon bridge
–
A moon bridge is a highly arched pedestrian bridge associated with gardens in China and Japan. The moon bridge originated in China and was introduced to Japan. This type of bridge was designed to allow pedestrians to cross canals while allowing the passage of barges beneath. When constructed using the ascent and descent this had the further advantage of not using space from the adjoining fields for approaches. In formal garden design a bridge is placed so that it is reflected in still water. The high arch and its reflection form a circle, symbolizing the moon
Moon bridge
–
Jade Belt Bridge at the
Summer Palace,
Beijing
Moon bridge
–
A wooden moon bridge in the
Japanese tea garden at Golden Gate Park in
San Francisco, California.
Moon bridge
–
A full circle forms due to the shape and reflection of Hongji Bridge at
Nanxun, Zhejiang.
10.
Step-stone bridge
–
Unlike other bridges, they have no spans. Stepping stones, along with log bridges, are likely to have been the oldest bridge types and they are sometimes built by hikers. They may be impossible to cross when the level is high. Also, occasionally they may be disarranged by the force of the river when it is flowing unusually powerfully, the name Drukken steps derives from a persons gait as they stepped from stone to stone whilst crossing the Red Burn. Seven or more stones were set in the Red Burn which was much wider than now. Burns himself used the Scots spelling Drucken rather than Drukken, the ruins of the Drukken Steps are now found in the Eglinton Country Park
Step-stone bridge
–
A rustic stepping stone bridge across a
stream.
Step-stone bridge
–
A stucco stone from The
Drukken Steps, stepping stones in
Scotland
Step-stone bridge
–
A stepping stone bridge crossing the "dry landscape pond" of
Taisan-ji,
Kobe, Japan.
Step-stone bridge
–
Freeway Park,
Downtown Seattle,
Washington (U.S. state)
11.
Zig-zag bridge
–
It is used in standard crossings for structural stability, and in traditional and contemporary Asian and Western landscape design across water gardens. When constructed of wood, each segment is formed from planks and is supported by posts, when constructed of stone, the bridge will use short or long rectilinear slabs set upon stone footings. A zig-zag bridge is seen in the Chinese garden, Japanese garden. It may be made of stone slabs or planks as part of a design and is frequently seen in rustic gardens. It is also used in high art modern fountain gardens, often in urban park. As it often has no railings, it is possible for an inattentive walker to simply fall off an end into the water. The zig-zag of paths and bridges also follows a principle of Chinese Feng Shui, each segment of walkway mutually supports the next from twisting and tipping by being securely fastened to it. This is the same advantage possessed by a split rail fence. Boxerwood Gardens in Lexington, Virginia has a zig-zag bridge, step-stone bridge Moon bridge Footbridge S bridge Chinese garden Japanese garden myjapanesegarden, Building a zig-zag garden pond bridge, UK
Zig-zag bridge
–
A Zig-zag bridge at the
National Palace Museum in
Taipei
Zig-zag bridge
–
A zig-zag bridge across a
marsh, at
Boxerwood Gardens in the
Shenandoah Valley.
12.
Wood plank
–
A plank is timber that is flat, elongated, and rectangular with parallel faces that are higher and longer than wide. Used primarily in carpentry, planks are critical in the construction of ships, houses, bridges, planks also serve as supports to form shelves and tables. Usually made from sawed timber, planks are usually more than 1 1⁄2 in thick, planks are often used as a work surface on elevated scaffolding, and need to be wide enough to provide strength without breaking when walked on. The wood is categorized as a board if its width is less than 2 1⁄2 in, a plank used in a building as a horizontal supporting member that runs between foundations, walls, or beams to support a ceiling or floor is called a joist. However, since the 20th century, wood has largely supplanted in ship construction by iron and steel, to decrease cost. Lumber Plank cooking Walking the plank
Wood plank
–
A plank of wood being used in the repair of a ship.
13.
Boardwalk
–
A boardwalk is a constructed pedestrian walkway along or overlooking beaches, usually built with wood boards, or as walking paths and trails over bogs and wetlands and above fragile ecosystems. They are frequently found in proximity to piers. Boardwalks along intertidal zones are known as foreshoreways in Australia, a boardwalk along a river is often known as a riverwalk and a boardwalk along an oceanfront is often known as an oceanway. Although boardwalks can be found around the world, they are common along the East Coast of the United States. Indeed, in parts of the U. S. today the term boardwalk often carries more the connotation of a waterfront, pedestrian. One of the earliest such boardwalks was designed in New Jersey and opened June 26,1870, in Atlantic City
Boardwalk
–
Typical nature boardwalk, carrying walkers over wetlands on the
Milford Track,
New Zealand.
Boardwalk
–
A wooden boardwalk allows passage through a lake, such as this one in
National Park Plitvice Lakes,
Croatia.
Boardwalk
–
This boardwalk provides a dock in
Soomaa National Park,
Estonia.
Boardwalk
–
Boardwalks are used in parks and protected areas to reduce negative effects of foot traffic on the environment, such as in
Horicon Marsh.
14.
