1.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
2.
National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
3.
Fort Niagara State Park
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Fort Niagara State Park is located in the Town of Porter in Niagara County, New York, United States. Historic Fort Niagara is located within the park, the 504-acre park is northwest of Youngstown near the northern terminus of the Robert Moses State Parkway and is in the Niagara Falls National Heritage Area. A brief history of the now known as Fort Niagara State Park. 1678 - Fort Conti is built by French explorers 1687 - Fort Denonville on the site of Fort Conti 1726 - The French built the two story “Maison a Machicoulis”. 1944-1946 - Fort Niagara served as a camp for German prisoners of war 1948 - Land transferred to the jurisdiction of the New York State Council of Parks to be managed as a state park. 1965-1966 - The garrison buildings were demolished, of the 100 buildings on the base, there are two boat launches on the lower Niagara River. The park includes the Old Fort Niagara Historic Site, tom Loftin Johnson painted five murals at The Officers Club which commemorate the history of the 28th regiment from its founding in 1905. During the summer, a park naturalist provides nature programs. The skyline of Toronto,30 miles to the north, is visible across Lake Ontario from the park on clear days. The tops of the CN Tower and other skyscrapers can be seen, the current lighthouse in Fort Niagara State Park, constructed in 1872, is the third to be built at Fort Niagara. It was constructed by the United States government after the wooden one was damaged by a tornado. It is a limestone tower featuring a storage room at the base. The Fresnel lens from the old tower was used and the tower was lit for the first time on June 10,1872, in 1900 the tower was raised an additional 11 feet when a watch room was added between the lamp and the limestone tower. Lifting the lamp extended the reach of the light to 25 miles, adjacent to the lighthouse is the keepers quarters which is a colonial-style home that now serves as a private residence. The U. S. Coast Guard ran the light until 1993, a modern steel beacon tower was erected near the Coast Guard station and the Old Fort Niagara Association runs the 1872 tower as a museum and gift shop. The original Fresnel lens is now on display in the Forts museum, in 2015, as part of Governor Cuomo and New York States plan to invest $72 million in their state parks, $2,500,000 was pledged to modernize the bathhouses at Fort Niagaras swimming areas. List of New York state parks New York State Parks, Fort Niagara State Park The FORT of FOUR Nations Popular Mechanics, December 1934, pp. 867-869
4.
Porter, New York
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Porter is a town in Niagara County, New York, United States. The population was 6,771 at the 2010 census, the town was named after Judge Augustus Porter. The Town of Porter lies in the northwest corner of Niagara County and is north of the City of Niagara Falls, the Town of Porter was created in 1812 from the Town of Cambria, but further development was hindered by the War of 1812. The United States war with Great Britain first included an embargo of trade with Canada, warfare along the border continued until 1814. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 37.7 square miles. The northern boundary of the town is Lake Ontario and the Western boundary is the Niagara River, New York State Route 93, East-West roadway through the town from the Wilson town line on into the Village of Youngstown where it has its western terminus at NY 18F. Robert Moses State Parkway, North-South highway through the town from the Lewiston town line north to New York State Route 18 near Lake Ontario at Four Mile Creek State Park. As of the census of 2000, there were 6,920 people,2,616 households, the population density was 208.3 people per square mile. There were 2,846 housing units at a density of 85.7 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 97. 66% White,0. 48% African American,0. 77% Native American,0. 46% Asian,0. 12% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 66% of the population. 21. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.60 and the average family size was 3.04. In the town, the population was out with 24. 6% under the age of 18,7. 3% from 18 to 24,26. 4% from 25 to 44,27. 2% from 45 to 64. The median age was 40 years, for every 100 females there were 98.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.7 males, the median income for a household in the town was $50,425, and the median income for a family was $60,373. Males had an income of $41,985 versus $27,027 for females. The per capita income for the town was $23,951, about 2. 2% of families and 4. 1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4. 5% of those under age 18 and 3. 5% of those age 65 or over. Blairville – A hamlet southeast of Youngstown on Creek Road, fillmore Chapel – A hamlet in the northeast corner of the town. Fort Niagara – An historic colonial fortification in Fort Niagara State Park, Fort Niagara State Park – A park at the mouth of the Niagara River
5.
Niagara County, New York
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Niagara County is a county in the U. S. state of New York. As of the 2010 census, the population was 216,469, the county name is from the Iroquois word Onguiaahra, meaning the strait or thunder of waters. Niagara County is part of the Buffalo-Niagara Falls metropolitan area, and it is the location of Niagara Falls and Fort Niagara, and has many parks and lake shore recreation communities. In the summer of 2008, Niagara County celebrated its 200th birthday with the first town of the county, when counties were established in the New York colony in 1683, the present Niagara County was part of Albany County. This was a county, including the northern part of New York State as well as all of the present State of Vermont and, in theory. This county was reduced in size on July 3,1766 by the creation of Cumberland County, on March 12,1772, what was left of Albany County was split into three parts, one remaining under the name Albany County. One of the pieces, Tryon County, contained the western portion. The area then designated as Tryon County now includes 37 counties of New York State, the county was named for William Tryon, colonial governor of New York. In the years prior to 1776, most of the Loyalists in Tryon County fled to Canada, in 1789, Ontario County was split off from Montgomery. In turn, Genesee County was created from Ontario County in 1802, Niagara County was created from Genesee County in 1808. It was, however, larger than the present Niagara County even though it consisted of only the Town of Cambria, from 1814 to 1817, records of Cattaraugus County were divided between Belmont and Buffalo. In 1821, Erie County was created from Niagara County, the county has a number of properties on the National Register of Historic Places. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 1,140 square miles. Niagara County is in the western part of New York State, just north of Buffalo and adjacent to Lake Ontario on its northern border. The countys primary geographic feature is Niagara Falls, the riverbed of which has eroded seven miles south over the past 12,000 years since the last Ice Age. The Niagara River and Niagara Falls, are in effect, the ditch for four of the Great Lakes which constitute the worlds largest supply of fresh water. Today, tourists and visitors to the Falls see a flow of water over the Falls. Both the American and Canadian side of the Niagara River have massive electrical power plants, the spectacular Niagara Gorge is the path Niagara Falls has taken over thousands of years as it continues to erode
6.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
7.
Youngstown, New York
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Youngstown is a village in Niagara County, New York, USA. The population was 2,063 at the 2013 census and it is part of the Buffalo–Niagara Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area. Youngstown is on the edge of the town of Porter and is at the international border with Canada. It is north of the city of Niagara Falls, the Youngstown Level Regatta, one of the largest amateurs sailing regattas, is held here annually. Hosted by the Youngstown Yacht Club, the event was started in 1972 by Don Finkle and he wanted to do something a little different where sailboats were raced without using handicaps. The YYC Level Regatta will celebrate its 40th Anniversary in July,2013, the villages early growth was under the protection of Fort Niagara. The village was destroyed by the British in 1813 during the War of 1812, the Village of Youngstown was incorporated in 1854, named after John Young. Youngstown is a village located at the northwestern corner of the state where the Niagara River flows into Lake Ontario. In an area known to the Indians for hundreds of years, the French gained control of the Great Lakes area and by 1727 built the Castle which became the centerpiece of Old Fort Niagara. John Young, who lived across the river, saw opportunities on this side, in 1811, he bought Lots 1 and 2 of the Mile Reserve. These included all the property from what is now the side of Falkner Park and as far south as Campbell Street. Young sold the Falkner Park area to Robert Greensit in March 1812 before the war started between the U. S. and England. By that time, a number of log cabins had been built to shelter for the skilled tradesmen. In 1813, American forces captured Fort George across the river, at Christmas time, they retreated to the American side after burning the Village of Newark, Ontario. In retaliation, British and Indians captured Fort Niagara and burned most of the buildings, rebuilding gradually took place and by the 1840s the village was well established with many fine homes and stores. The moderate climate, the excellent fishing, accessibility by lake boats, the soil proved invaluable for fruit culture which attracted many farmers. This led to the development of such as barrel making, fruit packing and storage. Carpenters, blacksmiths and other tradesmen were needed as lumber and shipbuilding businesses were important for many years, many changes have come about through the years, concrete sidewalks replaced those made of wood
8.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
9.
New France
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The territory was divided into five colonies, each with its own administration, Canada, Hudsons Bay, Acadia, Newfoundland, and Louisiana. Acadia had a history, with the Great Upheaval, remembered on July 28 each year since 2003. The descendants are dispersed in the Maritime Provinces of Canada, in Maine and Louisiana in the United States, with populations in Chéticamp, Nova Scotia. In the sixteenth century, the lands were used primarily to draw from the wealth of natural resources, in the seventeenth century, successful settlements began in Acadia, and in Quebec by the efforts of Champlain. By 1765, the population of the new Province of Quebec reached approximately 70,000 settlers. In 1763 France had ceded the rest of New France, except the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, to Great Britain and Spain at the Treaty of Paris, in 1800, Spain returned its portion of Louisiana to France under the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso. However, French leader Napoleon Bonaparte in turn sold it to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, New France eventually became part of the United States and Canada, with the only vestige remaining under French rule being the tiny islands Saint Pierre and Miquelon. In the United States, the legacy of New France includes numerous placenames as well as pockets of French-speaking communities. In Canada, institutional bilingualism and strong Francophone identities are arguably the most enduring legacy of New France, the Conquest is viewed differently among Francophone Canadians, and between Anglophone and Francophone Canadians. Around 1523, the Florentine navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano convinced King Francis I, late that year, Verrazzano set sail in Dieppe, crossing the Atlantic on a small caravel with 50 men. After exploring the coast of the present-day Carolinas early the year, he headed north along the coast. The first European to discover the site of present-day New York, he named it Nouvelle-Angoulême in honour of the king, verrazzanos voyage convinced the king to seek to establish a colony in the newly discovered land. Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland, in 1534, Jacques Cartier planted a cross in the Gaspé Peninsula and claimed the land in the name of King Francis I. It was the first province of New France, however, initial French attempts at settling the region met with failure. French fishing fleets continued to sail to the Atlantic coast and into the St. Lawrence River, French merchants soon realized the St. Lawrence region was full of valuable fur-bearing animals, especially the beaver, which were becoming rare in Europe. Eventually, the French crown decided to colonize the territory to secure, another early French attempt at settlement in North America took place in 1564 at Fort Caroline, now Jacksonville, Florida. Intended as a haven for Huguenots, Caroline was founded under the leadership of René Goulaine de Laudonnière and it was sacked by the Spanish led by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés who then established the settlement of St. Augustine on 20 September 1565. Acadia and Canada were inhabited by indigenous nomadic Algonquian peoples and sedentary Iroquoian peoples and these lands were full of unexploited and valuable natural riches, which attracted all of Europe
10.
