1.
Summit
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A summit is a point on a surface that is higher in elevation than all points immediately adjacent to it. Mathematically, a summit is a maximum in elevation. The topographic terms acme, apex, peak, and zenith are synonymous, the UIAA definition is that a summit is independent if it has a prominence of 30 metres or more, it is a mountain if it has a prominence of at least 300 metres. This can be summarised as follows, A pyramidal peak is an exaggerated form produced by ice erosion of a mountain top, Summit may also refer to the highest point along a line, trail, or route. In many parts of the western United States, the term refers to the highest point along a road, highway. For example, the highest point along Interstate 80 in California is referred to as Donner Summit while the highest point on Interstate 5 is Siskiyou Mountain Summit, geoid Hill List of highest mountains Maxima and minima Nadir Summit accordance Peak finder
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Museum Planning Area
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The Museum Planning Area is a planning area located in the Central Area of the Central Region of Singapore. The area plays a role between the Orchard area and the Downtown Core, which necessitates proper transport networks for vehicles, pedestrians. Due to the size of green areas in the district. However, the Museum Planning Area is also home to cultural and commercial activities, around 65% of the area is available for future development, making it a hotbed for new infrastructure and buildings. Despite the elaborate plans for the area, the URA was criticised for not materialising the plans soon enough, the area is home to significant events such as the Battle of Singapore and MacDonald House bombing. The area is bounded by Hill Street, River Valley Road, Clemenceau Avenue. It is the smallest urban planning area, with an area of 83 hectares, parks and open spaces take up a third of the area of the Museum Planning Area, and include Fort Canning, Istana Park and Bras Basah Park, which can be used for recreational purposes. Collectively, these places will form the green lung of the Central Area. Terraces have been proposed to allow for a prominent and convenient access to the Fort Canning area. The Museum Planning Area is Singapores institutional hub, with 11% of land set aside for institutional use, the arts scene is vibrant in the area, with The Substation, the Singapore Calligraphy Centre, the YMS Arts Centre and the Singapore Dance Ensemble all located within its boundaries. Scattered throughout the area are places of worship such as churches, mosques, the Registry of Marriages and the sprawling Singapore Management University campus are also located in the area. Despite its prime location, residential projects were only allocated 1% of the area. Due to the lack of residents, there were fears that the area would become a ghost town at night, furthermore, the concept of living within the Central Area had gained popularity, and up-market skyscraper condominiums could be built. The greenery of the Museum Planning Area could provide an environment for living. The URA replied that several plots of land had been sold for residential-commercial mixed use, and that more housing developments were to be planned and constructed. The URA emphasised the importance of the area as a transition between the business district and shopping areas, as well as the green, pedestrian-friendly nature of the URAs plan for the area. The Museum Planning Area is home to shopping malls, including Park Mall, Plaza Singapura, The Cathay, Singapore Shopping Centre. More vacant land will be set aside for commercial uses, especially around Dhoby Ghaut MRT Station and these will be properly integrated and connected with the respective stations
4.
Mountain range
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A mountain range is a geographic area containing numerous geologically related mountains. A mountain system or system of ranges, sometimes is used to combine several geological features that are geographically related. Mountain ranges are usually segmented by highlands or mountain passes and valleys, individual mountains within the same mountain range do not necessarily have the same geologic structure or petrology. They may be a mix of different orogenic expressions and terranes, for example thrust sheets, uplifted blocks, fold mountains, most geologically young mountain ranges on the Earths land surface are associated with either the Pacific Ring of Fire or the Alpide Belt. The Andes is 7,000 kilometres long and is considered the worlds longest mountain system. The Alpide belt includes Indonesia and southeast Asia, through the Himalaya, the belt also includes other European and Asian mountain ranges. The Himalayas contain the highest mountains in the world, including Mount Everest, mountain ranges outside of these two systems include the Arctic Cordillera, the Urals, the Appalachians, the Scandinavian Mountains, the Altai Mountains and the Hijaz Mountains. If the definition of a range is stretched to include underwater mountains. The mountain systems of the earth are characterized by a tree structure, the sub-range relationship is often expressed as a parent-child relationship. For example, the White Mountains of New Hampshire and the Blue Ridge Mountains are sub-ranges of the Appalachian Mountains, equivalently, the Appalachians are the parent of the White Mountains and Blue Ridge Mountains, and the White Mountains and the Blue Ridge Mountains are children of the Appalachians. The position of mountains influences climate, such as rain or snow, when air masses move up and over mountains, the air cools producing orographic precipitation. As the air descends on the side, it warms again and is drier. Often, a shadow will affect the leeward side of a range. Mountain ranges are constantly subjected to forces which work to tear them down. Erosion is at work while the mountains are being uplifted and long after until the mountains are reduced to low hills, rivers are traditionally believed to be the principle erosive factor on mountain ranges, with their ability of bedrock incision and sediment transport. The rugged topography of a range is the product of erosion. The basins adjacent to a mountain range are filled with sediments which are buried and turned into sedimentary rock. The early Cenozoic uplift of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado provides an example and this mass of rock was removed as the range was actively undergoing uplift
5.
Singapore
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Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, sometimes referred to as the Lion City or the Little Red Dot, is a sovereign city-state in Southeast Asia. It lies one degree north of the equator, at the tip of peninsular Malaysia. Singapores territory consists of one island along with 62 other islets. Since independence, extensive land reclamation has increased its size by 23%. During the Second World War, Singapore was occupied by Japan, after early years of turbulence, and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, the nation developed rapidly as an Asian Tiger economy, based on external trade and its workforce. Singapore is a global commerce, finance and transport hub, the country has also been identified as a tax haven. Singapore ranks 5th internationally and first in Asia on the UN Human Development Index and it is ranked highly in education, healthcare, life expectancy, quality of life, personal safety, and housing, but does not fare well on the Democracy index. Although income inequality is high, 90% of homes are owner-occupied, 38% of Singapores 5.6 million residents are permanent residents and other foreign nationals. There are four languages on the island, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil. English is its language, most Singaporeans are bilingual. Singapore is a multiparty parliamentary republic, with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government. The Peoples Action Party has won every election since self-government in 1959, however, it is unlikely that lions ever lived on the island, Sang Nila Utama, the Srivijayan prince said to have founded and named the island Singapura, perhaps saw a Malayan tiger. There are however other suggestions for the origin of the name, the central island has also been called Pulau Ujong as far back as the third century CE, literally island at the end in Malay. In 1299, according to the Malay Annals, the Kingdom of Singapura was founded on the island by Sang Nila Utama and these Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdès were characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burned down the settlement, which by then was part of the Johor Sultanate. The wider maritime region and much trade was under Dutch control for the following period, in 1824 the entire island, as well as the Temenggong, became a British possession after a further treaty with the Sultan. In 1826, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements, under the jurisdiction of British India, prior to Raffles arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with a handful of Chinese. By 1860 the population had swelled to over 80,000, many of these early immigrants came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations
6.
Downtown Core
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The Downtown Core is the historical and downtown epicenter of the city-state of Singapore. It is one of the planning areas located within the Central Area. As the financial heart of Singapore, the Downtown Core houses the headquarters and offices of numerous corporations, the area is also home to a large number of governmental institutions, notably the seat of Parliament and the Supreme Court of Singapore. As the old harbour grew along the mouth of the river bank, the name Downtown Core remains relatively unheard of and the term Central Business District is commonly used in conversation instead. However, the known as the CBD actually comprises a smaller area within the Downtown Core itself. It is made up of seven subzones, Anson, Cecil, Clifford Pier, Maxwell, Phillip, Raffles Place and Tanjong Pagar. The core of the CBD has since extended well beyond its boundaries, as a fledgling colony, the area which is now known as the Downtown Core was the financial, administrative and commercial centre of the colony. This area later became the Downtown Core, draft Master Plan 2003 - Central Region
7.
National Parks Board
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The National Parks Board is a statutory board of the Government of Singapore. NParks is responsible for providing and enhancing the greenery of Singapore, beyond building green infrastructure, NParks is actively engaging the community to enhance the quality of their living environment. NParks manages over 300 parks and 4 nature reserves, there is a hierarchy and diversity of parks, ranging from large regional parks to neighbourhood parks and playgrounds, where a spectrum of natural ecosystems co-exists with horticultural gardens. Adding to this is the extensive streetscape, or roadside greenery, an island-wide Park Connector Network is also being developed to link major parks, nature areas and residential estates. As the lead agency on biodiversity conservation, NParks has developed an urban biodiversity conservation model, NParks also monitors and coordinates measures to enhance the presence of biodiversity in Singapore’s urban landscape. NParks is working closely with partners in the landscape and horticulture industry to increase productivity, enhancing competencies of the industry will support Singapore’s vision of being a City in a Garden. To create the best living environment through excellent greenery and recreation, the history of NParks is closely interlinked with the history of tree-planting in Singapore. In the 1960s, when the Singapore government embarked on building, Mr Lee Kuan Yew. Beginning with the first Tree Planting Campaign in 1963, the government embarked on an initiative to green up the island and this initiative was carried through into the 1970s and 1980s under the Parks and Recreation Department. In July 1996, PRD was renamed the National Parks Board, since then, NParks’ mission has gradually evolved from realising a vision for a Garden City to creating a City in a Garden. To introduce the City in a Garden vision and framework, NParks launched a public engagement exercise in August 2011 to encourage all Singaporeans to contribute their views. List of parks in Singapore National Parks Board, Singapore Centre for Urban Greenery and Ecology Garden City Fund Singapore Botanic Gardens Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve Gardens by the Bay
8.