Joist
–
In architecture and in structural engineering, a joist is one of a series of horizontal members supporting a ceiling or floor. Joists are supported by foundations, wall framing, or beams, joists are often laid out in repetitive patterns, much like the ribs of a human body. The intent of the use of type of framing is to span over an open space below the members. When incorporated into a framing system, the joists also serve to provide stiffness to the subfloor sheathing, allowing it to function as a horizontal diaphragm. Joists are often doubled or tripled, placed side by side, joists are either made of wood, engineered wood, or steel, each of which have unique characteristics. Typically, wood joists have the section of a plank with the longer faces positioned vertically. However, engineered wood joists may have a cross resembling the Roman capital letter I. Steel joists can take on shapes, resembling the Roman capital letters C, I, L and S. For historical reference, look into the use of wood joists in old-style timber framing, the invention of the circular saw for use in modern sawmills has made it possible to fabricate wood joists as dimensional lumber. Joists must exhibit the strength to support the load over a long period of time. In more developed countries such as the United States, the fabrication and installation of all framing members including joists must meet building code standards. Considering the cross section of a typical joist, the depth of the joist is critical in establishing a safe. The wider the spacing between the joists, the deeper the joist will need to be to stress and deflection under load. Lateral support called dwang, blocking, or strutting increases its stability, many steel joist manufacturers supply load tables in order to allow designers to select the proper joist sizes for their projects. Standard dimensional lumber joists have their limitations due to the limits of what farmed lumber can provide, the term binding joist is sometimes used to describe beams at floor level running perpendicular to the ridge of a gable roof and joined to the intermediate posts. Joists which land on a binding joist are called bridging joists, a large beam in the ceiling of a room carrying joists is a summer beam. A ceiling joist may be installed flush with the bottom of the beam or sometimes below the beam, joists left exposed and visible from below are called naked flooring or articulated and were typically planed smooth and sometimes chamfered or beaded. Joists may also be tenoned in during the raising with a tenon or a tusk tenon
Joist
–
A double floor is a floor framed with joists supported by larger timbers.
Joist
–
A single floor or simple set of joists. If the joists land directly above the
studs they are stacked.
Joist
–
These joists land on a beam. Between some of the joists is a form of pugging used for insulation and air sealing. Image:
Rijksdienst voor het Cultureel Erfgoed
15.
Truss
–
In engineering, a truss is a structure that consists of two-force members only, where the members are organized so that the assemblage as a whole behaves as a single object. A two-force member is a component where force is applied to only two points. In this typical context, external forces and reactions to those forces are considered to act only at the nodes and result in forces in the members that are either tensile or compressive. For straight members, moments are explicitly excluded because, and only because, all the joints in a truss are treated as revolutes, as is necessary for the links to be two-force members. A planar truss is one all members and nodes lie within a two dimensional plane, while a space truss has members and nodes that extend into three dimensions. The top beams in a truss are called top chords and are typically in compression, the beams are called bottom chords. The interior beams are called webs, and the areas inside the webs are called panels, Truss derives from the Old French word trousse, from around 1200, which means collection of things bound together. The term truss has often used to describe any assembly of members such as a cruck frame or a couple of rafters. One engineering definition is, A truss is a single plane framework of individual structural member connected at their ends of forms a series of triangle to span a large distance, a truss consists of typically straight members connected at joints, traditionally termed panel points. Trusses are typically composed of triangles because of the stability of that shape. A triangle is the simplest geometric figure that will not change shape when the lengths of the sides are fixed, in comparison, both the angles and the lengths of a four-sided figure must be fixed for it to retain its shape. The joint at which a truss is designed to be supported is commonly referred to as the Munter Point, the simplest form of a truss is one single triangle. This type of truss is seen in a roof consisting of rafters and a ceiling joist. Because of the stability of this shape and the methods of used to calculate the forces within it. The traditional diamond-shape bicycle frame, which utilizes two conjoined triangles, is an example of a simple truss, a planar truss lies in a single plane. Planar trusses are used in parallel to form roofs and bridges. The depth of a truss, or the height between the upper and lower chords, is what makes it an efficient structural form, a solid girder or beam of equal strength would have substantial weight and material cost as compared to a truss. For a given span, a deeper truss will require less material in the chords, an optimum depth of the truss will maximize the efficiency
Truss
–
Truss bridge for a single-track railway, converted to pedestrian use and pipeline support
Truss
–
Planar roof trusses
Truss
–
The roof trusses of the
basilica di Santa Croce (
Florence)
Truss
16.