Great Britain
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Great Britain, also known as Britain, is a large island in the north Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of 209,331 km2, Great Britain is the largest European island, in 2011 the island had a population of about 61 million people, making it the worlds third-most populous island after Java in Indonesia and Honshu in Japan. The island of Ireland is situated to the west of it, the island is dominated by a maritime climate with quite narrow temperature differences between seasons. Politically, the island is part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, most of England, Scotland, and Wales are on the island. The term Great Britain often extends to surrounding islands that form part of England, Scotland, and Wales. A single Kingdom of Great Britain resulted from the union of the Kingdom of England, the archipelago has been referred to by a single name for over 2000 years, the term British Isles derives from terms used by classical geographers to describe this island group. By 50 BC Greek geographers were using equivalents of Prettanikē as a name for the British Isles. However, with the Roman conquest of Britain the Latin term Britannia was used for the island of Great Britain, the oldest mention of terms related to Great Britain was by Aristotle, or possibly by Pseudo-Aristotle, in his text On the Universe, Vol. III. To quote his works, There are two large islands in it, called the British Isles, Albion and Ierne. The name Britain descends from the Latin name for Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The French form replaced the Old English Breoton, Breoten, Bryten, Breten, Britannia was used by the Romans from the 1st century BC for the British Isles taken together. It is derived from the writings of the Pytheas around 320 BC. Marcian of Heraclea, in his Periplus maris exteri, described the group as αἱ Πρεττανικαὶ νῆσοι. The peoples of these islands of Prettanike were called the Πρεττανοί, Priteni is the source of the Welsh language term Prydain, Britain, which has the same source as the Goidelic term Cruithne used to refer to the early Brythonic-speaking inhabitants of Ireland. The latter were later called Picts or Caledonians by the Romans, the Greco-Egyptian scientist Ptolemy referred to the larger island as great Britain and to Ireland as little Britain in his work Almagest. The name Albion appears to have out of use sometime after the Roman conquest of Britain. After the Anglo-Saxon period, Britain was used as a term only. It was used again in 1604, when King James VI and I styled himself King of Great Brittaine, France, Great Britain refers geographically to the island of Great Britain, politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination
11.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
12.
United States Coast Guard
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The United States Coast Guard is a branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the countrys seven uniformed services. This has happened twice, in 1917, during World War I, created by Congress on 4 August 1790 at the request of Alexander Hamilton as the Revenue Marine, it is the oldest continuous seagoing service of the United States. As Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton headed the Revenue Marine, by the 1860s, the service was known as the U. S. Revenue Cutter Service and the term Revenue Marine gradually fell into disuse, the modern Coast Guard was formed by a merger of the Revenue Cutter Service and the U. S. Life-Saving Service on 28 January 1915, under the U. S. Department of the Treasury. As one of the five armed services, the Coast Guard has been involved in every U. S. war from 1790 to the Iraq War. As of 2014 the Coast Guard had over 36,000 men and women on duty,7,350 reservists,29,620 auxiliarists. In terms of size, the U. S. Coast Guard by itself is the worlds 12th largest naval force. Because of its authority, the Coast Guard can conduct military operations under the U. S. Department of Defense or directly for the President in accordance with Title 14 USC 1–3. The Coast Guards enduring roles are maritime safety, security, to carry out those roles, it has 11 statutory missions as defined in 6 U. S. C. §468, which include enforcing U. S. law in the worlds largest exclusive economic zone of 3.4 million square miles, the Coast Guards motto is the Latin phrase, Semper Paratus. In a 2005 article in Time magazine following Hurricane Katrina, the author wrote, the Coast Guards most valuable contribution to may be as a model of flexibility, and most of all, spirit. Wil Milam, a swimmer from Alaska told the magazine, In the Navy. Practicing for war, training for war, in the Coast Guard, it was, take care of our people and the mission will take care of itself. The Coast Guard carries out three basic roles, which are subdivided into eleven statutory missions. Both agencies maintain rescue coordination centers to coordinate this effort, and have responsibility for military and civilian search and rescue. The two services jointly provide instructor staff for the National Search and Rescue School that trains SAR mission planners and coordinators, previously located on Governors Island, New York, the school is now located at Coast Guard Training Center Yorktown at Yorktown, Virginia. The NRC also takes Maritime Suspicious Activity and Security Breach Reports, details on the NRC organization and specific responsibilities can be found in the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan. The Marine Information for Safety and Law Enforcement database system is managed and used by the Coast Guard for tracking pollution, the five uniformed services that make up the U. S
13.
John W. Heavey
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John W. Heavey was a United States Army brigadier general who served as Chief of the National Guard Bureau. John William Heavey was born in Vandalia, Illinois on February 19,1867 and he graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1891, receiving his commission as a Second Lieutenant of Infantry. Heavey served with the 5th Infantry Regiment in several southern states, a member of one of West Points earliest football teams, Heavey was the right guard on Armys offensive line during the first Army-Navy Game in 1890. In 1898 Heavey joined the 11th Infantry for the Spanish–American War, serving in Puerto Rico, including battles at Hormigueros and Las Marias and assignment as commander of the post at Mayaguez. He remained on duty in Puerto Rico until 1902, when he was assigned to the Philippines, including a posting to Camp Jossman and action against the Moros on Mindanao, in 1904 Heavey was assigned to Fort D. A. Russell, Wyoming. He served there until 1905, when he went to the University of Wyoming as Professor of Military Science. In 1908 Heavey was assigned to duty in Cuba with the 11th Infantry, remaining until 1911 when he was promoted to major and carried out assignments at Fort D. A. Russell and Fort Sam Houston. Heavey graduated from the United States Army Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth in 1912, from 1913 to 1914 Heavey was assigned as regular Army advisor to the Massachusetts National Guard, and from 1914 to 1916 he was a member of the staff at the Militia Bureau. In 1916 Heavey served on the Mexican border with the 9th Infantry during the Pancho Villa Expedition, now a lieutenant colonel, he was then assigned to Fort Niagara as the commander and senior instructor for the Officer Training School. During World War I Heavey received temporary promotions to colonel and brigadier general, from August,1918 to February,1919 he served as acting Chief of the Militia Bureau when incumbent Jesse McI. Carter was assigned to command the 11th Infantry Division. Heavey’s World War I duties included responsibility for National Guard soldiers assigned to guard utilities, Heavey remained as executive officer of the Militia Bureau until 1922, reverting to the permanent rank of colonel. He was then assigned to the office of the Army Chief of Staff, from 1923 to 1926 he served at Fort Clayton, Panama Canal Zone and successively commanded the 20th and 33rd Infantry Regiments. From 1926 until retiring in 1931 Heavey was a coordinator for the Bureau of the Budget. In retirement Heavey resided in Washington, D. C. where he died on November 18,1941 and he was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, Section 2, Site 3513. In 1894, Heavey married Julia Baggett and they had three sons, William Francis Heavey, Thomas Jackson Heavey, and Wade Hampton Heavey. In 1915, Heavey married Katherine Theresa Sullivan, William F. Heavey retired as a major general and was the author of 1947’s Down Ramp. The Story of the Army Amphibian Engineers, Thomas J. Heavey served in the China Burma India Theater during World War II and retired as a colonel. Wade H. Heavey was Assistant Comptroller of the Army and retired as a colonel
14.
North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
15.