Malay language
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Malay is a major language of the Austronesian family. It has a status in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia. As the Bahasa Kebangsaan or Bahasa Nasional of several states, Standard Malay has various official names, in Singapore and Brunei it is called Bahasa Melayu, in Malaysia, Bahasa Malaysia, and in Indonesia, Bahasa Indonesia and is designated the Bahasa Persatuan/Pemersatu. However, in areas of central to southern Sumatra where the language is indigenous, Indonesians refer to it as Bahasa Melayu and consider it one of their regional languages. There are also several Malay trade and creole languages which are based on a lingua franca derived from Classical Malay, as well as Macassar Malay, Malay historical linguists agree on the likelihood of the Malay homeland being in western Borneo stretching to the Bruneian coast. A form known as Proto-Malay language was spoken in Borneo at least by 1000 BCE and was, it has been argued, the ancestral language of all subsequent Malayan languages. The history of the Malay language can be divided into five periods, Old Malay, the Transitional Period, the Malacca Period, Late Modern Malay and it is not clear that Old Malay was actually the ancestor of Classical Malay, but this is thought to be quite possible. Old Malay was influenced by Sanskrit literary language of Classical India, Sanskrit loanwords can be found in Old Malay vocabulary. Batenburg on November 29,1920 at Kedukan Bukit, South Sumatra, on the banks of the Tatang and it is a small stone of 45 by 80 centimetres. The earliest surviving manuscript in Malay is the Tanjong Tanah Law in post-Pallava letters and this 14th-century pre-Islamic legal text produced in the Adityawarman era of Dharmasraya, a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom that arose after the end of Srivijayan rule in Sumatra. The laws were for the Minangkabau people, who still live in the highlands of Sumatra. The Malay language came into use as the lingua franca of the Malacca Sultanate. During this period, the Malay language developed rapidly under the influence of Islamic literature, the development changed the nature of the language with massive infusion of Arabic, Malayalam and Sanskrit vocabularies, called Classical Malay. Under the Sultanate of Malacca the language evolved into a form recognisable to speakers of modern Malay, however, there is no connection between Malaccan Malay as used on Riau and the Riau vernacular. One of the oldest surviving letters written in Malay is a letter from Sultan Abu Hayat of Ternate, Maluku Islands in present-day Indonesia, the letter is addressed to the king of Portugal, following contact with Portuguese explorer Francisco Serrão. The letters show sign of non-native usage, the Ternateans used the unrelated Ternate language, Malay was used solely as a lingua franca for inter-ethnic communications. Malay is a member of the Austronesian family of languages, which includes languages from Southeast Asia, malagasy, a geographic outlier spoken in Madagascar in the Indian Ocean, is also a member of this language family. Although each language of the family is mutually unintelligible, their similarities are rather striking, many roots have come virtually unchanged from their common ancestor, Proto-Austronesian language
9.
Central Area, Singapore
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The Central Area, also called the City Area, and informally The City, is the city centre of Singapore. The term Central Business District has also used to describe most of the Central Area as well. The Central Area surrounds the banks of the Singapore River and Marina Bay where the first settlements on the island were established shortly after the arrival of Raffles in 1819, surrounding the Central Area is the rest of the Central Region. The south-easternmost limits of the city is enclosed in by Marina Barrage, the Central Area is one of the most densely developed places in Singapore, with a large mix of commercial and residential developments packed into a space of only 1784 hectares. A great number of Mass Rapid Transit stations tend to be concentrated in this area as well, each of the districts within the Central Area have a heavy and dense commercial presence, especially in the Downtown Core, Orchard and Singapore River districts. Rochor, Newton, River Valley and Outram are commercially thriving, schools, condominiums and Housing Development Board apartments are located in these areas, albeit at higher prices. Since the 1970s, the Singapore government and the Urban Redevelopment Authority have reclaimed land portions from Marina Bay in an attempt to expand the Central Area, newly created portions of land surrounding Marina Bay have been organised and labelled into Marina East, Marina South and Straits View. Many construction projects have completed in these districts since their creation. Much of the area bounded by Telok Ayer Road, which has a high concentration of skyscrapers is built on reclaimed land. Therefore, the Thian Hock Keng Temple built in 1839 along Telok Ayer Road used to face the sea, prior to 1839, the temple served as a joss-house for the Hokkien immigrants. The clan’s office was housed there and this temple was used as a meeting venue. The temple comprises an architectural masterpiece of stone, tiles and wood, dragons and phoenixes, amazing cravings, sculptures, the Thian Hock Keng temple has been gazetted as a national monument in 1973. At Church Street is the Yueh Hai Ching Temple, one of the oldest Taoist temples and this temple was established by a group of Teochew settlers from Guangzhou in China when they dedicated a shrine to Tian Hou. This temple faced the sea and was therefore a place where newly arrived Chinese immigrants came to offer their thanks to the Goddess for their voyage across the seas. The renovation to the temple was undertaken by the Ngee Ann Kongsi and this temple served as a meeting place for the people of the Teochew community in the late 19th century when the Teochews became the second largest Chinese Dialect group in Singapore. The temple was honoured with an e, an imperial signboard from Emperor Guang Xu of the Qing Dynasty in 1907. In 1996 it was gazetted as a monument and it underwent repairs. This temple is a silent testimony to the faith and gratitude of many people in Singapore, the background contrast between the old temples and the new modern buildings indicate the juxtaposition and coexistence of new and old
10.
History of Singapore
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The written history of Singapore dates back to the third century. Evidence suggest a significant trading settlement existed in Singapore during the 14th century, in the late 14th century, Singapura was under the rule of Parameswara until he was expelled by the Majapahit or the Siamese. It then came under the Malacca Sultanate and then the Johor Sultanate, modern Singapore was founded in 1819, when Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles negotiated a treaty whereby Johor allowed the British to found a trading port on the island. During World War II, Singapore was conquered and occupied by the Japanese Empire from 1942 to 1945, but social unrest and disputes between Singapores ruling Peoples Action Party and Malaysias Alliance Party resulted in Singapores expulsion from Malaysia. Singapore became an independent republic on August 9,1965 and this was itself a transliteration from the Malay name Pulau Ujong, or island at the end. The Nagarakretagama, a Javanese epic poem written in 1365, referred to a settlement on the island called Temasik. The name Temasek is also given in Sejarah Melayu, which contains a tale of a prince of Srivijaya, Sri Tri Buana, when he saw a lion, the prince took this as an auspicious sign and founded a settlement called Singapura, which means Lion City in Sanskrit. The actual origin of the name Singapura however is unclear according to scholars, in 1320, the Mongol Empire sent a trade mission to a place called Long Ya Men, which is believed to be Keppel Harbour at the southern part of the island. The Chinese traveler Wang Dayuan, visiting the island around 1330, Ban Zu is thought to be present day Fort Canning Hill, and recent excavations in Fort Canning found evidence indicating that Singapore was an important settlement in the 14th century. Wang mentioned that that the natives of Long Ya Men and Chinese residents lived together in Long Ya Men, Singapore is one of the oldest locations where a Chinese community is known to exist outside China, and the oldest corroborated by archaeological evidence. By the 14th century, the empire of Srivijaya had already declined, according to the Malay Annals, Singapore was defeated in one Majapahit attack. The last king, Sultan Iskandar Shah ruled the island for several years, modern archaeological evidence suggests that the settlement on Fort Canning was abandoned around this time, although a small trading settlement continued in Singapore for some time afterwards. The Malacca Sultanate extended its authority over the island and Singapore became a part of the Malacca Sultanate, however, by the time Portuguese arrived in the early 16th century, Singapura had already become great ruins according to Alfonso de Albuquerque. The Portuguese seized Malacca in 1511, and the sultan escaped south and established the Johor Sultanate, the Portuguese however destroyed the settlement in Singapore in 1613, and the island sank into obscurity for the next two centuries. Between the 16th and 19th centuries, the Malay Archipelago was gradually taken over by the European colonial powers, the early dominance of the Portuguese was challenged during the 17th century by the Dutch, who came to control most of the ports in the region. The Dutch established a monopoly over trade within the archipelago, particularly in spices, other colonial powers, including the British, were limited to a relatively minor presence. In 1818, Sir Stamford Raffles was appointed as the Lieutenant Governor of the British colony at Bencoolen, the Dutch had been stifling British trade in the region by prohibiting the British from operating in Dutch-controlled ports or by subjecting them to a high tariff. Raffles hoped to challenge the Dutch by establishing a new port along the Straits of Malacca and he needed a third port since the British only had the ports of Penang and Bencoolen
11.