Engineering
–
The term Engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium, meaning cleverness and ingeniare, meaning to contrive, devise. Engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as the wedge, lever, wheel, each of these inventions is essentially consistent with the modern definition of engineering. The term engineering is derived from the engineer, which itself dates back to 1390 when an engineer originally referred to a constructor of military engines. In this context, now obsolete, a referred to a military machine. Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, the word engine itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium, meaning innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention. The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep, as one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC. Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains, the Antikythera mechanism, the first known mechanical computer, and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engineering. In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was developed, the first steam engine was built in 1698 by Thomas Savery. The development of this gave rise to the Industrial Revolution in the coming decades. With the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering. The inventions of Thomas Newcomen and the Scottish engineer James Watt gave rise to mechanical engineering. The development of specialized machines and machine tools during the revolution led to the rapid growth of mechanical engineering both in its birthplace Britain and abroad. John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is regarded as the father of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbours and he was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist. Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse where he pioneered the use of hydraulic lime and his lighthouse remained in use until 1877 and was dismantled and partially rebuilt at Plymouth Hoe where it is known as Smeatons Tower. The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of engineer for the first time with a count of 2,000, there were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U. S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U. S. mechanical engineering graduates, in 1890 there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical. There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics established at Cambridge until 1875, the theoretical work of James Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics
Engineering
–
The
steam engine, a major driver in the
Industrial Revolution, underscores the importance of engineering in modern history. This
beam engine is on display in the
Technical University of Madrid.
Engineering
–
Relief map of the
Citadel of Lille, designed in 1668 by
Vauban, the foremost military engineer of his age.
Engineering
–
The Ancient Romans built
aqueducts to bring a steady supply of clean fresh water to cities and towns in the empire.
Engineering
–
The
International Space Station represents a modern engineering challenge from many disciplines.
17.
Timber
–
Lumber, or timber is wood that has been processed into beams and planks, a stage in the process of wood production. Lumber may also refer to currently un-needed furniture, as in Lumber room, or an awkward gait, ultimately derived from the look of unfashionable, Lumber may be supplied either rough-sawn, or surfaced on one or more of its faces. Besides pulpwood, rough lumber is the raw material for furniture-making and it is available in many species, usually hardwoods, but it is also readily available in softwoods, such as white pine and red pine, because of their low cost. Lumber is mainly used for structural purposes but has other uses as well. It is classified more commonly as a softwood than as a hardwood, in Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and Britain, the term timber describes sawn wood products, such as floor boards. In the United States and Canada, generally timber describes standing or felled trees, before they are milled into boards, Timber there also describes sawn lumber not less than 5 inches in its smallest dimension. The latter includes the often partly finished lumber used in timber-frame construction, remanufactured lumber is the result of secondary or tertiary processing/cutting of previously milled lumber. Specifically, it is cut for industrial or wood-packaging use. Lumber is cut by ripsaw or resaw to create dimensions that are not usually processed by a primary sawmill, resawing is the splitting of 1-inch through 12-inch hardwood or softwood lumber into two or more thinner pieces of full-length boards. For example, splitting a ten-foot 2×4 into two ten-foot 1×4s is considered resawing, structural lumber may also be produced from recycled plastic and new plastic stock. Its introduction has been opposed by the forestry industry. Blending fiberglass in plastic lumber enhances its strength, durability, logs are converted into timber by being sawn, hewn, or split. Sawing with a rip saw is the most common method, because sawing allows logs of lower quality, with grain and large knots. There are various types of sawing, Plain sawn —A log sawn through without adjusting the position of the log, quarter sawn and rift sawn—These terms have been confused in history but generally mean lumber sawn so the annual rings are reasonably perpendicular to the sides of the lumber. Boxed heart—The pith remains within the piece with some allowance for exposure, heart center—the center core of a log. Free of heart center —A side-cut timber without any pith, free of knots —No knots are present. Dimensional lumber is lumber that is cut to standardized width and depth, carpenters extensively use dimensional lumber in framing wooden buildings. Common sizes include 2×4, 2×6, and 4×4, the length of a board is usually specified separately from the width and depth
Timber
–
Timber in storage for later processing at a sawmill
Timber
–
Wood cut from Victorian
Eucalyptus regnans
Timber
–
The harbor of Bellingham, Washington, filled with logs, 1972
Timber
–
A 2×4.
18.
Steel
–
Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is widely used in construction and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low cost. Steels base metal is iron, which is able to take on two forms, body centered cubic and face centered cubic, depending on its temperature. It is the interaction of those allotropes with the elements, primarily carbon. In the body-centred cubic arrangement, there is an atom in the centre of each cube. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that otherwise occur in the lattices of iron atoms. The carbon in steel alloys may contribute up to 2. 1% of its weight. Steels strength compared to pure iron is possible at the expense of irons ductility. With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th century and this was followed by Siemens-Martin process and then Gilchrist-Thomas process that refined the quality of steel. With their introductions, mild steel replaced wrought iron, further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking, largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the product. Today, steel is one of the most common materials in the world and it is a major component in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations, the noun steel originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective stakhlijan, which is related to stakhla. The carbon content of steel is between 0. 002% and 2. 1% by weight for plain iron–carbon alloys and these values vary depending on alloying elements such as manganese, chromium, nickel, iron, tungsten, carbon and so on. Basically, steel is an alloy that does not undergo eutectic reaction. In contrast, cast iron does undergo eutectic reaction, too little carbon content leaves iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make an alloy, commonly called pig iron, while iron alloyed with carbon is called carbon steel, alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include, manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and niobium. Additional elements are important in steel, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper. Alloys with a higher than 2. 1% carbon content, depending on other element content, cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good castability properties
Steel
–
The
steel cable of a
colliery winding tower
Steel
–
Steels and other iron–carbon alloy phases
Steel
–
Iron ore pellets for the production of steel
Steel
–
A Bessemer converter in
Sheffield,
England
19.