Niagara River
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The Niagara River is a river that flows north from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. It forms part of the border between the province of Ontario in Canada and the state of New York in the United States, there are differing theories as to the origin of the rivers name. According to George R. Stewart, it comes from the name of an Iroquois town called Ongniaahra, the river, which is occasionally described as a strait, is about 58 kilometres long and includes Niagara Falls in its course. The falls have moved approximately 11 kilometres upstream from the Niagara Escarpment in the last 12,000 years, today, the diversion of the river for electrical generation has significantly reduced the rate of erosion. Power plants on the river include the Sir Adam Beck Hydroelectric Power Stations on the Canadian side, together, they generate 4.4 gigawatts of electricity. The International Control Works, built in 1954, regulates the river flow, ships on the Great Lakes use the Welland Canal, part of the Saint Lawrence Seaway, on the Canadian side of the river, to bypass Niagara Falls. The total drop in elevation along the river is 99 metres, the Niagara Gorge extends downstream from the Falls and includes the Niagara Whirlpool and another section of rapids. The Niagara River also features two large islands and numerous smaller islands, grand Island and Navy Island, the two largest islands, are on the American and Canadian sides of the river, respectively. Goat Island and the tiny Luna Island split Niagara Falls into its three sections, the Horseshoe Falls, Bridal Veil Falls, and American Falls, unity Island lies further upstream, alongside the city of Buffalo. The Niagara River and its tributaries, Tonawanda Creek and the Welland River, formed part of the last section of the Erie Canal, after leaving Lockport, New York, the Erie Canal proceeds southwest until it enters Tonawanda Creek. The Welland Canals used the Welland River as a connection to the Niagara River south of the falls, allowing traffic to safely re-enter the Niagara River. The Niagara River and Falls have been known outside of North America since the late 17th century, when Father Louis Hennepin and he wrote about his travels in A New Discovery of a Vast Country in America. The Niagara River was the site of the earliest recorded railway in America and it was an inclined wooden tramway built by John Montresor, a British military engineer, in 1764. Called The Cradles and The Old Lewiston Incline, it featured loaded carts pulled up wooden rails by rope and it facilitated the movement of goods over the Niagara Escarpment in present-day Lewiston, New York. Several battles occurred along the Niagara River, which was defended by Fort George and Fort Niagara at the mouth of the river. These forts were important during the French and Indian War and the American Revolutionary War, the Battle of Queenston Heights took place near the river in the War of 1812. The river was an important route to liberation before the American Civil War, the Freedom Crossing Monument stands on the bank of the river in Lewiston to commemorate the courage of the escaping slaves and the local volunteers who helped them secretly cross the river. In the 1880s, the Niagara River became the first waterway in North America harnessed for large-scale generation of hydroelectricity
16.
Lake Ontario
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Lake Ontario is one of the five Great Lakes of North America. Ontario, Canadas most populous province, was named for the lake, in the Wyandot language, ontarío means “Lake of Shining Waters”. Its primary inlet is the Niagara River from Lake Erie, the last in the Great Lakes chain, Lake Ontario serves as the outlet to the Atlantic Ocean via the St. Lawrence River. Lake Ontario is the easternmost of the Great Lakes and the smallest in surface area and it is the 14th largest lake in the world. When its islands are included, the lake has a shoreline that is 712 miles long. As the last lake in the Great Lakes hydrologic chain, Lake Ontario has the lowest mean elevation of the lakes at 243 feet above sea level,326 feet lower than its neighbor upstream. Its maximum length is 193 statute miles and its width is 53 statute miles. The lakes average depth is 47 fathoms 1 foot, with a depth of 133 fathoms 4 feet. The lakes primary source is the Niagara River, draining Lake Erie, the drainage basin covers 24,720 square miles. As with all the Great Lakes, water levels both within the year and among years. These water level fluctuations are a part of lake ecology. The lake also has an important freshwater fishery, although it has negatively affected by factors including over-fishing, water pollution. Baymouth bars built by prevailing winds and currents have created a significant number of lagoons and sheltered harbors, mostly near Prince Edward County, Ontario, perhaps the best-known example is Toronto Bay, chosen as the site of the Upper Canada capital for its strategic harbour. Other prominent examples include Hamilton Harbour, Irondequoit Bay, Presquile Bay, the bars themselves are the sites of long beaches, such as Sandbanks Provincial Park and Sandy Island Beach State Park. These sand bars are associated with large wetlands, which support large numbers of plant and animal species. Presquile, on the shore of Lake Ontario, is particularly significant in this regard. The lake basin was carved out of soft, weak Silurian-age rocks by the Wisconsin ice sheet during the last ice age, the action of the ice occurred along the pre-glacial Ontarian River valley which had approximately the same orientation as todays basin. As the ice sheet retreated toward the north, it still dammed the St. Lawrence valley outlet and this stage is known as Lake Iroquois
17.
Marquis de Denonville
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Jacques-René de Brisay de Denonville, Marquis de Denonville was Governor General of New France from 1685 to 1689 and was a key figure in the Beaver Wars. Replacing Joseph Antoine de LaBarre in 1685, he arrived in New France on 1 August 1685, Denonville set out to make King Louis XIV proud. The Iroquois Confederacy had been a nuisance for half a century, although France and England were at peace, in June 1686, Denonville sent Sieur de Troyes north from Montreal with a hundred men, to capture the English fur trading posts on Hudson Bay. The victory was swift and profitable, word of the French attack would not reach the English for months, Denonville then set out with a well-organized force to Fort Frontenac, where they met with the 50 hereditary sachems of the Iroquois Confederacy from their Onondaga council fire. These 50 chiefs constituted the entire decision-making strata of the Iroquois and they had been lulled into meeting under a flag of truce. Denonville seized, chained, and shipped the 50 Iroquois chiefs to Marseilles, France, in 1687, Denonville launched a well-organized campaign against the Senecas. The expedition left Montreal on June 13,1687 and consisted of 832 colonial regulars, over 900 Canadian militia and they traveled by water in 200 batteaux and 200 canoes. Louis-Henri de Baugy, Chevalier de Baugy accompanied the force, the force landed at Irondequoit Bay, built a palisade to protect the boats, and on July 12 began the march to Ganondagan. On July 13, the French were attacked by a Seneca force of 800, Denonville described the French casualties as 5 or 6 killed and 20 wounded, while the Seneca casualties were 45 killed and 60 wounded. Upon arrival at the village on the 14th, we found it burned, a vast quantity of hogs were killed, and 1.2 million bushels of stored and standing corn were destroyed. The force then turned west and destroyed the village of Totiakton before subsequently returning to their boats at Irondequoit, the Seneca material losses were replaced thereafter and new villages were formed. Before Denonville returned his forces to New France, he travelled down the shore of Lake Ontario and this site was previously used by La Salle for a fort named Fort Conti from 1678 to 1679, and was later used for Fort Niagara, which still exists to this day. Denonville then asked the King for more men to combat the Iroquois Confederacy, with a coalition forming against France, no more troops could be spared for Canada. In 1688, hostilities between England and France resumed and the Iroquois were informed of this, Denonville proposed to assault New York by land and sea and requested to be recalled to France due to sickness. Frontenac was sent with an expedition that left La Rochelle but did not reach Québec until mid-October, in the meantime, Iroquois warriors struck the Canadien settlements near Montreal. Fifty-six farms were destroyed and more than a hundred Canadiens were killed or captured, Denonville had his regulars dispersed to towns across the land, attempting to protect the homes and families of the Canadien. The Iroquois destroyed farmsteads and whole families were slaughtered or captured, on August 4,1689, Lachine, a small town adjacent to Montreal, was burned to the ground. Fifteen hundred Iroquois warriors had been harassing Montreal defences for many months prior, denonvilles tenure was followed by the return of Frontenac, who replaced Denonville as governor for the next nine years
18.
Fort Denonville
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Fort Denonville was a French fort built in 1687 at the current site of Fort Niagara. It replaced Fort Conti which had built on the site in 1679 and had burned later that year. The fort was located at the mouth of the Niagara River on Lake Ontario, in the summer of 1687 the Governor of New France, Jacques-René de Brisay de Denonville, Marquis de Denonville, was on a military expedition to pacify the Iroquois. Nearing the end of the season the governor, wishing to keep French presence in the area, moved his army to the site and constructed a post. The fort, which comprised eight buildings and a stockade, was garrisoned by one hundred men and commanded by Captain Pierre de Troyes. The governor and the rest of the returned to Montreal for the winter. The Seneca, in reprisal for Denonvilles attack of 1687, laid siege to the fort, eighty-nine of the garrison died of scurvy, disease, and starvation during the siege. On Good Friday of 1688 a relief force returned and found twelve survivors, the chaplain of the relief force, Jesuit Father Pierre Millet, erected a cross and gave a mass of thanksgiving for their survival. Biography - Jacques-René de Brisay de Denonville
19.
Montreal
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Montreal, officially Montréal, is the most populous municipality in the Canadian province of Quebec and the 2nd-most populous in Canada as a whole. Originally called Ville-Marie, or City of Mary, it is believed to be named after Mount Royal, the city has a distinct four-season continental climate, with warm-to-hot summers and cold, snowy winters. In 2016, Montreal had a population of 1,704,694, Montreals metropolitan area had a population of 4,098,927 and a population of 1,958,257 in the urban agglomeration, with all of the municipalities on the Island of Montreal included. Legally a French-speaking city,60. 5% of Montrealers speak French at home,21. 2% speak English and 19. 8% speak neither, Montreal is one of the most bilingual cities in Quebec and Canada, with 56% of the population able to speak both official languages. Montreal is the second-largest primarily French-speaking city in the world after Paris, historically the commercial capital of Canada, it was surpassed in population and economic strength by Toronto in the 1970s. It remains an important centre of commerce, aerospace, finance, pharmaceuticals, technology, design, education, culture, tourism, gaming, film, Montreal was also named a UNESCO City of Design. In 2009, Montreal was named North Americas leading host city for international events, according to the 2009 preliminary rankings of the International Congress. According to the 2015 Global Liveability Ranking by the Economist Intelligence Unit, in the 2017 edition of their Best Student Cities ranking, Quacquarelli Symonds ranked Montreal as the worlds best city to study abroad. Also, Montreal has 11 universities with 170,000 students enrolled, the Greater Montréal region has the highest number of university students per capita among all metropolitan areas in North America. It is the only Canadian city to have held the Summer Olympics, currently, the city hosts the Canadian Grand Prix of Formula One, the Montreal International Jazz Festival and the Just for Laughs festival. In 2012, Montreal was ranked as a Beta+ world city, in Kanien’kéha, or Mohawk language, the island is called Tiohtià, ke Tsi or Ka-wé-no-te. In Anishinaabemowin, or Ojibwe language, the land is called Mooniyaang, though the city was first named by French colonizers Ville Marie, or City of Mary, its current name comes from Mount Royal, the triple-peaked hill in the heart of the city. The most popular theory is that the name derives from Mont Réal, Cartiers 1535 diary entry, naming the mountain, according to the Commission de toponymie du Québec and the Geographical Names Board of Canada, Canadian place names have only one official form. Thus, Montreal is officially spelled with an accent over the e in both English and French. In practice, this is limited to governmental uses. English-speaking Montrealers, including English-language media, regularly omit the accent when writing in English, archaeological evidence demonstrates that First Nations native people occupied the island of Montreal as early as 4,000 years ago. By the year AD1000, they had started to cultivate maize, within a few hundred years, they had built fortified villages. Archeologists have found evidence of their habitation there and at locations in the valley since at least the 14th century
20.