Kingdom of Singapura
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The Kingdom of Singapura was a Malay kingdom thought to exist on the island of Singapore from 1299 until its fall in 1398. Archaeological evidence from Fort Canning and the banks of the Singapore River has nevertheless demonstrated the existence of a thriving settlement. The settlement developed in the 13th or 14th century and rose from a small Srivijayan trading outpost into a centre of trade with ties to the Yuan Dynasty. It was however claimed by two powers at that time, Ayuthaya from the north and Majapahit from the south. The last king, Parameswara or Iskandar Shah, fled to the west coast of the Malay Peninsula to establish the Malacca Sultanate in 1400, the name Singapura is derived from Sanskrit meaning Lion City. Singa comes from the Sanskrit word siṃha, which means lion, according to the Malay Annals, Sri Tri Buana and his men were exploring Tanjong Bemban while in Bintan when he spotted an island with white sandy beach from a high point. On learning that the island was called Temasek, they set sail for the island, after they managed to land safely on the island, they went to hunt for wild animals. He suddenly saw a strange animal with an red body, black head and it was a fine-looking animal and moved with great speed as it disappeared into the jungle. He asked his minister, Demang Lebar Daun, what animal it was. He then decided to stay in Temasek, named the city he founded Singapura or Lion City. Some scholars thought that the person Sri Tri Buana and the story of its founding to be fictional, and a number of alternative suggestions for the origin of the name of Singapore have been given. In this version of events, Parameswara had assassinated the local ruler of Temasek and usurped the throne, others linked the name to the Javanese kingdom Singhasari as well as a Majapahit Buddhist sect whose adherents were referred to as lions. Although it is believed that the name Singapura replaced Temasek some time in the 14th century, there is basically only one record which give some detail on the kingdoms of Singapura - the Malay Annals written during the heyday of Melaka and re-compiled in 1612 by the Johor court. It is the basis for accounts of its founding, the succession of rulers, however, Iskandar Shah/Parameswara, the last ruler of Singapura and founder of the Melaka Sultanate, is a figure that could be considered factual. Accounts of Singapura in its final years are also given in Portuguese sources, such as those by Tomé Pires, Brás de Albuquerque, Godinho de Erédia. For example the Suma Oriental, written shortly after the Portuguese conquest of Melaka, however, both accounts differ markedly when Suma Oriental identified the fleeing prince and the last king of Singapura as the same person known as Parameswara. On the other hand, the more detailed Malay Annals identified the fleeing prince, Portuguese source also named Iskandar Shah as Parameswaras son, Ming sources similar named Iskandar Shah as the second ruler of Melaka. There are also different opinions and many now accept Megat Iskandar Shah as the son of Parameswara, Wang also mentioned that the Siamese attacked the fortified city of Temasek with around 70 ships a few years before he visited, but Temasek successfully resisted the attack which lasted a month
12.
Resident (title)
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A Resident, or in full Resident Minister, is a government official required to take up permanent residence in another country. A representative of his government, he officially has diplomatic functions which are seen as a form of indirect rule. Residents could also be posted with shadowy governments, even after the Congress of Vienna restored the Grand Duchy of Tuscany in 1815, the British posted a mere Resident to Florence. Some official representatives of European colonial powers, while in theory diplomats, a trusted Resident could even become the de facto prime minister to a native ruler. In other respects they acted as an ambassador of their own government, instead of being a representative to a single ruler, a Resident could be posted to more than one native state, or to a grouping of states which the European power decided for its convenience. This could create a geographical unit, as in Residency X in some parts of the British Indian Empire. Similar positions could carry alternative titles, such as Political Agent and Resident Commissioner, a Residents real role varied enormously, depending upon the underlying relationship between the two parties and even upon the personalities of the Resident and the ruler. In French protectorates, such as those of Morocco and Tunisia, the Residents of the governments of the United Kingdom and the dominions to a variety of protectorates include, In the Sultanate of Zanzibar, the second homeland of the Omani dynasty, since 1913. From 1913 to 1961 the Residents were also the Sultans vizier, there were Consuls and Consuls-general until 1963. In present-day Kenya, in the Sultanate of Witu, after the British took over the protectorate from the German Empire, which had itself posted a Resident. In British Cameroon, since 1916, in 1949 restyled Special Resident for Edward John Gibbons, in kwaZulu, which since 1843 was under a British protectorate, after it became the Zulu Native Reserve or Zululand Province on 1 September 1879, two British Residents. In the Dutch East Indies, Dutch residents and lower ranks such as assistant residents were posted alongside a number of the native princes in present Indonesia. For example, on Sumatra, there were Dutch Residents at Palembang, at Medan in Deli sultanate, another was posted with the Sultan of and on Ternate, france also maintained Residents, the French word being Résident. However the Jacobine tradition of state authority didnt agree well with indirect rule. Many were part of a white colonial hierarchy, rather than truly posted with a ruler or chieftain. A single post of Resident was also created in Côte dIvoire, the Resident-Superior of Cambodia answered to the Governor-General of Indochina, however. In the German colonies, the title was also Resident, the post was called Residentur. e, such function could also be performed under another title, such as Commissioner or High Commissioner. John Bridger Philby August 1924 – March 1939 Henry Cox March 1939 –17 June 1946 Alec Seath Kirkbride Also after World War II, in the colony of Western Australia regional administration was conducted under instruction of the Governor in Council by Government Residents
13.
Singapore River
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The Singapore River is a river in Singapore that flows from the Central Area, which lies in the Central Region in the southern part of Singapore before emptying into the ocean. The immediate upper watershed of the Singapore River is known as the Singapore River Planning Area, Singapore River planning area sits within the Central Area of the Central Region of Singapore, as defined by the Urban Redevelopment Authority. The planning area shares boundaries with the following - River Valley and Museum to the north, Tanglin and Bukit Merah to the west, Outram to the south, the Singapore River is approximately 3. The mouth of the Singapore River was the old Port of Singapore, historically, the city of Singapore initially grew around the port so the river mouth became the centre of trade, commerce and finance. To this day, area around the old Singapore River mouth, some of the temples, shrines and other places of worship still stand in the vicinity of the river. Bridges such as Anderson Bridge, Elgin Bridge and Cavenagh Bridge still remain, the Merlion, the shophouses, and the large trees such as Banyan and Madras Thorn. Some parts of this area include such as Clarke Quay, Boat Quay and Robertson Quay. Boat Quay itself was handling three quarters of the service in the 1860s. Shophouses and warehouses flourished around the quays due to their proximity to trade during the colonial era, through lack of knowledge or foresight, the bridges were constructed too low and the river was too shallow for the demands that were to be made on its use. However, with the expansion of trade came congestion and pollution, old maps of the river state that it actually originates from Bukit Larangan. Starting in the 1819, there was heavy traffic on the Singapore River due to rapid urbanization, at the same time, it brought in water pollution caused by the disposal of garbage, sewage and other by-products of industries located along the rivers banks. The sources of pollution into the Singapore River and Kallang Basin included pig wastes from pig and duck farms, unsewered premises, street hawkers. Riverine activities such as transport, boat building and repairs were found along the Singapore River. Some 750 lighters plied along the Singapore River and Kallang Basin in 1977, waste, oil spills and wastewater from these boats and lighters added to the pollution of the rivers. In 1977, Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew called for a clean up of Singapores rivers, the clean up costed the government $300 million. The clean up involved a relocation of about 4,000 squatters, along with hawkers and vegetable sellers. Public housing was found for the squatters, while street hawkers were persuaded to move to hawker centres, the government then dredged foul-smelling mud from the banks and the bottom of the river, and debris and other rubbish cleared. The river is now part of the Marina Reservoir after damming the Singapore River at its outlet to the sea to create a new reservoir of freshwater, the dam is known as Marina Barrage
14.