Concrete
–
Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse aggregate bonded together with a fluid cement that hardens over time. Most concretes used are lime-based concretes such as Portland cement concrete or concretes made with other hydraulic cements, when aggregate is mixed together with dry Portland cement and water, the mixture forms a fluid slurry that is easily poured and molded into shape. The cement reacts chemically with the water and other ingredients to form a matrix that binds the materials together into a durable stone-like material that has many uses. Often, additives are included in the mixture to improve the properties of the wet mix or the finished material. Most concrete is poured with reinforcing materials embedded to provide tensile strength, famous concrete structures include the Hoover Dam, the Panama Canal, and the Roman Pantheon. The earliest large-scale users of technology were the ancient Romans. The Colosseum in Rome was built largely of concrete, and the dome of the Pantheon is the worlds largest unreinforced concrete dome. Today, large concrete structures are made with reinforced concrete. After the Roman Empire collapsed, use of concrete became rare until the technology was redeveloped in the mid-18th century, today, concrete is the most widely used man-made material. The word concrete comes from the Latin word concretus, the passive participle of concrescere, from con-. Perhaps the earliest known occurrence of cement was twelve years ago. A deposit of cement was formed after an occurrence of oil shale located adjacent to a bed of limestone burned due to natural causes and these ancient deposits were investigated in the 1960s and 1970s. On a human timescale, small usages of concrete go back for thousands of years and they discovered the advantages of hydraulic lime, with some self-cementing properties, by 700 BC. They built kilns to supply mortar for the construction of houses, concrete floors. The cisterns were kept secret and were one of the reasons the Nabataea were able to thrive in the desert, some of these structures survive to this day. In the Ancient Egyptian and later Roman eras, it was re-discovered that adding volcanic ash to the mix allowed it to set underwater, similarly, the Romans knew that adding horse hair made concrete less liable to crack while it hardened, and adding blood made it more frost-resistant. Crystallization of strätlingite and the introduction of pyroclastic clays creates further fracture resistance, german archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann found concrete floors, which were made of lime and pebbles, in the royal palace of Tiryns, Greece, which dates roughly to 1400–1200 BC. Lime mortars were used in Greece, Crete, and Cyprus in 800 BC, the Assyrian Jerwan Aqueduct made use of waterproof concrete
Concrete
–
Outer view of the
Roman Pantheon, still the largest unreinforced solid concrete
dome.
Concrete
–
Inside the Pantheon dome, looking straight up. The concrete for the
coffered dome was laid on moulds, probably mounted on temporary scaffolding.
Concrete
–
Opus caementicium exposed in a characteristic Roman arch. In contrast to modern concrete structures, the concrete used in Roman buildings was usually covered with brick or stone.
Concrete
–
Smeaton's Tower
20.
Suspension bridge
–
A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. The first modern examples of type of bridge were built in the early 19th century. Simple suspension bridges, which lack vertical suspenders, have a history in many mountainous parts of the world. This type of bridge has cables suspended between towers, plus vertical suspender cables carry the weight of the deck below, upon which traffic crosses. This arrangement allows the deck to be level or to arc upward for additional clearance, like other suspension bridge types, this type often is constructed without falsework. The suspension cables must be anchored at each end of the bridge, the main cables continue beyond the pillars to deck-level supports, and further continue to connections with anchors in the ground. The roadway is supported by vertical suspender cables or rods, called hangers, in the latter case there will be very little arc in the outboard main cables. The earliest suspension bridges were ropes slung across a chasm, with a deck possibly at the level or hung below the ropes such that the rope had a catenary shape. The Tibetan saint and bridge-builder Thangtong Gyalpo originated the use of chains in his version of simple suspension bridges. In 1433, Gyalpo built eight bridges in eastern Bhutan, the last surviving chain-linked bridge of Gyalpos was the Thangtong Gyalpo Bridge in Duksum en route to Trashi Yangtse, which was finally washed away in 2004. Gyalpos iron chain bridges did not include a deck bridge which is the standard on all modern suspension bridges today. Instead, both the railing and the layer of Gyalpos bridges used wires. The stress points that carried the screed were reinforced by the iron chains, before the use of iron chains it is thought that Gyalpo used ropes from twisted willows or yak skins. He may have also used tightly bound cloth, the first American iron chain suspension bridge was the Jacobs Creek Bridge in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, designed by inventor James Finley. Finleys bridge was the first to all of the necessary components of a modern suspension bridge. Finley patented his design in 1808, and published it in the Philadelphia journal, The Port Folio, in 1810. Early British chain bridges included the Dryburgh Abbey Bridge and 137 m Union Bridge, with rapidly increasing to 176 m with the Menai Bridge. The first chain bridge on the European continent was the Chain Bridge in Nuremberg, the Clifton Suspension Bridge is one of the longest of the parabolic arc chain type
Suspension bridge
–
The
Akashi Kaikyō Bridge in
Japan, world's longest mainspan.