Seneca people
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The Seneca are a group of indigenous Iroquoian-speaking people native to North America who historically lived south of Lake Ontario. They were the nation located farthest to the west within the Six Nations or Iroquois League in New York before the American Revolution, in the 21st century, more than 10,000 Seneca live in the United States, which has three federally recognized Seneca tribes. Two are in New York, the Seneca Nation of New York, the Seneca-Cayuga Nation is located in Oklahoma, where their ancestors were relocated from Ohio during Indian Removal. Approximately 1,000 Seneca live in Canada, near Brantford, Ontario and they are descendants of Seneca who resettled there after the American Revolution, as they had been allies of the British and forced to cede much of their lands. The Seneca nations own name is Onöndowága, meaning Great Hill Place and it is identical to the endonym used by the Onondaga people. At the time of formation of the Haudenosaunee, they lived as the farthest west of the five nations within the league and they were referred to as the Keepers of the Western Door. Other nations called them Seneca after their village of Osininka. Since Osininka sounds like the Anishinaabe word Asinikaa, meaning Those at the Place Full of Stones, non-Haudenosaunee nations confused the Seneca nations name with that of the Oneida nations endonym Onyotaa, ka, meaning People of the Standing Stone. A legend of the Seneca tribe states that the tribe originated in a village called Nundawao, near the end of Canandaigua Lake. Close to South Hill stands the 865 foot -high Bare Hill, Bare Hill is part of the Bare Hill Unique Area, which began to be acquired by the state in 1989. Bare Hill had been the site of a Seneca or pre-Seneca indigenous fort and they indicate defenses raised by Indian hands, or more probably belong to the labors of a race that preceded the Indian occupation. The wall is now about tumbled down, the stones seem somewhat scattered, in the early 1920s, the material that made up the Bare Hill fort was used by the Town of Middlesex highway department for road fill. The Seneca traditionally lived in what is now New York state between the Genesee River and Canandaigua Lake, the dating of an oral tradition mentioning a solar eclipse yields 1142 AD as the year for the Seneca joining the Iroquois. The Seneca were by far the most populous of the Haudenosaunee nations, the villages were the homes and headquarters of the Seneca. While the Seneca maintained substantial permanent settlements and raised crops in the vicinity of their villages. The villages, where hunting and military campaigns were planned and executed, major Seneca villages were protected with wooden palisades. Ganondagan, with 150 longhouses, was the largest Seneca village of the 17th century, while Chenussio, the Seneca had two branches, the western and the eastern. Each branch distinct, they were incorporated and recognized by the Iroquois Confederacy Council
21.
Fort Frontenac
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It is the present-day location of Kingston, Ontario, Canada. The fort, however, was often referred to as Fort Cataraqui. The British destroyed the fort in 1758 during the Seven Years War and its ruins remained abandoned until the British took possession, the fort was turned over to the Canadian military in 1870–71 and it is still being used by the military. The intent of Fort Frontenac was to control the fur trade in the Great Lakes Basin to the west. It was one of many French outposts that would be established throughout the Great Lakes, the fort was meant to be a bulwark against the English who were competing with the French for control of the fur trade. By constructing the Cataraqui trading post the French could encourage trade with the Iroquois, another function of the fort was the provision of supplies and reinforcements to other French installations on the Great Lakes and in the Ohio Valley to the south. Frontenac hoped that the fort would also fulfill his own business aspirations. The fort was sited to protect a small sheltered bay that the French could use as a harbour for large lake-going boats, unlike the Ottawa River fur trade route into the interior, which was only accessible by canoes, larger vessels could easily navigate the lower lakes. The cost of transporting goods such as furs, trade items, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, who assumed responsibility for the fort in 1675, was granted seigneurial privileges in the vicinity of the fort. In return for privileges, La Salle was obliged to rebuild the structure. Stone bastions and a wall were constructed to strengthen the fort. He was also required to attract settlers and meet the needs of the settlers by building a chapel. A description of the written in the 17th century mentions that, Three quarters of it are of masonry or hardstone. There is one place where it is four feet, not being completed. The remainder is closed in with stakes, there is inside a house of squared logs, a hundred feet long. There is also a shop a guardhouse, a house for the officers, a well. The ditches are fifteen feet wide, there is a good amount of land cleared and sown around about, in which a hundred paces away or almost there is a barn for storing the harvest. There are quite near the fort several French houses, an Iroquois village, a convent, La Salle used Fort Frontenac as a convenient base for his explorations into the interior of North America
22.
Trading post
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The preferred travel route to a trading post or between trading posts, was known as a trade route. Trading posts were also places for people to meet and exchange the news of the world or simply the news from their country in a time when not even newspapers existed. European colonialism traces its roots to ancient Carthage, numerous cities of importance once started their history as trading posts, Venice, New York City, Shanghai, Singapore, Hong Kong, Naples, Rotterdam, Kansas City, etc. The annexation of trading posts along ancient trade routes took place in the 16th and 17th century by European powers like the Dutch and it began with the capture of Ceuta by the Portuguese in 1415. They went on to establish further enclaves as they explored the coasts of Africa, Arabia, India, trading posts were also very common in the early settlements of Canada and the United States for the trade of such things as fur. They were also used in many camps across the United States as places to buy snacks, items, the Hudsons Bay Company set up trading posts around Hudson Bay during the fur trade. Goods were traded for beaver pelts amongst the Europeans and the Native Americans, in the United States in the early 19th century, trading posts used by Native Americans were licensed by the federal government and called factories. In the context of Scouting, trading post usually refers to a store where snacks, craft materials. A trading post can also be referred to as the place where securities listed on the New York Stock Exchange are traded, cash is not accepted, only bartering is allowed. This idea blossomed and by 2004 had grown to become a 4,000 sq. ft. community care center in Springville, New York
23.
Great Britain in the Seven Years' War
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Great Britain was one of the major participants in the Seven Years War which lasted between 1756 and 1763. The war started poorly for Britain, which suffered many deaths from the plague and scurvy, and at the hands of France in North America during 1754–55, and in the loss of Minorca in 1756. The same year Britains major ally Austria switched sides and aligned itself with France, for the next seven years these two nations were ranged against a growing number of enemy powers led by France. In 1759 Britain enjoyed an Annus Mirabilis with success over the French on the continent, in North America, in 1761 Britain also came into conflict with Spain. The following year British forces captured Havana and Manila, the western and eastern capitals of the Spanish Empire, by this time the Pitt-Newcastle ministry had collapsed, Britain was short of credit and the generous peace terms offered by France and its allies were accepted. Through the crown, Britain was allied to the Electorate of Hanover and Kingdom of Ireland and it also directed the military strategy of its various colonies around the world including British America. In India British possessions were administered by the East India Company, by the early 1750s many saw another major war as imminent, and Austria was preparing its forces for an attempt to retake Silesia from Prussia. The British Prime Minister, the Duke of Newcastle, had acceded to the premiership in 1754 following the death of his brother Henry Pelham. Newcastle had thirty years experience as a Secretary of State and was a figure on the diplomatic scene. Despite enjoying a majority in the House of Commons he was extremely cautious and vulnerable to attacks led by men such as William Pitt. Newcastle fervently believed that peace in Europe was possible so long as the Old System, one of the major concerns for the British government of the era was colonial expansion. During the eighteenth century the British colonies in North America had become more populous, the territory most prized by the new settlers was the Ohio Country, which was also claimed by France. As well as having potential, it was considered strategically key. French control of territory would block British expansion westwards and eventually French territory would surround the British colonies. A number of delegations to London urged the government to take more decisive action in the Ohio dispute. The Ohio country located between Britains Thirteen Colonies and Frances New France saw France and Britain clash, in 1753 the French sent an expedition south from Montreal that began constructing forts in the upper reaches of the Ohio River. Washington and some native allies ambushed a company of French scouts at the Battle of Jumonville Glen in late May 1754, in the skirmish the French envoy Joseph Coulon de Villiers de Jumonville was left dead, leading to a diplomatic incident. The French responded in force from Fort Duquesne, and in July Washington was forced to surrender at the Battle of Fort Necessity, despite the conflict between them, the two nations were not yet formally at war
24.
War of 1812
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Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, but the British often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. By the wars end in early 1815, the key issues had been resolved, the view was shared in much of New England and for that reason the war was widely referred to there as Mr. Madison’s War. As a result, the primary British war goal was to defend their North American colonies, the war was fought in three theatres. Second, land and naval battles were fought on the U. S. –Canadian frontier, Third, large-scale battles were fought in the Southern United States and Gulf Coast. With the majority of its land and naval forces tied down in Europe fighting the Napoleonic Wars, early victories over poorly-led U. S. armies demonstrated that the conquest of the Canadas would prove more difficult than anticipated. Despite this, the U. S. was able to inflict serious defeats on Britains Native American allies, both governments were eager for a return to normality and peace negotiations began in Ghent in August 1814. This brought an Era of Good Feelings in which partisan animosity nearly vanished in the face of strengthened American nationalism, the war was also a major turning point in the development of the U. S. military, with militia being increasingly replaced by a more professional force. The U. S. also acquired permanent ownership of Spains Mobile District, the government of Canada declared a three-year commemoration of the War of 1812 in 2012, intended to offer historical lessons and celebrate 200 years of peace across the border. At the conclusion of the commemorations in 2014, a new national War of 1812 Monument was unveiled in Ottawa. The war is remembered in Britain primarily as a footnote in the much larger Napoleonic Wars occurring in Europe, historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States, as Risjord notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also vindication of American identity. Americans at the time and historians since often called it the United States Second War of Independence, in 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via a series of Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, with which Britain was at war. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law, the American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80% of U. S. cotton, the British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States view was that Britains restrictions violated its right to trade with others, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U. S. citizens and this meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and it was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805
25.