Temasek
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Temasek, also spelt Temasik, is an early recorded name of a settlement on the site of modern Singapore. The name appears in early Malay and Javanese literature, and it is recorded in Yuan. Two distinct settlements were recorded in Temasek – Long Ya Men, the name is used in modern day Singapore for national honours as well as institutions and corporations. The origin of the name Temasek is uncertain, but it has proposed that it was derived from the Malay word tasik meaning lake or sea. Another suggestion is that it may be a reference to a king of Srivijaya, the name appears as Tumasik in the Old Javanese epic poem written in 1365, Nagarakretagama. The name is mentioned twice in the Malay Annals. Temasek is described in the account by the Chinese traveller Wang Dayuan who visited the island around 1330 and wrote about a Malay settlement called Danmaxi, a transcription of the name Temasek. In a version of Marco Polos account of his travel, a place named Chiamassie that could be Temasik was mentioned in relation to the kingdom of Malayur. Temasek may have also mentioned in Vietnamese records as Sach Ma Tich in the 14th century. Some time in the 14th century, the name Temasek was replaced by Singapura, legend has it that the name was given by Sang Nila Utama when he visited the island in 1344 and saw an unknown creature, which he was informed was a lion. It was revived in colonial and more times, and is now used as names for institutions, corporations. While the early history of Singapore is obscured by myth and legend, some conclusions can be drawn from archaeological evidence, archaeology points to an urbanised settlement on the site by the 14th century. At its height, the city boasted a large earthen city wall and moat, many of the buildings were built with stone and brick foundations. Remains of old pottery, coins, jewellery and other artifacts have been found, with many of these believed to be imported from various parts of China, India, Sri Lanka. These are sometimes seen as evidence of the status as a regional trade centre. An aquatic route, part of the larger Silk route, passed through Temasek, from the 7th to the 13th centuries, the island of Singapore was controlled by the Srivijaya empire based in Sumatra. Diplomatic relationship between Temasek and Vietnam may have begun in the 13th century, Temasek was a fortified city and trading centre in the 14th century. It was recorded that during the Yuan dynasty, envoys were sent to Long Ya Men in 1320 to obtain tame elephants, the people of Long Ya Men then returned in 1325 with a tribute and trade mission to China
15.
Long Ya Men
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Long Ya Men or Dragons Teeth Gate, is the name given to a craggy granite outcrop that formerly stood at the gateway to Keppel Harbour in Singapore. In 2005, a replica was erected by the Singapore government near its original site to mark the role it played in Singapores maritime history. Another suggestion is that it refers to the Singapore Main Strait south of Pulau Satumu, the Long Ya Mens unique features was said to have assisted Zheng He in navigating the waters around Singapore during his seven maritime voyages to the west between 1405 and 1433 AD. Historically the rocky outcrop was known locally by the Malays in earlier times as Batu Berlayar near the present site of Labrador Park, another rock outcrop used to stand on the opposite shore of Tanjong Rimau on Sentosa Island. These two rock outcrops once formed a gateway at the entrance to Keppel Harbour. British sailors named the more prominent Batu Berlayar, Lots Wife in reference to the story of the wife of Abrahams nephew. She was transformed into a pillar of salt when she disobeyed orders not to look back at the destruction of Sodom while fleeing from the city. It is argued that the two rocky outcrops are the two hills of Temasek named in Yuan sources as Long Ya Men since they resembled two dragons teeth between which a passage of water runs. Another name Ling Ya Men is recorded in the Song Dynasty work Zhu Fan Zhi and it was recorded that during the Yuan dynasty, envoys were sent to Long Ya Men in 1320 to obtain tame elephants. The people of Long Ya Men then returned in 1325 with a tribute, in around 1330, the traveller Wang Dayuan is said to have sailed through this passageway. In his travelogue Daoyi Zhilüe, he recorded that Long Ya Men was the two hills of Temasek between which a strait runs, and it was so called because the two hills looked like Dragons teeth. He also said the natives would gather their hair into a chignon, the description of the people may be the first known record of the Orang Laut who inhabited the region. A different settlement called Ban Zu, described as being located on a hill behind Long Ya Men, is thought to be a transcription of the Malay Pancur, the Keppel passageway was used by Asian and early European sailors and traders for hundreds of years to sail past Singapore. Between 1405 and 1433, Zheng He made seven voyages to more than 30 countries, travelling in fleets of up to 300 ships to the South Pacific, Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf and Africa. The admiral travelled on the order of the Chinese Emperor to establish relations with countries west of China. He is believed to have sailed through the waters off Labrador Park, in the 17th century, the passageway was abandoned in favour of the wider and more open Main Straits, that lies south of Pulau Satamu, where Raffles Lighthouse stands today. Sir Stamford Raffles of the British East India Company did not know of the Lots Wife, william Farquhar, the first British Resident and Commandant of Singapore, wrote to Raffles on 2 September 1819 that he had founded a new harbour west of the settlement. The two rock outcrops were subsequently blown up by the Straits Settlements Surveyor, John Thomson, in August 1848 in order to widen the entrance to the new harbour
16.
Majapahit
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The Majapahit Empire was a vast thalassocracy based on the island of Java from 1293 to around 1500. Majapahit reached its peak of glory during the era of Hayam Wuruk and his achievement is also credited to his prime minister, Gajah Mada. Its influence extended beyond the territory of Indonesia and has been the subject of many studies. The name Majapahit derives from local Javanese, meaning bitter maja, german orientalist Berthold Laufer suggested that maja came from the Javanese name of Aegle marmelos, an Indonesian tree. The name originally referred to the area in and around Trowulan, the cradle of Majapahit and it was said that the workers clearing the Tarik timberland encountered some bael trees and consumed its bitter-tasting fruit that subsequently become the villages name. In ancient Java it is common to refer the kingdom with its capitals name, Majapahit is also known by other names, Wilwatikta, although sometimes the natives refer to their kingdom as Bhumi Jawa or Mandala Jawa instead. Little physical evidence of Majapahit remains, and some details of the history are rather abstract, nevertheless, local Javanese people did not forget Majapahit completely, as Mojopait is mentioned vaguely in Babad Tanah Jawi, a Javanese chronicle composed in the 18th century. Majapahit did produce physical evidence, the ruins dating from the Majapahit period are clustered in the Trowulan area. The Trowulan archaeological site was discovered in the 19th century by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles and he reported the existence of ruins of temples. Scattered about the country for miles, and referred to Trowulan as this pride of Java. By the early 20th century, Dutch colonial historians began to study old Javanese and Balinese literature to explore the past of their colony, two primary sources were available to them, the Pararaton manuscript was written in the Kawi language c. 1600, and Nagarakretagama was composed in Old Javanese in 1365, Pararaton focuses on Ken Arok, the founder of Singhasari, but includes a number of shorter narrative fragments about the formation of Majapahit. The Nagarakretagama is an old Javanese epic poem written during the Majapahit golden age under the reign of Hayam Wuruk, the Dutch acquired the manuscript in 1894 during their military expedition against the Cakranegara royal house of Lombok. There are also inscriptions in Old Javanese and Chinese. The Javanese sources incorporate some poetic mythological elements, and scholars such as C. C, berg, an Indonesia-born Dutch naturalist, have considered the entire historical record to be not a record of the past, but a supernatural means by which the future can be determined. Most scholars do not accept this view, as the record corresponds with Chinese materials that could not have had similar intention. The list of rulers and details of the structure show no sign of being invented. The Chinese historical sources on Majapahit, mainly owed to Zheng Hes account — a Ming Dynasty admiral reports during his visit to Majapahit, Zheng Hes translator Ma Huan wrote a detailed description of Majapahit and where the king of Java lived
17.
Ayutthaya Kingdom
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The Kingdom of Ayutthaya was a Siamese kingdom that existed from 1351 to 1767. In the sixteenth century, it was described by foreign traders as one of the biggest and wealthiest cities in the East, the court of King Narai had strong links with that of King Louis XIV of France, whose ambassadors compared the city in size and wealth to Paris. By 1550, the kingdoms vassals included some city-states in the Malay Peninsula, Sukhothai, Lan Na and parts of Burma and this part of the Kingdoms history is sometimes referred to as The Ayutthayan Empire. In foreign accounts, Ayutthaya was called Siam, but many say the people of Ayutthaya called themselves Tai. The name of the city indicates the influence of Hinduism in the region and it is believed that this city is associated with the Thai national epic, the Ramakien, which is the Thai version of the Ramayana. Ayutthaya began its hegemony by conquering northern kingdoms and city-states like Sukhothai, Kamphaeng Phet, before the end of the fifteenth century, Ayutthaya launched attacks on Angkor, the classical great power of the region. Angkors influence eventually faded from the Chao Phraya River Plain while Ayutthaya became a new great power, the emerging Kingdom of Ayutthaya was also growing powerful. Yuttitthira urged Borommatrailokkanat to invade Phitsanulok, igniting the Ayutthaya-Lan Na War over the Upper Chao Phraya valley, in 1460, the governor of Chaliang surrendered to Tilokaraj. Borommatrailokkanat then used a new strategy and concentrated on the wars with Lanna by moving the capital to Phitsanulok, Lan Na suffered setbacks and Tilokaraj eventually sued for peace in 1475. However, it was evident that from time to local revolts, led by local princes or kings. Beginning in the century, Ayutthaya showed an interest in the Malay Peninsula. Ayutthaya launched several abortive conquests against Malacca which was diplomatically and economically fortified by the support of Ming China. In the early fifteenth century the Ming admiral Zheng He had established a base of operation in the port city, under this protection, Malacca flourished, becoming one of Ayutthayas great foes until the capture of Malacca by the Portuguese. Starting in the middle of the 16th century, the kingdom came under repeated attacks by the Taungoo Dynasty of Burma, the Burmese–Siamese War began with Burmese an invasion and a failed siege of Ayutthaya. A second siege led by King Bayinnaung forced King Maha Chakkraphat to surrender in 1564, the royal family was taken to Bago, Burma, with the kings second son Mahinthrathirat installed as the vassal king. In 1568, Mahinthrathirat revolted when his father managed to return from Bago as a Buddhist monk, the ensuing third siege captured Ayutthaya in 1569 and Bayinnaung made Mahathammarachathirat his vassal king. After Bayinnaungs death in 1581, uparaja Naresuan proclaimed Ayutthayas independence in 1584, the Burmese–Siamese War was a Thai attack on Burma, resulting in the capture of the Tanintharyi Region as far as Mottama in 1595 and Lan Na in 1602. Naresuan even invaded mainland Burma as far as Taungoo in 1600, after Naresuans death in 1605, northern Tanintharyi and Lan Na returned to Burmese control in 1614
18.