Suspension bridge
–
The double-decked
George Washington Bridge, connecting
New York City to
Bergen County,
New Jersey, USA, is the world's busiest suspension bridge, carrying 102 million vehicles annually.
Suspension bridge
–
The
Manhattan Bridge, connecting
Manhattan and
Brooklyn in New York City, opened in 1909 and is considered to be the forerunner of modern suspension bridges; its design served as the model for many of the long-span suspension bridges around the world.
Suspension bridge
–
The diagram of the chain bridge over the
Menai constructed near
Bangor, Wales in 1820
21.
Beam bridge
–
Beam bridges are the simplest structural forms for bridge spans supported by an abutment or pier at each end. No moments are transferred throughout the support, hence their structural type is known as simply supported, the simplest beam bridge could be a log, a wood plank, or a stone slab laid across a stream. Bridges designed for modern infrastructure will usually be constructed of steel or reinforced concrete, the concrete elements may be reinforced, prestressed or post-tensioned. Types of construction could include having many beams side by side with a deck across the top of them, the main beams could be I-beams, trusses, or box girders. They could be half-through, or braced across the top to create a through bridge, beam bridges are not limited to a single span. Some viaducts such as the Feiyunjiang Bridge in China have multiple simply supported spans supported by piers and this is opposed to viaducts using continuous spans over the piers. Beam bridges are only used for relatively short distances because, unlike truss bridges. The only supports are provided by piers, the farther apart its supports, the weaker a beam bridge gets. As a result, beam bridges rarely span more than 250 feet and this doesnt mean beam bridges arent used to cross great distances, it only means that a series of beam bridges must be joined together, creating whats known as a continuous span
Beam bridge
–
Multispan plate girder bridge deck on concrete piers.
Beam bridge
–
A
footbridge using
beams over a stream in
Dordogne, France
Beam bridge
–
Types
22.
The Iron Bridge
–
The Iron Bridge is a bridge that crosses the River Severn in Shropshire, England. Opened in 1781, it was the first major bridge in the world to be made of cast iron, in 1934 it was designated a Scheduled Ancient Monument and closed to vehicular traffic. Tolls for pedestrians were collected until 1950, when ownership of the bridge was transferred to Shropshire County Council and it now belongs to Telford and Wrekin Borough Council. The bridge, the adjacent settlement of Ironbridge and the Ironbridge Gorge form the UNESCO Ironbridge Gorge World Heritage Site, the bridge is a Grade I listed building, and a waypoint on the South Telford Heritage Trail. The use of the river by boat traffic and the sides of the gorge meant that any bridge should ideally be of a single span. The steepness and instability of the banks was problematic for building a bridge, the Iron Bridge was the first of its kind to be constructed, although not the first to be considered or the first iron bridge of any kind. In 1773, architect Thomas Farnolls Pritchard wrote to his iron mad friend and local ironmaster, John Wilkinson of Broseley, Pritchard had previous experience with the design of both wooden and stone bridges, and it is possible that he had integrated into these designs elements of iron. During the winter of 1773–74, local newspapers advertised a proposal to petition Parliament for leave to construct a bridge with a single 120 feet span. In March 1776, the Act to build a bridge received Royal Assent and it had been drafted by Thomas Addenbrooke, secretary of the trustees, and John Harries a London barrister then presented to the House of Commons by Charles Baldwyn, MP for Salop. Abraham Darby III was commissioned to cast and build the bridge, in May 1776, the trustees withdrew Darbys commission, and instead advertised for plans for a single arch bridge to be built in stone, brick or timber. In July 1777 the span of the bridge was decreased to 90 feet, the site, adjacent to where a ferry had run between Madeley and Benthall, was chosen for its high approaches on each side and the relative solidity of the ground. The Act of Parliament described how the bridge was to be built from a point in Benthall parish near the house of Samuel Barnett to a point on the shore near the house of Thomas Crumpton. Pritchard died on 21 December 1777 in his tower-house at Eyton on Severn, only a month after work had begun, the masonry and abutments were constructed between 1777 and 1778, and the ribs were lifted into place in the summer of 1779. The bridge first spanned the river on 2 July 1779, more information about how the bridge was built came from the discovery in 1997 of a small watercolour by Elias Martin in a Stockholm museum, which shows the bridge under construction in 1779. A half-size replica of the section of the bridge was built in 2001 as part of the research for the BBC Timewatch programme. The bridge is built from five cast iron ribs that give a span of 100 feet 6 inches. Exactly 378 long tons 10 cwt of iron was used in the construction of the bridge, and there are almost 1700 individual components, the heaviest weighing 5.5 long tons. Components were cast individually to fit each other, rather than being of standard sizes
The Iron Bridge
–
The Iron Bridge
The Iron Bridge
–
The Iron Bridge from above
The Iron Bridge
–
Pedestrians crossing the Iron Bridge with
Ironbridge in the background
The Iron Bridge
–
Crack and repairs in bridge
23.