Capture of Fort Niagara
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The Capture of Fort Niagara took place late in 1813, during the War of 1812 between the United Kingdom and the United States. The American garrison was taken by surprise, and the fort was captured in an assault by a select force of British regular infantry. Fort Niagara was an important American post near the outlet of the Niagara River into Lake Ontario, during the early days of the war, it was involved in several exchanges of artillery fire against the British at Fort George on the other side of the river. On 27 May 1813, the Americans won the Battle of Fort George and this left Fort George in their hands, and they briefly captured the entire Niagara peninsula, but they were then driven back to a narrow enclave around Fort George. Later during the year, almost all the soldiers on the Niagara front were redeployed to Sackets Harbor to take part in an attack down the Saint Lawrence River against Montreal. This left Brigadier General George McClure of the New York militia with only 60 regulars,40 volunteers from the New York militia and 100 Canadian Volunteers to hold Fort George. In late 1813, Major General Francis de Rottenburg, the British Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada, had been alarmed by defeats in the west, on 9 October he ordered the troops on the Niagara peninsula to retreat hastily to Burlington Heights at the western end of Lake Ontario. Drummond was aware that the American attack on Montreal had been defeated and he immediately cancelled de Rottenburgs plans for further retreat, and ordered the units at Burlington Heights to advance instead. On 10 December, McClure learned of this advance and he had despaired of receiving any reinforcements and decided his position was untenable. He hastily evacuated his troops to Fort Niagara, the artillery could not be withdrawn from Fort George and was thrown into the ditch surrounding the fort. The inhabitants were to be several days notice, and care was to be taken that they were not to be left destitute. As the Americans abandoned Fort George, McClure gave the order to burn down the village with two hours warning, leaving the inhabitants without shelter or possessions in the depths of winter. Part of the village of Queenston was also torched and it was alleged that the pro-American Canadian Volunteers performed most of the destruction. This action was contrary to the conventions which governed warfare at the time. The burning of Newark was to be the pretext for the British to carry out several outrages later, once the British had recovered Fort George, Fort Niagara was vulnerable to a British attack. Its defenders consisted of Captain Nathaniel Leonards company of the 1st U. S. Artillery, Captain Frank Hamptons company of the 24th U. S. Infantry, Captain Leonard was in command of the fort. He had been attracting unfavourable reports from his superiors since taking charge of the fort in 1812 and was a notorious drunkard, drummond had ordered boats to be brought forward from Burlington. They proceeded by water to the mouth of the Four Mile Creek, the force numbered 562 and was under the command of Colonel John Murray, the commanding officer of the 100th Foot
26.
French and Indian War
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The French and Indian War comprised the North American theater of the worldwide Seven Years War of 1754–1763. At the start of the war, the French North American colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 European settlers, the outnumbered French particularly depended on the Indians. Following months of localised conflict, the nations declared war on each other in 1756. The name French and Indian War, used mainly in the United States, British and European historians use the term the Seven Years War, as do English speaking Canadians. French Canadians call it La guerre de la Conquête or the Fourth Intercolonial War, fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, called the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, in 1755, six colonial governors in North America met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the effort by Braddock proved a disaster, he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9,1755. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, orders for the deportation were given by William Shirley, Commander-in-Chief, North America, without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians, both captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to His Britannic Majesty, were expelled. Native Americans were likewise driven off their land to make way for settlers from New England, after the disastrous 1757 British campaigns, the British government fell. France concentrated its forces against Prussia and its allies in the European theatre of the war, between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture the Colony of Canada. They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec, though the British later lost the Battle of Sainte-Foy west of Quebec, the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris. The outcome was one of the most significant developments in a century of Anglo-French conflict, France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. It ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain, in compensation for Spains loss to Britain of Florida. Frances colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the conflict is known by multiple names. In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King Williams War or Queen Annes War. As there had already been a King Georges War in the 1740s, British colonists named the war in King Georges reign after their opponents
27.
Kingdom of Great Britain
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The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
28.
Battle of Fort Niagara
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The Battle of Fort Niagara was a siege late in the French and Indian War, the North American theatre of the Seven Years War. Amherst chose Brigadier General John Prideaux to lead the expedition, which also included Sir William Johnson, Fort Niagara had been largely constructed under the direction of Captain Pierre Pouchot of the French Army. In early 1759, General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm and New Frances Governor, the forces left to defend Niagara consisted of about 200 men from the regiments of Royal Roussillon, Languedoc, La Sarre, and Béarn,20 artillerymen, and about 300 provincial troops and militia. Prideauxs British Army troops consisted of the 44th and 46th Regiments and he also commanded 2500 provincial militia from New York and 700 from Rhode Island. Delayed by high water on the Mohawk River and the arrival of some of the provincial companies. On 27 June the army arrived at Fort Oswego, where they were joined by Johnson, leaving men behind to garrison Oswego, Prideaux departed on 1 July for Niagara with about 3,500 men. While the French had ships patrolling Lake Ontario for British movements and they arrived at Fort Niagara on 6 July, landed near a marsh out of sight of the fort, and immediately began siege operations. The French had about one hundred Iroquois allies at the Fort who deserted when the British arrived, Captain Pouchot directed a vigorous defense. Prideaux was killed when a fragment from one of his own guns hit him. Johnson was an officer and not in the regular army. The French capitulated on 26 July after a French relief force was defeated at the Battle of La Belle-Famille two miles south of the fort, the capitulation of Fort Niagara occurred on the same day that French troops abandoned Fort Carillon to an overwhelming British army under General Amherst. Fort St. Frédéric was also destroyed as French troops abandoned Lake Champlain to protect the Canadian heartland, most French forces were at Quebec, where Montcalm was leading the defences against Wolfes siege. Quebec fell in September 1759, and all of New France was surrendered in September 1760, the remaining French forts in the Ohio and Illinois Country were eventually turned over to British forces. Siege -1759, The Campaign against Niagara
29.
Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet
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Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet was an Anglo-Irish official of the British Empire. Johnson learned the Mohawk language and Iroquois customs, and was appointed the British agent to the Iroquois, because of his success, he was appointed in 1756 as British Superintendent of Indian Affairs for the northern colonies. Johnson commanded Iroquois and colonial forces during the French and Indian War. His role in the British victory at the Battle of Lake George in 1755 earned him a baronetcy, serving as the British Superintendent of Indian Affairs for the northern district from 1756 until his death in 1774, Johnson worked to keep American Indians attached to the British interest. His counterpart for the colonies was John Stuart. William Johnson was born around 1715 in County Meath, in the Kingdom of Ireland and he was the eldest son of Christopher Johnson of Smithstown, Co. Meath and Anne Warren, daughter of Michael Warren of Warrenstown, Meath and Catherine Aylmer, sister of Admiral Matthew Aylmer, 1st Baron Aylmer. His mother Anne was from an Old English Catholic gentry family who had, in previous generations, Christopher Johnson was descended from the ONeill of the Fews dynasty of County Armagh. William Johnsons paternal grandfather was known as William MacShane, but changed his surname to Johnson. Some early biographers portrayed William Johnson as living in poverty in Ireland, although the Johnson family had a history of Jacobitism, William Johnsons uncle Peter Warren was raised as a Protestant to enable him to pursue a career in the British Royal Navy. He achieved considerable success, gaining wealth along the way, as a Catholic, William Johnson had limited opportunities for advancement in the British Empire. Never particularly religious, Johnson converted to Protestantism when offered an opportunity to work for his uncle in British America, Peter Warren had purchased a large tract of undeveloped land along the south side of the Mohawk River in the province of New York. Warren convinced Johnson to lead an effort to establish a settlement there, to be known as Warrensburgh, Johnson arrived in about 1738 with twelve Irish Protestant families and began to clear the land. He purchased African slaves to do the labor of clearance. Warren intended Johnson to become involved in trading with American Indians, acting on his own initiative, in 1739 Johnson bought a house and small farm on the north side of the river, where he built a store and a sawmill. From this location, which he called Mount Johnson, Johnson was able to cut into Albanys Indian trade and he supplied traders with goods who were going to Fort Oswego, and he bought furs from them when they returned downriver. He dealt directly with New York City merchants and cut out the middlemen at Albany. The Albany merchants were irate, and Warren was not pleased that his nephew was becoming independent, Johnson became closely associated with the Mohawk, the easternmost nation of the Six Nations of the Iroquois League
30.