Parameswara (king)
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Parameswara, thought to be the same person named in the Malay Annals as Iskandar Shah, was the last king of Singapura. According to the Malay Annals, he ruled Singapura from 1389 to 1398, the king fled the island kingdom after a Majapahit naval invasion in 1398 and founded his new stronghold on the mouth of Bertam river in 1402. Within decades, the new city grew rapidly to become the capital of the Malacca Sultanate, Portuguese accounts however suggest he was from Palembang and usurped the throne of Singapura before he was driven out, either by the Siamese or the Majapahit. The name Parameswara is derived from the Sanskrit word Parameśvar, a Hindu concept literally meaning the mighty Lord, the word parama meaning the supreme is added to Ishvara to intensify the title of God. Parameśvara is also one of the names of Lord Shiva and it is the basis for accounts of its founding, the succession of its rulers and its eventual decline. However, the accuracy and historicity of the Malay Annals is in doubt according to historians, another important record, the Suma Oriental, was written shortly after the Portuguese conquest of Malacca. However, both accounts differ markedly when Suma Oriental identified the fleeing prince and the last king of Singapura as the person known as Parameswara. On the other hand, the more detailed Malay Annals identified the fleeing prince, Suma Oriental noted further that the fleeing Srivijayan prince usurped the throne of Singapura from a Siamese viceroy named Temagi sometimes around the 1390s. The only Chinese first-hand account of 14th century Temasek, Dao Yi Zhi Lue written by Wang Dayuan, however the word used by Wang indicates that the ruler of Temasek was not independent, rather he was a vassal of another more powerful state. The Ming Chronicle recorded that the consort of Parameswara known as Bā-ér-mí-sū-lǐ attended a banquet together with the king Bai-li-mi-su-la in the Ming court. It is more likely that Parameswari referred to a rather than a given name. Therefore, the name Parameswara is also believed to be a part of a longer regnal title which was something common among Malay royals until the present day. There are varying accounts of the origin and life of Parameswara, although the Malay Annals omits any mention of Parameswara, it is believed that the Iskandar Shah of the Malay Annals may have been Parameswara. In this account, Parameswara would have been a descendant of Sang Nila Utama said to have founded Singapura, in this version, different from that of the Malay Annals, the Javanese attacked and drove Parameswara out of Palembang, who then escaped to Singapore. Parameswara soon assassinated the local ruler with the title Sang Aji, Parameswara then ruled for five years before he was driven out by people from the Kingdom of Patani, possibly for killing Sang Ali whose wife may have been from Patani. However, the account by Pires indicates that Iskandar Shah was the son of Parameswara who became the ruler of Malacca. Many scholars believe that Parameswara and Iskandar Shah are the same person, based on the account from the Malay Annals, Sri Maharaja of Singapura was succeeded by his son, Iskandar Shah, in 1389. Despite the use of the peculiar Persian name and title, there is evidence of his conversion to Islam
19.
Malacca
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Malacca, dubbed The Historic State, is a state in Malaysia and located in the southern region of the Malay Peninsula, next to the Strait of Malacca. The state is bordered by Negeri Sembilan to the north and west, the exclave of Tanjung Tuan also borders Negeri Sembilan to the north. This historical city centre has listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 7 July 2008. Although it was the location of one of the earliest Malay sultanates, the head of state is the Yang di-Pertua Negeri or Governor, rather than a Sultan. Before the arrival of the first Sultan, Malacca was a village inhabited by local Malays known as Orang Laut. Malacca was founded by Parameswara, also known as Iskandar Shah or Sri Majara and he found his way to Malacca around 1400 where he found a good port—it was accessible in all seasons and on the strategically located narrowest point of the Malacca Straits. According to a legend, Parameswara was resting under a tree near a river during a hunt. In self-defence, the mouse deer pushed the dog into the river, impressed by the courage of the deer, and taking it as a propitious omen of the weak overcoming the powerful, Parameswara decided then and there to found an empire on that very spot. He named it Melaka after the tree where he had just taken shelter at, prominent Malaysian artist Syed Thajudeen visually depicted the epic tale of the founding of Malacca on canvas. The Beginning, a 4 panel painting measuring 183 x 512 cm is now a permanent collection at Galeri Petronas, because of its strategic location, Malacca was an important stopping point for Zheng Hes fleet. Her attendants married locals and settled mostly in Bukit Cina, the Chinese Emperor also ordered the Malaccans to raise soldiers and fight back with violent force if the Vietnamese attacked them again. In April 1511, Alfonso de Albuquerque set sail from Goa to Malacca with a force of some 1200 men and seventeen or eighteen ships and they conquered the city on 24 August 1511. After seizing the city Afonso de Albuquerque spared the Hindu, Chinese and Burmese inhabitants but had the Muslim inhabitants massacred or sold into slavery and it soon became clear that Portuguese control of Malacca did not also mean they controlled Asian trade centred there. Their Malaccan rule was severely hampered by administrative and economic difficulties, rather than achieving their ambition of dominating Asian trade, the Portuguese had disrupted the organisation of the network. The centralised port of exchange of Asian wealth had now gone, trade was now scattered over a number of ports among bitter warfare in the Straits. The Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier spent several months in Malacca in 1545,1546, the Dutch launched several attacks on the Portuguese colony during the first four decades of the seventeenth century. The first attack took place in 1606 under the command of Dutch Admiral Cornelis Matelief de Jonge who laid siege to the town with the help of his Johor allies and he engaged the Portuguese armada which had been sent from Goa to offer armed relief to the besieged port. In 1641, the Dutch defeated the Portuguese in an effort to capture Malacca, the Dutch ruled Malacca from 1641 to 1798 but they were not interested in developing it as a trading centre, placing greater importance to Batavia on Java as their administrative centre
20.
Malacca Sultanate
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The Malacca Sultanate was a Malay sultanate centred in the modern-day state of Malacca, Malaysia. Conventional historical thesis marks c.1400 as the year of the sultanate by a renegade Malay Raja of Singapura, Parameswara who was also known as Iskandar Shah. As a bustling trading port, Malacca emerged as a centre for Islamic learning and dissemination. The legacy of the political and cultural legacy remains to this day. For centuries, Malacca has been held up as an exemplar of Malay-Muslim civilisation, the series of raids launched by the Chola Empire in the 11th century had weakened the once glorious empire of Srivijaya. By the end of the 13th century, the already fragmented Srivijaya caught the attention of the expansionist Javanese King, in 1275, he decreed the Pamalayu expedition to overrun Sumatra. By 1288, Singhasari naval expeditionary forces successfully sacked Jambi and Palembang, the complete destruction of Srivijaya caused the diaspora of the Srivijayan princes and nobles. Rebellions against the Javanese rule ensued and attempts were made by the fleeing Malay princes to revive the empire, the Orang Laut, famous for their loyal services to Srivijaya, eventually made him king of a new kingdom called Singapura. In the 14th century, Singapura developed concurrently with the Pax Mongolica era and its wealth and success however, alarmed two regional powers at that time, Ayuthaya from the north and Majapahit from the south. As a result, the fortified capital was attacked by at least two major foreign invasions before it was finally sacked by Majapahit in 1398. The fifth and last king, Parameswara fled to the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, Parameswara fled north to Muar, Ujong Tanah and Biawak Busuk before reaching a fishing village at the mouth of Bertam river. Legend has it that the king saw a mouse deer outwit his hunting dog into the water when he was resting under the Malacca tree. He thought this boded well, remarking, this place is excellent, even the mouse deer is formidable, tradition holds that he named the settlement after the tree he was leaning against while witnessing the portentous event. Today, the deer is part of modern Malaccas coat of arms. The name Malacca itself was derived from the fruit-bearing Melaka tree scientifically termed as Phyllanthus emblica, following establishment of his new city in Malacca, Parameswara initiated the development of the place and laid the foundation of a trade port. The indigenous inhabitants of the straits, the Orang Laut, were employed to patrol the adjacent sea areas, to repel other petty pirates, within years, news about Malacca becoming a centre of trade and commerce began to spread all over the eastern part of the world. In 1405, Yongle Emperor of Ming Dynasty sent his envoy headed by Yin Qing to Malacca in 1403, Yin Qings visit opened the way for the establishment of friendly relations between Malacca and China. Two years later, the legendary Admiral Zheng He made his first of six visits to Malacca, Chinese merchants began calling at the port and pioneering foreign trading bases in Malacca
21.