Ironbridge
–
Ironbridge is a village on the River Severn, at the heart of the Ironbridge Gorge, in Shropshire, England. It lies in the parish of The Gorge, in the borough of Telford. Ironbridge developed beside, and takes its name from, the famous Iron Bridge, the area around Ironbridge is described by those promoting it as a tourist destination as the Birthplace of the Industrial Revolution. This description is based on the idea that Abraham Darby perfected the technique of smelting iron with coke, in Coalbrookdale, however, the industrial revolution did not begin in one place, but in many. Darbys iron smelting was but one part of this generalised revolution and was soon superseded by the great iron-smelting areas. The grandson of the first Abraham Darby, Abraham Darby III, construction began in 1779 and the bridge opened on New Years Day 1781. The Iron Bridge proprietors also built the Tontine Hotel to accommodate visitors to the new bridge, st Lukes Church in simple Commissioners Gothic by Samuel Smith of Madeley, has stained glass by David Evans of Shrewsbury. The living was endowed as a rectory when the parish was created from Madeley in 1847 and is now a united benefice with Coalbrookdale and Little Wenlock, in the Diocese of Hereford. The former Iron Bridge and Broseley railway station, on the Severn Valley line from Hartlebury to Shrewsbury, was situated on the side of the Iron Bridge until 1966. The village was the birthplace of England National Football Team captain Billy Wright, by the 19th century, Ironbridge had had many well-known visitors, including Benjamin Disraeli, but by the mid-20th century the settlements and industries of the gorge were in decline. In 1986, though, Ironbridge became part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site and has become a major tourist attraction within Shropshire, most industries in Ironbridge are now tourist-related, however, the Merrythought teddy bear company is still manufacturing in Ironbridge and has a small museum there too. Amongst other things, the village is still host to a Post Office, pharmacy, various pubs, cafés and many successful small shops. On Thursday 10 July 2003 The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh made a visit to Shropshire which included a visit to Ironbridge, an annual Coracle Regatta is held in August on the River Severn at Ironbridge, along with many other events throughout the year. This is mainly because the family of Rogers lived in Ironbridge for several generations. Ironbridge has a recurring problem of flooding from the River Severn. Flooding has previously caused much damage and disruption to the Wharfage, starting in February 2004, DEFRA in association with the Environment Agency implemented a portable barrier which is erected at times of floods. At its peak, the water has reached a depth of one metre against the barrier
Ironbridge
–
Ironbridge, seen from the
Iron Bridge
24.
Shropshire
–
Shropshire Council was created in 2009, a unitary authority taking over from the previous county council and five district councils. The borough of Telford and Wrekin has been a unitary authority since 1998. The county has many towns, including Whitchurch in the north, Newport north-east of Telford. The Ironbridge Gorge area is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, covering Ironbridge, Coalbrookdale, there are other historic industrial sites in the county, such as at Shrewsbury, Broseley, Snailbeach and Highley, as well as the Shropshire Union Canal. The Shropshire Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty covers about a quarter of the county, Shropshire is one of Englands most rural and sparsely populated counties, with a population density of 136/km2. The Wrekin is one of the most famous landmarks in the county, though the highest hills are the Clee Hills, Stiperstones. Wenlock Edge is another significant geographical and geological landmark, the River Severn, Great Britains longest river, runs through the county, exiting into Worcestershire via the Severn Valley. Shropshire is landlocked and with an area of 3,487 square kilometres is Englands largest inland county, the county flower is the round-leaved sundew. The area was part of the lands of the Cornovii. This was a tribal Celtic iron age kingdom and their capital in pre-Roman times was probably a hill fort on the Wrekin. Ptolemys 2nd century Geography names one of their towns as being Viroconium Cornoviorum, after the Roman occupation of Britain ended in the 5th century, the Shropshire area was in the eastern part of the Welsh Kingdom of Powys, known in Welsh poetry as the Paradise of Powys. It was annexed to the Angle kingdom of Mercia by King Offa in the 8th century, in subsequent centuries, the area suffered repeated Danish invasion, and fortresses were built at Bridgnorth and Chirbury. Many defensive castles were built at this time across the county to defend against the Welsh and enable effective control of the region, including Ludlow Castle, the western frontier with Wales was not finally determined until the 14th century. Also in this period, a number of foundations were formed, the county largely falling at this time under the Diocese of Hereford. The county contains a number of historically significant towns, including Shrewsbury, Bridgnorth, additionally, the area around Coalbrookdale in the county is seen as highly significant, as it is regarded as one of the birthplaces of the Industrial Revolution. The village of Edgmond, near Newport, is the location of the lowest recorded temperature in England, the origin of the name Shropshire is the Old English Scrobbesbyrigscīr, which means Shrewsburyshire. The name may, therefore, be derived indirectly from a name such as Scrope. Salop is an old name for Shropshire, historically used as a form for post or telegrams
Shropshire
–
Section of
Offa's Dyke near the Shropshire town of
Clun, constructed after the Saxon annexation of the area in the 8th century AD.