Seven Years' War
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The Seven Years War was a war fought between 1754 and 1763, the main conflict occurring in the seven-year period from 1756 to 1763. It involved every European great power of the time except the Ottoman Empire and spanned five continents, affecting Europe, the Americas, West Africa, India, and the Philippines. The conflict split Europe into two coalitions, led by the Kingdom of Great Britain on one side and the Kingdom of France on the other. Meanwhile, in India, the Mughal Empire, with the support of the French, faced with this sudden turn of events, Britain aligned herself with Prussia, in a series of political manoeuvres known as the Diplomatic Revolution. Conflict between Great Britain and France broke out in 1754–1756 when the British attacked disputed French positions in North America, meanwhile, rising power Prussia was struggling with Austria for dominance within and outside the Holy Roman Empire in central Europe. In 1756, the major powers switched partners, realizing that war was imminent, Prussia preemptively struck Saxony and quickly overran it. The result caused uproar across Europe, because of Austrias alliance with France to recapture Silesia, which had been lost in a previous war, Prussia formed an alliance with Britain. Reluctantly, by following the diet, most of the states of the empire joined Austrias cause. The Anglo-Prussian alliance was joined by smaller German states, Sweden, seeking to re-gain Pomerania joined the coalition, seeing its chance when virtually all of Europe opposed Prussia. Spain, bound by the Pacte de Famille, intervened on behalf of France, the Russian Empire was originally aligned with Austria, fearing Prussias ambition on the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, but switched sides upon the succession of Tsar Peter III in 1762. Naples, Sicily, and Savoy, although sided with the Franco-Spanish alliance, like Sweden, Russia concluded a separate peace with Prussia. The war ended with the Treaty of Paris between France, Spain and Great Britain and the Treaty of Hubertusburg between Saxony, Austria and Prussia, in 1763. The Native American tribes were excluded from the settlement, a subsequent conflict, Prussia emerged as a new European great power. Although Austria failed to retrieve the territory of Silesia from Prussia its military prowess was noted by the other powers. The involvement of Portugal, Spain and Sweden did not return them to their status as great powers. France was deprived of many of its colonies and had saddled itself with heavy war debts that its inefficient financial system could barely handle. Spain lost Florida but gained French Louisiana and regained control of its colonies, e. g. Cuba and the Philippines, France and Spain avenged their defeat in 1778 when the American Revolutionary War broke out, with hopes of destroying Britains dominance once and for all. The Seven Years War was perhaps the first true world war, having taken place almost 160 years before World War I and it was characterized in Europe by sieges and the arson of towns as well as open battles with heavy losses
31.
Battle of Lake George
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The Battle of Lake George was fought on 8 September 1755, in the north of the Province of New York. The battle was part of a campaign by the British to expel the French from North America in the French and his intention was to advance via Lakes George and Champlain to attack French-held Fort St. Frédéric at Crown Point, which was a keystone in the defense of Canada. His aim was to destroy the boats, supplies and artillery that Johnson needed for his campaign. Leaving half his force at Carillon, Dieskau led the rest on a route to the Hudson by landing his men at South Bay. But the messenger was intercepted, and soon afterward a supply train was captured, Dieskau, warned by a deserter of Williams approach, blocked the portage road with his French grenadiers and sent his Canadians and Indians to ambush the British from both sides of the road. They lay in wait in a three miles south of the present-day village of Lake George. Williams column marched straight into the trap and were engulfed in a blaze of enemy musketry, in an engagement known as The Bloody Morning Scout, Williams and Hendrick were killed along with many of their troops. At this point, the French regulars, brought forward by Dieskau, the British rearguard were able to inflict substantial casualties on their overconfident pursuers. Pomeroy noted that his men killed great numbers of them, they were seen to drop like pigeons, one of those killed in this phase of the battle was Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre, the highly respected commander of Dieskaus Canadian and Indian forces. His fall caused great dismay, particularly to the French Indians, Dieskau ordered his Canadians and Indians to follow up their success with an attack on Johnsons camp. However, with their morale shaken by the loss of their leader, the Caughnawagas did not wish to attack an entrenched camp. The Abenakis would not go forward without the Caughnawagas, and neither would the Canadians, once the grenadiers were out in the open ground, the British gunners, crewing Johnsons three cannons, loaded up with grapeshot and cut lanes, streets and alleys through the French ranks. When Johnson was wounded and forced to retire to his tent for treatment, when Dieskau went down with a serious wound, the French attack was abandoned. After the French withdrawal, the British found about 20 severely wounded Frenchmen who were lying too close to the field of fire of Johnsons artillery for their comrades to retrieve them. They included Baron Dieskau, who had paid the price of leading from the front with a shot through the bladder, about four oclock in the afternoon, some 300 of the French army appeared in sight. They had rallied, and retreating in tolerable order, capt. Folsom posted his men among the trees, and as the enemy approached, they poured in upon them a well directed and galling fire. He continued the attack in this manner till prevented by darkness, killing many of the enemy, taking some of them prisoners and he then collected his own wounded, and securing them with many of the enemys packs, he brought his prisoners and booty safe into camp. The next day the rest of the baggage was brought in, thus securing the entire baggage, in this brilliant affair, Folsom lost only six men, but McGennis was mortally wounded, and died soon after
32.
Battle of Fort Bull
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The Battle of Fort Bull was a French attack on the British-held Fort Bull on 27 March 1756, early in the French and Indian War. The fort was built to defend a portion of the waterway connecting Albany, lt. Gaspard-Joseph Chaussegros de Léry led his command consisting of forces from the Troupes de la Marine, Canadien militia, and Indian allies on an attack against Fort Bull on 27 March 1756. Shielded by trees they sneaked up to within 100 yards of the fort, Léry ordered a charge at the fort with bayonets. They stuck their muskets into the openings in the fort. Léry repeatedly asked for their surrender, finally, the gate was crashed in and the French and Indians swarmed in, killing everyone they saw. The French soldiers looted what they could and set the powder magazines on fire, the fort was burned to the ground. The largest garrison was left at Fort Oswego, at the end of the chain, two forts along the Oneida Carry were a key element of this supply chain. The Oneida Carry traversed an unnavigable section between Rome, New York and Wood Creek that was one and six miles long, depending on seasonal water levels. Fort Williams, on the Mohawk, was the larger of the two, while Fort Bull, several miles north of Fort Williams on Wood Creek, was more than a palisade surrounding storehouses. In early 1756 French military leaders in Canada decided to send an expedition to attack Oswegos supply line. On March 12, a company of men left Fort de La Présentation, after nearly two weeks of difficult winter travel, they arrived near the carry on March 24. Early on March 27, Lérys men captured twelve British men near Fort Bull, while others escaped capture, learning from the prisoners of Bulls minimal defenses, he decided to immediately attack. As he had no field pieces, the possibility was to attempt storming the fort by surprise. The forts defenders managed to get its gate closed just before the French force arrived, the attackers managed to fire through loopholes in the forts walls to distract the garrison, which responded by throwing rocks and grenades over the walls. After Bull refused several calls to surrender, the gate was taken down by the use of axes, and the attackers stormed into the fort. Nearly all of the garrison was killed and scalped, according to a report by Sir William Johnson. Lérys men set fire to the works, which included 45,000 pounds of gunpowder, the resulting conflagration destroyed the wooden fort. A star-shaped wood stockade with four buildings was built in May–August 1756 as Fort Wood Creek
33.
Battle of Fort Oswego (1756)
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The Battle of Fort Oswego was one in a series of early French victories in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War won in spite of New Frances military vulnerability. In addition to 1,700 prisoners, Montcalms force seized the forts 121 cannons, the fall of Fort Oswego effectively interrupted the British presence on Lake Ontario and removed it as a threat to the nearby French-controlled Fort Frontenac. The battle was notable for demonstrating that traditional European siege tactics were viable in North America when applied properly in the right circumstances, part of the British plans for 1755 included an expedition to take Fort Niagara at the western end of Lake Ontario. The planned route for this expedition followed the Oswego River to the lake, the planned expedition to Fort Niagara never took place due to logistical difficulties, and the fortifications around Oswego were manned during the winter of 1755–56. The French in 1755 had the large naval vessels on Lake Ontario. In March 1756 they launched an attack on Fort Bull on Wood Creek. Fort Bull was a key depot on the line for the Oswego forts. In the successful attack, they destroyed many provisions intended for the Oswego garrison, general Louis-Joseph de Montcalm arrived in Montreal in May 1756 to lead the French army troops. He and Governor Vaudreuil took a dislike to one another. Concerned over the massing of British troops at the end of Lake George. Vaudreuil meanwhile began massing troops at Fort Frontenac for an assault on Oswego. Following favorable reports from the parties, Montcalm and Vaudreuil decided to make the attempt. Governor Shirley received word in March 1756 that he was to be replaced by John Campbell, Shirley also hired 2,000 armed battoemen, men experienced in sailing and shipbuilding. When Loudoun arrived in Albany in late July, he immediately cancelled Shirleys plans for an Oswego-based expedition, the complex of defenses at Oswego consisted of three separate forts. On the east side of the Oswego River lay Fort Ontario and it was garrisoned by 370 men from Pepperrells Regiment, and was in fairly good repair. Fort Oswego was on the west side of the river, and had a structure of stone and clay surrounded by earthworks to the south and west. A recently constructed Fort George consisted of a wooden palisade fort that lacked even loopholes through which defenders could fire. The latter two forts did not have very much shelter for the garrison, and there were only a few cannon for the entire complex of defenses
34.