John Crawfurd
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For the Irish cricketer of the same name, see John Crawfurd John Crawfurd FRS was a Scottish physician, colonial administrator and diplomat, and author. He was born on Islay, in Argyll, Scotland, the son of Samuel Campbell, a physician, and Margaret Campbell, and was educated at the school in Bowmore. He followed his fathers footsteps in the study of medicine and completed his course at the University of Edinburgh in 1803. Crawfurd joined the East India Company, as a Company surgeon and he saw service in the campaigns of Baron Lake. Crawfurd was sent in 1808 to Penang, where he applied himself to the study of the Malay language, in Penang he met Stamford Raffles for the first time. In 1811, Crawfurd accompanied Raffles on Lord Mintos Java Invasion, Raffles was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of Java by Minto during the 45-day operation, and Crawfurd was appointed the post of Resident Governor at the Court of Yogyakarta in November 1811. There he took a line against Sultan Hamengkubuwana II. The Sultan was encouraged by Pakubuwono IV of Surakarta to assume he had support in resisting the British, the Sultans palace, the Kraton Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat, was besieged and taken by British-led forces in June 1812. As Resident, Crawfurd also pursued the study of the Javanese language and he was impressed by Javanese music. Crawfurd was sent on missions to Bali and the Celebes. His knowledge of the local culture supported Raffless government in Java, Raffles, however, wanted to introduce land reform in the Cheribon residency. Crawfurd, with his experience of India and the zamindari, was a supporter of the system of revenue collection. He opposed Raffless attempts to introduce individual settlement into Java, Java was returned to the Dutch in 1816, and Crawfurd went back to England that year, shortly becoming a Fellow of the Royal Society, and turning to writing. Within a few years he was recalled to South-East Asia, as a diplomat, Crawfurd travelled with notes from Horace Hayman Wilson on Buddhism, as it was understood at the time. 21 November 1821, the mission embarked on the John Adam for the complicated and difficult navigation of the Hoogly river, taking seven days to sail the 140 miles from Calcutta to open water. The John Adam proceeded on what would be the first official visit to Siam since the Siam–England war of 1687, Crawfurd soon found the court of King Rama II still embroiled in the aftermath of the Burmese–Siamese War of 1809–1812. On 8 December 1821, near Papra Strait Crawfurd finds fishermen in a state of perpetual distrust,11 December, after entering the Straits of Malacca and arrival at Penang Island, he finds the settlements of Penang and Queda in a state of alarm. Crawfurds journal entry for 1 April 1822, notes that the Siamese, on 19 May, a Chief of Lao met with Crawfurd, a first diplomatic contact for the UK
22.
Song dynasty
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The Song dynasty was an era of Chinese history that began in 960 and continued until 1279. It succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, coincided with the Liao and Western Xia dynasties and it was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or true paper money nationally and the first Chinese government to establish a permanent standing navy. This dynasty also saw the first known use of gunpowder, as well as the first discernment of true north using a compass, the Song dynasty is divided into two distinct periods, Northern and Southern. During the Northern Song, the Song capital was in the city of Bianjing. The Southern Song refers to the period after the Song lost control of its half to the Jurchen Jin dynasty in the Jin–Song Wars. During this time, the Song court retreated south of the Yangtze, the Southern Song dynasty considerably bolstered its naval strength to defend its waters and land borders and to conduct maritime missions abroad. To repel the Jin, and later the Mongols, the Song developed revolutionary new military technology augmented by the use of gunpowder, in 1234, the Jin dynasty was conquered by the Mongols, who took control of northern China, maintaining uneasy relations with the Southern Song. Möngke Khan, the fourth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire and his younger brother Kublai Khan was proclaimed the new Great Khan, though his claim was only partially recognized by the Mongols in the west. In 1271, Kublai Khan was proclaimed the Emperor of China, after two decades of sporadic warfare, Kublai Khans armies conquered the Song dynasty in 1279. The Mongol invasion led to a reunification under the Yuan dynasty, the population of China doubled in size during the 10th and 11th centuries. The Northern Song census recorded a population of roughly 50 million, much like the Han and this data is found in the Standard Histories. However, it is estimated that the Northern Song had a population of some 100 million people and this dramatic increase of population fomented an economic revolution in pre-modern China. The expansion of the population, growth of cities, and the emergence of a national economy led to the withdrawal of the central government from direct involvement in economic affairs. The lower gentry assumed a role in grassroots administration and local affairs. Appointed officials in county and provincial centers relied upon the gentry for their services, sponsorship. Social life during the Song was vibrant, citizens gathered to view and trade precious artworks, the populace intermingled at public festivals and private clubs, and cities had lively entertainment quarters. The spread of literature and knowledge was enhanced by the expansion of woodblock printing. Technology, science, philosophy, mathematics, and engineering flourished over the course of the Song, although the institution of the civil service examinations had existed since the Sui dynasty, it became much more prominent in the Song period
23.
Sultan
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Sultan is a noble title with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning strength, authority, rulership, derived from the verbal noun سلطة sulṭah, the dynasty and lands ruled by a sultan are referred to as a sultanate. A feminine form of sultan, used by Westerners, is Sultana or Sultanah, but Turkish and Ottoman Turkish also uses sultan for imperial lady, because Turkish grammar uses the same words for women and men. However, this styling misconstrues the roles of wives of sultans, in a similar usage, the wife of a German field marshal might be styled Frau Feldmarschall. The female leaders in Muslim history are known as sultanas. Special case in Brunei, the Queen Consort is known as Raja Isteri with suffix Pengiran Anak if the queen consort is a royal princess. Among those modern hereditary rulers who wish to emphasize their secular authority under the rule of law and these are generally secondary titles, either lofty poetry or with a message, e. g. g. Sultan ul-Mujahidin as champion of jihad, ghaznavid Sultanate Sultans of Great Seljuk Seljuk Sultanate of Rum Sultans of the Ottoman Empire, the Osmanli Elisu Sultanate and a few others. A Sultan ranked below a Khan and this usage underlines the Ottoman conception of sovereign power as family prerogative. Western tradition knows the Ottoman ruler as sultan, but Ottomans themselves used padişah or hünkar to refer to their ruler, the emperors formal title consisted of sultan together with khan. In formal address, the children were also entitled sultan, with imperial princes carrying the title before their given name. Example, Şehzade Sultan Mehmed and Mihrimah Sultan, son and daughter of Suleiman the Magnificent, henceforth, the mother of the reigning sultan was the only person of non imperial blood to carry the title sultan. In Kazakh Khanate a Sultan was a lord from the ruling dynasty elected by clans, the best of sultans was elected as khan by people at Kurultai. See ru, Казахские султаны In a number of states under Mongol or Turkic rule. These administrations were often decimal, using originally princely titles such as khan, malik, in the Persian empire, the rank of sultan was roughly equivalent to that of a modern-day captain in the West, socially in the fifth-rank class, styled Ali Jah
24.
Stamford Raffles
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Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, FRS was a British statesman, Lieutenant-Governor of British Java and Governor-General of Bencoolen, best known for his founding of Singapore. He was also involved in the conquest of the Indonesian island of Java from Dutch and French military forces during the Napoleonic Wars. He was also a writer and wrote a book titled The History of Java. Raffles was born on the ship Ann off the coast of Port Morant, Jamaica, to Captain Benjamin Raffles and his father was a Yorkshireman who had a burgeoning family and little luck in the West Indies trade during the American Revolution, sending the family into debt. The little money the family had went into schooling Raffles, in 1795, at the age of 14, Raffles started working as a clerk in London for the British East India Company, the trading company that shaped many of Britains overseas conquests. In 1805 he was sent to what is now Penang in the country of Malaysia, then called the Prince of Wales Island and he started with a post under the Honourable Philip Dundas, the Governor of Penang. At this time he made the acquaintance of Thomas Otho Travers. His knowledge of the Malay language, as well as his wit and ability, gained him favour with Lord Minto, Governor-General of India, and he was sent to Malacca. Then, in 1811, after the invasion and annexation of the Kingdom of Holland by France during Napoleons war, Raffles had no choice and he mounted a military expedition against the Dutch and French in Java, Indonesia. The British, led by Colonel Gillespie, stormed the fort, janssens attempted to escape inland but was captured. The British invasion of Java took a total of forty-five days and he took his residence at Buitenzorg and despite having a small subset of Britons as his senior staff, he kept many of the Dutch civil servants in the governmental structure. During the relatively brief British rule in Java, Raffles negotiated peace, Most significant of these was the 21 June 1812 assault on Yogyakarta, one of the two most powerful indigenous polities in Java. During the attack the Yogyakarta kraton was badly damaged and extensively looted by British troops, Raffles seized much of the contents of the court archive. The event was unprecedented in Javanese history and it was the first time an indigenous court had been taken by storm by a European army, and the humiliation of the local aristocracy was profound. Under Raffless aegis, a number of ancient monuments in Java were systematically catalogued for the first time. The first detailed English-language account of Prambanan was prepared by Colin Mackenzie while Borobudur was surveyed and cleared of vegetation by H. C, under the harsh conditions of the island, his wife, Olivia, died on 26 November 1814, an event that devastated Raffles. In 1815, he left again for England shortly before the island of Java was returned to control of the Netherlands following the Napoleonic Wars, under the terms of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814. He sailed to England in early 1816 to clear his name and, en route, visited Napoleon, who was in exile at St. Helena, but found him unpleasant and unimpressive
25.