Shropshire
–
Flag
Shropshire
–
The Iron Bridge at
Ironbridge.
Shropshire
–
The
River Severn, seen here in
Shrewsbury, is the primary watercourse in the county.
25.
Old Bridge, Pontypridd
–
The bridge was built by William Edwards and was completed in 1756. The bridge now has statutory protection as an ancient monument and is grade I listed. In the early 18th century Pontypridd, then known as Pont-y-tŷ-pridd, was a tiny hamlet, possibly in 1744 or after the bridge was built, Pont-y-tŷ-pridd became known as Newbridge or New Bridge after the William Edwards Bridge. By 1856, Newbridge had been renamed Pontypridd, in 1746 when William Edwards was just 27 years of age, he was commissioned by the Hundreds of Miskin and Caerphilly to build a three-arch bridge across the River Taff. For this he was paid GB£500, on condition that he would maintain it for seven years, the first bridge to be constructed was a three-arch stone bridge, which was built in 1746. It was destroyed by a storm which caused the River Taff to flood about two years later. A large amount of debris came down the river, which then become trapped against the two abutments supporting the bridge, the weight and force of the debris ultimately destroyed the bridge, which was then swept away down the river. The second bridge was built from 1748, however two reports differ as to what happened during this second attempt. Thomas Morgan, a contemporary of Edwards, said that …when he had almost finished the arch and it is not clear which account is accurate, however it is clear that Edwards latest attempt to build a bridge across the River Taff had failed. The single-arch bridge was rebuilt and was completed and it stood for about six weeks before it failed again. In the Theory of Arches and Pontypridd, it states that the weight of the bridge was too great on the haunches or too little on the crown. At this stage Edwards was either encouraged or forced to try again with money being provided to cover his losses for the earlier attempts. The final design of the bridge included three cylindrical voids of 2.7 m,1.7 m and 1.1 m on each side on the bridge. This reduced the weight and pressure on the crown and the bridge is still in operation today, the 140 ft Old Bridge surpassed the 130 ft Old Walton Bridge as the longest single-span bridge in Great Britain and remained the longest bridge for another 40 years. It was also one of the few bridges in Europe at the time, the whole project cost Edwards a total of £1,153 18s. 2d. and consequently his loss exceeded £600 and it was reported that Edwards attempts to build the bridge over the River Taff left him in considerable debt, Thomas Morgan reported that …the mason was considerably in debt and greatly discouraged. The Old Bridge was so steep that horse carts had difficulty crossing it, by 1857, a new bridge, the Victoria Bridge, was built next to the Old Bridge, which was paid for by the people of Pontypridd. The Victoria Bridge is a bridge, built by Thomas Jenkins
Old Bridge, Pontypridd
–
Old Bridge in the foreground, the Victoria Bridge in the background
Old Bridge, Pontypridd
–
The Old Bridge, when it was known as Newbridge
Old Bridge, Pontypridd
–
The Old Bridge with steps ascending the bridge
26.
Pontypridd
–
Pontypridd is both a community and the county town of Rhondda Cynon Taf, Wales, and is situated 12 miles/19 km north of the Welsh capital city of Cardiff. Pontypridd is often abbreviated to Ponty by local residents, the town sits at the junction of the Rhondda and Taff/Cynon valleys, where the River Rhondda flows into the Taff immediately south of the town at Ynysangharad War Memorial Park. Pontypridd community had a population of approximately 32,700 according to figures gathered in 2011. While Pontypridd Town Ward itself was recorded as having a population of 2,919 also as of 2001, the town lies alongside the dual carriageway north-south A470, between Cardiff and Merthyr Tydfil. The A4054, running north and south of the town, was the main road. South of the town is the A473, for Llantrisant and Pencoed, to the west is the A4058, which follows the River Rhondda to Porth and the Rhondda Valley beyond. The name Pontypridd is from Pont-y-tŷ-pridd the Welsh for bridge by the earthen house, Pontypridd is noted for its Old Bridge, a stone construction across the River Taff built in 1756 by William Edwards. This was Edwards third attempt, and, at the time of construction, was the longest single-span stone arch bridge in the world. Rising 35 feet above the level of the river, the forms a perfect segment of a circle. Notable features are the three holes of differing diameters through each end of the bridge, the purpose of which is to reduce weight. On completion, questions were raised as to the utility of the bridge, with the steepness of the design making it difficult to get horses. As a result, a new bridge, the Victoria Bridge, Pontypridd was known as Newbridge from shortly after the construction of the Old Bridge until the 1860s. Because of its role in transporting cargo, its railway platform is thought to have once been the longest in the world during its heyday. Pontypridd was, in the half of the 19th century, a hive of industry. The Albion Colliery in the village of Cilfynydd in 1894 was the site of one of the worst explosions within the South Wales coalfield, the town is also home to a large hospital, Dewi Sant Hospital. Pontypridd Urban District Council was established in 1894, and operated until 1974, in turn, that authority was incorporated into the unitary Rhondda Cynon Taf Council in 1995. Pontypridd Town Council continues to function as a community council, labour is the dominant political force, and has been since the First World War. Pontypridd came into being because of transport, as it was on the route from the south Wales coast and the Bristol Channel, to Merthyr
Pontypridd
–
Pontypridd
Pontypridd
–
Old Bridge, dating from 1756
Pontypridd
–
Tonypandy & Trealaw railway station during an early 1910s coal strike
Pontypridd
–
Front page of the earliest surviving copy of the Welsh newspaper The Pontypridd Chronicle; 15 January 1881
27.