Battle on Snowshoes (1757)
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The 1757 Battle on Snowshoes was a skirmish fought between Rogers Rangers and French and Indian troops during the French and Indian War on January 21,1757. The battle was given name because the British combatants were wearing snowshoes. The fighting ended when darkness set in, with significant casualties on both sides, the French in their reports claimed the British had a distinct advantage due to their snowshoes. The French and Indian War broke out in 1754 between British and French colonists over territorial disputes along their colonial frontiers, and escalated the following year to include regular troops, by 1756, the French had enjoyed successes in most of their frontier battles against the British. Their only notable failure occurred when the British stopped their advance from Lake Champlain in the 1755 Battle of Lake George. From bases at Fort St. Frédéric and Fort Carillon, the French and their Indian allies continued to scout and probe the British defenses on Lake George, the British, who had fewer Indian allies, resorted to companies of rangers for their scouting and reconnaissance activities. The ranger companies were organized and directed by Robert Rogers, in the winter of 1757, Rogers and several companies of his rangers were stationed at Fort William Henry at the southern end of Lake George and at Fort Edward on the upper Hudson. These forts were garrisoned by elements of the 44th and 48th Regiments. Captain Rogers led an expedition from Fort Edward on January 15, stopping at Fort William Henry to acquire provisions, snowshoes. The company left Fort William Henry on January 17 with 86 men, the next day twelve men turned back because of injuries. The remaining men continued north, reaching Lake Champlain at a point between Fort Carillon and Fort St. Frédéric on January 21 and they spotted a sled moving on the lake toward Fort St. Frédéric, so Rogers sent Lieutenant John Stark and some men to intercept it. However, more sleds were spotted, and Starks men were seen before they could retreat back into the woods, the sleds turned back toward Carillon. The British gave chase, but most of the French escaped, Rogers succeeded in taking seven prisoners. Rogers learned from questioning the prisoners that a French and Indian war party had just arrived at Carillon, concerned that the escaped sleds would raise the alarm, Rogers immediately ordered a return to their last camp. His council disapproved of the return by the route, but he overruled them, citing the need for speed. By early afternoon they had returned to their camp, rested, M. de Rouilly, the leader of the supply convoy Rogers had intercepted, returned to Carillon and alerted Paul-Louis de Lusignan, the forts commander. The Indians were primarily Ottawa under the command of Charles Michel de Langlade, Rogers men then walked into an ambush, according to his estimate, by 250 French and Indians. The British were fortunate that many of the French muskets misfired due to wet gunpowder, as they retreated Rogers ordered his captives slain so that his men might move more freely
35.
Siege of Fort William Henry
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The Siege of Fort William Henry was conducted in August 1757 by French General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm against the British-held Fort William Henry. After several days of bombardment, Monro surrendered to Montcalm, whose force included nearly 2,000 Indians from a number of tribes. The terms of surrender included the withdrawal of the garrison to Fort Edward and they killed and scalped many soldiers, took as captives women, children, servants, and slaves, and slaughtered sick and wounded prisoners. Early accounts of the events called it a massacre, and implied that as many as 1,500 people were killed, the memory of the killings influenced the actions of British military leaders, especially those of British General Jeffery Amherst, for the remainder of the war. The French and Indian War started in 1754 over territorial disputes between the North American colonies of France and Great Britain in areas that are now western Pennsylvania, the first few years of the war had not gone particularly well for the British. A major expedition by General Edward Braddock in 1755 ended in disaster, in a major setback, a French and Indian army led by General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm captured the garrison and destroyed fortifications in the Battle of Fort Oswego in August 1756. In July 1756 the Earl of Loudoun arrived to command of the British forces in North America, replacing William Shirley. Loudouns plan for the 1757 campaign was submitted to the government in London in September 1756, and was focused on an expedition aimed at the heart of New France. It called for a purely defensive postures along the frontier with New France, including the corridor of the Hudson River. The area between William Henry and Carillon was a wilderness dominated by Lake George that historian Ian Steele described as a waterway that left opposing cannons only a few days apart. Loudoun consequently did not receive any feedback from London on his campaign until March 1757. When William Pitts instructions finally reached Loudoun in March 1757, they called for the expedition to first target Louisbourg on the Atlantic coast of Île Royale, although this did not materially affect the planning of the expedition, it was to have significant consequences on the frontier. The French forces on the Saint Lawrence would be too far from Louisbourg to support it, Loudoun assigned his best troops to the Louisbourg expedition, and placed Brigadier General Daniel Webb in command of the New York frontier. He was given about 2,000 regulars, primarily from the 35th and 60th Regiments, the provinces were to supply Webb with about 5,000 militia. He was initially hesitant to commit his limited resources against Fort William Henry without knowing more about the disposition of British forces, intelligence provided by spies in London arrived in the spring, indicating that the British target was probably Louisbourg. This suggested that troop levels on the British side of the frontier might be low enough to make an attack on Fort William Henry feasible. As early as December 1756, New Frances governor, the Marquis de Vaudreuil, fueled by stories circulated by Indian participants in the capture of Oswego, this drive was highly successful, drawing nearly 1,000 warriors from the Pays den Haut to Montreal by June 1757. Another 800 Indians were recruited from tribes that lived closer to the Saint Lawrence and its walls were 30 feet thick, with log facings surrounding an earthen filling
36.
Battle on Snowshoes
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The 1758 Battle on Snowshoes occurred on March 13,1758, during the French and Indian War. It was fought by members of British Ranger companies led by Robert Rogers against French troops, the battle took place near Lake George, now in northern New York, but then in the frontier area between the British province of New York and the French province of Canada. The battle was given its name because the British combatants were wearing snowshoes, Rogers led a band of about 180 rangers and regulars out to scout French positions. The French commander at Fort Carillon had been alerted to their movement, in fierce fighting, the British troop was nearly destroyed, with more than 120 casualties. The French believed that Rogers was killed in action, as he was forced to abandon his regimental jacket. This battle gave rise to the tale that Rogers escaped capture by sliding 400 feet down a rockface to the surface of Lake George. That rock is now known as Rogers Rock or Rogers Slide, the French and Indian War broke out in 1754 between British and French colonists over territorial disputes along their colonial frontiers, and escalated the following year to include regular troops. By 1756, the French had enjoyed successes in most of their battles against the British. Their only notable failure occurred when the British stopped their advance from Lake Champlain in the 1755 Battle of Lake George. From bases at Fort St. Frédéric and Fort Carillon, the French and their Indian allies continued to scout and probe the British defenses on Lake George, the British, who had fewer Indian allies, resorted to companies of colonial rangers for their scouting and reconnaissance activities. The ranger companies were organized and directed by Robert Rogers, Captain Rogers was sent on a reconnaissance mission from Fort Edward northwards toward Fort Carillon on March 10,1758. The French had captured a man from an expedition by Israel Putnams Connecticut rangers. Putnams reconnaissance revealed that there were an estimated 600 Indians encamped near Fort Carillon, the expedition was composed mostly of men from Rogers ranger companies, but it also included a few volunteer soldiers from the 27th Regiment. On March 13, they wore snowshoes as they marched through snow four feet deep, with a rivulet to their left and they had stopped for a three-hour break when their advance guard spotted what Rogers reported as ninety-six, chiefly Indians. On March 12, Captain Louis-Philippe Le Dossu d’Hébécourt, the French commander at Fort Carillon and he sent Ensign Durantaye with a company of 200 Nipissing Indians and about 20 Canadians in response to these reports, but they found nothing. The next day two Indian scouts reported that they had found tracks of an enemy party, around noon on March 13, Durantaye led 100 men out of the fort. These were followed shortly after by 200 Indians under Ensign de Langy, although the two French groups joined forces, Durantayes company was about 100 yards ahead of Langys when they were spotted by Rogers men. Rogers’ men immediately set up an ambush, when Durantayes men came within range at 14,00, the British opened fire, killing above forty Indians, according to Rogers
37.
Battle of Carillon
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The Battle of Carillon, also known as the 1758 Battle of Ticonderoga, was fought on July 8,1758, during the French and Indian War. It was fought near Fort Carillon on the shore of Lake Champlain in the area between the British colony of New York and the French colony of New France. The battle was the bloodiest of the war, with over 3,000 casualties suffered, French losses were about 400, while more than 2,000 were British. Many military historians have cited the Battle of Carillon as a example of tactical military incompetence. Abercrombie, confident of a victory, ignored several viable military options, such as flanking the French breastworks, waiting for his artillery. Montcalm, while concerned about the military position of the fort. The fort, abandoned by its garrison, was captured by the British the following year and this battle gave the fort a reputation for impregnability that had an effect on future military operations in the area. Despite several large-scale military movements through the area, in both the French and Indian War and the American Revolutionary War, this was the major battle fought near the forts location. The fort was sited with Lake Champlain to the east, with Mount Independence rising on the far side, immediately to the south of the fort lay the mouth of the La Chute River, which drains Lake George. The river was largely non-navigable, and there was a trail from the northern end of Lake George to the location of a sawmill the French had built to assist in the forts construction. The trail crossed the La Chute twice, once about 2 miles from Lake George, and again at the sawmill, to the north of the fort was a road going to Fort St. Frédéric. To the west was a low rise of land, beyond which lay Mount Hope, a rise that commanded part of the portage trail, but was too far from the fort to pose it any danger. The most serious defect in the forts location was Mount Defiance. This 900 foot hill, which was steep and densely forested, provided an excellent firing position for cannon aimed at the fort. Nicolas Sarrebource de Pontleroy, Montcalms chief engineer, said of the site, Were I to be entrusted with the siege of it, I should require only six mortars. Prior to 1758, the French and Indian War had gone very poorly for the British, whose military met few of its objectives. Embarking on a strategy that emphasized defense in Europe, where France was strong, and offense in North America, large-scale campaigns were planned to capture Fort Duquesne on the Pennsylvania frontier and the fortress at Louisbourg. The third campaign, assigned to General James Abercrombie, was to launch an attack against Canada through the Champlain Valley, Howe was appointed a brigadier general, and placed as Abercrombies second in command
38.