William Farquhar
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Major-General William Farquhar was an employee of the East India Company, and the first British Resident and Commandant of colonial Singapore. Farquhar was born at Newhall, Aberdeenshire, near Aberdeen in 1774 as the youngest child of Robert Farquhar and Agnes Morrison, his fathers second wife. His brother, Arthur, two years his senior, rose to the rank of admiral in the Royal Navy. Farquhar joined the East India Company as a cadet at age 17, shortly after arriving in Madras on 19 June 1791, he was promoted to a low-rank commissioned officer of the Madras Engineers on 22 June 1791. Two years later, on 16 August 1793, he became a lieutenant in the Madras Engineers, Farquhar was Chief Engineer in the expeditionary force which took Malacca from the Dutch on 18 August 1795. On 1 January 1803 he was promoted to the rank of full captain, during his tenure here he assisted in missions around the region, including the British invasion of Java led by Governor-General Lord Minto and Sir Stamford Raffles in August 1811. He spoke Malay, married a Malaccan-French woman, Antoinette Nonio Clement, an engineer, his reputation was established by his long and successful term as Resident of Malacca, of which he was given charge when it passed into British hands from the Dutch. With his long Malayan experience, and a knowledge of Riau-Lingga politics. He was appointed the first British Resident and Commandant of Singapore, Farquhar took a more laissez-faire approach, which suited the local traders who had followed him there. In his new post, he set about clearing the plain on the north-east bank of the Singapore River. Word of this new trading post soon spread and Singapore became a cosmopolitan town. Communication with Raffles in Bencoolen and the East India Company in Calcutta were so poor that for more than three years, Singapore developed on her own with Farquhar at the helm, on 9 May 1821, William Farquhar was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel. His justification was that in the expanding settlement nothing is heard in the shape of complaint. However, when Raffles returned, he was furious to discover his plans had been neglected and he then dismissed Farquhar, who at first refused to leave, and later sued Raffles for tyrannical behaviour. The conflicts which arose during Raffles final stay in Singapore in 1822–23, led to his dismissal on 1 May 1823 and he remained in Singapore after that for a few months. Despite his significant contribution to the development of Singapore, not much is known. Even the little street named in his memory is gone and he married again, and died in 1839 at his home, Early Banks. He has a mausoleum in Greyfriars Kirkyard, Perth, between 1819 and 1823 Farquhar commissioned unidentified Chinese artists to illustrate local flora and fauna
26.
Union Jack
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The Union Jack, or Union Flag, is the national flag of the United Kingdom. Further, it is used as a flag in some of the smaller British overseas territories. The Union Jack also appears in the canton of the flags of several nations, the claim that the term Union Jack properly refers only to naval usage has been disputed, following historical investigations by the Flag Institute in 2013. The origins of the flag of Great Britain date back to 1606. King James also began to refer to a Kingdom of Great Britaine, the present design of the Union Flag dates from a Royal proclamation following the union of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801. Notably, the country of Wales is not represented separately in the Union Jack, being only indirectly represented through the cross of St George. The terms Union Jack and Union Flag are both historically correct for describing the de facto flag of the United Kingdom. Whether the term Union Jack applies only when used as a flag on a ship is a modern matter of debate. According to the Parliament of the United Kingdom, Until the early 17th century England and Scotland were two independent kingdoms. This changed dramatically in 1603 on the death of Elizabeth I of England, because the Queen died unmarried and childless, the English crown passed to the next available heir, her cousin James VI, King of Scotland. England and Scotland now shared the same monarch under what was known as a union of the crowns, in 1606, James VI gave orders for a British flag to be created which bore the combined crosses of St. George and of St. Andrew. The result was the Union Jack, Jack being a shortening of Jacobus, the institute also notes, it is often stated that the Union Flag should only be described as the Union Jack when flown in the bows of a warship, but this is a relatively recent idea. In 1908, a government minister stated, in response to a parliamentary question, notwithstanding Their Lordships circular of 1902, by 1913 the Admiralty described the Union Flag and added in a foot note that A Jack is a Flag to be flown only on the Jack Staff. However, the authoritative A Complete Guide to Heraldry published in 1909 by Arthur Charles Fox-Davies uses the term Union Jack, the term Union Flag is used in King Charles Is 1634 proclamation. Andrew and St. Patrick Quarterly per Saltire, counterchanged Argent and Gules, when the first flag representing Britain was introduced on the proclamation of King James I in 1606, it became known simply as the British flag or the flag of Britain. The royal proclamation gave no name to the new flag. The word jack was in use before 1600 to describe the maritime bow flag, by 1627 a small Union Jack was commonly flown in this position. Reinforcing the distinction the Kings proclamation of the day concerning the arms
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Resident of Singapore
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The Governors of Singapore were the political leaders of Singapore during its pre-independence phase in the history of Singapore. The Resident and Commandants of Singapore ruled the British colony that is today the Republic of Singapore, the men that held this position governed Singapore from 1819 to 1826, on behalf of the British East India Company. The Governors of the Straits Settlements ruled the Straits Settlements, the men that held this position governed the Straits Settlements from 1826 to 1946, on behalf of the British East India Company, the India Office and the Colonial Office. The Governors of Singapore ruled Singapore
28.
Nypa fruticans
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Nypa fruticans, commonly known as the nipa palm or mangrove palm, is a species of palm native to the coastlines and estuarine habitats of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the only palm considered adapted to the mangrove biome and this species is the only member of the genus Nypa and the subfamily Nypoideae, forming monotypic taxa. The nipa palms trunk grows beneath the ground and only the leaves, thus, it is an unusual palm tree, and the leaves can extend up to 9 m in height. The flowers are an inflorescence of female flowers at the tip with catkin-like red or yellow male flowers on the lower branches. The flower produces woody nuts arranged in a globular cluster up to 25 cm across on a single stalk, the ripe nuts separate from the ball and are floated away on the tide, occasionally germinating while still water-borne. Nipa palms grow in soft mud and slow-moving tidal and river waters that bring in nutrients, the palm can be found as far inland as the tide can deposit the floating nuts. It is common on coasts and rivers flowing into the Indian and Pacific Oceans, the plant will survive occasional short-term drying of its environment. It is reportedly naturalized in Nigeria, the Society Islands of French Polynesia, the Mariana Islands, Panama, japans Iriomote Island and its neighboring Uchibanari Island are the most northern limit of the distribution. The long, feathery leaves of the palm are used by local populations as roof material for thatched houses or dwellings. The leaves are used in many types of basketry and thatching. Large stems are used to train swimmers in Burma as it has buoyancy, on the islands of Roti and Savu, nipa palm sap is fed to pigs during the dry season. This is said to impart a flavour to the meat. The young leaves are used to wrap tobacco for smoking, in the Philippines and Malaysia, the flower cluster can be tapped before it blooms to yield a sweet, edible sap collected to produce a local alcoholic beverage called tuba, bahal, or tuak. Tuba can be stored in tapayan for several weeks to make a kind of known as sukang paombong in the Philippines. Tuba can also be distilled to make arrack, locally known as lambanog in Filipino, young shoots are also edible and the flower petals can be infused to make an aromatic tisane. Attap chee is a name for the immature fruits—sweet, translucent, gelatinous balls used as an ingredient in Thailand, Malaysia, the Philippines. In Indonesia, especially in Java and Bali, the sap can also be used to make a variant of Jaggery called gula nipah, also in Sarawak, where it is called gula apong. The nipa palm produces a high yield of sugar-rich sap
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Sumatra
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Sumatra is a large island in western Indonesia that is part of the Sunda Islands. It is the largest island that is entirely in Indonesia and the sixth-largest island in the world at 473,481 km2, Sumatra is an elongated landmass spanning a diagonal northwest-southeast axis. The Indian Ocean borders the west, northwest, and southwest sides of Sumatra with the chain of Simeulue, Nias. On the northeast side the narrow Strait of Malacca separates the island from the Malay Peninsula, on the southeast the narrow Sunda Strait separates Sumatra from Java. The northern tip of Sumatra borders the Andaman Islands, while on the eastern side are the islands of Bangka and Belitung, Karimata Strait. The Bukit Barisan mountains, which several active volcanoes, form the backbone of the island, while the northeast sides are outlying lowlands with swamps, mangrove. The equator crosses the island at its center on West Sumatra, the climate of the island is tropical, hot and humid with lush tropical rain forest once dominating the landscape. Sumatra was known in ancient times by the Sanskrit names of Swarnadwīpa and Swarnabhūmi, the first word mentioning the name of Sumatra was the name of Srivijayan Haji Sumatrabhumi, who sent an envoy to China in 1017. Arab geographers referred to the island as Lamri in the tenth through thirteenth centuries, late in the 14th century the name Sumatra became popular in reference to the kingdom of Samudra Pasai, which was a rising power until it was replaced by Sultanate of Aceh. Sultan Alauddin Shah of Aceh, on letters written in 1602 addressed to Queen Elizabeth I of England, referred to himself as king of Aceh, the word itself is from Sanskrit Samudra, meaning gathering together of waters, sea or ocean. European writers in the 19th century found that the inhabitants did not have a name for the island. The Melayu Kingdom was absorbed by Srivijaya, Srivijaya was a Buddhist monarchy centred in what is now Palembang. Dominating the region trade and conquest throughout the 7th to 9th centuries. The empire was a thalassocracy or maritime power that extended its influence from island to island, Palembang was a center for scholarly learning, and it was there the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim I Ching studied Sanskrit in 671 CE before departing for India. On his journey to China, he spent four years in Palembang translating Buddhist texts, Srivijayan influence waned in the 11th century after it was defeated by the Chola Empire of southern India. At the same time, Islam made its way to Sumatra through Arabs, by the late 13th century, the monarch of the Samudra kingdom had converted to Islam. Marco Polo visited the island in 1292, and Ibn Battuta visited twice during 1345–1346, Samudra was succeeded by the powerful Aceh Sultanate, which survived to the 20th century. With the coming of the Dutch, the many Sumatran princely states fell under their control
30.