Windsor Bridge
–
The Windsor Bridge or Windsor Town Bridge, an iron and granite arch bridge over the River Thames, is located between the towns of Windsor and Eton in the English county of Berkshire. The bridge carries pedestrian and cycle traffic, and crosses the Thames just above Romney Lock and it is a Grade II listed building. It is likely that the first bridge on site was built in the 12th century AD. By 1172 it is recorded that Osbert de Bray derived over £4 from tolls levied on vessels passing beneath the bridge, in 1242, permission was granted for oak trees to be felled in Windsor Forest for the purpose of constructing a new bridge between Windsor and Eton. By 1819 the wooden bridge, presumably rebuilt many times over its life, had deteriorated, construction on the current bridge was started in 1822 and it opened on 1 June 1824. The bridge has three arches, each comprising seven cast iron segments, and supported in mid-stream by two granite piers, built as a road bridge, tolls were originally levied on traffic crossing the bridge. Following protests and a case, The Mayor &c. of New Windsor, V Joseph Taylor which went to the highest court at the time, these tolls were scrapped in 1897. In the 20th century the bridge carried the A332, the main road between Slough and Windsor. In 1970, cracks were discovered in some of the cast iron segments, in 2002 the bridge was refurbished, with repairs to the structure and new parapets including integral lighting. The bridge deck was replaced using Yorkstone and seating areas provided, the bridge remains in use by pedestrians only and provides an excellent walking route from central Windsor to Etons High Street, and a good viewing spot for both the river and Windsor Castle. Approximately 80 metres southeast of the bridge is Windsor and Eton Riverside railway station, the destinations are London Waterloo and London Paddington respectively, the former being far closer to the average centre point, Charing Cross. The Central Station offers the service to London of between 41–56 minutes compared to a no-change-required 56–78 minutes for the riverside station. Crossings of the River Thames The Royal Windsor website
Windsor Bridge
–
Windsor Bridge
Windsor Bridge
–
Windsor Bridge in 1866.
Windsor Bridge
–
Plaque on Windsor Town Bridge.
28.
Windsor, Berkshire
–
Windsor is a historic market town and unparished area in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead in Berkshire, England. It is widely known as the site of Windsor Castle, one of the residences of the British Royal Family. The town is situated 23 miles west of Charing Cross, London,7 miles south east of Maidenhead and it is immediately south of the River Thames, which forms its boundary with its ancient twin town of Eton. Windlesora is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the name originates from old English Windles-ore or winch by the riverside. By the late 12th century the settlement at Windelsora was renamed Old Windsor, the early history of the site is unknown, although it was almost certainly settled some years before 1070 when William the Conqueror had a timber motte and bailey castle constructed. The focus of royal interest at that time was not the castle, however, from about the 8th century, high status people started to visit the site occasionally, and possibly this included royalty. From the 11th century the sites link with king Edward the Confessor is documented, after the Conquest of 1066 royal use of the site increased, probably because it offered good access to woodlands and opportunities for hunting – a sport which also practised military skills. Windsor Castle is noted in the Domesday Book under the entry for Clewer, although this might seem strange, it occurred because plans for the castle had changed since 1070, and more land had been acquired in Clewer on which to site a castle town. This plan was not actioned until the early 12th century, King Henry married his second wife at Windsor Castle in 1121, after the White Ship disaster. The settlement at Old Windsor largely transferred to New Windsor during the 12th century,1170, under Henry II, following the civil war of Stephens reign. At about the time, the present upper ward of the castle was rebuilt in stone. It had a merchant guild from the early 13th century and, under patronage, was made the chief town of the county in 1277. Somewhat unusually, this gave no new rights or privileges to Windsor. Windsors position as town of Berkshire was short-lived, however. Wallingford took over this position in the early 14th century, as a self-governing town Windsor enjoyed a number of freedoms unavailable to other towns, including the right to hold its own borough court, the right of membership and some financial independence. The town accounts of the 16th century survive in part, although most of the once substantial borough archive dating back to the 12th century was destroyed, probably in the late 17th century. New Windsor was a significant town in the Middle Ages. Its prosperity came from its association with the royal household
Windsor, Berkshire
–
Windsor Bridge, Windsor and
Windsor Castle
Windsor, Berkshire
–
Windsor Castle, viewed from the Long Walk
Windsor, Berkshire
–
The Last Supper by Franz de Cleyn in the West Gallery of Windsor parish church of St John The Baptist.
Windsor, Berkshire
–
The
Windsor Guildhall