Battle of Fort Frontenac
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The Battle of Fort Frontenac took place on August 26–28,1758 during the Seven Years War between France and Great Britain. British Lieutenant Colonel John Bradstreet led an army of over 3,000 men, of whom about 150 were regulars, the British captured goods worth 800,000 livres from the trading post. The British military campaigns for the French and Indian War in 1758 contained three primary objectives, two of these objectives, captures of Fort Louisbourg and Fort Duquesne met with success. Following that failure, many of Abercrombies underlings sought to distance themselves from any responsibility for the disaster. Bradstreet assembled an army at Schenectady consisting of just 135 regular army troops and about 3,500 militia, drawn from the provinces of New York, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Rhode Island. By the time his army reached the ruins of Fort Oswego on August 21, Bradstreet had lost 600 men, Bradstreets flotilla of bateaux crossed Lake Ontario, landing without opposition about one mile from Fort Frontenac on August 25. Fort Frontenac was an important trading center for Indian and French fur traders, Noyan was alerted to the expeditions advance when Indian scouts took some prisoners, and authorities in Montreal organized reinforcements. However, these forces would not arrive before the British, the night after landing, Bradstreets men established gun batteries and began to dig trenches toward the old fort. They also attempted, without success to two of the French ships anchored before the fort. On the morning of August 26, the British guns opened fire, the French garrison returned fire with cannons and muskets, but made little impression on the British. The two sides continued to fire on the 27th, with the British establishing gun batteries northwest of the fort. On the morning of the 28th, two French ships attempted to escape the harbor, but ran aground after persistent British fire against them, following a brief council of war, Noyan raised the white flag. With the capture of Frontenac, the British intercepted significant supplies destined for French forts in the Ohio Country, more than 60 cannons were found, as were hundreds of barrels of provisions. To the many provincials in Bradstreets army, the biggest prizes were bales of furs destined for shipment downstream to Montreal, in all, the value of the captured goods was estimated to be 800,000 French livres. Bradstreet released the French prisoners after Noyan promised to gain the release of a number of British prisoners. They were met by the force from Montreal. The French established Fort de La Présentation as a base for supply, Fort Frontenac was again lightly garrisoned in 1759, but was no longer a site of importance in the war, which ended with the fall of Montreal in September 1760. New Frances governor, the Marquis de Vaudreuil, took responsibility for the French loss
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Battle of Ticonderoga (1759)
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The 1759 Battle of Ticonderoga was a minor confrontation at Fort Carillon on July 26 and 27,1759, during the French and Indian War. The forts powder magazine was destroyed, but its walls were not severely damaged, the British then occupied the fort, which was afterwards known by the name Fort Ticonderoga. They embarked on a series of improvements to the area and began construction of a fleet to conduct operations on Lake Champlain. The French tactics were sufficient to prevent Amhersts army from joining James Wolfe at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham, however, they also tied up 3,000 of their own troops that were not able to assist in Quebecs defense. The capture of the fort, which had repulsed a large British army a year earlier. The British were successful in capturing Louisbourg and Fort Frontenac in 1758, the only significant French victory in 1758 came when a large British army commanded by James Abercrombie was defeated by a smaller French force in the Battle of Carillon. Instructions were sent to the governors of the Thirteen Colonies to raise up 20,000 provincial militia for these campaigns, about 8,000 provincial men were raised and sent to Albany by provinces as far south as Pennsylvania and New Jersey. New York sent 3,000 men and New Jersey sent 1,000, Massachusetts mustered 6,500 men, about 3,500 went to Albany, while the remainder were dispatched for service with Wolfe at Quebec or other service in Nova Scotia. The balance of the men came from the other New England provinces. He sent 2,000 of the provincials west from Albany along with 3,000 regular troops under Brigadier General John Prideaux in May. He led the remainder of the provincials, consisting primarily of Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Connecticut men, north to Fort Edward, in the 1759 campaign, French war planners directed most of their war resources into the European theater of the Seven Years War. Belle-Isle impressed on Montcalm the importance of maintaining at least a foothold in North America, Montcalm responded, Unless we have unexpected luck, or stage a diversion elsewhere within North America, Canada will fall during the coming campaign season. The English have 60,000 men, we have 11,000, Montcalm decided to focus French manpower on defending the core territory of Canada, Montreal, the city of Quebec, and the Saint Lawrence River Valley. He knew that this force was too small to hold Carillon against a determined British attack by competent leaders, there were several reasons for the late departure. One was logistical, Prideauxs expedition to forts Oswego and Niagara also departed from Albany, when his troops landed and began advancing on the fort, Amherst was pleased to learn that the French had abandoned the outer defenses. He still proceeded with caution, occupying the old French lines from the 1758 battle on July 22 and his original plan had been to flank the fort, denying the road to Fort St. Frédéric as a means of French escape. In the absence of French resistance outside the fort, he decided instead to focus his attention on the fort itself, for the next three days, the British entrenched and began laying siege lines to establish positions near the fort. This work was complicated by the fact there was little diggable ground near the fort, during this time, the French gun batteries fired, at times quite heavily, on the British positions
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Battle of Beauport
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William Pitt continued the aggressive policy in 1759, again organizing large campaigns aimed at the heartland of New France, the Canadien communities of Quebec and Montreal on the St. Lawrence River. For the campaign against Quebec, General James Wolfe was given command of an army of about 7,000 men, Wolfe consequently had to devise a plan involving a landing on some other location of the shore. The search for the best site kept him busy for weeks, Wolfe landed first, leading the Louisbourg grenadiers, who were followed by the brigade commanded by George Townshend. The landing met no opposition from the French, James Murray, at the head of a part of his brigade, joined Wolfe and Townshend on 10 July. A camp was set up near the landing site, Wolfe ordered the construction of a battery to defend the camp, as well as rafts and floating batteries in anticipation of an attack on the French line. After establishing the Montmorency camp, Wolfe explored various plans of attack, the first plan which Wolfe mentioned in his journal and the correspondence with his officers is that of 16 July. At the same time, the commanded by Monckton was to land on the French right. Batteries firing at the British flotilla from the Lower Town of Quebec, the Sutherlands log records that the French cannonballs flew too high to cause serious damage. On 19 July Wolfe was at the Pointe-Lévy camp to reconnoitre the north shore west of Quebec and he moved further west the next day, near the mouth of the Chaudière River, to study the opposite shore between Sillery and Cap Rouge. Wolfe wrote to Monckton with orders for a plan of attack involving a landing near the village of Saint-Michel, something he had already considered in June. However, at 13,00, Wolfe countermanded his orders to Monckton, ordering him instead to wait a few days and remain ready to act quickly, because of some particular circumstances. It is possible that the circumstance he alluded to was a French counteroffensive in which a newly built battery at Samos damaged the Squirrel, Wolfe returned to the Montmorency camp on 26 July. Escorted by two battalions, he walked up the Montmorency river to reconnoitre the French lines, at about five kilometres from the rivers mouth, he observed a ford allowing the easy crossing from the west shore to the east shore. This discovery was followed by a skirmish between British soldiers, attempting to cross, and French soldiers entrenched on the other side. The British reported 45 killed and wounded, on 28 July, Wolfe wrote of an attack on the Beauport line to be executed on 30 July. However, poor winds did not allow for naval movements that day, the plan of attack then contemplated by Wolfe was a variation of the plan he had described to Monckton in his letter of 16 July. Unlike the earlier plan, there was no mention of a landing on the French right. On the morning of 31 July the war vessel Centurion positioned itself by the Montmorency Falls to attack the easternmost French batteries, General Wolfe went on board the Russell, one of the two armed transports that were meant for the attack on the redoubt
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Battle of the Plains of Abraham
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The Battle of the Plains of Abraham, also known as the Battle of Quebec, was a pivotal battle in the Seven Years War. The culmination of a siege by the British, the battle lasted about 15 minutes. In the wake of the battle, the French evacuated the city, their military force in Canada. France ceded most of its possessions in eastern North America to Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris, the decisive success of the British forces and the subsequent capture of Quebec City formed part of what became known as the Annus Mirabilis in Great Britain. As the Seven Years War entered its later stages through 1758 and 1759, in 1758 after defeat in July at the Battle of Carillon, the British took Louisbourg in August, causing Atlantic Canada to fall into British hands, and opening the sea route to attack Quebec. Fort Frontenac fell to the British in the month, costing the French supplies for the Ohio Valley campaign. When some of the Indian supporters of the French made peace with the British, French leadership, specifically Governor de Vaudreuil and General Montcalm, were unsettled by the British successes. However, Quebec was still able to protect itself as the British prepared an attack for 1759. James Wolfe expected to lead 12,000 men, but was greeted by only approximately 7,000 regular troops,400 officers, Wolfes troops were supported by a fleet of 49 ships and 140 smaller craft led by Admiral Charles Saunders. In preparation for the approach to Quebec, James Cook surveyed a large portion of the river. Cooks ship was one of the first ships up the river, sounding the channel and guiding the fleet as it moved up, eventually landing Wolfe and his men on the Île dOrléans on 28 June. Despite an air of defeatism among the leadership, the professional French troops, prior to the arrival of the British, a small fleet of supply ships had arrived in Quebec with much needed supplies. Those supplies, along with 500 reinforcements, were likely behind the lengthened siege, in addition, a screen of trees along the Montmorency River made an approach on that route dangerous. On 31 July, the first serious attempt by Wolfes troops to land on the northern shore led to the Battle of Beauport, approximately 3,500 troops, supported by a heavy bombardment, attempted to land, but were caught under fire in the river shallows. Some French officers felt the Montmorency defeat would be the last British attack, Wolfe, I assure you, will make no progress… He contented himself with losing about five hundred of his best soldiers. He predicted another attack would come within days, others in the French camp felt the campaign was over. For the remainder of the summer, Wolfes focus changed, possibly due to frustration with Montcalms tactics and his troops, along with American Rangers, attacked and destroyed small French settlements along the St. Lawrence. An estimated 1,400 stone houses and manors were destroyed, the effort was likely an attempt to force Montcalms army out of its fortifications, but was unsuccessful