George Drumgold Coleman
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Born in Drogheda, County Louth, Ireland, he was the son of James Coleman, a merchant, part of whose business was dealing in building materials. Coleman was trained as a civil architect, in 1815, at the age of 19 years, he left Ireland for Calcutta, India, where he set up as an architect designing private houses for the merchants of Fort William. In 1819, he was invited, through his patron John Palmer, Coleman was responsible, as advisor to Raffles, for the draft layout of Singapore in 1822. He planned the centre of the town, created roads, Raffles was away in Sumatra at the time, but Coleman also set about designing for him a residency house of timber with a thatched roof. On his return, Raffles approved the house, construction of which was begun in November of the same year, and he commissioned Coleman to design a garrison church. However, the church was not built, and in June 1823 Coleman left for Java where he spent he next two and a half years, returning to Singapore in 1825, much altered and enlarged, it eventually formed part of the Parliament House of the Republic of Singapore. It was again in the Palladian manner, adapted to the climate by incorporating a veranda. Another residence building, the Istana Kampong Glam, is believed to be by Coleman although there is no definite evidence, Colemans own house at 3 Coleman Street was demolished in December 1965 to make way for the current 21-storey Peninsula Hotel. An outstanding example of his work survives to this day is the Armenian Church of Saint Gregory the Illuminator on Hill Street. He also built the first Anglican church in Singapore, St Andrews, which was begun in 1835 and he was also hired to finish and extend the Raffles Institution, originally designed by Lieutenant Phillip. The building however was demolished in 1972, another prominent building of early Singapore designed by Coleman was the Telok Ayer market on the waterfront built in 1835. It was demolished due to reclamation work in 1879 and the market was then moved to the present Lau Pa Sat. In 1833, Coleman was appointed the Superintendent of Public Works and he was also the surveyor and overseer of convict labour. In 1841, Coleman left for England after 15 years of work and 25 years in the East. On a return trip to in Ireland, Coleman married Maria Frances Vernon, of Clontarf Castle, colman had a son, George Vernon Coleman, who was born 27 December 1843. He also had a daughter, Meda Elizabeth Coleman, born in Singapore on 10 March 1829 by an unknown woman, the mother is unlikely to have been Takoyee Manuk, the sister of Gvork Manuk, even though Coleman had built a mansion for her adjacent to his own. Coleman however found himself unable to settle down in Europe, and he took possession of another of his houses which stood at 1 and 2 Coleman Street. Colman died on 25 March 1844 due to a fever, at the age of 49 and he was buried in a cemetery at the foot of Bukit Larangan, now Fort Canning Hill
31.
Attap dwelling
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An attap dwelling is traditional housing found in the kampongs of Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore. Named after the palm, which provides the wattle for the walls, and the leaves with which their roofs are thatched. Until the nineteenth century even significant public buildings such as temples were built in this manner, the attap dwelling was used as the inspiration for the natural cross ventilation system for Newtown Suites, by WOHA Architects, Singapore. Malaysian Dwellings, Proceedings of ENHR International Housing Conference 2004
32.
Governors of Singapore
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The Governors of Singapore were the political leaders of Singapore during its pre-independence phase in the history of Singapore. The Resident and Commandants of Singapore ruled the British colony that is today the Republic of Singapore, the men that held this position governed Singapore from 1819 to 1826, on behalf of the British East India Company. The Governors of the Straits Settlements ruled the Straits Settlements, the men that held this position governed the Straits Settlements from 1826 to 1946, on behalf of the British East India Company, the India Office and the Colonial Office. The Governors of Singapore ruled Singapore
33.
George Bonham
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Sir Samuel George Bonham, 1st Baronet KCB was a British colonial governor, who became the 3rd Governor of Hong Kong. Samuel George Bonham was born in Feversham, Kent on 7 September 1803 and he was the son of Captain George Bonham, of the maritime service of the East India Company. His mother, Isabella, the daughter of Robert Woodgate, was his fathers second wife, Bonham became Governor of the Straits Settlements in 1837, a post he held until 1847. After a period of service with the East India Company, he was appointed Governor of Hong Kong and plenipotentiary, during his tenure Bonham cut government spendings to balance the budget and also stimulated the Real Estate market in order to increase government income. His method of increasing government income eventually became the source of income for the Hong Kong government a century later. Bonham was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in April 1848, Bonham was known for his calm demeanor and gentle nature. It was due to these qualities that Bonham gained the trust of the British Government, medhurst with a despatch to the Peiho, but the effort proved fruitless. He died on 8 October 1863 and he had one sister, Isabella, who married Ferdinand, count d’Outhement. In 1846, Bonham married Ellen Emelia Barnard, the eldest daughter of Thomas Barnard and they had one son, George Francis Bonham, who succeeded to the Baronetcy. Bonhams wife died in 1859 and he survived her until 8 October 1863, dying aged 60, the later Malay name for Fort Canning in Singapore was Bukit Tuan Bonham, named after him. Bonham St in Raffles Place, in Singapore, Bonham Road, Bonham Strand, Bonham Strand West, and Bonham Road Public Elementary School on Hong Kong Island, Hong Kong were all named after him. List of heads of Hong Kong by education Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Douglas. The Peerage, Baronetage and Knightage of Great Britain and Ireland, a biographical sketch-book of early Hong Kong
34.
Charles John Canning, 1st Earl Canning
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Charles John Canning, 1st Earl Canning KG GCB KSI PC, known as The Viscount Canning from 1837 to 1859, was an English statesman and Governor-General of India during the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Born at Gloucester Lodge, Brompton, near London, Canning was the youngest child of George Canning and Joan, Viscountess Canning, daughter of Major-General John Scott. He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated B. A. in 1833, as first class in classics, in 1836 he entered parliament, being returned as member for the town of Warwick in the Conservative interest. He did not, however, sit long in the House of Commons, for, on the death of his mother in 1837, he succeeded to the peerage and entered the House of Lords. His first official appointment was that of Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, in the administration formed by Sir Robert Peel in 1841, his chief being the Earl of Aberdeen. This post he held till January 1846, and from January to July of that year and he served on the Royal Commission on the British Museum. He declined to accept office under the Earl of Derby, but on the formation of the ministry under the Earl of Aberdeen in January 1853. In this office he showed not only a capacity for hard work. This appointment appears to have been rather on the ground of his fathers great services than from any proof as yet given of special personal fitness on the part of Lord Canning. The new governor sailed from England in December 1855, and entered upon the duties of his office in India at the close of February 1856, in the year following his accession to office the deep-seated discontent of the people broke out in the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Fears were entertained, and even the friends of the Governor-General to some extent shared them, the name of Clemency Canning, which was applied to him during the heated animosities of the moment, has since become a title of honour. While subsequently regarded as a humane and sensible measure, the Resolution made Cannings unpopular at a time when British popular opinion favored collective and indiscriminate reprisals. While rebellion was raging in Oudh he issued a proclamation declaring the lands of the province forfeited, and this step gave rise to much angry controversy. But from a sense of duty he continued at his post. Lord Canning replied to the despatch, calmly and in a statesman-like manner explaining and vindicating his censured policy, in April 1859 he received the thanks of both Houses of Parliament for his great services during the rebellion. He was also made an extra civil grand cross of the Order of the Bath and he died in London on 17 June. About a month before his death he was created a Knight of the Garter, as he died without issue the titles became extinct. Prior to the rebellion, Canning and his wife had desired to produce a survey of Indian people
35.
British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
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